(  ) বিগত সালের প্রলের টবিক (  ) সযার যেগুলো িবিলেলেন (   ) বিগত সালের প্রলের টবিক + সযার যেগুলো িবিলেলেন

Chapter - 1
Introduction to Research

Research: Research is the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough stud and anal sis of the
situational factors.

1. Business Research: Business research is defined as the s stematic and objective process of gathering
recording and anal sing data to aid in making business decisions.

8. Research Types: 

- Basic v/s Applied research
- Quantitative v/s Qualitative research
- Descriptive v/s Anal tical
- Conceptual v/s Imperial research
 Basic/Pure Research: basic research, or fundamental research, is a t pe of investigation focused on
improving the understanding of a particular phenomenon, stud or law of nature. This t pe of research
examines data to find the unknown and fulfil a sense of curiosit . Usuall , these involve "how," "what"
and "wh " questions to explain occurrences. Basic research looks at how processes or concepts work.
Information obtained from basic research often creates a foundation for applied studies.
For Example: A stud searching for the causes of cancer, Investigating the causes and effects of inflation
etc.

 Applied Research: Applied research is a t pe of research that attempts to find practical solutions to
existing problems. Distinguishing it from basic research, which primaril seeks to expand theoretical
knowledge, applied research focuses on resolving real-world issues.
For example: a stud searching for wa s to reduce ocean plastic, a stud to explore wa s to reduce
carbon emissions etc

 Quantitativee Research: Quantitative research is the process of collecting and anal zing numerical data.
It addresses the “when” and “where,” utilizing tools like surve s, experiments, and statistical models to
collect and anal ze numerical data.

 Qualitativee Research: Qualitative research involves collecting and anal zing non-numerical data (e.g.,
text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It explores the “how” and “wh ”
of human behavior, using methods like interviews, observations, and content anal sis.

 Descriptivee Research: Descriptive research is a t pe of research where researchers tr to “describe” the

characteristics of the problem, phenomenon, or subject. The researcher studies the details and
background information related to the subject. Therefore, this research t pe deals with the questions of
what, when, and where and tr to find answers to these questions. However, it is important to keep in
 mind that this research t pe does not tr to explore the cause-and-effect relationship of the aspects. So,
this research t pe does not deal with questions of wh and how.
For example: National Census: An official surve that records information about demographics,
emplo ment, and housing. Market Surveys: Businesses gather data about their consumers' preferences
to understand market trends and guide product development.

 Analytical Research: Anal tical research is a specific t pe of research that involves critical thinking skills
and the evaluation of facts and information relative to the research being conducted. A variet of
people including students, doctors and ps chologists use anal tical research during studies to find the
most relevant information.
Example: A medium-sized eCommerce compan wants to improve its sales, so it conducts anal tical
research.

 Conceptual research: Conceptual research is defined as a methodolog wherein research is conducted

b observing and anal zing alread present information on a given topic. Conceptual research doesn’t
involve conducting an practical experiments. It is related to abstract concepts or ideas.

 Imperial research: Empirical research is defined as an research where conclusions of the stud is
strictl drawn from concretel empirical evidence, and therefore “verifiable” evidence.

#Difference between quantitativee and qualitativee research 

Quantitativee Research Qualitativee Research

Quantitative research is a research method that Qualitative

is research is a method of inquir that
used to generate numerical data and hard facts,develops understanding on human and social
b emplo ing statistical, logical and mathematical
sciences, to find the wa people think and feel.
technique.
Particularistic nature Holistic nature

Numerical data is collected Verbal data are collected

Based on random sample Based on purposive sample

Structured Unstructured

Large sample size to draw conclusions about theLimited sample size, t picall not representative
population
High, results applicable to a larger population Limited, onl context-dependent findings

3 .Research Process/steps/stages: 

i. Define the problem
ii. Planning a research design
 iii. Planning a sample
iv. Gathering the data
v. Anal sing the data
vi. Formulating conclusion
vii. Define the new problem
viii. and so, on

31. How the business research stage can be used in each decision-making process.
 Identifying Problems or Opportunities: Business research helps recognize whether a
business faces a problem or has an opportunity to pursue. For example, a firm may use
research to determine declining customer satisfaction or discover new markets to enter.
 Diagnosing and Assessing Problems or Opportunities: Once a problem or opportunity is
identified, research helps clarify the factors involved. For instance, research may reveal
that declining customer satisfaction is due to poor customer service rather than product
quality.
 Selecting and Implementing a Course of Action: Business research provides managers
with data to evaluate various courses of action. For example, if a company is considering
two marketing strategies, research can provide evidence on which is more likely to
succeed.
 Evaluating the Course of Action: After implementing a decision, business research helps
evaluate its success. For example, a company can assess whether changes in the
customer service strategy resulted in improved customer satisfaction

5. Scientific Research: Scientific Research focuses on solving problems by following a logical, organized, and
rigorous method to identify the problems, gather data, analyze that data, and draw valid conclusions from it.
Decisions based on scientific research are purposive, rigorous, and effective. Scientific Research applies to both
basic and applied research.

Characteristics of Scientific Research

 Logical and Systematic: Follows an organized process with clear steps.
 Objective: Free from bias; focused on factual data.
 Replicable: Results should be consistent if the study is repeated.
 Empirical: Based on observation and experimentation.
 Cumulative: Builds on previous research and knowledge.

#The hallmarks of scientific research/Features/characteristic 

i. Purposiveness: Research should have a definite aim or purpose.
ii. Rigor: A good theoretical base and sound methodological design give rigor to the research. Rigor
indicates carefulness and degree of exactitude in research.
iii. Testability: Scientific research lend itself to testing logicall developed h pothesis to see whether
or not data support the educated conjecture or h pothesis.
 ive. Reliability: The results of the test of h pothesis should be supported again and again when same
t pe of research is conducted in other similar circumstances.
ve. Precision and Confidence: Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to realit based on a
sample. Precision reflects the degree of exactness and accurac of the results on the basis of
samples. Also known as confidence interval in statistics. Confidence refers to the probabilit that
our estimation are correct so that we can confidentl claim that 95% of the time our results will be
true and there is onl 5% chance of our results being false.
vei. Objectiveity: The conclusion drawn through the interpretation of the results of data anal sis should
be objective that is, the should be based on facts of the findings derived from actual data and not
on our own subjective or emotional values.
veii. Generalizability: It refers to the scope of replicabilit of the research findings in one organizational
settings. to others, the wider the range of replicabilit of the solution generated b the research
the more useful the research is to the user.
veiii. Parsimony: Simplicit in explaining the phenomenon or problem that occur in generating the
solutions of the problem is preferred as compared to complex research frame work.

6. What makes people undertake research? 

This is a question of fundamental importance. The possible motives for doing research ma be either one or
more of the following:
i. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits
ii. Desire to face the challenge of solving the unsolved problems
iii. Desire to get the intellectual jo of doing some creative work
iv. Desire to be of service to societ
v. Desire to get respectabilit

7. When is Business Research Needed? 

The determination of the need for research centers on:
i. Time constraints
ii. The availabilit of data
iii. The nature of the decision to be made
iv. Benefits versus costs (the value of the research information in relation to costs)
32. What is managerial research
Managerial research involves the application of s stematic and objective investigations to aid in the decision-making
process for managers. It is designed to reduce uncertaint b suppl ing accurate information about a compan 's
environment, emplo ees, customers, competitors, or econom .

The goal of managerial research is to provide information that supports managers in making
decisions, addressing issues such as identifying business problems, assessing potential
opportunities, or selecting and implementing strategies. This helps managers shift from
intuitive decision-making to evidence-based decision-making, improving the likelihood of
successful outcomes

9. Managerial vealue of business research: 

The prime managerial value of business research is that it reduces uncertaint b providing information that
improves the decision-making process. The decision-making process associated with the development and
implementation of a strateg involves 4 stages.
i. Identif ing problems or opportunities
ii. Diagnosing and assessing problems and opportunities
iii. Selecting and implementing a course of actions
iv. Evaluating the course of actions
 Chapter – 2
Research Process and Design

4. Problem definition: 
research problem is a question or matter involving doubt, uncertaint , or difficult that is proposed for solution
or discussion Ke aspects of a research problem. or A situation or circumstance that requires a solution to be
described, explained, or predicted.

10. The process of problem definition/Identification/Define the problem: 

 Ascertain the decision maker's objectives
 Understand the background of the problem
 Identif the problem rather than its s mptoms
 Determine the unit of anal sis
 Determine relevant variables
 State research questions and objectives

12. Importance of proper problems Definition: 

 A problem well-defined is half-solved
 The right answer to the wrong question ma be absolutel worthless.
 Problem definition is the indication of a specific business decision area that will be clarified b
answering research questions
 problem definition ensures that the research results will meet the decision-makers ' objectives

23. Definition of research proposal 

A research proposal is a document written b a researcher that provides a detailed description of the
proposed program. It is like an outline of the entire research process that gives a reader a summar of the
information discussed in a project.

#Importance of the research proposal 

 Helps examine What the research intends to do.
 proposal can serve as a document of contract for the project.
 Research proposal can be effective starting place to discuss projects with our professors, too.
 The research proposal is able to give an overview of the research project so that other people
understand the scope of the research, the significance of the research, as well as our proposed
methodolog and chosen research method.
#Elements of a Research Proposal: Here are some basic elements;

1. Problem or Objective
 What exactl do ou want to stud ?
 Wh is it worth stud ing?
 Does the proposed stud have practical significant?
 Does it contribute to the construction of social theories?

2. Literature Review
 What have others said about this topic?
 What theories address it and what do the sa ?
 What research has been done previousl ?
 Are there consistent findings, or do post studies disagree?
 Are there flaws in the bod of existing research that ou feel ou can remed ?

3. Subject for Stud

Whom or what will ou stud in order to collect data? First identif the subjects in general, theoretical terms,
then in specific, more concrete terms, identif who is available for stud and how ou will reach them.
 Will it be appropriate to select a sample?
 If so, how will ou do that?
 If there is an possibilit that our research will affect those ou stud , how will ou insure that the
research does not harm them?

4. Measurement
 What are the ke variables in our stud ?
 How will ou define and measure them?
 Do our definitions and measurement methods duplicate or differ from those of previous research on
these topics?
 If ou have alread developed our measurement device (a questionnaire, for example) or will be
using something previousl developed b others, it might be appropriate to include a cop in an
appendix to our proposal.
5. Data Collection Methods

 How will ou actuall collect the data for our stud ?

 Will ou conduct an experiment or a surve ?
 Will ou undertake field research or will ou focus on the reanai sis of statistics alread created
b others? Perhaps ou will use more than one method
6. Anal sis:Indicate the kind of anal sis ou plan to conduct spell out (explain) the purpose and logic of
our anal sis. Are ou interested in precise description?
7. Schedule: It is often appropriate to provide a schedule for the various stages of research. Even if ou
don't do this for the proposal, do it for ourself. Unless ou have a time line for accomplishing the
several stages of research and keeping in touch with how ou are doing, ou ma end up in trouble.
 8. Budget: When ou ask someone to cover the costs of our research, ou need to provide a budget
that specifies where the mone will go. So, it would be a good idea to prepare a research proposal for
research or own purpose, even if researchers were not required to do so b the instructor or a funding a
funding agenc in a project, to insure a return on that investment.

#Basic differences between a research proposal and research design:

A research proposal provides a preview of wh a stud will be undertaken and how it wil be undertaken
and how it will be conducted. A research project is often required to ge permission or necessar
resources. Even when not required a proposal is a useful devic for planning.Research design starts with
an initial interest, idea, or theoretical expectation an proceeds through a series of interrelated steps to
narrow the focus of the stud so th concepts, methods and procedures are well defined. A good
research plan accounts for these steps in advance.

#Characteristics of a Successful Research Proposal 

 Is innovative
 Includes specific aims
 Includes preliminar data
 Describes approach
 Indicates the significance of the proposal with regard to the specific award and conve s
its impact on science and our personal growth.

24. Component of Research Proposal

A research proposal must contain ke components to make it successful. These main ke components include;
 Title — The title should be unique and must capture the ke concepts of the stud . It explains what the
project is about.
 Abstract — The abstract summarizes the project's significance, h pothesis, objectives, procedures, and
implications
 Table of contents — The table of contents lists the main content, including the headings, sub-
headings, page numbers, chapters, and references.
 Literature reveiew — This component highlights relevant literature on the topic area, including the
contributing authors.
 Method — This section outlines the researcher's approach to the research.
 Discussion — Here, the researcher explores the underl ing significance of the research and its possible
implications.
 Budget — This section outlines the estimated project costs.

33. What is a Research Design? 

A research design is defined as the overall plan or structure that guides the process of conducting research. It
is a critical component of the research process and serves as a blueprint for how a stud will be carried out,
including the methods and techniques that will be used to collect and anal ze data. A well-designed research
stud is essential for ensuring that the research objectives are met and that the results are valid and reliable.

#What Is a Theoretical Framework? 

A theoretical framework is a foundational review of existing theories that serves as a roadmap for developing
the arguments ou will use in our own work.
Theories are developed b researchers to explain phenomena, draw connections, and make predictions. In a
theoretical framework, ou explain the existing theories that support our research, showing that our paper
or dissertation topic is relevant and grounded in established ideas.
In other words, our theoretical framework justifies and contextualizes our later research, and it’s a crucial
first step for our research paper, thesis, or dissertation. A well-rounded theoretical framework sets ou up
for success later on in our research and writing process.

#Fivee Basic Features of a Theoretical Framework 

 The variables considered relevant to the stud should be clearl identified and labelled in the
discussions.
 The discussions should state how two or more variables are related to one another.
 If the nature and direction of the relationship can be theorized on the basis of the findings from
previous research,
then there should be an indication in the discussion as to whether the relationship would be positive or
negative.
 There should be a clear explanation of wh we would expect this relationship to exist.
 A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be given so the reader can see and easil
comprehend the theorized relationship.

11. What is a veariable? 

A variable is an kind of attribute or characteristic that ou are tr ing to measure, manipulate and control in
statistics and research. All studies anal ze a variable, which can describe a person, place, thing or idea. A
variable's value can change between groups or over time.

For example, if the variable in an experiment is a person's e e colour, its value can change from brown to blue
to green from person to person.

#types of veariables: 
 Independent veariables: A variable that stands alone and isn't Definition changed b other variables or
factors that are measured. Example, Age: Other variables such as where someone lives, what the eat
or how much the exercise are not going to change their age.
  Dependent veariables: A variable that relies on and can be changed b other factors that are measured.
Example, A grade someone gets on an exam depends on factors such as how much sleep the got and
how long the studied.
 Quantitativee veariables: Quantitative variables are an variables where the data represent amounts
(e.g. height, weight, or age).
 Qualitativee veariables: Qualitative/Categorical variables are an variables where the data represent
groups. This includes rankings (e.g. finishing places in a race), classifications (e.g. brands of cereal), and
binar outcomes (e.g. coin flips).
 Interveening veariables: A theoretical variable used to explain a cause or connection between other
stud variables.
Example, Access to health care: If wealth is the independent variable, and a long life span is a
dependent variable, researcher might h pothesize that access to qualit health care is the intervening
variable that links wealth and life span.
 Moderating veariables: A variable that changes the relationship between dependent and independent
variables b strengthening or weakening the intervening variable's effect. Example, Age: In a stud
looking at the relationship between economic status (independent variable) and how frequentl
people get ph sical exams from a doctor (dependent variable), age is a moderating variable. That
relationship might be weaker in ounger individuals and stronger in older individuals.
 Extraneous veariables: Factors that affect the dependent variable but that the researcher did not
originall consider when designing the experiment. Example, Parental support, prior knowledge of a
foreign language or socioeconomic status are extraneous variables that could influence a stud
assessing whether private tutoring or online courses are more effective at improving students' Spanish
test scores.
 Confounding veariables: Extra variables that the researcher did not account for that can disguise
another variable's effects and show false correlations. Example, In a stud of whether a particular
genre of movie affects how much cand kids eat, with experiments are held at 9 a.m., noon and 3 p.m.
Time could be a confounding variable, as the group in the noon stud might be hungrier and therefore
eat more cand because lunchtime is t picall at noon.
 Control veariables: Characteristics that are constant and do not change during a stud .
Example, In an experiment about plant development, control variables might include the amounts of
fertilizer and water each plant gets. These amounts are alwa s the same so that the do not affect the
plants' growth.
 Composite veariables: Two or more variables combined to make a more complex variable. Example,
Overall health is an example of a composite variable if a researcher uses other variables, such as
genetics, medical care, education, qualit of environment and chosen behaviors, to determine overall
health in an experiment.

26. Hypothesis: H pothesis is considered as an intelligent guess or prediction, that gives directional to the
researcher to answer the research question. A h pothesis is a specific idea that ou can test in a stud . It often
comes from looking at past research and theories. A good h pothesis usuall starts with a research question
that ou can explore through background research.
For example: Increasing apple consumption will result in decreasing frequenc of doctor’s visits.

25. Hypothesis test

 Hypothesis testing is a formal process of making decisions about populations based on sample
data. It involves comparing an observed sample statistic to a pre-specified benchmark (such as
a population mean or proportion). The process typically follows these steps:

1. State the Hypotheses: This includes the null h pothesis (H₀), which represents no effect
or no difference, and the alternative h pothesis (H₁), which represents the researcher's
prediction of an effect or difference.
o Example: A company may hypothesize that the average customer satisfaction
score is greater than 3.5. Here, the null h pothesis (H₀) would be that the
satisfaction score equals 3.5, while the alternative h pothesis (H₁) would suggest
that it is greater than 3.5.
2. Set the Significance Leveel (α): The significance level is typically set at 0.05 (or 5%), which
represents the probability of committing a Type I error, i.e., rejecting the null hypothesis
when it is true.
3. Collect and Summarize the Data: The researcher collects sample data and calculates the
relevant sample statistic (e.g., sample mean or proportion).
4. Compute the Test Statistic: This could be a Z-score, t-score, or χ² statistic depending on
the data and the hypothesis being tested. The test statistic helps determine how far the
sample statistic is from the h pothesized population parameter under H₀.
5. Make a Decision: The p-value associated with the test statistic is compared to the
significance level (α). If the p-value is less than α, the null h pothesis is rejected in favor
of the alternative hypothesis.
6. Conclusion: Based on the p-value and the comparison, the hypothesis is either
supported or rejected.

30. Explain the following hypothesis with an example

a) If-Then Statement Hypothesis:

An if-then hypothesis is a form of a conditional statement used in research to propose a

specific relationship between two variables. It is typically framed as "If X happens, then Y will
occur."

Example:

 "If the customer service quality improves, then customer satisfaction will increase." In
this case, the researcher predicts a cause-and-effect relationship between customer
service quality and satisfaction

b) Directional and Non-Directional Hypotheses:

 Directional Hypothesis: This predicts the direction of the expected relationship or

difference between variables. It states whether the effect will be positive or negative.

Example:

o "Higher advertising expenditure will increase sales." This hypothesis predicts a

specific direction: sales will increase with more advertising.
  Non-Directional Hypothesis: This predicts a relationship between variables but does not
specify the direction.

Example:

o "There is a relationship between advertising expenditure and sales." This

hypothesis suggests that advertising and sales are related but does not specify
whether sales will increase or decrease

c) Null and Alternative Hypothesis:

 Null Hypothesis (H₀): This is a statement that assumes no effect or no difference in the
population. It is the hypothesis that researchers try to disprove.

Example:

o "The average customer satisfaction score is equal to 4." (H₀: μ = 4)

 Alternativee Hypothesis (H₁): This is the hypothesis that suggests a significant effect or
difference exists and is what researchers aim to support.

Example:

o "The average customer satisfaction score is not equal to 4." (H₁: μ ≠ 4)

In hypothesis testing, if evidence from the data strongly suggests that the null hypothesis is
false, the researcher rejects the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative

#Impact of Variable?

The impact of a variable refers to how one variable affects or influences another in a study or
experiment. It helps researchers understand relationships and patterns.

 For example, if you're studying how exercise (independent variable) affects weight loss
(dependent variable), the impact of the exercise is how much it contributes to weight
loss.

By analyzing the impact, we can see if changes in one variable cause changes in another, how
strong that relationship is, and whether other factors influence the outcome.

27. Types of hypothesis: 

 Simple hypothesis: A simple h pothesis predicts the relationship between a single dependent variable
and a single independent variable. Example: Exercising in the morning ever da will increase our
productivit .
  Complex Hypothesis: A complex h pothesis predicts the relationship between two or more
independent and dependent variables. Example: Spending three hours or more on social media dail
will negativel affect children’s mental health and productivit , more than that of adults.
 Null Hypothesis: It states that there is no relationship between the two variables under research. No
changes in the dependent variable due to the changes in independent variable. It is denoted b Ho.
Example: There is no relationship between sugar intake and obesit .
 Alternativee: States the opposite of the null h pothesis, that is, a relationship exists between two
variables.
Example: Sleep duration affects productivit .
 Directional Hypothesis: The directional h pothesis predicts the direction of the relationship between
independent and dependent variables. The specif whether the effect will be positive or negative. If
ou increase our stud hours, ou will experience a positive association with our exam scores. This
h pothesis suggests that as ou increase the independent variable (stud hours), there will also be an
increase in the dependent variable (exam scores).
 Non-directional: The non-directional h pothesis predicts the existence of a relationship between
variables but does not specif the direction of the effect. It suggests that there will be a significant
difference or relationship, but it does not predict the nature of that difference. For example, ou will
find no notable difference in test scores between students who receive the educational intervention
and those who do not. However, once ou compare the test scores of the two groups, ou will notice
an important difference.

29. To deveelop a hypothesis from research questions, follow these steps:

 Identif the Research Question: Start with a clear, focused research question. Example: "Does exercise
improve mental health?"
 Specif the Variables: Break down the research question into variables (e.g., "exercise" as the
independent variable and "mental health" as the dependent variable).
 Formulate the Relationship: Based on our understanding of the topic, propose a possible relationship
between the variables. Example: "Exercise positivel affects mental health."
 Turn the Question into a Statement: Convert the research question into a predictive statement. This
forms our h pothesis. Example: "Regular exercise improves mental health among adults."
 Make it Testable: Ensure the h pothesis can be tested through research methods, like experiments or
surve s. In summar , the research question la s the groundwork, and the h pothesis is a logical,
testable statement predicting the outcome.

28. What is the relationship between the hypothesis and research questions? 
H potheses and research questions are closel related in the research process. A h pothesis is a proposed
answer to a research question and serves as a logical construct that guides the investigator's thinking about
the problem. It provides direction and facilitates a solution to the problem at hand. Research questions are
similar to h potheses but are in question format. The explore the relationships between variables and can be
categorized into difference, associational, and descriptive questions. Both h potheses and research questions
aim to establish relationships between variables and provide a direction for the research. H potheses are
formulated using deductive reasoning and are tested to verif their validit . Research questions, on the other
hand, can be developed through deduction, induction, or abduction. Ultimatel , both h potheses and
research questions pla a crucial role in guiding the research process and informing the stud 's findings and
conclusions.
34. Why pre-testing is important in the research process and what is pre-testing?
Pre-testing is a crucial step in the research process. It involves conducting a trial run of a survey or
questionnaire with a small group of respondents to detect any issues before the actual survey is administered.
The aim is to uncover any potential problems such as unclear questions, poor design, or issues with instructions
that could cause misunderstandings or lead to inaccurate responses.

Why is pre-testing important? Pre-testing helps researchers:

1. Ensure that respondents can easily understand and answer the questions.
2. Identify and fix any unclear wording or ambiguous questions.
3. Evaluate the flow and logic of the questionnaire.
4. Prevent respondent fatigue by determining where people tend to stop answering.
5. Refine the questionnaire to make sure it meets the research objectives.

This step can save time and resources by preventing major errors during the full-scale
survey and improving the accuracy of the data collected

Chapter – 3
Sampling Design

#
Population (or target population): entire group of people, events or-things of interest that the researcher
wishes to investigate.
Element: a single member of the population.
Sampling Frame: a listing of all the elements in the population from which the sample is drawn.
Sample: a subset of the population.
Subject: a single member of the sample.
Sampling: The process of using a small number of items or parts of a larger population to make a conclusion
about the whole population.

14. Sampling Process: 

 Define the population.
 Determine the sample frame.
 Select a sampling technique.
 Determine the sample size.
 Execute the sampling process.

15. Types of Sampling: 

a. Probability sampling: Probabilit sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher selects a few criteria
and chooses members of a population randoml . All the members have an equal opportunit to participate in
the sample with this selection parameter.
b. Non-probability sampling: In non-probabilit sampling, the researcher randoml chooses members for
research. This sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process. This makes it difficult for all
population elements to have equal opportunities to be included in a sample.

Types of Probability sampling: 

i) Simple random sampling: One of the best probabilit sampling techniques that helps in saving time
and resources is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a reliable method of obtaining information
where ever single member of a population is chosen randoml , merel b chance. Each individual has
the same probabilit of being chosen to be a part of a sample.
For example, in an organization of 500 emplo ees, if the HR team decides on conducting team-building
activities, the would likel prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each of the 500 emplo ees
has an equal opportunit of being selected.
ii) Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire population
into sections or clusters (group) representing a population. Clusters are identified and included in a
sample based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. This makes it ver simple for a
surve creator to derive effective inferences from the feedback.
For example, suppose the United States government wishes to evaluate the number of immigrants
living in the Mainland US. In that case, the can divide it into clusters based on states such as
California, Texas, Florida, Massachusetts, Colorado, Hawaii, etc. This wa of conducting a surve will be
more effective as the results will be organized into states and provide insightful immigration data.
iii) Systematic sampling: Researchers use the s stematic sampling method to choose the sample
members of a population at regular intervals. It requires selecting a starting point for the sample and
sample size determination that can be repeated at regular intervals. This t pe of sampling method has
a predefined range; hence, this sampling technique is the least time-consuming.
For example, a researcher intends to collect a s stematic sample of 500 people in a population of
5000. He/she numbers each element of the population from 1-5000 and will choose ever 10th
individual to be a part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).
iv) Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the researcher divides
the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While
sampling, these groups can be organized, and then draw a sample from each group separatel .
For example, a researcher looking to anal ze the characteristics of people belonging to different
annual income divisions will create strata (groups) according to the annual famil income. Eg – less
than $20,000, $21,000 – $30,000, $31,000 to $40,000, $41,000 to $50,000, etc. B doing this, the
researcher concludes the characteristics of people belonging to different income groups. Marketers
can anal ze which income groups to target and which ones to eliminate to create a roadmap that
would bear fruitful results.

Types of non-probability sampling: 

i) Conveenience sampling: Convenience sampling is defined as a method adopted b researchers where
the collect market research data from a convenientl available pool of respondents. Convenience
sampling, also known as grab, accidental, or opportunit sampling, is a t pe of non-probabilit
sampling in which researchers choose participants solel on convenience. The user gathers samples
from people in their proximit (convenientl available respondents)—at work, school, neighbourhood,
 or g m, for example—and whether the sample is representative of a specific population is not a
consideration.
ii) Purposivee sampling: Purposive sampling is a technique used in qualitative research to select a specific
group of individuals or units for anal sis. Participants are chosen “on purpose,” not randoml . It is also
known as judgmental sampling or selective sampling.
iii) Quota sampling: A quota refers to a specific requirement or categor . Quota sampling is a non-
probabilit sampling method where researchers establish quotas for various demographic groups
within a population and then sample individuals from each quota until the desired sample size is
achieved.
For example, if 60% of the target population is female and 40% male based on census data, the
sampling quotas would mirror that gender ratio of 60/40.
iv) Snowball sampling Snowball sampling is a recruitment technique in which research participants are
asked to assist researchers in identif ing other potential subjects.
For example, researchers ma use snowball sampling to stud homeless populations.

What are Sampling Errors? 

Sampling errors are statistical errors that arise when a sample does not represent the whole population. The
are the difference between the real values of the population and the values derived b using samples from the
population.
Sampling errors occur when numerical parameters of an entire population are derived from a sample of the
entire population. Since the whole population is not included in the sample, the parameters derived from the
sample differ from those of the actual population.
The ma create distortions in the results, leading users to draw incorrect conclusions. When anal sts do not
select samples that represent the entire population, the sampling errors are significant

Chapter – 5
Data Collection Method

#Data collection is the process of gathering information about the relevant topic of research which is being
done b researcher collection. The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined
and the research design chalked out.
In collecting the data, the researcher must decide
 Which data to collect?
 How to collect the data?
 Who will collect the data?
 When to collect the data?

#Types of data collection: 

i) Primary Data: Those which are collect a fresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in
character. It is originall collected. There are several methods of collecting primar data, particularl in
surve s and descriptive researches. In descriptive research, we obtain primar data either through
 observation or through direct communication with respondents in one form or another or through
personal interviews.
ii) Secondary data: The data have been alread been collected b someone else and which through the
statistical process. These are data which have alread been collected and anal zed b someone else.
Secondar data ma either be published or unpublished data. Researcher must be ver careful in using
secondar data, because the data available ma be sometimes unsuitable.

#Methods of data collection:

1. Experiment
2. Surve
3. Observation method
4. Interview Method
5. Questionnaires
6. Schedules

#Observeation Method:
It is a method under which data from the field is collected with the help of observation b the observer or b
personall going to the field.

Classifications of Observeation Method

i) Structured Observeation: When observation done b characterizing st le of recording the observed
information, standardized- conditions of observation, definition of the units to be observed selection
of pertinent data of observation then it is structured observation.
ii) Unstructured Observeation: When observation is done without an thought before observation then it
is unstructured Observation.
iii) Participant Observeation: When the observer is member of the group which he is observing then it is
participant observation. In this method researcher can record natural behaviour of group. Researcher
can verif the truth statements given b informants in the context of questionnaire.
ive) Non-participant observeation: When observer is observing people without giving an information to
them. Then, it is non-participant observation.
ve) Controlled Observeation: When the observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans,
with experimental procedure. Then, it is controlled observation. Generall done in laborator under
controlled condition
vi) Uncontrolled Observeation: When the observation takes place in natural condition. Then it is
uncontrolled observation. It is done spontaneous picture of life & persons.

Adveantages
 No bias information.
 Researcher get current information.
 Independent of respondent’s variable.
 The original data can be collected at the time of occurrence of the client.
Disadveantage
  It is expensive method
 It is time consuming method
 Limited information
 Extensive training is needed
 It is ver difficult to gather information on i) opinion ii) inventions

#Interveiew Method:
This method of collecting data involves presentation or oral-verbal stimuli and repl in terms of oral-verbal
responses. It is method oral-verbal communication. Where interviewer asks questions to respondents. (Which
aimed to get information required for stud .)

#Classifications of Interveiew Method

i) Structural Interveiews: In this case, a set of pre-decided questions are there.
ii) Unstructured Interveiew: In this case, we don't follow a s stem of pre- determined questions
iii) Focussed Interveiew: Attention is focused on the given experience of the respondent and its possible
effects
ive) Clinical Interveiews: Concerned with broad underl ing feelings or motivations or with the course of an
individual’s life experience.
ve) Group Interveiew: A group of 6 to 8 individuals is interviewed
vi) Indiveidual Interveiew: Interviewer meets a single person and interviews him. In this t pe face to face
contact the person
vii) Qualitativee and Quantitativee Interveiew: This interview divided on the basis of subject matter i. e.
whether qualitative or quantitative
veiii) Selection Interveiew: Done for selection of people for certain jobs.

Adveantages
 More information is greater depth can be obtained.
 Resistance ma be overcome b a skilled interviewer
 Personal Information can be obtained

Disadveantage
 It is expensive method
 Interviewer bias
 Respondent Bias
 Time consuming
 S stematic errors ma be occurred.

16. Questionnaire Method 

A questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set of questions or other t pes of prompts that
aims to collect information from a respondent. Questionnaire is a set of standard questions for gathering
related information from a group of individual.

19. Classifications/Forms/Types of questions: 

i) Open-ended: Open-ended questions begin with “wh ,” “how,” or “what” and require the
respondent to provide more than a single-word answer. Example, what are some wa s we can
improve? (ask customer).
ii) Close-ended: close-ended questions that onl need a simple “ es” or “no” to answer the
question. Example, Are ou feeling better toda ? – Yes/No.
iii) Positiveely and negativeely worded: There has been a strong academic advocate for the use of
both positivel and negativel worded questions in surve s as best practice, and these are the
arguments and assumptions behind such a practice. For instance, to find out if a resource
website is useful for emplo ees in their da -to-da activities.
Positivel worded: The website is eas to use.
Negativel worded: It is difficult to find what I need on this website.
iv) Double-barreled: A double-barreled question, also known as a double-direct or compound
question, is a question that asks about more than one topic but onl allows for a single answer.
Double-barreled questions are eas to identif because the t picall include words like “and” or
“or” to connect the series of questions.
For example, consider the questions: “Are ou hungr or thirst ?” and “Do ou want coffee and
breakfast?”. Both are double-barreled questions that ask our opinion about multiple things.
The ma require two or more answers to respond with how ou reall feel or what ou reall
want.
v) Ambiguous question: A question that is not clearl stated or defined is called ambiguous
question, Sometime the language of the question is not onl double-barreled but also
ambiguous. For that the respondents become confused what will be his answer.
vi) Recall-dependent question: A question which ma require respondents to recall past experience
that are unclear in their memor is called recall-dependent question. For example- If a person,
who has completed honors 3rd ear, is asked to state when he first went to the high school, he
ma not be able to give the correct answer.
vii) Lending question: Questions should not be expressed in such a wa that led the respondent to
give responses that the researcher would like or want them to give. For example- a question is,
"Do ou think that the students' politics of Bangladesh should be banned? Here the respondent
is forced in a wa to sa 'YES'. But this matter can be asked in bellow wa - "To what extent do
ou think that the students' politics of Bangladesh should be banned?"
viii) Loaded question: A question which is asked to the respondents in an emotionall charged
manner is called loaded question. An example of such loaded question is 'To what extent do ou
think the price rate of dail necessar goods is high, if the political part decides to go on hartal
or strike?
ix) Social desirable question: A question which is asked to the respondents to find out sociall
desirable responses is called sociall desirable question. For example- 'Do ou think wine should
be available in ever grocer shops?"
 In these cases, the respondents ma show negative attitudes or ma become anno ed, because
the question is against the social value as a Muslim countr .

#Essential of Good Questionnaire 

 Should be followed short and simple Follow a sequence of questions from eas to difficult
one
 Technical terms should be avoided
 Should provide adequate space for answer in questionnaire
 Directions regarding the filling of questionnaire
 should be given ph sical appearance- qualit of paper Sequence must be clear

Adveantage
 Free from interviewer bias
 Respondents have adequate time to think through the answers.
 Low cost-even when the universe is large and is widespread.
 Respondents who are not easil approachable, can be reached convenientl .
 Large samples can be used.
Disadveantage

 Time consuming
 The respondents need to be educated and
 Co-operative
 This method is slow
 Possibilities of unclear replies

#Questionnaire Designing Process: 

1. Specif the Information Needed
2. Specif the T pe of Interviewing Method
3. Determine the Content of Individual Questions
4. Design the Question to Overcome the Respondent's Inabilit and Unwillingness to
Answer
5. Decide the Question Structure
6. Determine the Question Wording
7. Arrange the Questions in Proper Order
8. Identif the Form and La out
9. Reproduce the Questionnaire
10. Eliminate Bugs b Pre-testing

18. Pre-test/Pilot-test the Questionnaire 

Test a questionnaire with a small number of interviews before conducting our main interviews
 Surve on the same kinds of people ou will include in the main stud .
  Test run helps reveal unanticipated problems
 It can help see if the interviewees are understanding our questions and giving useful answers.

20. How could you diminish the bugs of the questionnaire?

 Pretesting: Testing the questionnaire on a small sample before full deployment helps
identify unclear or ambiguous questions and improves the overall design.
 Clear Question Design: Ensure that questions are simple, precise, and free from bias.
Avoid complex or double-barreled questions (questions asking about two things at
once).
 Proper Sequencing: Arrange questions logically, starting with less sensitive ones to build
rapport. Sensitive or demographic questions should be placed toward the end.
 Avoid Assumptions: Do not assume that respondents know certain facts or have certain
opinions. Instead, use filter questions to assess whether the respondent is
knowledgeable on the subject.
 Memory-Friendly: Reduce the cognitive load by avoiding questions that rely on long-
term memory. Instead, focus on recent events if necessary.
 Error Trapping: Use error-trapping techniques in digital surveys, such as forcing
responses to required questions or displaying warnings when responses are missing or
invalid.
 Layout and Navigation: Ensure a user-friendly layout and provide easy navigation
options for online surveys, such as scroll bars or a "next" button.

21 . Questionnaire guideline 3 must be focused

 Simple language question
 Avoid loaded question
 Avoid ambiguous question

35. How double a barrale questionnaire differ from an ambiguous questionnaire?

A double-barreled questionnaire is one that asks two or more questions in a single question,
often leading to confusion or ambiguous responses. On the other hand, an ambiguous
questionnaire is one that contains questions with unclear or vague language, making it difficult
for respondents to provide accurate answers.
In simple words, a double-barreled questionnaire has multiple questions within a single
question, while an ambiguous questionnaire has questions that are not clear or precise. Both
types of questionnaires can lead to inaccurate or misleading data.

Chapter – 7
Report Writing
#A research report is a condensed form of a brief description of research work done b the researcher. It is a
reliable source to recount details about conducted research.

#Literature reveiew 
Review of literature is one of the most important steps in the research process. It is an account of what is
alread known about a particular phenomenon. The main purpose of literature review is to conve to the
readers about the work alread done & the knowledge & ideas that have been alread established on a
particular topic of research.

#Importance of literature reveiew 

 Identification of a research problem & development or refinement of research questions.
 Generation of useful research questions or projects/activities for the discipline.
 Orientation to what is known & not known about an area of inquir to ascertain what research can
best contribute to knowledge.
 Determination of an gaps or inconsistencies in a bod of knowledge.
 Discover of unanswered questions about subjects, concepts or problems.
 Determination of a need to replicate a prior stud in different stud settings or different samples
or size or different stud populations.
 Identification of relevant theoretical or conceptual framework for research problems.
 Identification or development of new or refined clinical interventions to test through empirical
research.
 Description of the strengths & weaknesses of design/methods of inquir & instruments used in
earlier research work.
 Development of h pothesis to be tested in a research stud .
 Helps in planning the methodolog of the present research stud .
 It also helps in development of research instruments.
 Identification of suitable design & data collection methods for a research stud .

#The purpose of a literature

 The purpose of a literature review is to conve to the reader previous knowledge & facts
established on a topic, & their strength & weakness.
 The literature review allows the reader to be updated with the state of research in a field & an
contradictions that ma exist with challenges findings of other research studies.
 It helps to develop research investigative tools & to improve research methodologies.
 It also provides the knowledge about the problems faced b the previous researchers' while
stud ing same topic.
 Place each in the context of its contribution to the understanding of subject under review.
 Describe the relationship of each stud to other research studies under consideration.
 Identif new wa s to interpret & shed light on an gaps in previous research.
 Resolve conflicts amongst seemingl contradictor previous studies.
 Identif areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
  Point a wa forward for further research.
 See what has & has not been investigated.
 Develop general explanation for observed variations in a behaviour or phenomenon.
 Identif potential relationship between concepts & to identif researchable h pothesis.
 Learn how others have defined & measured ke concepts.
 Identif data sources that other researchers have used.
 Develop alternative research projects.
 Discover how a research project is related to the work of others.
 Place one's original work (in case of thesis or dissertation) context of the existing literature.

#Why is literature reveiew important in research? 

A literature review is important in research for several reasons. Firstl , it helps to establish familiarit with and
understanding of current research in a particular field, allowing researchers to identif gaps and propose future
research agendas. Secondl , it aids in the identification of practical and theoretical problems, helping
researchers to formulate specific research purposes, questions, or h potheses. Additionall , a literature review
can s nthesize research findings, inform polic and practice, and contribute to the development of conceptual
models. It also serves as a foundational aspect of a well-grounded thesis or dissertation, establishing credibilit
and the need for grant applications. Furthermore, a literature review demonstrates a student's abilit to
summarize and s nthesize previous research, showcasing their grasp of available knowledge and benefiting
their learning process. Overall, a literature review is crucial in research as it provides a comprehensive
understanding of the existing literature, identifies gaps, and informs future research directions.