CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

The continental drift theory, primarily

proposed by Alfred Wegener in the
early 20th century, suggests that
Earth's continents were once a unified
landmass known as Pangaea, which
subsequently broke apart and drifted
to their current positions.
1. Historical Background
The idea of continental drift was first
speculated by Abraham Ortelius in
1596. Alfred Wegener formally
introduced the theory in 1912,
asserting that continents move over geological time. He presented his complete hypothesis in
1915, in the book "The Origin of Continents and Oceans". Wegener's theory was initially rejected
due to the absence of a plausible mechanism for the movement of continents, which became a
major point of contention.
2. Evidence Supporting the Theory
Evidence for continental drift includes:
 Fit of Continents: The coasts of South America and Africa appear to fit together like
pieces of a puzzle, suggesting they were once connected.

 Fossil Distribution: Identical fossils of species such as Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile,

have been discovered on separate continents like South America and Africa, implying
these landmasses were once joined.
 Ancient fossils of the
same species of extinct
plants are also found in
rocks of the same age
but are on continents
that are now widely
separated. Wegener
proposed that the
organisms had lived side
by side, but that the
lands had moved apart
after they were dead and
fossilized. He suggested
that the organisms would
not have been able to travel across the oceans.
o Fossils of the seed fern Glossopteris were too heavy to be carried so far by wind.
o Mesosaurus was a swimming reptile but could only swim in fresh water.

o Cynognathus and Lystrosaurus were land reptiles and were unable to swim
  Grooves and rock deposits left by ancient glaciers are found today on different
continents very close to the equator. This would indicate that the glaciers either
formed in the middle of the ocean and/or covered most of the Earth. Today glaciers
only form on land and nearer the poles. Wegener thought that the glaciers were
centered over the southern land mass close to the South Pole and the continents
moved to their present positions later on.
 Coral reefs and coal-forming swamps are found in tropical and subtropical
environments, but ancient coal seams and coral reefs are found in locations where
it is much too cold today. Wegener suggested that these creatures were alive in
warm climate zones and that the fossils and coal later had drifted to new locations
on the continents.

 Geological Similarities: Mountain ranges, such as the Appalachian Mountains in North

America, are geologically similar to the Caledonian Mountains in Scotland, indicating a
shared history. All three ranges have similar structures and rock types, as well as similar
ages.

 Paleoclimatic Evidence: Geological formations and ancient climate indicators (e.g., coal
deposits in cold regions) suggest that continents have moved over time. Geologists had
also noticed that concerned parts of South America, Africa, Australia, and India. All four of
these regions showed substantial evidence of having been covered by huge glaciers at
about the same time in the distant past, some 300 million years ago. The great mystery
was that these regions are not only widely separated but some of them are quite close to
the equator. How, then, could they ever have been cold enough to have been covered by
glaciers?

(a) The white regions on this map (b) This map shows how these
show evidence of having been regions would have been connected
covered by glaciers about 300 million together and near the South Pole in
years ago. Pangaea.
 Magnetic Polarity evidence
Puzzling new evidence came in the 1950s from studies on the Earth’s magnetic history. Scientists
used magnetometers, devices capable of measuring the magnetic field intensity, to look at the
magnetic properties of rocks in many locations.

Magnetite crystals are like

tiny magnets that point to the
north magnetic pole as they
crystallize from magma. The
crystals record both the
direction and strength of
the magnetic field at the
time. The direction is known
as the field’s magnetic
polarity.
Geologists noted important things about the magnetic polarity
Earth’s magnetic field is like a
of different aged rocks on the same continent:
magnet with its north pole
near the geographic North  Magnetite crystals in fresh volcanic rocks point to the
Pole and the south pole near current magnetic north pole (figure 5) no matter what
the geographic South Pole. continent or where on the continent the rocks are
located.

 Older rocks that are the same age and are located on the same continent point to the
same location, but that location is not the current north magnetic pole.
 Older rock that are of different ages do not point to the same locations or to the current
magnetic north pole.
In other words, although the magnetite crystals were pointing to the magnetic north pole, the
location of the pole seemed to wander. Scientists were amazed to find that the north magnetic
pole changed location through time.
There are three possible explanations for this:
1. The continents remained fixed and the north magnetic
pole moved.
2. The north magnetic pole stood still and the continents
moved.
3. Both the continents and the north pole moved.
Magnetic Polarity on Different Continents with Rocks
of the Same Age
Geologists noted that for rocks of the same age but on
different continents, the little magnets pointed to different
magnetic north poles.
The location of the north
magnetic north pole 80 million  400-million-year-old magnetite in Europe pointed to a
years before present (mybp), different north magnetic pole than the same-aged
then 60, 40, 20, and now. magnetite in North America.
 250 million years ago, the north poles were also different for the two continents.
The scientists looked again at the three possible explanations. Only one can be correct. If the
continents had remained fixed while the north magnetic pole moved, there must have been two
separate north poles. Since there is only one north pole today, the only reasonable explanation is
that the north magnetic pole has remained fixed but that the continents have moved.
To test this, geologists fitted the continents together as Wegener had done. It worked! There has
only been one magnetic north pole and the continents have drifted. They named the
phenomenon of the magnetic pole that seemed to move but actually did not apparent polar
wander.
 On the left: The apparent north pole for
Europe and North America if the
continents were always in their current
locations. The two paths merge into one
if the continents are allowed to drift.

3. Key Proponents and Contributors

Alfred Wegener is recognized as the foremost proponent of the continental drift theory. He cited
supporting evidence from various fields, including geology, astronomy, and paleontology. Other
notable figures include:
 Alexander von Humboldt: Early theorizer of continental unity.
 Antonio Snider-Pellegrini: Proposed that the shapes of continents suggest they were
once connected.
 Frank B. Taylor: Proposed similar ideas in the early 20th century.
 Arthur Holmes: Later provided a significant contribution through the concept of mantle
convection as a possible mechanism for continental movement.
4. Scientific Reception and Criticism
Wegener's continental drift theory faced considerable skepticism from the scientific community.
Critics argued:
 There was no mechanism to explain how continents could move through solid oceanic
crust.
 The theory contradicted the prevailing geological notions of the time, which held that
continents were fixed features.
Despite this criticism, Wegener continued to gather evidence, although he did not live to see his
ideas fully accepted. His contributions were eventually integrated into the more comprehensive
theory of plate tectonics in the mid-20th century.

MULTIPLE CHOICE TEST: Choose the best answer.

Q1: What is the name of the supercontinent proposed by Alfred Wegener?
A) Gondwana
B) Laurasia
C) Pangaea
D) Eurasia

Q2: Which continents’ coastlines fit together like puzzle pieces, supporting the continental drift
theory?
A) North America and Europe
B) Africa and Asia
C) South America and Africa
D) Australia and Antarctica

Q3: What fossil evidence supports the idea of continents once being connected?
A) Fossils of Cynognathus found in North America and Europe
B) Fossils of Glossopteris found in Africa, South America, and India
C) Fossils of aquatic species in Antarctica
D) Fossils of Pterosaurs found in Australia and Asia

Q4: Which of the following was a major reason for the rejection of Wegener's theory?
A) The lack of fossil evidence
B) The absence of a mechanism for continental movement
C) The theory of fixed continents
D) The lack of support from other geologists

Q5: Which geological feature on different continents supports the idea that they were once
connected?
A) The Rocky Mountains and Caledonian Mountains
B) The Alps and Appalachian Mountains
C) The Appalachian and Caledonian Mountains
D) The Himalayas and Karakoram

Q6: What type of ancient climatic evidence supports continental drift?

A) Fossils of polar bears in Africa
B) Ancient coal deposits found in Antarctica
C) Ancient coral reefs found in modern-day deserts
D) Fossilized trees in Arctic regions

Q7: What type of evidence did scientists find in the 1950s that helped confirm the idea of
continental drift?
A) Earthquake patterns
B) Sea-floor spreading
C) Magnetic polarity evidence in rocks
D) The discovery of new landmasses

Q8: How did the distribution of Mesosaurus fossils between Africa and South America support
Wegener’s theory?
A) Mesosaurus was a land reptile, so it couldn't have swum between the continents.
B) Mesosaurus was a freshwater reptile, and it couldn’t swim across the saltwater of the Atlantic
Ocean.
C) Mesosaurus fossils were found in Europe, proving the continents were connected.
D) Mesosaurus could fly, which explains its presence on multiple continents.

Q9: Why are fossilized plants like Glossopteris important for the continental drift theory?
A) They were widespread and adapted to multiple climates.
B) Their seeds could float across oceans.
C) They were found on continents now separated by oceans, indicating that these continents
were once joined.
D) They were discovered in tropical climates, showing a past global tropical climate.

Q10: How do magnetic polarity studies provide evidence for continental drift?
A) They show that the Earth’s magnetic field has reversed over time.
B) They reveal that different continents had different magnetic poles.
C) They indicate that rocks of the same age on different continents have different magnetic
polarities, suggesting that the continents have moved.
D) They suggest that the magnetic poles have wandered due to the movement of tectonic plates.

Q11: What is the significance of glacier grooves found near the equator in supporting continental
drift?
A) It shows that glaciers once covered the entire Earth.
B) It suggests that regions now near the equator were once closer to the poles.
C) It shows that glaciers moved from the equator to the poles.
D) It suggests that the Earth’s climate has always been uniform.

Q12: Which of the following was suggested by Arthur Holmes as a possible mechanism for the
movement of continents?
A) Mantle convection
B) Sea-floor spreading
C) Earthquake activity
D) Tidal forces

Q13: How did the discovery of apparent polar wander help confirm the theory of continental
drift?
A) It showed that the magnetic poles have moved across time.
B) It proved that the Earth’s rotation has changed.
C) It indicated that the magnetic poles remained in place, but the continents moved over time.
D) It showed that both the continents and the magnetic poles have drifted over time.
Q14: How was the theory of continental drift eventually integrated into the more comprehensive
theory of plate tectonics?
A) It was proven that continents float on the ocean.
B) Sea-floor spreading provided a mechanism for continental movement.
C) The magnetic field reversals caused the continents to move.
D) Continental drift was completely replaced by plate tectonics.

Q15: Why is Alfred Wegener considered a key figure in the development of modern geology,
despite initial rejection of his theory?
A) He discovered plate tectonics.
B) His theory of continental drift laid the groundwork for the theory of plate tectonics.
C) He proved the theory of fixed continents wrong.
D) He provided evidence for global climate change.

Open Ended / Identification Questions:

Q1: What is the name of the supercontinent proposed by Alfred Wegener?
Q2: Who first speculated about the idea of continental drift before Alfred Wegener?
Q3: When did Alfred Wegener formally introduce his theory of continental drift?
Q4: Name one piece of evidence that supports the continental drift theory.
Q5: What is the main reason Alfred Wegener’s theory was initially rejected by the scientific
community?
Q6: What book did Wegener publish to present his hypothesis of continental drift?
Q7: List two types of fossil evidence used to support the continental drift theory.
Q8: How do the Appalachian Mountains and the Caledonian Mountains support the idea of
continental drift?
Q9: Name two figures, other than Alfred Wegener, who contributed to the idea of continental
drift.
Q10: Describe what paleoclimatic evidence shows about continental drift.
Q11: How does the distribution of Mesosaurus fossils between Africa and South America support
the theory of continental drift?
Q12: Explain the significance of magnetic polarity evidence in proving continental drift.
Q13: How did Alfred Wegener use glacier grooves and rock deposits near the equator as
evidence for continental drift?
Q14: What role did Arthur Holmes play in the development of the continental drift theory?
Q15: How did paleontological evidence, like the fossils of Cynognathus and Lystrosaurus, support
the theory of continental drift?
Q16: Discuss how the idea of “apparent polar wander” supports the theory of continental drift.
Q17: Why was the theory of continental drift integrated into the more comprehensive theory of
plate tectonics in the mid-20th century?
Q18: How could the rejection of Wegener’s theory be seen as a natural part of the scientific
process?
Q19: How does the geological similarity between continents (e.g., rock types and ages) serve as
evidence for continental drift?
Q20: Reflect on why Alfred Wegener did not live to see his theory of continental drift fully
accepted, despite having compelling evidence.