EET 229: Lecture Series 3

AC Circuit

Prof. C. O. Alenoghena; Dr. H. O. Ohize, Dr K. E. Jack and Dr. S.A. Ahmed

July 10, 2024
School of Electrical Engineering and Technology, FUT Minna
Reference Mat:Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology by John Bird
Table of contents

1. Introduction

2. Single-Phase Series A.C. Circuit

3. Single-Phase Parallel A.C. Circuit

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Intro
Introduction

• In this class, we delve deeper into network response under applied

A.C. Signal.
• First, we shall build upon the previous section where we discussed
typical AC signal response in a network.
• The next step is to discuss network response in a series network of
inductor, capacitor and resistor when an AC signal is applied.
• The next step is to discuss network response in a parallel network of
inductor, capacitor and resistor when an AC signal is applied.
• We shall give a brief introduction to resonance in this RLC networks.
• We shall conclude by discussing Power in this network.

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Single-Phase Series A.C. Circuit
R-L series circuit

In an AC circuit containing inductance L and resistance R, the applied

voltage V is the phasor sum of VL and VR so that the current lags the
applied voltage V by an angle lying between 0◦ and 90◦ (depending on
the values of VL and VR )
In any AC series circuit the current is common to each component and is
thus taken as the reference phasor.

Figure 1: Phasor diagram for R-L series connection

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R-L series circuit continued . . .

From the phasor diagram in Fig. 1, the resultant voltage in magnitude

and phase is given as
q
V= VR2 + VL2 (1)
VL
tan φ = (2)
VR
The network impedance Z is given as
q
Z= R 2 + XL2 , (3)
and the phase angle as
XL
tan φ = (4)
R
XL
sin φ = (5)
Z
R
cos φ = (6)
Z

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R-C series circuit

In an AC circuit containing
capacitor C and resistance
R, the applied voltage V is
the phasor sum of VC and
VR so that the current leads
the applied voltage V by an
angle lying between 0◦ and
90◦ (depending on the values
of VC and VR ). Let us
define this angle as α
Figure 2: Phasor diagram for R-C series
connection

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R-C series circuit continued . . .

From the phasor diagram in Fig. 2, the resultant voltage in magnitude

and phase is given as
q
V= VR2 + VC2 (7)
VC
tan φ = (8)
VR
The network impedance Z is given as
q
Z= R 2 + XC2 , (9)
and the phase angle as
XC
tan φ = (10)
R
XC
sin φ = (11)
Z
R
cos φ = (12)
Z

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R-L-C series circuit

In an AC circuit containing resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C ,

the applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VR , VL and VC . Here, VL and
VC are 180◦ out of phase and three phasor representations are possible.

Figure 3: Phasor diagram for R-L-C series connection

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R-L-C series circuit continued . . .

From the phasor diagram in Fig. 3(b), (c) and (d), the resultant
impedance has three possibilities;

1. When XL > XC
q
Z= R 2 + (XL − XC )2 (13)
XL − XC
tan φ = (14)
R
2. When XC > XL
q
Z= R 2 + (XC − XL )2 (15)
XC − XL
tan α = (16)
R
3. When XC = XL The applied voltage and current are in phase and is
called resonance.

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Series Resonance

In R-L-C series network, when XL = XC , the network becomes strictly

resistive so that the applied voltage and current are in phase. This is
called series resonance. At resonance, the following is true:

1. VL = VC
2. Impedance is minimum, that is, Z = R
3. Current is maximum, since I = V/R
4. Given XL = XC at resonance, then 2πfr L = 1/2πfr C so that

1
fr = p Hz (17)
2π LC
5. The series resonant circuit is often described as an acceptor circuit
since it has its minimum impedance, and thus maximum current, at
the resonant frequency.

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Series Resonance continued . . .

Typical graphs of current I and impedance Z against frequency are shown

in Fig. 4

Figure 4: Typical graph of Z , I and frequency

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Series Resonance continued . . .

1. Resonance occurs at the same

frequency regardless of the value of R
2. As R decreases, the curve becomes
narrower and taller.
3. Theoretically, if R = 0 the current
would be infinite at resonance. But real
circuits always have some resistance.
4. This phenomenon is utilized in tuning
circuits where a varying capacitor
changes the fr or in metal detector
where the presence of a metal changes
the effective inductance hence the
Figure 5: Typical graph of I
current and an alarm is raised.
and frequency

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Q-factor

Q-factor is a ratio term and a measure of the quality of a circuit as a

resonator or tuning device. Given as
voltage across L or C
voltage magnification =
supply voltage

VL 2πfr L
Q-factor = = (18)
V R
Alternatively,
VC 1
Q-factor = = (19)
V 2πfr CR
We can subsitute for fr in Eqn. 19, since at resonance, we know that
1 . Hence,
2πfr = LC
s
1L 1 L
µ ¶
Q-factor = p = (20)
LC R R C

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Bandwidth and selectivity

Fig. 6 is the plot of I against f

in an R-L-C series circuit.
Current is maximum at fr . Point
A and B corresponds with f1 and
p
f2 where the current is 1/ 2 of
the maximum current value. The
power delivered to the circuit at
point A or B is

P = IA2 or B R (21)
p 2
= (1/ 2 · Ir ) R = 0.5Ir2 R (22)

Eqn. 22 shows that half the

power is delivered at points A
Figure 6: Bandwidth and half-power
and B.
points f1 & f2

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Bandwidth and selectivity continued . . .

The points corresponding to f1 and f2 are called the half-power points.

The distance between these points is called the bandwidth, that is,

BW = f1 − f2 (23)

It may be shown that

fr
Q= (24)
BW
Selectivity is the ability of a circuit to respond more readily to signals of
a particular frequency to which it is tuned than to signals of other
frequencies. The response becomes progressively weaker as the frequency
departs from the resonant frequency. The higher the Q-factor, the
narrower the bandwidth and the more selective is the circuit.

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Power in AC circuits

The power in an AC network was discussed in lecture series 2. The key

points noted where:

1. For a purely resistive AC circuit, the average power dissipated, P, is

given by: P = VI = I 2 R = V 2/R watts. V and I are rms values.
2. For a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the average power is zero.
3. For a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the average power is zero.
4. For an R–L, R-C, or R-L-C series circuit where the current or voltage
lags the voltage or current by angle φ. The average power, depends
on the value of angle φ.

P = VI cos φ (25)

V and I are rms values.

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Power Triangle and Power Factor

Fig. 7(a) shows a phasor diagram in which the current I lags the applied
voltage V by angle φ. The horizontal component of V is V cos φ and the
vertical component of V is V sin φ. If each of the voltage phasors is
multiplied by I , Fig. 7(b) is obtained and is known as the power triangle.

Figure 7: Phasor diagram and Power triangle

The plot above are also true when current I leads voltage V.

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Power Triangle and Power Factor continued . . .

Fig. 7(b) the following power relationship is defined:

1. Apparent power, S, measured in voltamperes (VA),

S = VI VA (26)

2. True or active power, P, measured in watts (V),

P = VI cos φ W (27)

3. Reactive power, Q, measured in voltamperes (var),

Q = VI sin φ var (28)

4. Power factor, which is a ratio term given as,

True power P
Power factor (p.f) =
Apparent power S
VI cos φ R
p.f = = cos φ =
VI Z
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Single-Phase Parallel A.C.
Circuit
R-L Parallel AC Circuit

Fig. 8 is an R-L parallel circuit, the current iR is in phase with the supply
voltage V while the current iL in the inductor, lags the supply voltage by
90◦ . In parallel circuits, the voltage is common to each branch of the
network and is thus taken as the reference phasor when drawing phasor
diagrams.

Figure 8: Circuit diagram and phasor diagram

NB: The active, apparent and reactive power as well as the power factor
is the same as with series AC circuit.
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R-L Parallel AC Circuit continued . . .

From the phasor diagram:

q
I= IR2 + IL2 (29)
IL
tan φ = (30)
IR
IL
sin φ = (31)
I
IR
cos φ = (32)
I
V
Z= (33)
I

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R-C Parallel AC Circuit

Fig. 9 is an R-C parallel circuit, the current iR is in phase with the supply
voltage V while the current iC in the capacitor, leads V by 90◦ . The
supply current I is the phasor sum of IR and IC and thus the current I
leads the applied voltage V by an angle α lying between 0◦ and 90◦ .

Figure 9: Circuit diagram and phasor diagram

NB: The active, apparent and reactive power as well as the power factor
is the same as with series AC circuit.
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R-C Parallel AC Circuit continued . . .

From the phasor diagram:

q
I= IR2 + IC2 (34)
IC
tan α = (35)
IR
IC
sin α = (36)
I
IR
cos α = (37)
I
V
Z= (38)
I

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L-C Parallel AC

Fig. 10 IL lags supply voltage V by 90◦

and IC leads V by 90◦ as shown. NB
1. I is the phasor difference between
IL and IC , that is, I = IC − IL , and
Z = V/I
2. If IL > IC then I lags V by 90◦ .
3. If IC > IL then I leads V by 90◦ .
4. If IC = IL then I = IC − IL = 0.
Although practically impossible.
Figure 10: Circuit diagram and
phasor diagram

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LR-C Parallel AC

Fig. 11(a) comprise of two branches containing a capacitor C in parallel

with a series connection of L and R. Fig. 11 (b) is the phasor diagram
for the series branch of L and R. Fig. 11 (c) is the phasor diagram for
capacitor branch.

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Figure 11: Circuit diagram and phasor diagram
LR-C Parallel AC circuit

Rotating each and superimposing on one another gives the complete

phasor diagram shown in Fig. 12(d). The current ILR is resolved into the
horizontal and vertical components as
Ix = op = ILR cos φ1
Iy = pq = ILR sin φ1

Figure 12: Overall phasor diagram

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LR-C Parallel AC circuit continued . . .

From the vector diagram in Fig. 12(d). There are three possibilities

1. If IC > ILR sin φ1 then supply current I leads V by an angle φ. See

Fig. 12(e).
2. If ILR sin φ1 > IC then supply current I lags V by an angle φ. See
Fig. 12(f).
3. If IC = ILR sin φ1 is termed parallel resonance.

The following relationship hold

q V V
ZLR = R 2 + XL2 ; ILR = and IC = (39)
ZLR XC
Supply current is the phasor sum of ILR and IC
q
I= (ILR cos φ1 )2 + (ILR sin φ1 − IC )2 (40)

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LR-C Parallel AC circuit continued . . .

The following relationships hold from the phasor diagram.

V
Z= (41)
I
VL
tan φ1 = (42)
VR
VL
sin φ1 = (43)
VR
R
cos φ1 = (44)
ZLR
ILR sin φ1 − IC
tan φ = (45)
ILR cos φ1
ILR sin φ1
cos φ = (46)
I

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Parallel resonance

Resonance occurs in the two branch network containing capacitance C in

parallel with inductance L and resistance R in series when the quadrature
(i.e. vertical) component of current ILR is equal to IC .
IC = ILR · sin φ1 (47)
V V XL
µ ¶ µ ¶
= · (48)
XC ZLR ZLR
rearranging terms to make ZLR as subject formular;
2 L
ZLR = XL XC = (49)
C
L
R 2 + XL2 = (50)
C
rearranging yields
L
XL2 = − R 2 (51)
C
s
1 L
∴ fr = − R2 (52)
2πL C 27
Parallel resonance

Eqn. 52 may be rewritten as

s
1 1 R2
fr = − 2 (53)
2π LC L

If is negligible, then Eqn 53

reduce to that for the series
resonance circuit
s
1 1
fr = (54)
2π LC

Figure 13: Overall phasor diagram

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Q-factor

Currents higher than the supply current can circulate within the parallel
branches of a parallel resonant circuit. The Q-factor of a parallel resonant
circuit is the ratio of the current circulating in the parallel branches of the
circuit to the supply current, i.e. the current magnification.
Circulating current IC
Q-factor at resonance =
Supply current Ir
ILR sin φ1
= = tan φ1
ILR cos φ1
XL
=
R
Therefore, Q-factor at resonance is same as in series circuit
2πfr L
Q-factor =
R
Note that in a parallel circuit the Q-factor is a measure of current
magnification, whereas in a series circuit it is a measure of voltage
magnification.
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