Institute of Structural Engineers, SE Counties Branch, 2010

Aspects of Structural Glass

Tim Morgan CEng MIMechE Technical Manager, Pilkington Architectural

Chemical Composition Soda Lime Silica Glass

Material Silica sand Lime (calcium oxide) Soda Magnesia Alumina Others Symbol SiO2 CaO Na2O MgO Al2O3 mass, % 69-74 5-14 10-16 0-6 0-3 0-5

Source: EN 572-1, 2004

Description of glass
- Glass is a liquid that has cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing - Glass is not a super-cooled liquid but an inorganic solid with an amorphous noncrystalline structure
Viscosity (dPa s) 105 108.6 1014 1014.3 1020 State Working point Softening point Annealing point Transition temperature, Tg Room temperature Temp (0C) 1040 720 540 530 20
4

Source: Glass in Building, Button & Pye & Structural Use of Glass, Haldimann, Luible, Overend

Structure of glass

Silicon Oxygen Sodium Potassium

Molecular modelling simulation by Dave Green, Pilkington 5

Physical Properties of Soda Lime Silica Glass

Property Density Youngs modulus Symbol Unit kg/m3 MPa 10-6K-1 Jkg-1K-1 Value 2,500 70,000 0.2 9 1 1.5 0.837

Poissons ratio Coeff. of thermal expansion Thermal conductivity cp Average refractive index Emissivity n

Source: EN 572-1, 2004

Aspects of Structural Glass: 1) Strength 2) Flexibility 3) Fragility 4) Durability 5) Connectivity

601 Lexington Avenue, Entrance, USA

1) Strength - Theoretical Strength of Glass

The theoretical strength of glass can be determined, in a simple way, by looking at the atomic bonding;
do

E th = do
where, th is the theoretical cleavage strength, E is Youngs modulus (70GPa), is the surface energy (3.71Jm-2) and do is inter-atomic spacing (1.6)

Based on this, the strength of glass would be approx. 40 GPa !

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1) Strength - Practical Strength of Glass

0.4% of the theoretical strength,

and typically lies between 35 - 350* MPa
* based on 1ft diameter burst test data Practical demonstration: Results recorded for 742 identical annealed glass test pieces manufactured on the same day, on the same equipment and being visually indistinguishable from each other Product Annealed # results 742 Mean (Nmm-2) 71.4 Std Dev 17.2 Highest value 116 Lowest value 30
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BUT the practical strength of glass is only

Expect a factor of 3 difference between the strongest and weakest!

1) Strength - Practical Strength of Glass

0.4% of the theoretical strength,

and typically lies between 35 - 350* MPa
* based on 1ft diameter burst test data

BUT the practical strength of glass is only

Reasons for the variability in strength Micro & Macroscopic - Surface defects - Stress concentrations - Structure of glass - Size of panel - Rate of loading - Surface condition

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1) Strength - Work of Inglis

Inglis derived a generally applicable formulation for determining these stress concentrations, where the fracture stress is governed by c and r,

tip

c = 1 + 2 r

For a plate with a circular hole, tip= 3 For a thread root, tip= 15 If c = 10m & r = 1.6, then tip= 500

tip 2c

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1) Strength - Work of Griffith

Griffith (1920) was the first person to postulate that low strengths were related to pre-existing defects, and that these defects gave rise to stress concentrations. He developed an equation to determine the stress required to cause fracture without the need for details of the crack tip.

E f = c
where, E is Youngs modulus, is the surface energy and c is size of the defect.

2c
12

1) Strength The structure of glass

In many materials, crack propagation prevention occurs by

Grain boundary interactions

2nd phase interactions

Fibre interactions

In addition many materials exhibit crack tip shielding

Phase transformation

Micro-cracking

Ductile 2nd phase

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THESE MECHANISMS ARE NOT PRESENT IN GLASS!!!

1) Strength The size effect

The strength of glass is dependent on its size
Im stronger than you .. You wanna bet ...

The larger the sample, the more chance of finding a critical flaw.
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1) Strength The effect of load rating

The strength of glass is dependent on the rate at which it is loaded
No problems Arrgggh !!

1 MPa / Sec

1 MPa / Hour

1 MPa / Day

The underlying cause of this is moisture levels

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1) Strength The effect of moisture

Glass is prone to stress corrosion - a stress induced/accelerated reaction with water forming alkali solutions which attack the silica network Na+
(glass)

H2O
(atmosphere)

H+
(glass)

NaOH
(alkali)

Water vapour causes corrosion at crack tips

Sharpens the crack tip

Leads to more severe stress concentrations

Increases chances of failure

The longer the glass is under tensile stress during testing, the more time available for stress corrosion to take place.
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1) Strength The effect of moisture

The severity of the effect is governed by the stress corrosion constant, n. A low value of n means more susceptibility to stress corrosion 1 t1 n 2 = 1 t 2

Suggested values for n are

In water In air (50%RH) In a vacuum

12-17

16-22

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1) Strength The effect of moisture

16 15 14

Resultant surface stress (MPa)

13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 1 10 100 1000 10000

t1 2 = 1 t 2

1 n

Time to failure (mins)

Graph showing the effect of stress corrosion (blue dots represent unbroken samples)

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1) Strength Surface effects

The effect of ceramic frit: The strength of glass is reduced by the presence of ceramic inks. Glass printed with ceramic inks is weaker than unprinted glass. This is often made worse if there is more than one ink on top of another
Silver ceramic ink Black ceramic ink Glass Rule of thumb: 1 ink - strength 30% 2 inks - strength 60%

Source: Jon Williams, Pilkington 19

1) Strength The toughening process

- Glass is heated to about 650oC, and then rapidly quenched with air jets. - The surface cools quickly and the core more slowly. At ambient temperature, the core continues to cool and compressive stress develops in the surface, balanced by tension in the centre.

Toughening furnace, Pilkington

Annealed glass Heating Quenching

Tempered glass
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1) Strength The toughening process

The tempering cycle gives rise to a parabolic stress profile within the glass,
Compression Tension

The compressive stress layer (20% of t) acts as a buffer to crack growth. Its magnitude at the surface is 2x that of the centre tensile region. Notes Toughened Glass: BS EN 12150 quantifies stress by destructive particle count, however comparative tests have shown that the required compressive stress is 80 to 90 MPa* (* source, Stress measurement & fragmentation, Schiavonato, GPD 2005) GANA recommendation for North America = 77.2MPa 21

1) Strength The toughening process

The tempering cycle gives rise to a parabolic stress profile within the glass,
Compression Tension

The compressive stress layer (20% of t) acts as a buffer to crack growth. Its magnitude at the surface is 2x that of the centre tensile region. Notes Heat Strengthened Glass: BS EN 1863 quantifies stress by destructive particle count, however comparative tests have shown that the required compressive stress is 35 to 60 MPa* (* source, Stress measurement & fragmentation, Schiavonato, GPD 2005) GANA recommendation for North America = 38.6MPa 22

1) Strength Existing design codes

Country Code Permissible/ Limit State Wind Load Duration Annealed Stress Limit HS Stress Limit FT Stress Limit USA Code USA Industry UK BS6262-2 2005 L 60 min PRC JGJ 1022003 L 10 min 19.5 MPa 58.8 MPa Australia AS1288 L 3 sec 33.0 MPa 58.0 MPa 82.0 MPa
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ASTM GANA E1300-09 2004 P 3 sec 23.3 MPa 46.6 MPa 93.1 MPa P 60 sec -

Source : Wymond & Arumugam, Meinhart Faade Technology PTY, GPD India 2008 (updated)

1) Strength Corresponding loading codes

Country Code Permissible/ Limit State Return Period Gust Duration USA ASCE7 1995 L 50 yrs 3 sec UK/EU PRC India IS875.3 2004 P 50 yrs 3 sec Australia AS1170.22002 L 50 to 1000 yrs 3 sec

EN 1991-4 GB50092005 2001 L 50 yrs 10 min L 50 yrs 10 min

Source : Wymond & Arumugam, Meinhart Faade Technology PTY, GPD India 2008 (updated)

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1) Strength Manufacturers data

Permissible stress for short load duration:
Glass type Annealed (6mm) Annealed (10mm) Patterned Glass Wired Glass Toughened Glass Body stress (MPa) 41 28 27 21 59 Edge Stress (MPa) 28 17.8 27 21 59

Permissible stress for long load duration:

Load type Snow Water & Shelves Floor Self Weight Annealed (Nmm-2) Short dur/2.6 7 8.4 As per load type Toughened (Nmm-2) Short dur/2.6 35 35 As per load type
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Source : Pilkington Glass Consultants, for UK loads and glass product standards

1) Strength Comparison of codes

Comparison of product standards and allowable stress:
Body/ Code type Code Annealed Heat strengthn Toughen
Notes :

USA (prod) GANA 2004 19.3 MPa 38.6 MPa 77.2 MPa

USA (design)

EU EU Planar (product) (design) (prod) draft Approx. prEN 13474 45-55 MPa 113 MPa

Planar (design) 45 MPa 90 MPa

ASTM en12150 E1300-09 en1863 23.3 MPa 46.6 MPa 93.1 MPa -

Comparison for interest only Allowable stress values are for short term loading prEN13474 are personal calculations code not yet complete to publish

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1) Strength Code Work

Expectation for new structural design codes : EuroNorm, prEN13474-3, CEN/TC129/WG8
Title: Scope: Status: Glass in Building, Determination of the strength of glass panes Fenestrations, facades & infil panels To be issued for public comment in 1st quarter 2010

EuroNorm, Eurocode for Structural Glass, CEN/TC250/WG3

Title : Scope: Status: Eurocode for Structural Glass Limit State approach for structural glazed elements Resolution 258 has agreed the formation of working group 3 First meeting expected within the next few months

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2) Flexibility Current design limits

Document Deflection limit BS 6262 BS 5516 BS 5516 ASTM E1300-04 AS128894 Pilkington Planar L/125 (single) L/175 (insulated) Notes Allowable deflections of edges for 4 edge full supported glass

Single, (S2x1000)/180 or 2 edge supported glass, where 50mm (whichever less) S=span [m] between supports IGU, (S2x1000)/540 or 20mm (whichever less) 19mm L/60 b/50 2 edge supported glass, where S=span [m] between supports Deflection of supported edges less than L/175, L=length Deflection of unframed toughened glass, L=length Deflection of unframed Planar system, b=width of panel
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Source : Extract of table 6.4, IStructE Structural use of glass in buildings, 1999

2) Flexibility Glass is flexible!

There is often a design to attach glass to an ultra-flexible host Structure, but what is acceptable?
Normal deflection limit for Planar, b/50 = 46mm Max. deflection of cable at centre span = 150mm Cable deflection at first hor. glass joint = 100mm
Single tension cable detail Centre Square Vestibule, USA 29

2) Flexibility Glass is flexible!

City Creek Centre test panel, Pilkington, UK

(Video clip)

1.6x2.3m puck support panel : make up, 10/16/6 Test Load, 1054Pa : Cable deflection, 118mm

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2) Flexibility Glass is flexible!

Displacement investigation test panel, Pilkington, UK

(Video clip)

1.8x1.8m Intrafix concept panel : make up, 6/16/12 Test Load, 5kPa : Deflection, 120mm

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2) Flexibility Horizontal applications

Issues: - standing water leaches soda from the glass surface quickly - the resulting staining is permanent - Pilkington specify a minimum 3 degree pitch for horizontal glass - Ready access for cleaning or selfcleaning glass (e.g. ActivTM) are advisable for near hor. pitches

Project details: - insulated laminated panels - make-up, 10/16/6-1.52pvb-6 - tension support system - horizontal

Skylight, Rolex HQ, Geneva 32

2) Flexibility Key points, Glass panels

- Toughened and heat strengthened glass are capable of coping with extreme deflection! The average member of the public cannot cope with the idea the glass is flexible! - Where deflection is not limited by code (e.g. BS 6180) Pilkington have successfully adopted an aesthetic limit of b/50 for PlanarTM, where b is the shorter dim. of the panel - The implications of large centre span deflections need to be designed for at the support locations! - Standing water will damage glass permanently! For horizontal panels Pilkington insist on a slope of 3 degrees
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2) Flexibility Glass fins (in-plane)

Friction connection

- Cantilevered toughened glass fin (friction connected) - 530mm x 3500mm x 19mm - Typical max. design moment, 40kNm - Design often limited by lateral torsional buckling
Cantilevered fin performance tests, Pilkington, UK

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2) Flexibility Glass fins (out-of-plane)

Cantilevered fin buckling validation tests, Pilkington, UK

(Video clip)

4.8m long, 19mm thk toughened cantilevered fin 65kNm bending moment

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2) Flexibility Key points, Glass fins

- Toughened fins are extremely rigid in-plane. The structure to which they are attached is sometimes not so rigid! - Historically, Pilkington have used the following moment limits to guard against lateral torsional buckling:
Thickness 19mm 15mm 12mm Full height fins 69kNm 33kNm 17kNm Cantilevered fins 40kNm 19kNm 13kNm

- When providing additional lateral restraint to glass fins, Appendix H4, AS1288:1989 accurately predicts buckling loads (but with no safety factors!) - Toughening bow can significant reduce the lateral stability of fins unless the faade design accommodates this.
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3) Fragility Is toughened glass fragile?

A surface or material which would be liable to fail if any reasonable foreseeable loading were to be applied to it.
Work at height regulations

Typical requirements: BS EN 12600 - 50kg twin tyre impactor - 450, 900, & 1200mm drop BS EN 356 - 4.11 kg steel ball - 1.5m to 9m drop height 10*/16/6 bolted unit, impactor height 1200mm

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BBC sponsored trials, 2006 What the 20th Century did for us. 5ft mini drop
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3) Fragility Is toughened glass fragile?

3) Fragility Toughened glass

Nickel Sulphide (NiS) Sudden fracture may result from the transformation of: -NiS Hexagonal (high temp) form
Nickel Sulphide inclusion

-NiS Rhombohedral (low temp) form

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3) Fragility Toughened glass

(NiS) Key issues: - NiS only affects toughened glass by transforming in the tensile zone - Stones can be between 50m and 800m and not all stones cause spontaneous fracture

Nickel Sulphide inclusion

- EN14179 quotes a 1 in 400 ton frequency in heat soaked glass but this is an average! - Not all stones that cause spontaneous fracture are NiS (silicone formed by redox reaction with Al can also occur) - Spontaneous fracture is more often caused by impact, inservice damage and installation issues
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3) Fragility Managing edge damage

Edge Bright

Edge Fire

Pre-toughening work

Edge Splinter

Edge Chip

Surface Shell

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3) Fragility Managing edge damage

Description Edge bright Edge fire Pre-toughening dressing Edge splinter Edge chip Surface shell Cause
Arris not removed all edge break out Low coolant level at finisher post Edge damage corrected before toughening Handling, transport, installation Handling, transport, installation Surface breakout damage not removed by arris

Effect Aesthetic only Aesthetic only Aesthetic only

Acceptability if <5mm (2off)

Can be removed with light dressing

Aesthetic with if <1mm deep low structural risk & <25mm long Aesthetic only Aesthetic with medium structural risk If <3mm deep& <3mm long Not acceptable

Pilkington recommendations for edge damage acceptability with Planar Glazing

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3) Fragility Toughened glass

A surface or material which would be liable to fail if any reasonable foreseeable loading were to be applied to it.
Work at height regulations

Key issues: - Toughened glass is durable and resistant to impact when the impact is understood and has been anticipated in design! - The risk of breakage due of toughened glass due to Nickel Sulphide can be reduced (EN14179) but not eradicated. - Toughened glass is vulnerable to edge damage and scratches and the effect of damage is difficult to quantify - Designing with monolithic toughened glass requires the engineer to ask, What happens when this glass breaks?
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3) Fragility the unanticipated event

CPNI trials, 2010 Blast resistance of toughened PlanarTM faade tension rods
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3) Fragility Laminated glass

Types of interlayer: (1) Polyvinyl butyral (PVB)
- most commonly available in industry - manufactured in autoclave at elevated Temp and pressure - available in coloured and printed form - Glass transition temperature, 230C

(2) Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA)

- cured at elevated Temp but no requirement for autoclave - good durability and edge stability - increased stiffness for load sharing & security

(3) Cast-in-Place (CIP)

- 2 part liquid pour interlayer - suited to small volume and specialist artwork type applications - better able to cope with toughened and curved glass

(4) Structural Ionomer interlayers e.g. Sentry Glas

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3) Fragility Laminated glass

The great strength of laminated glass debate: Can the interlayer material transfer shear and increase the equivalent thickness of the complete laminate over and above the sum of the strength of the individual panels?
t t
c = compressive stress

c c
t = tensile stress

Relevant factors: - interlayer material type - temperature - load duration - load rate

Lc

Lt

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3) Fragility Laminated glass

Structural benefits SentryGlas interlayer:
10 3
40
PVB Laminate Ionoplast (SentryGlas(R) Plus) Laminate

Storage Young's Modulus (MPa)

Engineering Stress, a (MPa)

30

10 2

1 Hz 10 1

20

10
Strain Rate ~ 0.1/s

SentryGlas(R) Plus Butacite(R)

10 0 -10 0 10 20 30
o

40

50

60

Temperature C

Engineering Strain, e

- stiffer than PVB over wide range of temperatures - higher tear energy (5 x PVB) - improved edge durability and transparency

47

3) Fragility Laminated glass

Integral Planar SGP Planar PVB

Post-fracture performance of various configurations & interlayers Break 3 post-fracture loading

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3) Fragility Laminated glass

Considerations for intact performance: - load duration & application rate - interlayer Temp. per load case - durability and compatibility - need for sacrificial components

3 ply laminate 12mm toughened heat soaked glass Rated for 125psf with redundancy

Willis Tower, Chicago, 1353ft 49 Designed by Yolles Halcrow

3) Fragility Laminated glass

Post-fracture performance: - glass fracture patterns - glass & interlayer interaction - ease of access - time to replacement - need for total redundancy? - load case moderation?

Project details: - glass treads comprise of annealed laminated glass - glass stringer is curved, chemically toughened laminated glass - designed for seismic loading
Apple Store, Japan, Osaka Designed by Eckersley OCallaghan
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3) Fragility Laminated glass

Post-fracture performance: - glass fracture patterns - glass & interlayer interaction - ease of access - time to replacement - need for total redundancy? - load case moderation?

Project details: - first twin storey glass staircase - central glass core supporting cantilevered glass treads supporting stringers - outer stringer comprises 3ply chemically toughened laminate
Apple Store, 14th Street, New York Designed by Eckersley OCallaghan
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3) Fragility Laminated glass

Post-fracture performance: - glass fracture patterns - glass & interlayer interaction - ease of access - time to replacement - need for total redundancy? - load case moderation?

Project details: - glass fins laminated from 5ply 19mm low iron glass - fins spliced together with interlayer to create 35ft tool single span beams
Apple Store, Upper West Side, NY Designed by Eckersley OCallaghan

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3) Fragility Laminated glass

A surface or material which would be liable to fail if any reasonable foreseeable loading were to be applied to it.
Work at height regulations

Typical requirements: BS EN 12600 - 50kg twin tyre impactor - 450, 900, & 1200mm drop BS EN 356 - 4.11 kg steel ball - 1.5m to 9m drop height 10/2.28sgp/6, EN356 test, 4.11kg ball at 9m (2nd impact)

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3) Fragility Laminated glass

A surface or material which would be liable to fail if any reasonable foreseeable loading were to be applied to it.
Work at height regulations

Cycling requirements: +20 to +50psf +0 to +60psf +50 to +80psf +30 to +100psf -30 to -100psf -50 to -80psf -0 to -60psf -20 to -50psf Various broken laminates on hurricane cycling 3500x 300x 600x 100x 50x 1050x 50x 3350x
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3) Fragility the unanticipated event

Product 1 (Sentry Glass)

Product 2 (PVB) Comblast trials, 2004 Blast resistance of Planar using pvb and Sentry Glass interlayer
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3) Fragility Laminated glass

A surface or material which would be liable to fail if any reasonable foreseeable loading were to be applied to it.
Work at height regulations

Key issues: - Laminated glass is generally more expensive & can add significant weight - The use of laminates will considerably improve post-fracture behaviour in most cases but is not the automatic answer it has become in some quarters - The performance of laminated glass is temperature and load duration dependent - Laminated glass will be significantly less durable - Laminated glass has a limit too!
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3) Fragility the unanticipated event

Project Performance Test, 2005 Laminated panels to cable support Project overload, 2.39kPa
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3) Fragility Toughened or laminated?

BS 5516-2:2004, Code of practice for sloped glazing: Section 8.3.2 Roof or canopy glazing Glazing at a height up to 5m - toughened, toughened & heatsoaked, laminated or wired Glazing at a height over 5m and up to 13m - laminated or wired, or toughened and toughened & heatsoaked not more than 6mm thick and 3m2 in area Glazing above 13m - laminated glass or wired glass Note : Advice related to single glazing and the lower component of insulated glazing Note : Advice does not relate to vertical facades where toughened glass will often remain in place

58

4) Durability the easily forgotten issue

Glass: - extremely durable with a track record of 100s of years 1320s Crown Glass invented in France (nr Rouen) 1678 1851 Crown Glass made in London Crystal Palace made by Cylinder method

1920s Rolled Glass commonly used 1960 Float Process introduced by Pilkington
Crown Glass 59

4) Durability the issue

Glass: - extremely durable with a track record spanning hundreds of yrs Associated components: - Poly Vinyl Butyral (PVB) sheet invented in 1930s - Poly Iso Butylene (PIB) invented in 1950s & 60s - Silicone weather seals invented 1950s - Polyamides (Nylon) invented in 1930s [but most plastics used today are <10yrs old and acceleration factor <10!
US Steelworkers Union Building, Pittsburgh, 1958 60

4) Durability Insulated units

Issues: - water ingress (typical units have a 5 or 10 year warranty) - compatibility issues between adjacent sealants - transportation and installation at height - UV stability of unit components (e.g. polysulphide) - Gas leakage & unit pillowing - Sputter coatings are often vulnerable to processing damage and corrosion
61

4) Durability Insulated units

Edge seal construction:
Key:
Secondary Seal

A) Secondary seal depth B) Primary seal depth

C B
Hollow Spacer

C) Unit site line D) Cavity with E) Overall unit width

D E
Edge seal components 62

4) Durability Insulated units

Edge seal construction:
Durability testing: BS EN 1279 Glass in buildings Insulated Glass Units Part 2 Long term test method for moisture penetr. Part 3 Long term test method for gas leakage Part 6 Factory production control test (3 week)
63

Secondary Seal

Hollow Spacer

D E
Edge seal components

4) Durability Insulated units

BS EN 1279 : Glass in buildings - Insulated Glass Units: Part 2 Long term test method for moisture penetration.
4 weeks cycling between -180C & +530C (every 12 hours) 7 weeks at constant +580C relative humidity 95 %

Part 6 Factory production control & short climate test

3 weeks at +580C relative humidity 95 % multiple component quality tests

PILKINGTON : ln-house long life unit testing:

2000 hours UV (84 days) (as EN 1093-3:2001) 35/750C, 4 cycles per day, 500 cycles, (125 days) Relative humidity 100%

64

4) Durability Insulated units

36.75mm

Competitor unit performance comparison, Pilkington, UK

Insulated units : make up, 10/16/6 Both units subject to EN 1279-6 : starting width, 32.5mm

33.16mm
65

4) Durability Insulated units - faults

Voids in PIB seal

Condensation formation

Total rupture of PIB seal

66

4) Durability Laminated glass

Issues: - manufacturing issues - water damage - compatibility issues - loss of plasticizers at edges - UV stability - Discoloration at high temp. - Haze growth at high temp. - Typical laminates have a 1 or 5 year warranty
Finger delamination indicating interlayer depletion bdue to over compression 67

4) Durability Laminated glass

Issues: - manufacturing issues - water damage - compatibility issues - loss of plasticizers at edges - UV stability - Discoloration at high temp. - Haze growth at high temp. - Typical laminates have a 1 or 5 year warranty
Damaged interlayer due to failure of weather seal

68

4) Durability Laminated glass

Issues: - manufacturing issues - water damage - compatibility issues - loss of plasticizers at edges - UV stability - Discoloration at high temp. - Haze growth at high temp. - Typical laminates have a 1 or 5 year warranty
Setting block vs silicone & pvb interlayer 69

4) Durability Laminated glass

Issues: - manufacturing issues - water damage - compatibility issues - loss of plasticizers at edges - UV stability - Discoloration at high temp. - Haze growth at high temp. - Typical laminates have a 1 or 5 year warranty
Edge delamination - Orlando 70

5) Connectivity - facades

Cable clamp to laminate

Project, (Julliard)

Spring plate to IGU

Project, (Kangnam)

Tension rod to toughened

Project, (Centre Sq)
71

5) Connectivity - facades
Point fixed systems: Fixed or articulated?

Planar Fixing
(inventor : Pilkington, 1982)

Rotule Fixing
Dutton & Martin (RFR), 1986)
72

18

5) Connectivity - facades

Displacement investigation test panel, Pilkington, UK

(Pilkington video)

1.8x1.8m Intrafix concept panel : make up, 6/16/12 Test Load, 5kPa : Deflection, 120mm

73

5) Connectivity - facades
Point fixed systems: Fixed: - smaller - articulated at support - rotation stiffness is difficult to model by FEA - reduced size can mean less site tolerance - smaller sizes requires better understanding of stresses Articulated: - larger - articulated at glass - more straightforward to model - articulation needed by design often misused to provide added site tolerance - larger pullout strengths

74

18

5) Connectivity - facades
Faade connections in general: - glass dead load
- as high as 600kg per panel

- wind load reaction

- often as high as 10kN per fixing

- provide movement capacity

- thermal, seismic, support structure

- no glass to metal contact - no tight clamping of IGUs or laminates - corrosion resistant - vibration resistant - UV & moisture resistance plastics
Corner patch to laminated glass Pilkington 2009, Julliard College 75
18

5) Connectivity glass mullions

Friction connection:
- historically the connection of choice - HSFG bolts can apply shank tension of 90kN without breakage - A friction connection avoids the issue of glass strength variability - Gasket material is absolutely critical (natural aluminium is an issue) - Torque to shank tension relationship is critical - Has proved unsuitable for connections in roof beams under constant load
Kensington Marriot, Pilkington, 2005 24m long, 19mm toughened & spliced mullions 76

5) Connectivity glass mullions

Holes in bearing connection:
- reliant upon glass strength and induced stresses at holes - beams will generally be deeper or thicker when compared to friction type - holes must be isolated by suitable plastic or aluminium bushes - hole connections often injected with epoxy resin or fitted with tight bushes and then drilled on site - edge & hole strengths from different processors will be different - Pilkington have observed that an edge chip will reduce strength by av. 26%
Bishops Avenue London, Pilkington, 2008 Vertical & horizontal spliced fins 77

5) Connectivity glass mullions

Summary: - # samples, 14 - 95/95 characteristic strength (3s gust) = 12.1kN - 95/95 characteristic strength (60s gust) = 8.1kN - results based upon Weibull statistics Load tests 15mm csk hole - negative
78

5) Connectivity glass mullions

Interlayer connections:
- highly specialised and often protected by patents - possible to splice annealed glass and laminate to create multi-ply single span beams 10m long - possible to adhere metallic inserts into the interlayer for strength/robustness

Stair tread connection utilising titanium inserts as patent US D478,999 S

Apple Store, 5th Avenue, NY, May 2006 Designed by Eckersley OCallaghan

79

5) Connectivity glass mullions

Adhesive connections to glass:
- not to be confused with the use of water based adhesives to increase - experience with SSGS is widespread, but the strength of silicone is limiting (short = 0.14MPa, long = 0.014MPa) - limited tests have been conducted with acrylics & epoxies and research continues at Cambridge & Delft - short tack times and installation on a construction site are a major issue - simulating long term durability will be a challenge
55 Water Street, USA, 2006 Cantilevered 2 part epoxy adhered fins 80

Institute of Structural Engineers, SE Counties Branch, 2010

Aspects of Structural Glass Thank you & Any questions?

Tim Morgan CEng MIMechE Technical Manager, Pilkington Architectural

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