Social Institutions

Family
The family is a social institution found in all societies that unites people in cooperative
groups to care for one another, including any children. Family ties are also called
kinship, a social bond based on common ancestry, marriage, or adoption.
A simple definition of marriage could be a legal relationship, usually involving economic
cooperation and childbearing or that marriage is a legally recognized social contract
between two people, traditionally based on a permanence of the union.

Sociologists are interested in the relationship between the institution of marriage and
the institution of family because, historically, marriages are what create a family, and
families are the most basic social unit upon which society is built. Social conservatives
tend to define the family in terms of structure with each family member filling a certain
role (like father, mother, or child). Sociologists, on the other hand, tend to define family
more in terms of the manner in which members relate to one another than on a strict
configuration of status roles

A proper definition family could be a socially recognized group (usually joined by blood,
marriage, cohabitation, or adoption) that forms an emotional connection and
serves as an economic unit of society.
Sociologists identify different types of families based on how one enters into them.
A family of orientation refers to the family into which a person is born. A family of
procreation describes one that is formed through marriage.

In preindustrial societies, people commonly recognize the extended family, a family

consisting of parents and children as well as other kin. This group is sometimes called
the consanguine family because it includes everyone with “shared blood.
With industrialization, however, increased social mobility and geographic migration
give rise to the nuclear family, a family composed of one or two parents and their
children. The nuclear family is also called the conjugal family (conjugal means “based
on marriage”). Although many people in our society think of kinship in terms of extended
families, most people carry out their everyday routines within a nuclear family.

Cultural norms, and often laws, identify people as suitable or unsuitable marriage
partners. Some marital norms promote endogamy, marriage between
people of the same social cate-gory. Endogamy limits potential partners to people of the
same age, race, religion, or social class. By contrast, exogamy is marriage between
people of different social categories. In high-income nations, laws permit only
monogamy (from the Greek, meaning “one union”), marriage that unites two partners.
Although many countries in Africa and southern Asia permit polygamy (from the Greek,
meaning “many unions”), marriage that unites a person with two or more spouses.
Polygamy has two forms. By far the more common form is polygyny (from the Greek,
meaning “many women”), marriage that unites one man and two or more women.
Polyandry (from the Greek, meaning “many men” or “many husbands”) is marriage that
unites one woman and two or more men. This extremely rare pattern exists in Tibet.

Variation of family life

Single parent – Uncoupled individual who shoulders most or all of the day-to-day
responsibilities for raising a child or children. A mother is more often the primary
caregiver in a single-parent family structure that has arisen due to death of the partner,
divorce or unplanned pregnancy.

Cohabitation - When a man and woman live together without being married,
Cohabitating couples may choose to live together in an effort to spend more time
together or to save money on living costs. Many couples view cohabitation as a “trial
run” for marriage

Same Sex couples – A relationship involving two individuals of the same sex
Gay or straight - A new option for many people is simply to stay single

Stages of Family

Courtship – a period during which a couple develop a romantic relationship before

getting married
Arraigned marriage – Alliances between extended families of similar social
standing and usually involve an exchange not just of children but also of wealth
and favors. Romantic love has little to do with marriage, and parents may make
such arrangements when their children are very young

Love marriage – Is a more western oriented concept where the relationship is

based solely on the affection of two people for each other

Marriage - The legally or formally recognized union of a man and a woman (or, in some
jurisdictions, two people of the same sex) as partners in a relationship.
Child Rearing – Process of bringing up a child or children
Variation in family accommodation
Just as societies regulate mate selection, they also designate where a couple lives. In
preindustrial societies, most newlyweds live with one set of parents who offer them
protection, support, and assistance. Most common is the norm of patrilocality a
residential pattern in which a married couple lives with or near the husband’s family. But
some societies (such as the North American Iroquois) favor matrilocality (meaning
“place of the mother”), a residential pattern in which a married couple lives with or near
the wife’s family. Industrial societies show yet another pattern. Finances permitting, they
favor neolocality (from the Greek, meaning “new place”), a residential pattern in which
a married couple lives apart from both sets of parents.

Descent
Descent refers to the system by which members of a society trace kinship over
generations. Most preindustrial societies trace kinship through either the father’s side or
the mother’s side of the family. Patrilineal descent, the more common pattern, is a
system tracing kinship through men, in this pattern, children are related to others only
through their fathers. Tracing kinship through patrilineal descent ensures that fathers
pass property on to their sons. Patrilineal descent characterizes most pastoral
and agrarian societies, in which men produce the most valued resources. A less
common pattern is matrilineal descent, a system tracing kinship through women.
Matrilineal descent, in which mother’s pass property to their daughters,

Challenges facing families

Divorce - the legal dissolution of a marriage by a court or other competent body.
Remarriage - Is a marriage that takes place after a previous marital union has ended,
as through divorce or widowhood. It creates blended families, composing of children
from different partners.
Family violence - emotional, physical, or sexual abuse of one family member by
another

Theoretical Perspective
Drawing on two sociological paradigms, the sociological understanding of what
constitutes a family can be explained by symbolic interactionism as well as
functionalism. These two theories indicate that families are groups in which participants
view themselves as family members and act accordingly. In other words, families are
groups in which people come together to form a strong primary group connection and
maintain emotional ties to one another over a long period of time. Such families may
include groups of close friends or teammates. In addition, the functionalist perspective
views families as groups that perform vital roles for society—both internally (for the
family itself) and externally (for society as a whole). Families provide for one another’s
physical, emotional, and social well-being. Parents care for and socialize children. Later
in life, adult children often care for elderly parents. While interactionism helps us
understand the subjective experience of belonging to a “family,” functionalism
illuminates the many purposes of families and their roles in the maintenance of a
balanced society

Education
Education - the social institution through which society provides its members with
important knowledge, including basic facts, job skills, and cultural norms and values

Schooling - Formal instruction under the direction of specially trained teachers

Types of education
Formal education describes the learning of academic facts and concepts through a
formal curriculum. Arising from the tutelage of ancient Greek thinkers, centuries of
scholars have examined topics through formalized methods of learning.
Education in earlier times was only available to the higher classes; they had the means
for access to scholarly materials, plus the luxury of leisure time that could be used for
learning. The Industrial Revolution and its accompanying social changes made
education more accessible to the general population. Many families in the emerging
middle class found new opportunities for schooling.

Informal education describes learning about cultural values, norms, and expected
behaviors by participating in a society. This type of learning occurs both through the
formal education system and at home. Our earliest learning experiences generally
happen via parents, relatives, and others in our community. Through informal education,
we learn how to dress for different occasions, how to perform regular life routines like
shopping for and preparing food, and how to keep our bodies clean.

Cultural transmission refers to the way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and
social norms of their culture. Both informal and formal education include cultural
transmission

Function of education (Structural Functionalism)

Socialization
Technologically simple societies look to families to teach skills and values and thus to
transmit a way of life from one generation to the next. As societies gain more complex
technology, they turn to trained teachers to develop and pass on the more specialized
knowledge that adults will need to take their place in the workforce.
Cultural Innovation
Faculty at colleges and universities create culture as well as pass it onto students.
Research in the sciences, the social sciences, the humanities, and the fine arts leads to
discovery and changes in our way of life.

Social Integration
Schooling molds a diverse population into one society sharing norms and values .

Social Placement
Schools identify talent and match instruction to ability. Schooling increases meritocracy
by rewarding talent and hard work regardless of social background and provides a path
to upward social mobility.

Conflict theory - Inequality in education

Social Control
Schooling is a way of controlling people, reinforcing acceptance of
the status quo.

Standardized Testing
There exists a certain bias within the standardized testing which does not envelop the
complete aspects that are required to judge the capability of a child

School Tracking
Despite controversy over standardized tests, most schools in the United States use
them for tracking - assigning students to different types of educational programs, such
as college preparatory classes, general education, and vocational and technical
training. This is thought to create inequality as standardized tests which are already
criticized for their inability to judge a student’s academic skills are used as its basis, also
children belonging to a privileged background score much better than those belonging
to a poor background and thus this leads to mismanagement of the university resources

Inequality among Schools

Just as students are treated differently within schools, schools themselves differ in
important ways. The biggest difference is between public and private schools. Private
schools have more resources and better faculty to cater to the needs of their students
while the public school are dependent on government funding and frequently subjected
to budget cuts that prevents the schools from providing good education.
Religion
Religion is a social institution involving beliefs and practices based on recognizing the
sacred. It is a system of beliefs, values, and practices concerning what a person holds
sacred or considers to be spiritually significant. The word religion is derived from the
Latin word religio (respect for what is sacred) and religare (to bind, in the sense of an
obligation).

Throughout history, and in societies across the world, leaders have used religious
narratives, symbols, and traditions to give more meaning to life and understand the
universe. Some form of religion is found in every known culture, and it is usually
practiced in a public way by a group. The practice of religion can include feasts and
festivals, intercession with God or gods, marriage and funeral services, music and art,
meditation or initiation, sacrifice or service, and other aspects of culture.

Social scientists recognize that religion exists as an organized and integrated set of
beliefs, behaviors, and norms centered on basic social needs and values. Moreover,
religion is culturally universal and found in all social groups. In studying religion,
sociologists distinguish between what they term the experience, beliefs, and rituals of a
religion. Religious experience refers to the conviction or sensation that we are
connected to “the divine.” This type of communion might be experienced when people
pray or meditate. Religious beliefs are specific ideas members of a faith hold to be
true, such as that Jesus Christ was the son of God, or that reincarnation exists. Another
illustration of religious beliefs is the creation stories we find in different religions.
Religious rituals are behaviors or practices that are either required or expected of the
members of a group, such as bar mitzvah or confession of sins

Because religion deals with ideas that transcend everyday experience, neither common
sense nor sociology can prove or disprove religious doctrine. Religion is a matter of
faith which is belief based on conviction rather than on scientific evidence
Sociologists study religion just as they study the family, to understand religious
experiences around the world and how religion is tied to other social institutions.
They make no judgments that a specific religion is right or wrong in terms of ultimate
truth. Rather, scientific sociology takes a more worldly approach, asking why religions
take a particular form in one society or another and how religious activity affects society
as a whole

Functionalism view on religion

Functionalists contend that religion serves multiple functions in society. Religion, in fact,
depends on society for its existence, value, and significance, and vice versa. From this
perspective, religion serves several purposes, like providing answers to spiritual
mysteries, offering emotional comfort, and creating a place for social interaction and
social control. One of the most important functions of religion, from a functionalist
perspective, is the opportunities it creates for social interaction and the formation of
groups. It provides social support and social networking and offers a place to meet
others who hold similar values and a place to seek help (spiritual and material) in times
of need

Conflict Theory
Conflict theorists view religion as an institution that helps maintain patterns of social
inequality. Conflict theorists are critical of the way many religions promote the idea that
believers should be satisfied with existing circumstances because they are divinely
ordained. Conflict theorists also point out that those in power in a religion are often able
to dictate practices, rituals, and beliefs through their interpretation of religious texts or
via proclaimed direct communication from the divine.

Work / Economy
Economy is the social institution that organizes a society’s production, distribution, and
consumption of goods and services. As an institution, the economy operates, for better
or worse, in a generally predictable manner.
Goods are commodities ranging from necessities (food, clothing, shelter) to luxury items
(cars, swimming pools, yachts). Services are activities that benefit others (for example,
the work of priests, physicians, teachers, and computer software specialists) and make
life easier or more interesting. Also, what people produce as workers and what they buy
as consumers are important parts of social identity,

Evolution of the economy

The Agricultural revolution brought the first true economies when people started raising
crops and domesticating animals. This was followed by The Industrial Revolution as
until the end of the eighteenth century, most manufacturing was done by manual labor.
This changed as inventors devised machines to manufacture goods. At the end the
Postindustrial Societies and the Information Age took shape. Postindustrial societies,
also known as information societies, have evolved in modernized nations. One of the
most valuable goods of the modern era is information. Those who have the means to
produce, store, and disseminate information are leaders in this type of society

Sectors of an economy
The primary sector is the part of the economy that draws raw materials from the natural
environment. The primary sector includes agriculture, raising animals, fishing,
forestry, and mining and is more prominent in low-income nations. The secondary
sector is the part of the economy that transforms raw materials into manufactured
goods. This sector grows quickly as societies industrialize. It includes operations such
as refining petroleum into gasoline and turning metals into tools and automobiles. The
tertiary sector is the part of the economy that involves services rather than goods and
includes after sale services. The new information technology is drawing people around
the world closer together and creating a global economy, economic activity that crosses
national borders.
Economic Systems
In the current scenario, two types of economic systems dominate the world economy.
Capitalism is an economic system in which natural resources and the means of
producing goods and services are privately owned. Socialism is an economic system in
which natural resources and the means of producing goods and services are collectively
owned

Politics and Government

Power and Authority
Politics is the social institution that distributes power, sets a society’s goals, and makes
decisions. power, which he defined as the ability to achieve desired ends despite
resistance from others. The use of power is the business of government or authority,
which is a power that people perceive as legitimate rather than coercive. There are
three types of authority, traditional authority, power legitimized by respect for long-
established cultural patterns and rational-legal authority (sometimes called
bureaucratic authority) as power legitimized by legally enacted rules and regulations.
Rational-legal authority is power legitimized in the operation of lawful government.
Charismatic authority is power legitimized by extraordinary personal abilities that
inspire devotion and obedience. Unlike traditional and rational-legal authority,
charismatic authority depends less on a person’s ancestry or office and more on
personality.

Types of Political systems

Monarchy (with Latin and Greek roots meaning “one ruler”) is a political system in
which a single-family rules from generation to generation. Democracy, is
a political system that gives power to the people as a whole. More accurately, because
it would be impossible for all citizens to act as leaders, we have devised a system of
representative democracy that puts authority in the hands of leaders chosen by the
people in elections. Authoritarianism is a political system that denies the people
participation in government. An authoritarian government is indifferent
to people’s needs, offers them no voice in selecting leaders, and uses force in response
to dissent or opposition. Totalitarianism, a highly centralized political system that
extensively regulates people’s lives. Totalitarianism emerged in the twentieth century as
technological advances gave governments the ability to rigidly control their populations.

Functionalist view of politics

According to functionalism, the government has four main purposes: planning and
directing society, meeting social needs, maintaining law and order, and managing
international relations. Per functionalism, all aspects of society serve a purpose and
they view government and politics to enforce norms and regulate conflict.
Health
Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being. Health is not just a
matter of personal choice, nor it is only a biological issue; patterns of well-being and
illness are rooted in the organization of society.

Medical sociology
The systematic study of how humans manage issues of health and illness, disease and
disorders, and healthcare for both the sick and the healthy.
Medical sociologists study the physical, mental, and social components of health and
illness. Major topics for medical sociologists include the doctor/patient relationship, the
structure and socioeconomics of healthcare, and how culture impacts attitudes toward
disease and wellness. Many medical sociologists contend that illnesses have both a
biological and an experiential component, and that these components exist
independently of each other.

Our culture, not our biology, dictates which illnesses are stigmatized and
which are not, which are considered disabilities and which are not, and which are
deemed contestable (meaning some medical professionals may find the existence of
this ailment questionable) as opposed to definitive (illnesses that are unquestionably
recognized in the medical profession)

Social epidemiology
The study of the causes and distribution of diseases. Social epidemiology can reveal
how social problems are connected to the health of different populations. These
epidemiological studies show that the health problems of high-income nations differ
greatly from those of low-income nations

Medicine
It is the social institution that focuses on fighting disease and improving health. Through
most of human history, health care was the responsibility of individuals and their
families. Medicine emerges as a social institution only as societies become more
productive and people take on specialized work. Holistic medicine is an approach to
health care that emphasizes the prevention of illness and considers a person’s
entire physical and social environment

Theoretical Perspective
Structural functionalism states that illness is dysfunctional for society
because it prevents people from carrying out their daily roles, while Conflict Theory
suggests that health is linked to social inequality with rich people having more access
to care than poor people.