J. Bio. & Env. Sci.
2017
Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences (JBES)
ISSN: 2220-6663 (Print) 2222-3045 (Online)
Vol. 10, No. 1, p. 105-114, 2017
http://www.innspub.net
RESEARCH PAPER OPEN ACCESS
Changes in some physiological traits and yield of corn in
response to cover crops
Farhood Yeganehpoor*, Saeid Zehtab-Salmasi, Soheila Dastborhan
Department of Plant Eco-Physiology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
Article published on January 23, 2017
Key words: Chlorophyll content, Corn, Forage yield, Leaf area, Weed
Abstract
Cover crops as living mulches can suppress weeds in agro-ecosystems and improve the quality and quantity of
crop performance. Therefore, to evaluate the effect of cover crops on some physiological traits and forage yield of
corn, a field experiment based on RCB design with three replications and 10 treatments was conducted at the
Research Farm of the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, Iran. The treatments included corn
monoculture with weed control, corn monoculture with weed interference and intercropping of cover and
medicinal plants (red clover, hairy vetch, basil and dill) as synchronic cultivation with corn and 15 days after corn
planting. The results indicated that the lack of weed control in corn monoculture led to significant reduction of
chlorophyll content index, leaf area index, received light, oil, protein, starch and ultimately forage yields of corn.
The simultaneous cultivation of corn-cover crops, especially red clover, considerably improved all evaluated
traits compared with delayed planting of cover crops. High chlorophyll content and leaf area index in corn-clover
intercropping had a positive effect on received and absorbed light percentages, photosynthesis rate and
ultimately forage yield. The high forage yield in synchronic cultivation of corn with clover can be due to rapid
growth and high competitiveness of this forage legume in the early stage of growth. In general, simultaneous
cultivation of corn with legume cover crops can considerably reduce weeds growth and establishment, leading to
reduction of weed interference and increment of corn yield.
*Corresponding Author: Farhood Yeganehpoor [email protected]
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Introduction These crops have numerous influences on the agro-
Corn (Zea mays L.) is an annual crops belonging to ecosystem (Sarrantonio and Gallandt, 2003) and can
the family Poaceae, which is one of the most be used for a variety of purposes including protecting
important cereal crops in the world, after wheat and the soil against erosion, improving soil structure,
rice. It is a versatile crop with wide adaptability to fixing nitrogen, preventing leaching of nutrients,
varied agro-ecological regions and diverse growing increasing the soil biological activity, managing soil
seasons. Besides serving as human and animal food
moisture (Teasdale, 1996), increasing the soil organic
due to its high nutritional value, the importance of
matter and preventing the growth and development
this crop is also related to its wide industrial
of weeds population (Kruidhof et al., 2008).
applications (Jhala et al., 2014). It is recently used in
production of biofuel (Belel et al., 2014). In addition
However, these effects can vary depending on the
to the environmental variables, corn yield are mainly
type and quantity of cover crops and environmental
affected by competition with weeds (Blackshaw et al.,
conditions during the growing season. The spatial
2002). Weed interference is a basic problem in corn
arrangement of crops helps in the effective utilization
culture, especially in the early growing stages, due to
of land, soil moisture, nutrients and solar radiation.
slow early growth rate and wide row spacing.
They intercept incoming radiation, thereby affecting
Weeds compete with the corn plants for resources
such as light, nutrients, space, and soil moisture that the temperature of environment and biological
influence the morphology and phenology of crops and activity in the leaf canopy and underlying soils. Cover
considerably reduce the yield and grains quality crops can influence weeds either in the form of living
(Kremer, 2004). Weeds delay female flowering and plants or as plant residue remaining after the cover
maturation and reduce leaf area, biomass, plant crop is killed (Bayer et al., 2000).
height and biomass partitioning of corn plants (Evans
et al., 2003). However, if weeds be managed properly, The choice of crop combination is important to
corn can show considerable competition against successful intercropping. Incompatibility factors such as
weeds. Weeds that emerge 4 weeks after corn planting density, root system and nutrient competition
establishment have less negative impact on corn yield need to be considered (Ijoyah and Jimba, 2012). The
(Knezevic et al., 2002); therefore, control of early- selection of compatible crops depends on their growth
season weeds is extremely important to get a habit, land, light, water and fertilizer utilization
competitive corn yield. Intercropping system as one (Thayamini and Brintha, 2010). A legume cover crop,
of the important methods and objectives of such as common vetch, can supply most of nitrogen
sustainable agriculture can increase the quality and required for maximum corn yield (Bayer et al., 2000).
quantity of performance and decrease effects of pests,
diseases and weeds. Use of cover crops is one of the The application of herbicides in agriculture is a risky
methods of cultural control of weeds. endeavor and not an eco-friendly approach. Biological
and cultural control of weeds is important components
Nowadays, environmental pollution especially
of integrated weed management (IWM). Although, weed
contamination of surface water and groundwater by
management by ecological means (such as weed
herbicides is one of the most important human
management in intercropping) is difficult, it is attractive
concerns (Abdin et al., 2000). Intercropping and
cover cropping are practices that increase diversity in due to minimal use of chemicals with least disturbance
the cropping system and enhance the utilization of to the environment (Banik et al., 2006). Therefore, the
environmental resources such as light and water. purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of
Cover crops are the most commonly alternative integrated weed management on some physiological
methods rather than herbicides. traits and forage yield of corn.
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J. Bio. & Env. Sci. 2017
Materials and methods Experimental design
Field conditions Experiment was carried out based on RCB design with
This research was conducted at the Research Farm of 10 treatments and three replications. The treatments
the University of Tabriz, Iran (latitude 38°05′N, were sole cropping of corn with weed control up to corn
longitude 46°17′E, altitude 1360 m above sea level) in harvesting (A1), sole cropping of corn with weed
2010. Mean annual rainfall, temperature, maximum interference (A2), and eight intercropping treatments
and minimum temperatures of research area were including cultivation of red clover (Trifolium pratense),
271.3 mm, 10°C, 16°C and 2.2°C, respectively. hairy vetch (Vicia villosa), basil (Ocimum basilicum)
and dill (Anethum graveolens) as cover crops at the
The soil type was sandy-loam with EC of 0.68 dS m-1, same date (synchronic cultivation with corn) and 15 days
pH of 8.1 and field capacity of 28.8%. after corn sowing (Table 1).
Table 1. Experimental treatments.
Treatments
A1 sole cropping of corn + weed control up to corn harvest
A2 sole cropping of corn + weed interference (without weed control)
A3 synchronic cultivation of corn-red clover
A4 red clover sowing 15 days after corn planting
A5 synchronic cultivation of corn-vetch
A6 vetch sowing 15 days after corn planting
A7 synchronic cultivation of corn-basil
A8 basil sowing 15 days after corn planting
A9 synchronic cultivation of corn-dill
A10 dill sowing 15 days after corn planting
Experimental conditions At corn physiological maturity, 10 plants from
Each plot consisted of 10 sowing rows with 4 m length each plot were harvested and fresh forage yield of
and 25 cm apart. In each plot, rows alternately planted corn was recorded. When seed moisture content
with corn and one of the cover crops in the specified
was about 14%, corn plants from two middle rows
planting time. Density of corn, red clover, vetch, basil
of each plot were harvested and corn grain yield
and dill were 8, 100, 75, 38 and 30 plants per m2,
respectively. In the current research, dominant weeds per unit area was recorded. Then, percentages of
were Amaranthus retroflexeus, Convolvulus arvensis, oil, protein and starch of corn seed for each
Acroptilon repens and Cuscuta sp. sample were determined using a seed analyzer
(model: Zeltex ZX-50) and subsequently their
Measurements
yield for each treatment at each replicate was
At silking stage, one plant was marked in each plot
calculated.
and chlorophyll content index (CCI) of upper, middle
and lower leaves of corn plant were directly measured
by a portable chlorophyll meter (CCM-200, Opti- Statistical analysis
Science, USA). Then leaf area per plant was measured The statistical analysis were performed for 10
using a leaf area meter (ADC-AM300) and leaf area treatments based on RCB design and for 8
index (LAI) was calculated as: intercropping treatments (without sole cropping
LAI = leaf area per plant × number of plants per m2 treatments) as factorial based on RCB with
MSTAT-C and SPSS software’s. The means were
At the same time, received light by the upper, middle
and lower parts of the corn canopy was measured compared using the Duncan multiple range test at
using a sun scan (SS1) on a sunny day at the time of p ≤ 0.05. Excel software was used to draw the
12:00 to 14:00 PM. figures.
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Results and discussion of corn and cover crops on chlorophyll content index
The analysis of variance of data based on randomized (CCI), leaf area index (LAI), received light, and yields
complete block design showed positive and significant of oil, starch, protein and fresh forage of corn (Table 2).
effect of weed control and synchronic cultivation
Table 2. Analysis of variance of the effect of different treatments on some physiological traits and yield of corn.
Mean squares
Sources of
df Received Starch Protein Forage
variation CCI LAI Oil yield
light yield yield yield
Replication 2 0.03 ns 0.005 ns 95.13 ns 2.33 ns 1.06 ns 3.95 ns 171.22 ns
Treatments 9 0.15** 0.45 ** 195.67** 4807.35** 671.11** 2003.05** 5532.05**
Error 18 0.54 0.12 30.4 10.03 3.19 4.37 127.2
C.V. (%) - 3.3 4.9 10.1 9.5 7.1 5.2 6.3
ns, **: No significant and significant at p≤0.01, respectively.
The highest and the lowest chlorophyll content index, in synchronic cultivation of corn-red clover, was
leaf area index, oil, starch, protein and fresh forage higher than sole cropping in weed control conditions
yields of corn were related to weeds control in sole (A1). Although there were no significant difference
cropping of corn (A1) and sole cropping of corn between delayed and synchronic planting of cover
without weed control (A2), respectively. The presence crops with corn in some studied traits, delayed
of cover crops reduced CCI, LAI and yields of oil, planting of cover crops led to reduction of
starch, protein and forage of corn compared with corn physiological traits and yield of corn plants. All
sole cropping under weeds control conditions. evaluated traits in corn-clover intercropping were
Received light in intercropping treatments, especially higher than other intercropping treatments (Table 3).
Table 3. Means of some physiological parameters of corn affected by different cover crops and their planting time.
Protein Forage
Received Oil yield Starch yield
Treatments CCI LAI yield yield
light (%) (kg ha-1) (kg ha-1)
(kg ha-1) (g m-2)
A1 37.5 a 3.61 a 57.3 e 260.6 a 426.7 a 198.3 a 76.1 a
A2 16.7 f 2.78 g 43.3 f 41.8 e 78.9 f 33.3 e 31.1 f
A3 33.8 b 3.45 b 82.1 a 175.6 b 289.6 b 127.9 b 57.9 b
A4 31.9 b 3.39 c 68.5 c 165.0 b 271.6 b 118.8 c 55.2 b
A5 32.6 b 3.40 c 75.3 b 160.6 b 264.2 b 116.0 c 55.2 b
A6 27.9 c 3.31cd 68.1 c 148.7 c 238.3 c 108.1cd 50.1 c
A7 27.4 c 3.26 d 69.8 c 145.5 c 233.7 c 103.0 d 48.2cd
A8 24.5 d 3.20 e 60.3 d 131.4 d 206.7 d 98.2 d 45.5 d
A9 20.2 e 3.18 e 61.6 d 134.2 d 212.6 d 92.4 d 43.7de
A10 19.7 e 3.11 f 59.9 d 129.0 d 180.1 e 78.7 de 40.3 e
Different letters at each column indicate significant difference at p≤ 0.05.
Leaf chlorophyll content index (CCI) increased chlorophyll content of corn leaves (Table 5).
Effects of cover crops and sowing time of these plants Advantage of clover in intercropping with corn can be
were significant for chlorophyll content index of corn attributed to higher capacity of this cover crop in
leaves. However, the interaction of cover crops × weed control through its extensive coverage, fast
sowing date was not significant for this trait (Table 4). establishment and growth, and high capacity in N2
The highest and the lowest leaf chlorophyll content fixation (Zaefarian et al., 2012). The weed
index were recorded for corn-clover and corn-dill suppression through cover crops has been reported by
intercropping, respectively (Fig. 1). Simultaneous many researchers (Campiglia et al., 2009;
culture of corn and cover plants significantly Yeganehpoor et al., 2015).
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Chlorophyll plays a key role in trapping sunlight and a linear relationship exists between CCI and leaf
converting it into chemical energy, so any disturbance nitrogen concentration (Anwar et al., 2011). On the
in chlorophyll content may result in a reduction in other hand, there is a significant relationship between
photosynthesis (Azhar et al., 2011). CCI is CCI and corn yield (Argenta et al., 2004).
proportional to the amount of chlorophyll in leaf and
Table 4. Analysis of variance for some physiological traits and yield of corn affected by cover crops and their
sowing time
Mean squares
Seed Seed
Sources of Received Seed oil Forage
df CCI LAI starch protein
variation light yield yield
yield yield
Replication 2 0.05 ** 0.001ns 44.61 ns 0.12 ** 0.204 ns 0.20 ns 201.61ns
Cover crops (C) 3 0.63 ** 0.109 ** 201.13** 14.2 ** 10.39 ** 21.28 ** 11705.4 **
Sowing time (S) 1 0.44 ** 0.016 * 193.44 ** 1.75 ** 9.07 ** 20.40 ** 7518.25**
C×S 3 0.08 ns 0.109 ns 17.25 ns 0.27 ns 0.057 ns 0.33 ns 555.25 ns
Error 14 0.97 0.06 39.7 0.35 0.268 0.44 35202
C.V. (%) --- 4.9 3.4 8.6 6.6 5.2 7.7 10.4
ns, *,**: No significant and significant at p ≤ 0.05 and p ≤ 0.01, respectively.
Table 5. Changes in some physiological parameters and yield of corn affected by sowing time of cover crops.
Starch Protein Forage
Received Oil yield
Treatments CCI LAI yield yield yield
light (%) (kg ha-1)
(kg ha-1) (kg ha-1) (g m-2)
Synchronic with corn planting 31.2 a 3.38 a 71.7 a 153.5 a 249.7 a 109.5 a 54.2 a
15 days after corn planting 25.5 b 3.24 b 63.8 b 142.8 b 223.3 b 99.2 b 41.4 b
Different letters at each column indicate significant difference at p ≤ 0.05 (Duncan test).
Leaf area index of corn in corn-clover intercropping
was significantly higher than other cover crops. The
lowest LAI was also related to corn-dill intercropping
(Fig 2). Corn planted at the same time with cover
crops had higher LAI compared with corn planted 15
days before cover crops planting (Table 5). Weed
biomass in delayed planting of cover crops in corn
field has been reported lower than synchronic
cultivation (Yeganehpoor et al., 2015). Therefore, low
leaf area in delayed planting of cover crops is
probably due to weed interference with corn and
environmental resources limitation, which caused
Fig. 1. Means of chlorophyll content index of corn
reduction of corn leaf area expansion. Since the
leaves affected by different cover crops Different
sunlight helps to the growth and development of
letters indicate significant difference at p ≤ 0.05
weeds in bare soil, cover crops are used to manage
(Duncan test).
weeds in some organic production systems. The cover
crops develop a physical barrier on the soil surface so
Leaf Area Index (LAI)
that sufficient light for germination and growth of
Corn leaf area index was significantly influenced by
weeds is not provided. Forage legumes such as clover
cover crops and their sowing times. Interaction of
and vetch due to rapid establishment and high growth
cover crops × sowing time was not significant for LAI
capacity in field conditions are more suitable and
(Table 4).
effective for weed control.
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J. Bio. & Env. Sci. 2017
These plants also increase the available nitrogen for Although height of the most weeds is lower than corn,
attendant plants through nitrogen fixation and hence even without creating shade on corn plants, weeds
have an important role in the alteration of influence corn growth via the radiation reflected by
competitive relations between crop and weed and them. Plants absorb red light radiation (660-670 nm)
resulting in improvement of the competitiveness of and reflect far-red radiation (730 to 740 nm). The
the crop over the weeds (Teasdale et al., 2007). Cover FR/R ratio plays an important role in the induction of
crops can affect weed establishment and density many morphological changes in plant architecture
through effects on the radiation and chemical (stem elongation, apical dominance, thinner leaves,
environment of weed and inhibit weed emergence by leaf area distribution, etc.) (Ballaré, 1999). Cover
physically impeding the progress of seedlings from crops increase corn yield not only by reduction of
accessing light (Teadale and Mohler, 2000) as well as weed biomass and density (yeganehpoor et al., 2015),
releasing phytotoxins that inhibit seedling growth but also by increment of competitiveness of corn
against weeds at any given biomass through an
(Blackshaw et al., 2001).
improved capture of nutrients and water in cover crop
system (Clark et al., 1995). Delayed planting of cover
crops, 15 days after corn planting, significantly
reduced received light compared with synchronic
cultivation of tested cover crops with corn (Table 5).
The leaf area index, plant height, vertical leaf area
distribution and leaf angle distribution are factors
that play key role in evaluating of competition for
light in mixed canopies (Lindquist and Mortensen,
1999). Leaf area index have a close relation with
percentage of the received light by the canopy in
monoculture and intercropping systems. Cover crops
as Living mulches through change in quality and
quantity of light and soil temperature can negatively
affect seed germination (Gallagher et al., 1999) and
Fig. 2. Means of leaf area index of corn affected by
growth of weeds.
different cover crops Different letters indicate
significant difference at p≤ 0.05 (Duncan test).
Received light percentage
Received light by canopy significantly influenced by
cover crops species and planting time of these plants.
However, interaction of cover crops × planting time
was not significant for this trait (Table 4). Among the
various cover and medicinal plants species, dill
caused highest adverse impact on received light
percent (Fig. 3). This can be due to presence of weeds
and greater height of dill compared with other studied
cover crops. Received light percentage by corn canopy
in corn-clover intercropping was higher than other
intercropping treatments (Fig. 3) which can lead to Fig. 3. Changes in received light by corn canopy
better utilization of the absorbed light and increase affected by cover crops Different letters indicate
forage yield in these conditions. significant difference at p ≤ 0.05 (Duncan test).
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Fresh forage yield Earlier emergence and growth of weeds in field can
The results of the analysis of variance showed that diminish vegetative growth and forage fresh yield of corn
companion crops and planting date (synchronic and due to higher density and better utilization of
15 days after corn planting) had significant effects on environmental resources (Cavero et al., 1999).
the corn forage yield (Table 4). Fresh forage yield of corn One reason for the reduction of weeds by cover crops is
intercropped with red clover was higher than other cover the intensive competition for light, water, space and
crops (Fig 4). Delayed planting of cover crops in corn nutrients (Bezuidenhout et al., 2012). Cover crops
field led to 23.6% reduction in corn forage yield intercropped with crops can improve soil nitrogen status
compared with their simultaneous cultivation with corn (Chalk, 1998) and conserved soil moisture and increased
(Table 5). According to Yeganehpoor et al. (2015), red crop yields (Kue and Jellum, 2002).
clover had highest positive effect in suppressing weeds.
So that lowest weeds biomass (13.75 g m-2) has been Oil, starch and protein yields
recorded for synchronic cultivation of corn with clover Cover crops and sowing time of these plants had
due to rapid growth and high competitiveness of clover significant effects on yields of oil, starch and protein
in the early stages of growth. The highest weed biomass of corn seeds. However, interaction of cover crops ×
has been also achieved with dill cultivation 15 days after sowing time was not statistically significant for these
corn planting (60.2 g m-2). Chlorophyll content (Fig. 1), traits (Table 4). The highest and the lowest oil, starch
leaf are index (Fig. 2) and received light by corn canopy and protein yields were obtained from corn-clover
(Fig. 3) in corn-clover intercropping were higher than and corn-dill intercropping, respectively (Table 6).
other treatments which lead to better absorbance and Delayed sowing of cover crops resulted in reduction of
utilization of light, and improvement of photosynthesis oil, starch and protein yields of corn seeds (Table 5).
rate and forage yield in this conditions. Clover can Delayed sowing of cover crops resulted in availability
stimulate corn growth and yield through availability of of soil and environmental resource and niche for
nitrogen, better distribution of light in middle and upper weed emergence and growth and ultimately reduction
parts of corn canopy and weed control. Also, corn forage of qualitative parameters of corn seeds. Red clover
yield under synchronic planting was more than those and hairy vetch due to rapid establishment and high
under planting of cover crops 15 days after corn planting growth capacity in filed compared with medicinal
(Table 5). plants such as basil and dill are more suitable and
effective for weed control. In fact basil and dill
because of low growth rate and establishment
especially in early growing season cannot compete
with weeds as well as forage plants.
The changes in yields of oil, starch and protein of corn
seeds due to intercropping of cover crops are related
to changes of their percentage and corn seed yield per
unit area. Since the highest seed yield (Yeganehpoor
et al., 2015) and oil, starch and protein contents of
corn seeds (Yeganehpoor et al., 2013) were obtained
from synchronic cultivation of companion crops with
corn, especially red clover, corn plants cultivated
simultaneously with clover had also higher oil, starch
Fig. 4. Means of forage yield of corn affected by cover and protein yields. Cover crops have a great
crops Different letters indicate significant difference suppressive effect on all stages of weed life cycle
at p ≤ 0.05 (Duncan test). (Teasdale et al., 2007).
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J. Bio. & Env. Sci. 2017
There is often a negative correlation between cover crop to inhibit phytochrome-mediated seed germination
and weed biomass (Sheaffer et al., 2002). Cover crops (Teasdale and Daughtry, 1993), compete for light, water
generally create unfavorable radiation environment for and nutrients and release allelochemicals that inhibit or
germination, emergence and growth of weeds, absorb retard germination, emergence and early growth of them
red light and reduce the red to far-red ratio sufficiently (Teasdale, 2003).
Table 6. Means of yields of oil, starch and protein of corn seeds affected by cover crops intercropping.
Treatment Seed oil yield Seed starch yield Seed protein yield
Corn - Clover 169.50 a 280.33 a 122.10 a
Corn - Vetch 154.46 b 251.50 b 112.05 b
Corn - Basil 138.19 c 209.75 c 100.71 c
Corn - Dill 130.37 d 196.14 d 85.88 d
Different letters at each column indicate significant difference at p ≤ 0.05 (Duncan test).
Correlation between studied physiological absorbance and ultimately improvement of plant
parameters in corn photosynthesis could lead to the production of
According to Table 7, leaf area index, chlorophyll content higher forage yield in corn. The correlation
index and received light had high significant and positive between oil, starch and protein percentages with
correlation with forage yield of corn (r = 0.75, r = 0.43 forage yield was also significant and positive (Table
and r = 0.41, respectively). These results show that high 7). Corn leaf area was also significantly and
chlorophyll content, expanded leaves and rapid positively correlated with chlorophyll content (r =
expansion of canopy green cover through better light 0.73) and received light (r = 0.65).
Table 7. Correlation coefficients between some physiological parameters in corn.
Traits 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1. Forage yield 1
2. Leaf area index 0.75** 1
3. Leaf chlorophyll content 0.43** 0.73** 1
4. Received light 0.41** 0.65** 0.75** 1
5. Seed oil yield 0.25* 0.25* 0.09ns 0.05ns 1
6. Seed protein yield 0.15* 0.02 ns 0.27* 0.02ns 0.01 ns 1
7. Seed starch yield 0.39** 0.45** 0.30* 0.08ns 0.06ns 0.01 ns 1
ns, *,**: No significant and significant at p ≤ 0.05 and p ≤ 0.01, respectively.
Conclusion with clover can be due to rapid growth and high
The results indicated that the lack of weed control in competitiveness of this forage legume in the early
sole cropping of corn led to significant reduction of stages of growth. In general, simultaneous cultivation of
chlorophyll content index, leaf area index, received corn with legume cover crops can considerably reduce
light, oil, protein, starch and ultimately forage yields weeds growth and establishment, leading to reduction of
of corn. The simultaneous cultivation of corn-cover weed interference and increment of corn yield.
crops, especially red clover, considerably improved all
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