7) jNTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENT ction of fragile ecosystem, control of over fal resources, prote attain sustainability. consetve the fast depleting natur population, food security and to “ECOSYSTEMS pefinition of Ecosystem. a The term Ecology (Greek Oikos-liouse, logos-study) was coined by ae eeces mst Haeckel in 1869. Ecology deals with the study of interactions between living a : and their physical environment. Now cf ig defined as the study of ecosystems. The aE ecosystem was proposed by A.G. Ti jn 1935 where eco implies the environment an\ ndent, integrated complex. Ecosystem may be n-living factors of the system denotes an interacting, defined as the system resulting ; ion of all living and no} f environment. Thus any st tional unit of biosphere where the organisms interact with the physical er o that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined rophic structure, biotic dive rial cycle (te., exchange of materials between living and non-living comy xe system is known as an ecological system or ecosystem. i Earth is a giant biotic components are constantly acting and reacting with each ot ural and functional changes in it. This vast ecosystem-biosphere is of smaller ecosystems such as terrestrial s may be freely exchanging energy and matter and aquatic ecos 1 from outside—an open ecosy ‘isolated from outside—a closed ecosystem. An ecosystem is n opel with a continuous but variable influx and loss of material and energy. unit with no limits of boundaries. Thus an ecosystem represents the and ‘as springs, streams or rivers) or CeesENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND ECOLOGY 8 INTROC od recognised ‘8 one of ecosystems and play @ very _ tant role in human life: « pers es features of all ecosystems — tevestrial, aquatic and agricultural are the interactions of the autotrophic and heterotrophic co™Ponents. 7 COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM wind ‘An ecosystem has two major components—biotic and abiotic. eee : stan (A) Biotic (Living) Components. y Plants, animals and micro-organisms having different nutritional behaviour constitute the ¢ the biotic components of an ecosystem. j ane 1. Producers (or Autotrophs-Self nourishing). Producers are mainly mat chlorophyll bearing green plants (photo autotrophs) which can synthesize their food in : presence of sunlight making use of CO, and water through the process of photosynthesis. Since plants convert solar energy into chemical energy so they must be better called converters or transducers. Chemosynthetic organisms 0° chemo-autotrophs can also biot synthesize some organic matter by the oxidation of certain chemicals in absence of sunlight. ae 2. Consumers (or Heterotrophs or Phagotrophs). Consumers consume the matter built up by the producers. They utilise, rearrange and decompose complex materials al [Note. The major autotrophic metabolism occurs in the upper green belt stratum where solar energy is available while the intense heterotrophic metabolism occurs in the eal lower brown belt where organic matter accumulates in soil and sediments.] rai Consumers are of the following types. oc (i) Herbivores. They feed directly on producers and hence are known as primary he consumers, ¢.g., rabbit, deer, cattle, insects etc, Elton (1927) called herbivores as key industry animals because they convert plants into animal materials. w = (ii) Carnivores (Meat eaters). They feed on other consumers. If they feed on prec they are called secondary consumers (e.g., frog, birds, cat) and if they prey on aa uae Ca ke oa they are known as tertiary carnivores/consumers. Lion, ieee | cannot be preyed are called top carnivores since they occupy top position s a Omnivores. They feed both on plants and animals, e.g., rat, fox, birds and man. 2 Detritivores (Detritus feeders y - or saprotrophs). They feed on partiall y Corona matter such as termites, ants, crabs, earthworms etc. 1a partially » Decomposers Micro-consumers) i (or Micro-consumers). Decomposers are saprophytic | iti | Biches cetes an i, 4 i fungi. They derive their 4 ir unds and release ino he 0 producers a ape a a em may be thought of as the ares of nutrition andINTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENT 9 {B) Abiotic (Non-living) Components. structurally abiotic components include | 1, Climatic regime. Precipitation, temperature, sunlight, intensity of solar flux, wind etc. have a strong influence on the ecosystem. 2, Inorganic substances. These are C, N, H, 0, 2 $ involved in material cycles. The amount of these substances present in an ecosystem is known as standing state or | standing quality. 3. Organic Substances. Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and humic substances link the abiotic components with the biotic components. All the biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem are influenced by each other and are linked together through energy flow and matter cycling. : a STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYSTEM The structure of an ecosystem is characterised by the composition and organisation of biotic communities and abiotic components. The major structural features of an ecosystem are: 1. Species Composition. Every ecosystem has its own type of species composition which differs from other ecosystems. 2. Stratification. The organisms in each ecosystem form one or more layers or strata each comprising the population of particular kind of species. In some ecosystems like tropical rain forests, the crown of trees, bushes and ground vegetation form different strata and are occupied by different species. On the other hand, desert ecosystem shows a low discontinuous herbal layer consisting of extensive bare patches of soil. 3. The quantity and distribution of non-living materials such as nutrients and water etc. 4, The range or gradient of conditions of existence such as temperature and light etc. a FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM Every ecosystem performs under natural conditions in a delicately balanced and systematic controlled manner. Functionally, the biotic and abiotic components of ecosystem are so interwoven into the fabric of nature that their separation from each other is practically difficult. The producers, green plants, fix radiant energy and with the help of minerals C,H, O, N, B K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe etc.) taken from the soil and aerial environment (nutrient 0ol) they build up complex organic matter (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids ). Herbivores feed on plants and in turn serve as food for carnivores. Decomposers down complex organic materials into simple inorganic products which can be used by ae? roducers. ___ The two ecological processes of energy flow and nutrient cycling, involving teraction between the physico-chemical environment and the biotic communities constitute heart of the ecosystem cynamias. 1). The major functional features of an sinew) iyENERGY, ENVIRONMENT ANI ECOL) Consumers 2 Herbivores -O (10 = Neeness eu ‘Carbohydrates, fats,~ proteins Decomposers Nutrient po |, water, atmosphere) / it's structure and function. diated through food chain. roducer-consumer arrangement and known as trophic level and the as standing crop or connected through foodINTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENT 11] autotrophic energy capture and movement of this captured energy to carnivores. Examples constitute sequence of Phytoplanktons —> Zooplanktons —> Fish Grass > Rabbit —> Fox Phytoplanktons Zooplanktons 4 (Algae, diatoms) Camivorous \\ fish Fig. 2. A grazing food chain in a pond ecosystem. (b) Detritus food chain. It starts from dead organic matter and passes through micro-organisms to detritivores (organisms feeding on detritus), their predators and decomposers. The ecosystems exhibiting detritus food chain are less dependent on direct solar These depend chiefly on the influx of organic matter produced in another ecosystem, Such type of food chain operates in the decomposing accumulated litter in a temperate forest 4 good example of detritus food chain (Fig. 3) is seen in a Mangrove (estuary). Mangrove leaf fragments acted on by saprotrophs (fungi, bacteria), colonized by algae are eaten by detritus consumers (crabs, shrimps, nematodes, molluscs etc.). These are, in turn, eaten by minnows and small carnivorous fish which serve as the food for large game fish and birds. Carnivores dave ime Fi ie Ki Decomposers (Bacteria, fungi) Fig.3. A dott food chain in an estuary based on dead leaves of mangrove trees.ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND Leics | 5 whiie in detritus food chain from microbial biomass and | ecosystems but the ives its energy from plant mint biomass, secondarily L2 4 chain der hains occur together in natural ‘Thus the grazing foo ered primarily from Pl n the food cl rnivores. Bot predominates energy is obt tertiarily from ca grazing food chain usually (ii) Food Web-Interlocking pattern of Organisms: Food chains in ecosystems are rarely found t0 operate in isolated linear sequence Rather, they are interconnected with several linkages forming @ complex network of interlocking pattern which is referred to aS food web- Thus, food web is a network of different types of organisms are interconnected with each other at f options of eating and being eaten at food chains where different trophic levels so that there are a number 0! each trophic level. ‘An example of food web is illustrated by the unique Antarctic ecosystem (Fig. 4). bes the total ecosystem, including the Antarctic sea and the continental land. The pe ine show any higher life forms of plants. ‘The only species are those of some algae, ome ime lude rel and penguins which depend on the quatic _ Ina tropical region, on the ecosystems have a rich species diversity and therefore, the food webs are much more complex. It representsINTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENT 13| If due to some stress, the population of reindeer or caribou falls, s it will leave little option for man ot If ey wolf to feed from the ecosystem. Had, // Grass hopper = ‘ there been more biodiversity, it would ff. Lizard a have led to complex food web giving the ecosystem more stability. In a food Plants Rabbit, Hawk web, there are a number of options available to each trophic level. So, if Vi one species is affected, it does not alter ca other trophic levels so seriously. For Mouse ——— Snake instance, in grazing food chain of a grassland, in the absence of rabbit, grass may be eaten by mouse, which in turn, may be eaten by hawk or snake (Fig 5.) Besides those shown in Fig. 5, there may also be present some other consumers as vultures, fox and man in grasslands, and if so, the food web may be even more complex than shown here. In fact, real food webs usually have hundreds of species interlinked according to their feeding habits. Note. The complexity of any food web depends upon the diversity of organisms in the system. It would accordingly depend upon : + Length of the food chain. More diverse the organisms in food habits, longer would be the food chain. + Alternatives at different levels of consumers in the chain. More the alternatives, more would be the interlocking pattern. Significance of Food Chains and Food Webs. + Food chains and food webs play a very significant role in the ecosystem because the most important functions of energy flow and nutrient cycles take place through them. + Food chains help in maintaining and regulating the ecological balance. + Food chains show a unique property of biological magnification of several pesticides and heavy metals which are non-biodegradable in nature. Such chemicals increase in concentration at each successive trophic level. Fig. 5. Food web in a grassland ecosystem. ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS. Graphic representation of trophic structure and functions of an ecosystem, starting with producers at the base and successive trophic levels (herbivores > carnivores) forming the apex is known as ecological pyramid. These were first devised by British ecologist Charles Elton (1927) and so are also known as Eltonion pyramids. Ecological pyramids are of three types. 1. Pyramid of Numbers. It represents the number of individual organisms at each trophic level, There may be upright or inverted pyramid of numbers depending upon the type of ecosystem and food chain as shown in Fig. 6. A grassland ecosystem [Fig. 6(a)] and aENENS":. shows an upright pyramid of numbers. In grassland, » (Fig. 6(b)) ; ) are very large in number er Perava broad bese. The Printary cons lizards ete.) and te erie mice), secondary, consumes “iu pirds) gradually decrease in nimber, hence the pyramid ap becomes narrower forming an upright pyramid. similar is the case with pond ecosystem, pee the producers, mainly phytoplank'ons Ml Gh os algae and bacterls are mixiiaay Hertyer The carnivores (small fish, beetles ry and tap carnivores (large fish) decredas veinber at higher trophic levels forming 9” 'd of numbers. fh 14 pond ecosyster producers (grasses (herbivores like T consumers (hawks of © n upright pyrami , | Tertiary Fa | Tertiary | | \q consumers consumers ta"! (camivores) (carnivores) ewe | 97 | Secondary *> | secondary Lz consumers ‘consumers: (camivores) (carnivores) eae ee Eoin mers om 7 Rw, thobivores) U BA eivores) le ae look, fee (b) Bacteria © Fungi Actinomycetes 1 Hyper- parasites ‘on lice and bugs Lice and | = < Parasites on herbivores jucers bij;TRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENT 15 Parasitic food chain shows an inverted pyramid of numbers. The producers like a few big trees harbour fruit eating birds acting as herbivores which are larger in number. A much higher number of lice, bugs etc, grow as ectoparasites on these birds while a still greater number of hyperparasites such as bugs, fleas and microbes feed upon them, thus making an inverted pyramid [Fig. 6(d)] Note that the pyramids of numbers do not reflect a true picture of the food chain as they are not very functional. They do not indicate the relative effects of the geometry, food chain and size factors of the organisms. They vary with different communities with different types of food chains in the same environment. 2. Pyramid of Biomass. These are comparatively more fundamental since instead of geometric factor, they show quantitative relationship of the standing crops. Pyramid of piomass is based upon the total biomass (dry matter per unit area) at each trophic level in a food chain. In a forest, the pyramid of biomass is upright in contrast to its pyramid of numbers. This is because the producers (trees) accumulate a huge biomass while the consumers total biomass feeding on them declines at higher trophic levels resulting in broad base and narrowing top [Fig. 7(a)]. In a pond ecosystem, the total biomass of producers (phytoplanktons) is much less as compared to herbivores (zooplanktons, insects), carnivores | (small fish) or tertiary carnivores (large fish). Thuis the pyramid takes an inverted shape with narrow base and broad apex [Fig. 7(b)]. ca : Carmivores 3D | camiows co. D Qa at Cy i wb i @ i () a Fig. 7. Pyramid of biomass in (a) Forest and (b) Pond ecosystems. 3. Pyramid of Energy. Pyramid of energy is based on the amount of energy trapped unit time and area in different trophic levels of a food chain. It gives the best tation of the trophic relationships and is i upright (Fig. 8). The energy content is generally : Top camivores as kJ/m?/yr. At each successive trophic level, there is Carnivores lecline in energy (about 90% in the form of heat and Herbivores tion) as we e from producers to top carnivores. Thus Producers passes on at each next higher level Fig. 8. Pyramid of energy if in any ecosystem. maki Herbivores Producers