Notes From Mr Muusha P

What is heritage?
-Heritage is the full range of our inherited traditions, monuments, objects, and culture.

- Most important, it is the range of contemporary activities, meanings, and behaviours that we draw
from them.
SOCIALISATION IN THE HOME
What is socialisation?
- Firstly, socialisation is the term used for the process by which individuals learn and perform behaviour
expected of them by society.
-Socialisation can also be defined as the process by which individuals acquire the knowledge, language,
social skills, and value to conform to the norms and roles required for integration into a group or
community.
What do we achieve from socialisation?
-During socialisation, we learn the language of the culture we are born into as well as the roles we are to
play in life. For instance, girls learn how to be daughters, sisters,friends, wives, and mothers.

- they also learn about the occupational roles that their society has in store for them.

- socialisation helps in shaping an individual so that he/she is acceptable into the society.

-It also helps an individual to fit into the society.

Importance of socialisation
(a) Socialisation contributes to the development of personality

- In the absence of groups or society, no man can develop a personality of his own.

- socialisation is a process through which the personality of the new born child is shaped and moulded.

-Through the process, the child learns an approved way of social life.

- At the same time, it also provides enough scope for the individual to develop his individuality.
(b) Helps one to become disciplined
- Social learning is essentially the learning of rules of social behaviour.

- It is the values, ideals, aims and objectives of life and the means of attaining them.

-Socialisation disciplines an individual and helps them to live according to the social expectations.
(c) Helps to enact different roles

- Every role is woven around norms and is associated with different attitudes.
-The process of socialisation assists an individual not only to learn the norms associated with roles but
also to develop appropriate attitudes to play those roles.
(d) Provides the knowledge of skills
-Socialisation is a way of training the new born individual in certain skills, which are required to lead a
normal social life.

-These skills help the individual to play economic, professional, educational, religious and political roles
in their latter life.
(e) Contributes to the stability of the social order
-It is through the process of socialisation that every new generation is trained acceding to the cultural
goals, ideals, and expectations of a society.

- It assures the cultural continuity of generations

Three goals of socialisation

(a) Socialisation teaches impulse control and helps individuals develop conscience.
(b) Socialisation teaches individuals how to prepare for and perform certain social roles occupational
roles, gender roles, and the roles of institutions such as marriage and parenthood.
(c) Socialisation cultivates shared sources of meaning and value.

Attributes of a well socialised child

• respect others.
• talk to elders politely.
• always carry orders given by any elder in the society.
• apologise when he/she does anything wrong.
• he/she is kind to any member of the society.
• helps parents or guardians to do house chores.
• respects other people’s property.
• respects other people’s views.
• avoid fighting with other

AGENTS OF SOCIALISATION IN THE HOME

-A home is one’s place of residence.

-The home is the first world of the child. In the home the child lives with his/her parents, siblings or
close relatives.

(a) Parents (mother and father) – are the people who have given birth to the child.
(b) Siblings (brothers and sisters) – a sibling is one of two or more individuals having one or both parents
in common.

(c) Close relatives (uncles, aunt, grandparents) – these may not be living in the same house with the
child but may be visiting the family.

(c) The mass media - Mass media refers to the distribution of impersonal information to a wide
audience, such as what happens via television, newspapers, radio, and the internet.

ROLE OF FAMILY MEMBERS IN SOCIALISATION

Father

-Fathers are caretakers and disciplinarians in the family

Mother

-The mother’s first role is to bring love to the child by holding, lulling and looking after them.

-The second role of mothers is that they are the first children teachers.
-Mothers teach children all behaviours towards family members, aunts, uncles, grandparents,
neighbours and everyone.

-Mother provide the child the first social education which enables them to fit into the society.
-Mothers train the child to speak which is why the first word to come from the child is usually mummy
and also the child will always speak the language that is spoken by their mother.

- Mothers trains the child to use the toilet, eat meals, play alone as well as play with others.

Brothers and sisters/siblings

Brothers and sisters should be good examples for children to follow.

Grandparents

Grandparents
can also tutor, remind children of their studies, bathing, eating, drinking, suitable rest, teach proper
language, behaviours and lead children to shape and develop essential human qualities of a good citizen
in the future as required by societies.

Glossary of terms
Culture – these are the beliefs, customs or arts of a particular society or group.

Norms – an accepted standard or way of behaving or doing things that most people agree with.

Society or community – is a large group of people who live together in an organised way, making
decisions about how to do things and sharing the work that needs to be done.
Mother – is a woman who gives birth to a child.
Father – is a male parent.
Siblings – brother or sister having one or both parents’ in common.
Relative – someone connected to your family through blood or by marriage.
Neighbours – someone living at the next door or very close to you.
Experimentation – the action or process of trying out new ideas, methods, or activities.
Occupational role – a set of behaviours connected to social norms that allows someone to organize and
allocate time for self-care activities, work, play, social activities, leisure, and rest; examples include the
roles of student, spouse, worker, and caregiver.
Behaviour – the way in which one acts or conducts oneself, especially towards others.

Social learning – process in which individuals observe the behaviour of others and its consequences, and
modify their own behaviour accordingly.
Nature – the basic or inherent features, character, or qualities of something.
Primitive society – refers to a society believed to lack cultural, technological, or economic development.

Acculturation – the process of adopting the cultural traits or social patterns of another group.
Social order – refers to a particular set or system of linked social structures, institutions, relations,
customs, values and practices which conserve, maintain and enforce certain patterns of relating and
behaving.
Generation – the entire body of individuals born and living at about the same time.

Social development – refers to how people develop social and emotional skills across the lifespan, with
particular attention to childhood and adolescence.
Well behaved – behaving in a way that is accepted as correct.
Folklores – the traditional beliefs, customs, and stories of a community, passed through the generations
by word of mouth.
Proverbs – a brief, memorable saying that expresses a truth or belief.

Social engagement – refers to one’s degree of participation in a community or society.

CHAPTER 2: IDENTITY: LOCAL AND NATIONAL IDENTITY

TYPES OF FAMILIES
A family is a group of people related by blood, marriages or adoption, who live together in one
household.

1. Nuclear/monogamous family
-It is a type of family which consists of two parents and children.

-In its most common usage, the term nuclear family refers to a household consisting of a father, a
mother and their children all in one household dwelling.

2. Child-headed family
This is a family in which a minor (child or teenager) is taking care of the family.

3. Single-parent family

-It consists of one parent raising one or more children on his/her own.

-The most common single parent family is led by mothers and their children.

- In some instances, there are single fathers who live with their children.

4. Polygamous family

-Polygamy is defi ned as having more than one spouse at a time.

- However, polygamy usually refers to a situation in which a husband has more than one wife.

The causes of this type of family are:

(a) to acquire social prestige.
(b) earlier aging of female.
(c) to obtain more women and children for economic support.

Advantages of polygamous family

- It is a status of wealth in the African society.

-More children in the polygamous family means more labour.

Disadvantages of polygamous family

• It is a source of conflicts in family.
• It has more social and economic challenges as the husband may fail to
provide for the family.
• It encourages the spread of diseases like HIV/AIDS.

-Children in polygamous families may fail to get proper education because of limited resources.

Polygamous families are no longer common in the modern society because of the following reasons:
• the dominance in Christianity.
•increase in the use of machinery reducing the need for labour.
•the fear of HIV/AIDS.
• woman empowerment.
• economic hardships.
• people admiring smaller families as opposed to large families.

Roles of family members in the home

Father
• He is the head of the family in terms of giving children the right to identity.
• Provision of food, shelter and money for the family.
• Making important decisions.
•Teaching children good morals and values.

Mother

•Helps the father in making important decisions.

•Manages the household chores and looks after the welfare of each family member.
•Preparing food and keeping the house in order.
•Nurturing and raising the children.
• Teaching children good morals and values.
• Teaches children about their identity.
• Aunt/Uncle
• Confi dant and trusted adviser
•Extra provider
• Role model
• Family companion
• Surrogate parent
• Cheerleader.

Grandfather/Grandmother
•Ancestors and historians
• Mentors
• Teachers
•Role models
•Friends

• Spiritual guiders

•Caretakers

Children
•Help parents in doing various household chores or any of the duties they are capable of doing.
• Obeying their parents.
• Living up to family expectations.
• Children help the parents in fixing things.
• Children help parents in doing household chores.

Brothers and sisters (siblings)

• Mutual love, protection and respect.

-Brothers are expected to look after their sisters and protect them from harm.
•Older siblings are given the responsibility to take care of the younger ones especially when the parents
are away.
•Younger siblings are expected to obey their elders and look up to them
with respect.

Roles of family members in the community

•The family is expected to educate the off springs.
•Transmit the societal norms and values to its offspring.
• Give the off springs a position or status in life.
• Cleaning their communities.
•Teaches children about the norms and values of the community.
•Participate in community economic activities for example zunde ramambo, humwe and so on.
• Helping the needy in society.

Roles of family members to the nation

•With the fast-emerging trends in social media and rapid technological advancements, families (parent)
should guide children to shape their dreams.
•The family disciplines the child’s life at an early stage and nurture them towards a competitive future.
• The family helps in nation building by shaping the child to a better citizen.
• Families educates children who will become leaders of the nation in future.
• Help the nation by protecting the rights of children.
- Teaches children the history of the nation.
• Promote good use of natural resources and the environment.
•Teach children to obey the laws by being role models.

LANGUAGE AND NATIONAL IDENTITY

Language

-Language is a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings by the use of conventionalized

signs, sounds, gestures, or marks having understood meanings.

-According to the Constitution of Zimbabwe, 2013, Chewa, Chibarwe, English, Kalanga, Koisan, Nambya,
Ndau, Ndebele, Shangani, Shona, sign language, Sotho, Tonga, Tswana, Venda and Xhosa are recognised
as official languages in Zimbabwe.

-The Constitution further states that, “The State must promote and advance the use of all languages
used in Zimbabwe, including sign language, and must create conditions for the development of these
languages.”

National identity

-Identity is the sameness of essential or generic character in different instances.

-While national identity is a sense of belonging to one nation.

-A common language provides a symbol of national identity.

- Language is part of a nation’s heritage or a form of communication using words either spoken or
gestured with the hands and structured with the grammar.

Aspects of a language with national identity

(a) Proverbs/Tsumo/Amazwi ahlakaniphileyo/amaqhalo

-A proverb is a short popular saying that gives advice about how people should behave or that expresses
a belief that is generally thought to be true.

-It is a traditional way of saying the truth or instructing.

-Here are some examples of the Shona people:
• Kure kwegava ndokusina mutsubvu – means that no matter how far a place might be, you can always
reach there if there is something that you love so much.

• Chura kugara mumvura haasi mwana wengwena – it emphasises one element of the African virtues
which is tolerance and peaceful core existence which a frog can live together in the water with
crocodiles.
•Rina manyanga hariputirwe – meaning you cannot wrap something with horns because nothing on
earth can stay hidden forever.
- Gudo guru peta muswe kuti vadiki vakutye – big baboon coil your tail for the young ones to fear you.

-It means adults should humble themselves so that they gain respect from young people.

-Here are some of the Ndebele language proverbs:

•Amajodo awela abangelambiza – fortune favours the foolish.

•Kwabo kagwala akulasililo – can be translated as discretion is better than valour. It means being
prudent is better than to merely be courageous.
•Ikhotha eyikhothayo – the proverb means, it [the cow] licks the one which licks it.
•Ubukhosi ngamazolo – it means wealth is short-lived.
•Indlela ibuzwa kwabaphambili – if translated it means the older you are the wiser you become
therefore the young should learn from the elderly. Elders know best since they might have experienced
the things before hence it is advisable to consult them in decision making.
•Induku enhle iganyulwa ezizweni. This proverb is related to marriage. It was believed that for one to
get a good wife they had to go and search very far away. Meaning that good things do not come easily,
one should work very hard.

Here are some of the Venda proverbs:

• hu ambuwa vhunanga; vhukololo a vhu ambuwi. The medicine-man who crosses a river into foreign
territory takes his craft with him, but royal rank cannot be taken abroad.

•mukange a fa, vhana vha Mukange vha a fhalala. When Mr Guinea Fowl dies, his chicks scatter.
•thakha ndi mulambo, a i lengi u fhalala. Wealth (property) is like a flooding river it goes down quickly.
•duvha la madumbu dzi lala na mavhoda adzo. When there are storms the cows are allowed to have
their calves with them for the night.

•dza musanda dzi tahula Tshene. Royal cattle (do not damage crops, they merely) pull up weeds.
Children and others from the chief’s place can do no wrong.
• mutsinda ndi khwine, shaka ndi bulayo. A non-relative is better; a relative is murder. Relations cause
more trouble than other people.
Here is a Chewa proverb:

Chikomekome cha mkuyu, mkati muli Nyerere. It means appearances often deceives.

Proverbs often have a meaning that is greater than the meaning of the individual words put together
like demonstrated above.

Importance of proverbs

Proverbs are important in our culture as they:

- teach children the society’s expectations, norms and values.•teach children appropriate behaviour by
condemning anti-social behaviour.
•encourage unity and cooperation among people.
•promote African cultural values, beliefs and traditions.
• promote national identity.

(b) Idioms/Madimikira/Izitsho/Izaci

An idiom is a phrase that has a meaning of its own that cannot be understood from the meanings of its
individual words.

The following are Ndebele idioms:

• Ukugijimela ukufa lokuphila -meaning to run for life and death.
• Ukucatsha egcekeni - to hide in the open.
Here are some examples of Shona idioms:
• Kurumwa nechokuchera. It means self-inflicted anguish.
• Kuora mwoyo. It means losing heart.

Let us draw some idioms from the Xhosa language.

Here are some of the examples:

• Ukabeleka izithende - meaning to carry heels on back (to run).
•Amathe nolwimi - saliva and the tongue (inseparable people).
The literal meaning of an idiom usually does not make sense, and idioms can be almost impossible to
understand unless you have learned or heard them before.
Importance of idioms

Idioms are important in our culture as they:

• offer advice and observations which are relevant in people’s day-to-day life.
• give lessons for life.
• reflect the identity and moral values of the African culture and society.
(c) Riddles/Zvirahwe/Amalibho
A riddle is a phrase or statement or question having a double or veiled meaning

Shona riddle (zvirahwe) Interpretation (dudziro)

Chidembo tamba tamba muswe ndakabata- Badza (hoe)

Zidya mafuta risingakore- Banga (knife)

Pota nekoko tisangane- Bhande (belt)

Ane mhanza ngaarohwe - Bhora/Ngoma (ball or drum)

Ndananika mumera ndawana pasisina - Chando (coldness)

Amai ndebvu, baba ndebvu - Chibage (maize cob)

Importance of riddles

Riddles are important in our culture because they:

• encourage critical thinking when children try to solve the puzzle.

• develop problem solving skills in children.
• provide entertainment in the evening before people retire to bed.

(d) Folktales/Ngano/Inganekwane
-These are traditional beliefs, customs, and stories of a community, passed through the generations by
word of mouth.

-Venda, Ndebele, Ndau, Chewa, Shangani and Shona folktales address issues of mass participation in
development, issues of borrowing, issues of the environment, issues of criminality and so on.

Importance of folktales

There are several reasons why folktales are very important in our society. Some of them include:
• folktales represents one’s culture and tradition.
• they reflect the moral value of a particular culture and society.
• folktales have strong messages of ethics and values because they have simple explanations.
• folktales can produce a feeling and a strong sentiment towards culture and unity.

The reason is that they are about common human values and they signify universal characteristics of
mankind.
• they inspire good thinking.
• folktales provide a greater and profound insight to life and living.
•they increase the creative side of the brain and make children more productive in later life.
• they help students to have vision in their thought process and make them more responsible persons,
ready for the world.

Link between language and identity

• Language has a way of sending messages in words or verbal communication.

•Writing the same language can bring togetherness.
• Reading the same can help to provide the same identity and togetherness.
• Language can provide a tool for learning the identity of the nation and also teaching the identity of a
nation.
• Language is important to the expression of culture.
•Language is a fundamental aspect of cultural identity. It is the means by which we convey our
innermost self from generation to generation.

-It is through language that we transmit and express our culture and its values.
• The loss of language leads to loss of cultural identity, carries with it many dangerous implications.
• Language gives meaning to social structures and identity-creation.

What are indigenous hunting tools?

These are traditional tools which were used long ago for hunting.

(a) Traps

There are several types of traps which include; fish traps, snares and cage traps, spears, bows and
arrows.

Indigenous productive tools

What is production?

-Production is a process of converting raw-materials into finished goods.

- Production means the creation of goods and services

(a) Grinding stones/Guyo/Ilitshe lokucolela

-This is a solid hard rock which is curved out from the huge rock.

(b) Mortar and pestle/Duri nemutswi/Inginga lomgigo

-A mortar and pestle are two tools used with each other to mill (grind) and mix substances.

(c) Winnowing basket/Rusero/ukhomane

-Winnowing basket is a device for winnowing grain.

NATIONAL IDENTIFICATION DOCUMENTS

What are identification documents?

-These are documents used to identify people of the same nation.

- Zimbabweans have their own identity documents.

Types of identification documents, contents and procedures of getting them

(a) Birth certificate
-A birth certificate is a vital record that documents the birth of the child. This is a document used to
record a person’s birth.
-A birth certificate is a copy of an official record of a person’s date and place of birth and parentage.

Contents of a birth certificate

The birth certificate has five sections as follows:

1. Child’s details. This include:
•the child’s identity number
•first name and surname of the child
- birth place and date of birth
•sex of the child

2. Father of child details. This include:

•first name and surname of the father
• father’s birth place
•national identity number of the father

3. Mother of child’s details which include:

•the first name and maiden surname of the mother
• mother’s birth place
• national identity number of the mother

4. Informant details
Informant is the person giving notice of birth. Information found in this section include:
• name of the person notifying the birth relationship to the child
•address where that person lives

Procedures of acquiring birth certificate

•The first step is the issuing of birth record to the mother or legal guardian of the child within a period
of six weeks of birth of the child.

• At the Registrar’s Office both parents are expected to sign a form of declaration that the man is
the father of the child.
• Where the father is refusing to go and sign the declaration form, the mother of the child is allowed to
acquire the birth certificate using her maiden name and the information on the father’s section is left
out.
•Where the child does not know both parents and is being kept at the children’s home or is living in the
streets.

The initial birth certificate is issued for free. One has to pay for it when replacing a lost birth certificate.

(b) National identity card

-National identity card is another form of identification document which is issued to everyone who has
attained the age of sixteen years.

Contents of the national identity card

• Identity number
• Surname
• First names
•Date of birth
• Village of origin
• Place of birth
• Date of issue
• Holder’s signature
• Fingerprint
• Holder’s face picture

Procedures of acquiring the national identity card

When one have reached the age of sixteen, have the right to visit the Registrar’s Department with their
birth certificate, a copy of their father’s national identitycard or mother’s national identity card if she
solely registered the birth certificate.
-The identity card is issued for free to persons who are at the age of 16 and 17. One pays a fee for the
replacement of a lost identity card or when they have reached over eighteen years without acquiring a
national identity card.

(c) Passport
A passport is a national identity document used when one is travelling in an and out of the country.

-It is a formal document issued by an authorized institution of a country to its citizens.

- A passport allow citizens to travel in a foreign country in accordance with the visa requirements that
requests protection for the citizens while abroad.

Contents of a passport

The following are the contents of a passport:

•passport number
•name(s) and surname
•signature and full colour picture of the

•holder
• nationality (name of the country where
•one belongs)
• identity card or birth certificate number
•passport number and sex of the holder
• birth place
•date of birth
• country of permanent residence
•expiry date
•issuing authority

Procedures of acquiring a passport

If one wants to acquire a passport they must visit the passport office with their birth certificate, old
passport if applicable, passport photos, and identity documents of parents if the applicant is a minor
(less than eighteen years).

(d) Driver’s licence

-A driver’s licence is a legal permission issued by a mandated government authority that permits the
holder to operate a motor vehicle.

-A driver’s licence can also be used as a form of identification document.

-It is issued only to persons who have passed the test.

-The test can only be undertaken by persons who have attained the age of sixteen.
Contents of the driver’s licence

The following are the contents of the

driver’s licence:
•class of vehicles in which the
holder is allowed to drive.
• first name and surname of
•the holder.
•signature of the holder.
•date of birth.
•date of issue.
•national identity card number of
the holder.
•driver’s licence number and their face picture

Procedure for acquiring the driver’s licence

-When one has attained the age of sixteen he/she can apply for a driver’s licence.
-For one to possess the licence they have to first write the learner’s test to be issued with a learner’s
licence.

Importance of possessing national identity documents

Possessing a national identity is very important because of the following reasons:

• it gives proof of identity.

• it allows one to exercise their right to vote.
• it allows one to open a bank account.
• one can travel outside the country freely.
• it gives one permission to drive.

Glossary of terms
Family – a basic social unit consisting of parents and their children, considered as a group, whether
dwelling together or not.
Language – a system of communication used by a particular country or community.

Indigenous – naturally existing in a place or country rather than arriving from another place

Hunting – chasing and killing an animal or bird for food, sport, or profit.
Productive – producing or able to produce large amounts of goods or other commodities.
Tool – a device or implement, especially one held in the hand, used to carry out a particular function.
Minor – a person under the age of full legal responsibility.
Maiden name – the original surname of a married woman who uses her husband’s surname name after
marriage.
Identity – who a person is, or the qualities of a person or group that make them different from others.
-Licence – a permit from an authority to own or use something, do a particular thing.

THE CONCEPT OF UNHU/UBUNTU/VUMUNHU

The words unhu, ubuntu and vumunhu mean the same and they are used by different people to
describe good human behaviour

Attributes of unhu/ubuntu/vumunhu

The following words describe a person with ubuntu:

• hospitable
• warm
• generous
• respectful
• responsible
• dignity
• cooperation
• willing to share
• welcoming
• available to others
• compassion

Ubuntu in a school set up

In schools ubuntu can be shown through values such as :sharing,respect,cooperation, forgiveness,
caring, equality, compassion, tolerance, and empathy for others.

- Students who possess these qualities have a great desire to learn and work as a team.
Importance of unhu/ubuntu/vumunhu

•It promotes unity .

•Creates peaceful societies.
•Leads to the development of a nation socially, politically and economically.
• It defines good morals expected from members of a society.
• Makes one acceptable by others.

-They act as security measures for citizens by guarding against bad

behaviours.
• Award good behaviour and punish wrong doers.
•Provides identity to communities or nations.

NORMS AND VALUES

Norms
-Norms are informal rules which govern behaviour of people in a society.

Norms at school

In a school set up, norms such as punctuality, respect, discipline and order encourage behaviour that
help students to do their work and discourage behaviour that interferes with their studies.

Some of the norms at school include:

•attending school on time.

•attending extra curriculum activities.
• doing school work.
•respecting teachers, visitors and all members of staff.
• respecting other students.
• following decisions from authorities and so on
Norms at the work place

-At the work place norms govern how people interact with each other, conduct business, make decisions
and communicate.

-Norms at a work place include; starting work on time (punctuality), initiating ideas, respecting fellow
workmates, working as a team, dressing decently, caring and taking responsibilities.

Values

-Values are ideas held by individuals or groups about what is desirable, proper and good.

-Examples of values are wealth, success, order, happiness, cooperation, patience, team work and
respect.

Norms and values at home

-Common courtesies – these are behaviours that show good manners and politeness.

-Clapping hands – in most Zimbabwean communities, hands are clapped to thank someone.

-Table manners – when eating food, everyone is expected to sit down.

Table manners among the Sotho and Tonga people - among the Sotho and

-Tonga people, silence is also observed during meal times.

-More so, women would sit on the ground or a mat with their legs crossed while their male counterparts
sit on wooden stools or benches.

Receiving something from someone

– to receive something from someone, among the Shona people, a person is expected to clap hands
first and then extend both hands to receive the item or parcel.

Greetings – are usually characterised by handshakes followed by verbal exchange of words.

THE CONCEPT OF INHERITANCE

The concept of heirship

-A heir is a person who is entitled to receive inheritance, which can be something left behind by
someone upon death.

Shona indigenous inheritance system

-The heir inherit the deceased’s property. - In the traditional inheritance system women do not receive
anything from their late husband’s property.

(b) Xhosa indigenous inheritance system

-Among the Xhosa people, a man’s oldest son was his heir and successor.

-The heir would inherit the livestock, land and any other property belonging to the deceased.

-However, each son inherited something from his father because during his lifetime the father would
keep livestock for each of his sons.

(c) Venda indigenous inheritance system

-Among the Venda people, when a man dies, his property was passed on to his oldest son, in the case of
a polygamous marriage, the oldest son of the senior wife became the heir.

- This son became the head of the family unless he had done something bad.

Advantages of indigenous inheritance system

•the inheritance ceremony marks the end of the mourning period for the widow and her children.

- It has a therapeutic effect for the deceased’s family.

• the widow and her children would have a protector and provider since traditionally most women did
not own land and were not gainfully employed.
• the deceased outstanding debts including the bride price would be paid off by the inheritor.
• allow the widow to satisfy her sexual needs in a way that is acceptable to the society.

Disadvantages of the indigenous inheritance system

•if the deceased has died of sexually transmitted diseases like HIV and AIDS, it means that the inheritor
is likely to face the same fate.
•the widow and her children lose all the deceased’s property.
• it increases the responsibilities of the new husband if he already has another family.

Applicability of the indigenous inheritance systems in contemporary society

• The indigenous inheritance system is no longer effective because modern inheritance laws regulate
the sharing of the deceased’s property.

• The inheritance of widows is on the decline in most societies due to the fear of contracting HIV and
AIDS.
•The number of women who can provide for their families as a result of education and employment is
increasing.

Modern inheritance system

-The law provides that upon the death of a person his/her family, namely his wife/husband and children,
shall have the right of use of the immovable property, household goods and effects, vehicles, animals
and crops, which they were using immediately before the death of the deceased until the estate has
been wound up.

An executor

An executor is a person appointed to carry out the obligation of the deceased.

Duties of an executor
The executor has the following duties:
• list the property of the deceased in an inventory.
• publishes the estate in the Government Gazette and newspaper circulating in the district where the
deceased resided at the time of his death to inform debtors and creditors so as to enable him to pay
creditors and collect debts for estate.
• prepares an account, which shows what the deceased had and what he owed to creditors; and
distributes the estate property to the beneficiaries.

Distribution of the estate property

-If the deceased had a spouse and children, then the spouse is entitled to the house and household
goods.

-All legitimate children of the deceased will get an equal share each from the residue of the estate after
the spouse has been given her entitlements.
Importance of the modern inheritance system
-Both men and women can inherit property
-Modern inheritance system in Zimbabwe allows the deceased’s family,namely his wife/husband and
children to use immovable property, household goods, animals and crops.

- If the deceased is survived by more than one wife and had more than one child then one third of his
net estate is shared among his wives of which the first wife gets two shares and the other wives get the
remainder of the one third in equal shares.

-If the wives were living in different houses owned by the deceased person at the time of his death, then
they each get ownership of the house and all household goods in the house in which they lived.

-In case where the deceased is survived by one wife and one or more children, the surviving spouse
should get ownership of the house in which the spouse lived at the time of the deceased person’s death
together with all household goods in that house.

-Where the deceased person is not survived by a spouse but by a child or children, then the net estate
should devolve upon that child or those children in equal shares.
-Under customary law an heir is only entitled to inherit the name, tsvimbo or any traditional items of the
deceased, which under customary law pass to his heir.

RITES OF PASSAGE

-A rite of passage is a celebration which occurs when a person develops from one stage into another.
- Rites of passage mark the transition from one life stage into another.

Birth rites

-The birth of a child is something to celebrate in many African families.

- But before and after the baby’s arrival, there are many rituals to be observed by the expecting parents,
especially the mother.

Naming rites

-Most African societies participate in the naming ceremony.

- the Shona people have no special ceremony for the naming of a baby.

(i) Naming rites in Shona culture

-Among the Shona people a baby is in most cases named by his/her father, however, he may grant
permission to any of his relatives to name the baby.

(ii) Child naming rites in Tonga culture

Name giving ceremonies are popular and several names are bestowed on the infant at a family festival.

Puberty and adolescence rites

-Different societies have different rituals for puberty stage.

- For example, virginity testing and male circumcision are still common in a number of African
communities.

Shona and Shangani marriage rites

-Among the Shona and Shangani people, losing virginity before marriage brings disgrace to the whole
family.

-Virgin girls are preferred as wives because the belief is that if a girl is a virgin until marriage, she is likely
to be faithful to her husband after marriage.
(a) Death rites in Shona culture

-Death in Shona culture is considered as a rite of passage.

-The Shona people believe that every death has a cause.

-They attribute death mostly to witchcraft activities.

Age of consent to sex

-The age of consent to sex refers to the minimum age at which an individual is considered legally old
enough to participate in sexual activity.

In order to protect children from sexual abuse, the age of consent to sex in Zimbabwe is 18 years old.

-Individuals aged 17 or below in Zimbabwe are not legally able to consent to sexual activity, and such
activity may result in prosecution for statutory rape.

INDIGENOUS COURTSHIP PRACTICES

Shona culture

-Courtship describes a period when a boy and a girl began to be involved in love affairs.

-In Shona culture when a girl was old enough to get married (mhandara), she would stay at her parents’
home waiting for a suitable suitor to ask for her hand in marriage.

-That suitor was supposed to be approved by the girl’s parents, particularly her maternal aunt.
-While at her parents’ home she was taught about womanhood duties and what awaits her upon
marriage.

-constant virginity tests were carried out to ensure that girls guard their virginity jealously.

Advantages of indigenous courtship practices

1. The relatives of the boys and girls were involved in the courtship; hence the relationship would in
most cases lead to marriage.
2. The courtship practices did not encourage premarital sex, reducing chances of unwanted pregnancies
and sexually transmitted diseases.
3. The poor people who did not afford the bride wealth had courtship system which also provided them
with an opportunity to marry.
4. Dating was always done with someone who came from a family known to the boy or girl concerned.

Disadvantages of indigenous courtship practices

1. At times the marriages were not based on love especially in the case of arranged marriages.
2. Sometimes a marriage proposal was rejected based on bad things done by one’s family or relative. For
example, if one’s father was lazy, it would not mean that his children were also lazy.

Age of consent to marriage

-According to the Constitution of Zimbabwe the age of consent to marriage is 18 years.

- Marriage is meant for adults.

-The right to marry and form a family is meant for adults and not children.

Modern courtship practices

-Things have changed in the modern society because of technology and modernity.
-Even the contemporary courtship practices have also changed.

-Children now learn things from televisions, internet and friends.

-Online dating services such as Match.com and eHarmony.com allow people to meet prospective dates
based on interests and preferences.

INDIGENOUS ENTERTAINMENT

The most common forms of indigenous entertainment in Africa were storytelling, drama, dance, music
and games.

Games
-There were also games that could be played by both boys and girls, for example, swimming, jumping,
role play and dancing.

- Role play (mahumbwe) was of paramount importance because it gave children the room to learn their
adult roles in an enjoyable way.

Examples of indigenous games

• Mahumbwe /intuntu (role play)
•Zai rakaora (rotten egg)
• Nhodo/liketo (game of stone)
• Tsoro (draughts)

• Sipoti sipoti (round and round)

•Sarura wako (choose your partner)
• Do do zengera uyo mutii? (guess what tree is that?)
• Kupe (Sotho game)
• Chitsvambe/ Chisila
•Mngqwayi (stick throwing game)

Folktales

-Another form of indigenous entertainment was storytelling.

- Folktales are stories passed from one generation to another through oral tradition

Dance and music

-The traditional dances of the Zimbabwean people include;muchongoyo, mbakumba, shangara,

mhande, mbende (jerusarema), gule wamukulu (nyao), jiti, ngororombe, mbaqanga, imbongi,
isitshikisha, ndayo, and tshikona.

Musical instruments
-These include; drums, rattles, mbira, hwandanda and hosho (shakers), magagada (rattles) and wooden
clappers (makwa).

-Some traditional Zimbabwean instruments are facing the danger of extinction, such as chizambi,
chipendani, tsuri, mukwati wenyere.

Glossary of terms
Indigenous – originating or occurring naturally in a particular place; native.
Ritual – a religious or solemn ceremony consisting of a series of actions performed according to a
prescribed order.
Menstruation – the process in a woman or girl of discharging blood and other material from the lining of
the uterus at intervals of about one lunar month from puberty until the menopause, except during
pregnancy.
Puberty – the period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become capable of
reproduction.
Culture – the way of life of a group of people which include their norms, values, beliefs, customs and
traditions, their food, entertainment, marriage, etc.
Heritage – something that is passed down from one generation to another.
Norms – informal understandings that govern the behaviour of members of a society
Values – important and lasting beliefs or ideals shared by the members of a culture about what is good
and desirable.
Courtesies – polite behaviour that shows respect for others

Inheritance – the practice of passing on property or goods, upon the death of an individual
Heir – a person who inherits or has a right of inheritance in the property of another following the latter’s
death.
Tribe – a group of people that includes many families and relatives who have the same language,
customs, and beliefs.
Ceremony – a formal religious or public occasion, especially one celebrating a particular event.
Adolescence – the period following the onset of puberty during which a young person develops from a
child into an adult.
Tradition – the transmission of customs or beliefs from generation to generation, or the fact of being
passed on in this way.
Consent – permission for something to happen or agreement to do something.
Virginity – the state of never having had sexual intercourse.

What is sovereignty?

Sovereignty is the full right and power of a governing body over itself, without any interference from
outside sources or bodies.

What is governance?

Governance has been defined to refer to structures and processes that are designed to ensure
accountability, transparency, responsiveness, rule of law, stability, equity and inclusiveness,
empowerment, and broad-based participation.
 PRE-COLONIAL SOCIETIES

-Pre-colonial societies in Africa are those societies which existed in Africabefore European colonisation,
such as the San and Khoi Khoi.

- The San were hunter-gatherers whereas the Khoi Khoi were herders or pastoralists

Characteristics of the San

• The San are much shorter than other members of the black people
• They are short in stature
• When speaking they create characteristic “click” sounds.
• They are yellowish brown in complexion
-Their skin wrinkles develop very early

Social organisation of the San

-The San people were nomads.

-This implies that they did not stay in one permanent place but would rather move from one place to
the other.

- They were always on the move in search of animals and fruits.

-The San did not build permanent structures to shelter them.

-They preferred using rock shelters and huts made of branches with some grass on top.

- They used the material that was readily available to make shelter.

-Shelter was made by women and it took them less than an hour to make it.

-The San existed in small family groups of about 12-40 people.

-They lived in small, independent and self-suffi cient family groups.

-Food and water sources were shared equally among members.

-Their society was an egalitarian society. Men and women had diff erent roles but were treated as equal.
-Fire was an important part of the San’s lives.

- It was the responsibility of the men to make fire.

-They would use two fi re sticks that they would carry with them at all times.

- They would rub the two sticks together until it made a spark to light.
Political organisation

-The San did not have a formal political structure.

-They had no chief, leader or any authority figure of some sort.

-Decisions were made on consensus.

- Disputes were resolved through discussions where people concerned had to be heard until an
agreement was reached.

- The San were democratic and allowed every adult male to participate in the aff airs of the whole
community.

-Elders held regular meetings which were open to all male adults of the village.

-If bigger disagreements happened, the group would just split and go their separate ways.
-Leadership among the San was a preserve for people who have lived within that group for a long time.

-However, such people would be mature and of good character.

- These people commanded respect from the rest of the group members.
-Membership in a group was determined by residence. - As long as a person lived on the land of his
group, he maintained his membership.

- However, some people earned respect because of certain skills they possessed, such as hunting and
tracking of animals.
-The San also believed that no individual owned land.

Economic activities

-The San were excellent animal trackers and hunters.

-San trackers would follow the tracks of an animal across any kind of surface or terrain.

-Their skills even enabled them to distinguish between the tracks of a wounded animal and that of the
rest of the herd.

-They would stay close to waterholes for them to be able to catch animals when they came to drink
water.
-Men would hunt using bows and arrows and trapping small animals.

-The San invented their own type of bow and arrow in order to hunt effectively.

- The arrows were treated with poison and this would enable a small group of hunters to kill large
animals such as antelope or buffalo.
 - Although the poison worked slowly, eventually it would kill even the largest animal.
-This poison was prepared from insects and plants.
-Small animals were caught in snares and traps.

- San hunters worked as a team and the man whose arrow killed the animal had the right to distribute
meat to the members of the group.
-The hunted animals were a source of meat while the bones were used for making tools and ornaments.

-The hides were tanned for blankets and clothing.

Rock art among the San

-San rock paintings are one of Southern Africa’s great heritage.

-Most of their paintings hold deep spiritual and religious meanings.

-The San paintings were done by traditional healers whilst they were in trance.

San beliefs and religion

-The San generally believed in the supremacy of one powerful god.

- At the same time, they recognised the presence of lesser gods.

- The greater god was associated with life and the rising sun, and the lesser god with illness and death.

- To the San people, death was a very natural thing.

-If someone in the group died, the group would leave and never make a camp on that place again.

-They would never knowingly cross the place where someone was buried.

-They believed that the spirit of the dead person remained active above the grave, and they did not
want to off end it.

-They tried to avoid places where someone was buried.

-The San placed importance on ritual dances which they believed to heal the group

b) The Khoi Khoi

-The Khoi Khoi were first herders or pastoralists in Southern Africa.
Physical characteristics
•Generally taller than San (attributed to the greater protein intake of pastoralists).
•They had a brown yellowish complexion.

Economic activities

-The Khoi Khoi were nomadic pastoralists.

- They followed a seasonal pattern of movement from one pasture to another.

- They kept herds of sheep, goats and cattle which provided them with a balanced, stable diet.

- All livestock were individually owned.

-The Khoi Khoi trained their oxen to carry their goods when they moved to another camp.

-The sheep, goats and cattle that they owned were a sign of wealth.

- Wealth was measured by the number of cattle and other livestock that a person owned.

-For this reason, they only killed their cattle and sheep when there were special feasts or celebrations,
like weddings or funerals.

- They got meat from the animals they would have hunted, at times they would eat meat from their
livestock that would have died or raided from their enemies.
-The Khoi Khoi also ate and drank milk from their animals.

-Cattle and goats were milked.

-Milk was an important source of nutrients for the Khoi Khoi.

-Like the San women, the Khoi Khoi women were also responsible for gathering food from the forest.

Social organisation

-The Khoi Khoi people lived in villages of between 30 and 50 huts.

-There were usually more than 100 people in each village.

- The Khoi Khoi huts were made from tree branches and reed mats.

-The branches would be covered by reed mats.

- They were easy to take down and rebuild in a new place.

- When the group moved to a new place the mats could be rolled up and taken with them.

- In winter, animal skins were hung on the inside of the house to keep out the cold.

- The Khoi Khoi would move to another place if there was no enough grazing land for their livestock.

-In the event that a member of their group died, they would also change camp.

Religious organisation

-The Khoi Khoi god was called Tsui-Goab. - Khoi Khoi people believed that he not only created people,
but also controlled the rain, animals, plants and the health of people.

-The Khoi Khoi prayed in the early morning with their faces turned towards the east where Tsui-Goab’s
first light appears.

Political organisation

The Khoi Khoi had a hierarchal political organisation.

- This was due to the fact that they lived in large groups as compared to the San.

- Their societies were governed by chiefs and village headmen.

-Appointment into power was based on the wealth the individual had.

- A village was headed by a headman.

-Several villages would form a tribe which was headed by a chief.
-The chiefs were usually the richest people with the most livestock.
-With the help of a council of elders, they made important decisions for the group, for example; they
would decide when to move.

-The chief was also instrumental in solving conflicts among his members as well as to maintain order in
the society.

Legacy left by the San and the Khoi Khoi to modern society

-The San and Khoi Khoi relied on traditional herbs and plants for treatment of different ailments and
diseases.

- Traditional medicine was also used in pregnancy and during rituals.

- Today, most African societies still use traditional medicine in many ways.

-Some of the traditional medicines are now packaged and are available from supermarkets.

TRADITIONAL LEADERSHIP

The traditional leaders’ hierarchy of power is illustrated here:

Chief - Headman - village head

Installation of chiefs

-When a chief dies, his position should be inherited by his successor.

-At the installation ceremony, the new chief will sit in a prominent position in front of his people.

-The new chief will be given emblems associated with his/her position.

- Traditionally, it used to be a headdress, spear and a handful of soil to indicate ownership of land.

- In contemporary society, the government introduced new emblems of office namely cloak, a pitch
helmet and a stick.

-Nowadays a government offi cial must formally install the new chief together with a senior member of
the dynasty.

- The installation ceremony is a festive accompanied by indigenous songs and dances.

Roles of chiefs, headmen and village headmen

-Act of Zimbabwe Chapter 29:17.

-Role of chiefs in Zimbabwe

(a) Chiefs are custodians of indigenous culture and values. It is their duty to promote and uphold cultural
values in their community.
(b) To prevent unauthorised settlement and use of land.
(c) To supervise headmen and village heads in their community.
(d) Perform judicial functions.
(e) Overseeing the collection by village heads of levies, taxes, rates and charges payable in terms of the
Rural District Councils.
Duties of the headmen

The roles of headmen in their communities are as follows:

(a) To assist the chief to perform his duties.

(b) To report to the police as soon as the commission of any crime or offence in his area, the presence of
the corpse of any person who has died suddenly or was found dead or is suspected of having died
violently or in an unnatural way, the suspicious disappearance of any person and any actual or
threatened public unrest likely to disturb the public peace.
(c) To carry out all lawful and reasonable orders given by his chief.
(d) To recommend to the chief persons for appointment as village heads and, where appropriate, to
recommend their removal from office.
(e) To report all criminal acts, acts of misconduct and violations of customs and traditions to the chief
and any other appropriate authority.
(f) To preside over a ward assembly.
(g) To oversee, through the ward assembly, the disposal of settlement rights in Communal Land and the
admission of new settlers in the area under him.
(h) To keep an up-to-date register of the villages and village heads under him and to keep the chief and
the rural district council informed of any changes to the register.
(i) To mediate in local disputes involving customary law on matters such as lobola, elopement, burials,
domestic disputes, etc.

Duties of the village head

Village headmen work hand in hand with the headmen and the chiefs. They inform the chiefs and the
headmen about the things that will be happening in their villages.

- Their duties include the following:

(a) To assist the chief and headman in the performance of their duties.
(b) To carry out all lawful and reasonable orders of the chief or headman.
(c) To lead his village in all traditional, customary and cultural matters.
(d) To settle disputes involving customary law and traditions, including matters relating to residential,
grazing and agricultural land boundaries and, where necessary, to refer these matters for settlement by
the headman.
(e) To preside over the village assembly.
(f) To collect levies, taxes and other charges payable in terms of the Rural District
(g) To ensure the security of schools, clinics, contour ridges, water points, roads, culverts, public fencing
and any other public property and, where necessary, to report any damage or potential damage to any
such property to the police.

(h) To assist in apprehending and securing offenders against the law and generally to ensure observance
of the law by all inhabitants, and immediately to report any contravention of the law to the police.

(i) To promote sound morals and good social conduct among members of his village; and

(j) To maintain an up-to-date register of names of the inhabitants of his village, and their settlement
permits.

Glossary of terms
-Custodian – a person responsible for looking after something.
-Legitimacy – conformity to the law or to rules.
-Homo sapiens – the species to which modern man belong
-Legacy – something handed down by a predecessor
-Descendants – belonging to the same lineage
-Hierarchy – a system in which members of an organisation or society are ranked according to relative
status or authority.
-Government – a group of people with the authority to rule a country or state.

-Customary law – traditional common rule or practice that has become an intrinsic part of the accepted
and expected conduct in a community, profession, or trade and is treated as a legal requirement.
-Indigenous – originating or occurring naturally in a particular place; native.
-Colonisation – the action or process of settling among and establishing control over the indigenous
people of an area.

-Pastoralist – is a person who herds livestock, often as a nomadic wanderer without a set farm area.

-Archaeologist – a person who studies human history and prehistory through the excavation of sites and
the analysis of artefacts and other physical remains.
-Egalitarian – believing in or based on the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights
and opportunities.
-Polygamy – the practice or custom of having more than one wife at the same time.
-Consensus – a general agreement.
-Democratic – is an attitude or a system that treats everyone equally.

-Clan – a group of people of common descent; family.

NATIONAL SYMBOLS
There are a number of national symbols in Zimbabwe and the four most regarded that one must know
among all are: national flag, national anthem, national bird and the national coat of arms.

(i) The national flag of Zimbabwe

-The Zimbabwean flag consists of seven even horizontal stripes of green, yellow, red and black with a
white triangle containing a red five-pointed star with a Zimbabwe Bird.

-Green represents the vegetation, agriculture and land resources of Zimbabwe.

-Yellow stands for the wealth of minerals in the country, predominantly gold, diamonds, nickel,
asbestos, silver only to mention a few

-Black indicates the heritage, race and ethnicity of the black majority.

-The white triangle is a symbol of peace, tranquillity and freedom that Zimbabweans are enjoying today.

-The golden bird, known as the Zimbabwe Bird is the national symbol of Zimbabwe as an important part
of history.

-The red star which is located behind the Zimbabwe Bird represents the nation’s aspirations and a bright
future for the country.

(ii) Zimbabwe Bird

The stone-carved Zimbabwe Bird is the national emblem of Zimbabwe, appearing on the national flag
and coat of arms of Zimbabwe and banknotes and coins (Zimbabwean dollar).

It probably represents the bateleur eagle or the African fish eagle.

(iii) National coat of arms

-The coat of arms depicts two kudus on the left and right, each standing on top of an earthly mound
composed of stalks of wheat, a pile of cotton, and a head of maize.

- At their feet, there is also a banner emblazoned with the Zimbabwean national motto (Unity, Freedom
and Work).
1. Kudus – the unity of Zimbabwe’s various ethnic groups.
2. Earthly mound with plants – the need to always provide for the Zimbabweans.
3. Motto banner – the need to maintain national unity and the preservation of freedom.
4. Green shield – the fertility of the country’s soil and water.
5. Great Zimbabwe – the historical heritage of the nation.
6. Hoe and rifle – celebrates the struggle for peace and democracy, as well as the proud work-ethic of
the Zimbabwean people. They also symbolise the transition from war to peace.
7. Strips of silk of gold and green – the national fi nancial enterprise and the protection of the economy.
8. Red star – hope for the future of Zimbabwe.
9. Zimbabwe Bird – symbolises national identity.
10. Blue and white wavy lines – Victoria Falls and water which brings prosperity.

(iv) National anthem of Zimbabwe

-The current national anthem of Zimbabwe was introduced in March 1994 after a nationwide
competition to replace the old one, God Bless Africa (Ishe Komborera Africa) with a distinctly
Zimbabwean song.

-The winning entry was a Shona song written by Professor Solomon Mutswairo.

Importance of national symbols

• These symbols are often rallied around as part of celebrations of patriotism or aspiring nationalism
(such as independence, autonomy or separation movements). For instance, any national gathering in
Zimbabwe is opened by the singing of the National Anthem.

• They are designed to be inclusive and representative of all the people of the national community for
example the Zimbabwean Bird represents all the citizens of Zimbabwe despite ethnic belonging,
language, age or political affiliations.
• These symbols can be used to instil pride and unity in a nation’s population. It explains why all the
national symbols of Zimbabwe apply to all Zimbabweans.

• Symbols are meant to express the history and culture of a nation. Our national history and culture
resides in these symbols.
• They exemplify the rich cultural fibre that resides at the core of the country.
• Incite a deep sense of pride in the hearts of Zimbabwean citizens.
• Popularize the object chosen such as the Zimbabwe Bird (hungwe), among others.
• National symbols are used to direct public attention, integrate citizens, and motivate public action and
creating bonds and reinforcing goals among citizens.
• National symbols are so strong that they create harmonious societies.
• The symbols are essential to the Zimbabwe’s identity; they define what Zimbabwe stands for and how
she would like to be known to the world.

NATIONAL MONUMENTS

(i) Great Zimbabwe national monument

The site is generally divided into three main areas: the Hill Complex, the Great Enclosure, and the Valley
Ruins.

-The Hill Complex, is believed to have been the spiritual and religious centre of the city.

-South of the Hill Complex lies the Great Enclosure, the largest single ancient structure in Africa.

-Its inner wall runs along part of the outer wall leads to the Conical Tower.

-The purpose of the tower is unknown, but it may have been a symbolic grain bin symbol.

he importance of Great Zimbabwe Ruins

• Great Zimbabwe is a clear testimony to the cultural richness.

• To most Zimbabweans, Great Zimbabwe is a reminder of the tremendous achievements of our

forebearers and as such it is a rich source of inspiration.

-During the struggle for freedom from colonial rule, nationalists saw Great Zimbabwe as a symbolic pillar
of resistance.

-Great Zimbabwe continued to be an important religious centre after its collapse in the15th century. In
the 18th and 19th centuries religious performances including rainmaking ceremonies were undertaken
here.

-In the late 19th century numerous soapstone figurines in the form of a bird were found in the ruins; this
Zimbabwe Bird later became a national symbol, incorporated into the Zimbabwe flag and shown in
other places of high honour like the Zimbabwean money.

-Great Zimbabwe ruins remained a lifetime tourist attraction place.

-Great Zimbabwe as a cultural heritage has effected sustainable development of local communities living
in its vicinity.
-There is employment creation of the local people which is coupled with community projects as Shona
village and Craft Centre which generate revenue to the local communities.

-Environmental conservation which has the capacity to benefit future generation is also realised and
there is social sustainability through maintenance of cultural values.
-It is a cultural heritage which also supplies raw material for the creative entertainment industries, such
as film, fashion, advertising, and television.

(ii) Victoria falls or Mosi-oa-Tunya

- Victoria Falls, or Mosi-oa-Tunya (Tokaleya Tonga: The Smoke That Thunders), is a waterfall in Southern
Africa on the Zambezi River at the border of Zambia and Zimbabwe.

The importance of Victoria Falls

•Mosi-oa-Tunya continues to be revered as a sacred site among the local tribes.

• Being one of the greatest physical spectacles in Africa it stands to reason that it has attracted so much
interest from us humans over time and therefore the area is steeped in history and mystery.

•Leads to state of the art infrastructural development.

•It nurtures a localised rainforest under its constant spray shadow.

• It has not only showcased the high points of diverse civilizations, but tied humankind together in the
common pursuit of intellectual excellence and self-expression.
• It is a source of foreign currency for Zimbabwe and Zambia.
• Improves the standards of living to its surrounding communities.
•It strengthens bilateral relations between Zimbabwe and Zimbabwe.

(iii) Chinhoyi Caves

The importance of Chinhoyi Caves

• Caves can be used for domestic cold storage, air conditioning, and water supply purposes because of
their constant temperatures, people have used caves to store food, such as potatoes and apples.

-Scientists value caves as natural underground laboratories. Caves provide a unique subsurface habitat
for rare animals.
• Caves have a purely aesthetic value, and a sense of adventure and exploration they provide.
-Tourism in cave and karst areas is big business. Recreational activities in scenic areas also include car
touring, boating, hiking.

-Caves have an archaeological value.

-They can serve as natural “museums,” preserving fascinating remnants.

Significance of national monuments

•The national monument aims to represent the nation and serve as a focus for national identity. They
help the country to earn foreign currency from tourists.
- Provides a source of pride and patriotism among citizens.
- They are the symbols of political, social, economic and cultural life of the nation.

NATIONAL SHRINES

A shrine is a holy or sacred place, which is dedicated to a specific ancestor, hero, martyr, saint or similar
figure of awe and respect, at which they are venerated.

The importance of the National Heroes Acre

• The National Heroes Acre was built to commemorate the fallen heroes of Zimbabwe.
•The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is another important feature of the national shrine. It was designed
to honour all the people who participated in the liberation war.
• The presence of a woman shows that women were an integral part of the liberation struggle as well.
• It is a symbol that also depicts the bravery, courage and unity of the liberation fighters.
• Reminds us of our history. Behind the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is a symbol of a cave reminding us
that blacks used to be buried in caves.

(ii) Njelele Shrine

Njelele, also known as Mabweadziva or Matonjeni is a prominent rainmaking shrine located outside the
south-western part of the Matopo National Park in the Khumalo communal area approximately hundred
kilometres south of Bulawayo.
The importance of Njelele Shrine

• It is a national cultural heritage site.

• It is a prominent rainmaking shrine.
• The adherents of the traditional Mwari and the ancestral spirit attach great respect to the
environment because they argue, that it is a home of Mwari and spirits live in.

-The cult is consulted and Mwari invoked in times of illness and death, domesticated animal diseases,
during agricultural seasons.

-•The most common and respected ritual is that of the first fruit harvesting

Glossary of terms
Emblem – an object or its representation, symbolizing a quality, state, class of persons.
Legacy – anything handed down from the past, as from an ancestor or predecessor.
Ethnicity – social group that shares a common and distinctive culture, religion, language, or the like.
National symbol – is a symbol of any entity considering itself and manifesting itself to the world as a
national community.
Soapstone – is a type of metamorphic rock.
Bateleur eagle (hungwe) – a short-tailed African eagle with mainly black plumage and a bare red face.
Vicinity – the area or region near or about a place.

Sustainable – the quality of not being harmful to the environment or depleting natural resources, and
thereby supporting long-term ecological balance.
Sacred – entitled to veneration or religious respect by association with divinity or divine things.
Excavations – to make hollow by removing the inner part.

Historian – a person who writes or studies history, especially one who is an authority on it.
Karst – landscape underlain by limestone which has been eroded by dissolution, producing ridges,
towers, fissures, sinkholes and other characteristic landforms.
Prepubescent – a person who has not yet reached puberty.
Menopausal – the period in a woman’s life (typically between the ages of 45 and 50) when menstruation
ceases.

NATIONAL SCHOOLS PLEDGE IN ZIMBABWE

-A pledge is a promise, a vow, a commitment, an oath, a covenant, a bond and a guarantee.

-The word “pledge” means, a solemn promise, a valuable item given as a guarantee that a debt will be
paid or a token of love or loyalty.

Importance of a national schools pledge

•The pledge is poised to inculcate the national value systems into junior citizens from early childhood
development up to secondary school level. This would certainly facilitate children to recognise their
identity.
•This national commitment will enable children to appreciate local traditional cultures and the natural
resources endowed to the country.

•This gives them the impetus to guard jealously and defend their national heritage for their universal
benefit as bona fide citizens of this republic.
•The fundamental aspects of the pledge are not only peculiar to Zimbabwe,but are also found and
highly revered in various countries across the globe like the United States of America, Singapore and
India, among other nation states.
•It plays a pivotal role to develop nationalistic spirit in the citizens of a country.
• The pledge certainly has a lot of history, and this could be another thing which makes it believed to be
so important.

Schools pledge of Zimbabwe

Almighty God, in whose hands our future lies, I salute the national flag.United in our diversity by our
common desire for freedom, justice and equality.Respecting the brave fathers and mothers who lost
lives in the Chimurenga/ Umvukhela and national liberation struggles.We are proud inheritors of our
national resources.We are proud creators and participants in our vibrant traditions and cultures.We
commit to honesty and the dignity of hard work.

Meaning of Zimbabwe schools pledge

The following is a summary of the national schools pledge:

• it enshrines the preamble of the Zimbabwean Constitution which is the supreme law of the land.
• it inculcates the national flag as the rallying point of every citizen.
• the pledge recognizes the diversity of our cultures, thinking, ideologies and way of life to attain the
universal good of freedom, justice and equality.
• children are being oriented to the fundamentals of democracy and good governance as core values
cherished in Zimbabwe.

- another crucial aspect of the pledge is remembering the efforts given by the gallant sons and
daughters of Zimbabwe who died during the first and second Chimurenga/Umvukhela to liberate the
country from colonial bondage.
• Zimbabwean heritage cultures and traditional way of life is also upheld as pupils are being taught to
love the way our forefathers used to lead their lives.

• loyalty in the last statement can be understood as being submissive, respectful and humbleness to
authorities as well as the rules that govern the country.
•dignity also deals with truthfulness, and sincerity which is fairly earned.

NATURAL RESOURCES

-Natural resources are things that come from nature, such as plants, animals, soil, minerals, energy
sources (like sunlight, fossil fuels), air, and water.

Raw materials

Sometimes, natural resources can be used as raw materials to produce something.

Types of natural resources

(a) Biotic-Biotic natural resources also include fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum which are formed
from organic matter that has decayed.

(b) Abiotic-these resources come from non-living and non-organic material. Examples of these resources
include land, fresh water, air, and heavy metals

Natural resources can also be categorized based on their stage of development including:

(a) Potential resources - . For example, if a country has petroleum in sedimentary rocks, it is a potential
resource until it is actually drilled out of the rock and put to use.

(b) Actual resources – Good examples of actual resources in Zimbabwe include; gold, diamonds in
Marange, platinum in Ngezi, only to mention a few.
(c) Reserve resources – this is the part of an actual resource that can be developed profitably in the
future. The Great Dyke belt found in Zimbabwe is a reserve of many mineral resources that shall benefit
future generations.

(d) Stock resources – these are resources that have been surveyed, but cannot be used due to a lack of
technology. An example of a stock resource is hydrogen.

Natural resources are also classified based on their renewability:

(a) Renewable natural resources – these are resources that can be recovered. Renewable resources are
those that are constantly available and can be recovered. Examples of renewable resources include
sunlight, water.

(b) Non-renewable natural resource – is a resource of economic value that cannot be readily replaced by
natural means on a level equal to its consumption. Most fossil fuels, such as oil, natural gas

Importance of natural resources

Food and drink – this includes agricultural products as well as naturally occurring foods such as game,
fish from fresh water and seas, seeds and nuts, medicines, herbs and plants.

Mobility – this includes automobiles, trains, water vessels, airplanes, together with all the fuel that
powers them.

Housing and infrastructure – include all the houses, public places, roads and constructed objects you
have in your area.

•natural resources are a source of employment.

• they alleviate poverty.
• they uplift the Gross Domestic Product of people that is improving their standards of living through
value addition and beneficiation.

Threats to natural resources

(i) Overpopulation – this is probably the most signifi cant threat that natural resources face.

(ii) Climate change – the alteration in climate patterns as a result of excessive anthropogenic is hurting
biodiversity and many other abiotic natural resources.

(iii) Deforestation – when a region loses its biodiversity, it becomes more vulnerable to other
environmental elements.

(iv) Species extinction – an alarming rate of species extinction is happening worldwide.

(v) Environmental pollution – land, water and air pollution directly affect the health
of the environments in which they occur.

(vi) Corruption – there are some leaders occupying strategic positions involved in corrupt activities that
endanger the natural resources like minerals, animals, forests and so on. They give unauthorised
permissions to poachers and other private organisations to carry out unlawful activities in return for
favours like sex, money and property.

Conservation of natural resources

(i) Education and public awareness – all stakeholders must aim to provide information and raise public
awareness about the wonderful natural resources we have and the need to ensure its health.

(ii) Individuals, organisations and nations – people should understand to give back to the environment
by way of reducing waste, recycling waste and becoming a part of the solution.

(iii) Governments and policy – governments must enforce policies that protect the environment. They
must ensure that businesses and industries play fair and are accountable to all people.

Glossary of terms
Nationalism – spirit or aspirations common to the whole of a nation.
Patriotism – devoted love, support, and defence of one’s country that is national loyalty.
Natural resources – are materials or substances occurring in nature which can be exploited for economic
gain.
Conservation – the careful utilization of a natural resource in order to prevent depletion

CONSTITUTION OF ZIMBABWE

-A constitution is a document in which most important laws of the land is authoritatively ordained.

-Others define a constitution as a set of rules and customs, written or unwritten, legally established by
which a government conducts its affairs.

Functions of a constitution
(a) Constitutions can declare and define the boundaries of the political community.

(b) Constitutions can express the identity and values of a nation.

(c) Constitutions can declare and define the rights and duties of citizens.

(d) Constitutions can establish and regulate the political institutions of the country.

(e) Constitutions can divide power between different layers of government or sub-state communities.
Many constitutions establish decentralized processes for the sharing of power between provinces,
regions or other sub-state communities.

(f) Constitutions can commit states to particular social, economic or developmental goals.
THE CONSTITUTION MAKING PROCESS

Step 1 – when the existing constitution may not provide sufficient guidance, the process opens with
deliberations about the appropriate format for subsequent discussions.

Step 2 – the preparation of an interim constitution or a set of essential features is the second step in the
process.

Step 3 – development of the initial text, the basis for preparation of the final draft, comes next.

Step 4 – in most countries, an elected or indirectly elected assembly has primary responsibility for
debating, amending, and adopting the draft.

Step 5 – ratification is the final step in the constitution writing process. Most countries including
Zimbabwe require a national referendum for ratification.

Constitution of Zimbabwe, 2013

Here are summarized points of the constitution making process in Zimbabwe:

•agreement by political leaders of the three leaders of GNU to formulate anew constitution.
• the appointment of the Constitutional Select Committee.
• first All Stakeholders Conference to map the road.
• outreach consultations with the citizens (citizen participation) all over the country.
• information feeding.
• sitting of thematic committees.
• drafting stage led by COPAC.
• second All Stakeholders Conference.
• draft constitution debate in parliament.
• referendum.
•presidential assent (adoption).
•Constitution of Zimbabwe, 2013

Reasons for the 2013 Constitution in Zimbabwe

(i) Dual citizenship – the recognition of this right will open up doors for Zimbabwe citizens who have
been unfairly deprived of their right to freedom of movement and participation in processes given to
citizens such as the right to vote.

(ii) National values and principles of governance – the Constitution of Zimbabwe sets out in its preamble
the need to “entrench democracy, transparent and accountable governance and the rule of law”.
(iii) Reform of the electoral system – the recent developments in the Zimbabwe Electoral process have
mainly centred on the issue of Diaspora voting and special voting.

(iv) Land reform – section 289 of the Constitution of Zimbabwe explain the principles guiding policy on
agricultural land with noteworthy is section 289 (c) which states that, “the allocation and distribution of
agricultural land must be fair and equitable having regarded the gender balance and diverse community
interests”.

(v) The disabled people’s rights – the people living with disabilities are now entitled to the means to
make them more self-reliant and to state funded education and treatment when they need it.

(vi) Establishment of the Constitutional Court – there is now established a Constitutional Court which
among other things deals with the protection of the people against human rights abuses.

(vii) Powers of the Anti-Corruption Commission – the Anti-Corruption Commission can direct the
Commissioner General of police to investigate and act on alleged corruption and when so ordered the
Commissioner General of police shall obey the directive.

(viii) Limits of Presidential Office – the president has a limited term of office of a maximum of two five
year terms.

Role of citizens in formulating a constitution

- Constitutional design is more participatory if the mass public has more opportunities to both oversee
and engage in the process.

•The phases of constitution making include drafting, consultation,deliberation, adoption, and

ratification.

-The modal form of participation in constitutional design is the power to

ratify or approve the charter, usually by referendum on the final document as a whole.
•Another mode of citizen participation involves direct consultation with the public or representative
groups at various stages, which might occur before, during, or after the drafting of the initial text.
• Consultation also plays a legitimating role, at least when there is the appearance of listening to the
views expressed.

SUMMARY OF THE CONTENTS OF THE CONSTITUTION OF ZIMBABWE

Chapter 1: Founding Provisions (sections 1-7)Zimbabwe is founded on the following values and
principles:
•Zimbabwe is a unitary, democratic and sovereign republic.

•the Constitution is its supreme law and any law, practice custom or conduct inconsistent with the
Constitution is invalid.

Chapter 2: National Objectives (sections 8-34)

• ensure good governance by appointing public officers on merit, combating corruption and abuse of
power and adequately funding all institutions of the State;
• promote national unity, peace and stability;
• protect fundamental human rights and freedoms;
• promote the interests of children, the youths, elderly persons, persons with disabilities, veterans of
the liberation struggle, workers, the family and marriage;
• provide free and compulsory basic education to all children.

Chapter 3: Citizenship (sections 35-43)

Zimbabwean citizenship is by birth, descent or registration. All citizens are equally entitled to:
• protection by the State, to passports and other travel documents and birth certificates and other
identity documents issued by the State.
• citizens by birth are persons who are born in Zimbabwe by a mother or a father who was a
Zimbabwean citizen or any of their grandparents was a Zimbabwean citizen by birth or descent; or who,
if born outside Zimbabwe, either of their parents was a Zimbabwean citizen and ordinarily resident in
Zimbabwe but working outside the country for the State or an international organisation.

Chapter 4: Declaration of Rights (sections 44-87)

• every person has a right to life but the law may permit the death penalty for murder in aggravating
circumstances; the death penalty must not beimposed on a woman or a person who was less than 21
years when the offence was committed or is more than 70 years old and the right of the unborn child is
protected in Zimbabwe. Abortion is prohibited by law.

•every woman has equal dignity of the person with men including equal opportunities in political, social
and economic activities.

Chapter 5: The Executive (sections 88-115)

•executive authority derives from the people and must be exercised in accordance with this
Constitution.
•the President is Head of State and Government and Commander-in-Chief of the Defence Forces.

Chapter 6: The Legislature (sections 116-117)

The Legislature consists of Parliament and the President. The legislative authority derives from the
people.
Chapter 7: Elections (sections 155-161)
Elections must be peaceful, free and fair, conducted by secret ballot, based on universal adult suffrage
and equality of votes, and free from violence.

Chapter 8: Judiciary and the Courts (sections 162-193)

Judicial authority derives from the people and is vested in the courts, namely, the Constitutional Court,
the Supreme Court, the High Court, the Labour Court, the Administrative Court, the magistrates courts,
the customary courts and other courts established by or under an Act of Parliament.
Chapter 9: Principles of Public Administration and Leadership (sections 194-198)
This chapter sets out the principles governing public administration. These principles cover government
and all its institutions, local authorities, parastatals and government companies and the people who
hold positions in these public institutions.

Chapter 10: Civil Service (sections 194-205)

Members of the Civil Service are persons employed by the Government. Not included in the Civil Service
are the police, the defence forces, prison officers, members of the judiciary and staff of Parliament.

Chapter 11: Security Services (sections 206-210)

Security Services are made up of the Defence Forces, the Police, Prisons, intelligence services and any
security service permitted by law.

Chapter 12: Independent Commissions Supporting Democracy (section 211-253)

There are 5 of them, namely:

• the Zimbabwe Electoral Commission;

• the Zimbabwe Human Rights Commission;
• the Zimbabwe Gender Commission;
• the Zimbabwe Media Commission;
•the National Peace and Reconciliation Commission.

Chapter 13: Institutions to Combat Corruption and Crime (sections 254-263)

Zimbabwe Anti-Corruption Commission and National Prosecuting Authority

Chapter 14: Provincial and Local Government (sections 264-266)

The devolution of power to provincial and local government authorities is to ensure participation by all
citizens in Zimbabwe. As such, it is not about the promotion of divisionism, secessionism, or the
promotion of disunity.

Chapter 15: Traditional Leaders (sections 280-287)

This chapter recognizes traditional leadership under customary law, customary and traditional purposes
under Chiefs, head persons and village heads in the communities under their jurisdiction.

Chapter 16: Agricultural Land (sections 288-297)

•All citizens, regardless of race, have a right to hold, occupy, use or dispose of agricultural land.

• Its allocation must be fair and equitable having regard to the fact that it is a finite resource and part of
the common heritage, gender balance and diverse community interests.

•Its use must promote food security and employment subject to conservation for future generations.

Chapter 17: Finance (sections 298-317)

• Financial management of public finances.

•There must be transparency and accountability and funds must be expended prudently, economically
and effectively.

Chapter 18: General and Supplementary Provisions

•All commissions have corporate status.

•Only members of independent commissions, the Judicial Service Commission, Anti-Corruption
Commission and the Land Commission have protected tenure; the rest serve at the pleasure of the
President.
•Chairpersons and deputy chairpersons of commissions must be of different genders.

Glossary of terms
Extra-territorial rights – are rights of foreigners outside of their own country.

Nation building – is constructing or structuring a national identity using the power of the state.
Legislative – an arm of government which have the function of making laws of a country.

Judiciary – the branch of government charged with the interpretation of laws and the administration of
justice.
Executive – is the organ exercising authority in and holding responsibility for the governance of a state.
The executive executes and enforces law.
Decentralization – is the transfer of authority from central to local government.
Supreme law – highest in rank of law. A constitution is a supreme law of a country.

Human rights – are rights inherent to all human beings, whatever our nationality, place of residence,
sex, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, language, or any other status.
Public consultation – is a regulatory process by which the public’s input on matters affecting them is
sought.
Referendum – a vote in which all the people in a country or an area are asked to give their opinion about
or decide an important political or social question through voting.
Ratification – the action of signing or giving formal consent to a treaty, contract, or agreement, making it
officially valid.

Amendment – a minor change or addition designed to improve a text or piece of legislation.

Good governance – is used to describe how public institutions conduct public affairs and manage public
resources.
Foreign policy – a government’s strategy in dealing with other nations.
Constitutional court – is a high court that deals primarily with constitutional law.

RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

INDIGENOUS ENTITLEMENTS

(a) Respect
The first entitlement that is supposed to be given to both mothers and fathers as parents is total and
unconditional respect regarding all aspects of social, economic and political life.

(b) Motherhood entitlements

(i) Mother’s cow (Mombe yeumai/Inkomo yohlanga)

In a highly-valued marriage process, mothers are given exclusive homage; apart from the bride price.
Zimbabwean cultures mandate the delivery of a special cow to the bride’s mother known in Shona as,
“mombe yeumai” or the motherhood cow

(ii) Mother’s lobola gifts (Mafukidzadumbu)

The gifts for the mother of the bride in the old days included things like ‘mbereko’, for carrying the bride
in a pouch or sling when she was a baby, and ‘mafukidzadumbu’for covering of the belly; this is
alternately translated as “carrying the baby in the womb” or “tucking the baby in with a blanket when
she wakes in the night)”

(iii) Mother’s field (Tseu yamai)

Tseu yamai is a traditional practice that gave a woman the right to a small piece on which she could farm
whatever was important to her like groundnuts.

iv) A cow given to mothers as a price for their daughters’ virginity (Mombe yechimanda)

-Mothers are also entitled to benefit from the virginity of their daughters.

-A son-in-law is supposed to give the mothers of his wife a cow if he finds his wife virgin.

(c) Fatherhood entitlements

i) Pulling of the beard bridal-price (Matekenyandebvu)

Fathers are also entitled to such benefits like bridal-price for their daughters. It involves payments that
are direct to the bride’s father.

(ii) Fathers bull

-In Shona culture, a father is given a bull by his son-in-law as acknowledgement of the father’s authority.

-This is coupled by an assortment called danga

RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF CHILDREN

What are rights?

Rights are what every human being deserves, no matter who they are or where they live, so that they
can live in a world that is fair and just.

Rights of children

The Constitution of Zimbabwe defines children as; every child, that is to say every boy and girl under the
age of eighteen years.
The concept of children rights is well elaborated in the Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No. 20)
of 2013 compared to other constitutions existed before.

Some of these rights include the following:

(i) to equal treatment before the law, including the right to be heard;
(ii) to be given a name and family name;
(iii) in the case of a child who is born in Zimbabwe or outside Zimbabwe and is a Zimbabwean citizen by
descent; to the prompt provision of a birth certificate;
(iv) to family or parental care, or to appropriate care when removed from the family environment;
(v) to be protected from economic and sexual exploitation, from child labour, and from maltreatment,
neglect or any form of abuse;
(vi) to education, health care services, nutrition and shelter;
(vii) not to be recruited into a militia force or take part in armed conflict or hostilities;
(viii) not to be compelled to take part in any political activity; and
(ix) not to be detained except as a measure of last resort and to be detained for the shortest appropriate
period.
(x) to be kept separately from detained persons over the age of eighteen years and to be treated in a
manner, and kept in conditions, that take account of the child’s age.

What is a responsibility?

A responsibility is something that is your job to do or to think about. It is equal to a duty or obligation
carried by someone in any society. Some of the children’s responsibilities include:

• to follow the rules at home, at school and in the community since they are there for our safety and to
protect our rights and the rights of others.
• to respect our parents.
• to stand up for our rights and the rights of others as much as we can.
• to be the best person that we can be.
• to take care of our own bodies as best we can.
• to respect the rights of others.
•to look after our own belongings and respect the belongings of others.
• to care about others who are not as strong in some ways as we are.
- help parents doing domestic work such as cooking, washing plates and cleaning the house.
• help with home repair and maintenance.
• yard work and mowing the lawn.
• maintain respectful family relationships.
• take on greater responsibility of our own life and choices, gaining independence while maintaining
safety and communication with parents.
Difference between rights and responsibilities
• Difference between rights and responsibilities

•Rights refer to the privileges given to you by a governing body, and are usually written into laws while
responsibilities are the obligations or duties that can either be assigned to, or assumed by you.
• Rights can be challenged or defended in a court of law while responsibilities cannot.
•The rights accorded to individuals or groups typically depend on an agreed set of obligations and
behaviours, with the presumption of mutual cooperation and respect.
•Examples of legally defined rights include the rights of minorities, children and the right to claim
compensation in the event that your rights are violated. Responsibilities make you ethically or morally
accountable within the greater society.
•Children have the right to families that support and protect them. Children have a responsibility to
respect and learn about their parents, families values and cultures.

•One cannot expect that a new born has any duties but has a lot of rights.

How do we learn about our rights and responsibilities?

-First, we learn the skills for working with and caring about all the other people in our small world of our
family, our school and our neighbourhood.

• As we grow older, we add to our skills when we learn that we are all different, but just as special. We
learn skills like listening to others, working with others.

-As we move out into the world, we learn more about the responsibilities which go with our rights.

-We learn skills like managing our time and our learning, looking after our bodies, dealing with bullies,
recognising when someone is using lies to hurt others, keeping our belongings safe, keeping our
promises and standing up for what we believe in.

- Human beings have been responsible for most of the changes that have happened in the world

Duties of children at home

Cooking – as children you should learn how to cook different meals like pup, tea, vegetables, rice and
meat.

Herding domesticated animals – as children you can help your parents to herding cattle, sheep and goats
during spare time from school.

Fetching water for domestic work - children are responsible for fetching water for domestic use from
boreholes, rivers and wells.

Glossary of terms

Entitlement – the belief that one is inherently deserving of privileges or special treatment.
Tradition – the transmission of customs or beliefs from generation to generation, or the fact of being
passed on in this way.

Social responsibility – is an ethical framework and suggests that an entity, be it an organisation or

individual, has a duty to act for the benefit of society at large.
Social convention – is a set of accepted standards, social norms, or criteria, often taking the form of a
custom.
Social norms – are the rules of behaviour that are considered acceptable in a group or society. People
who do not follow these norms may be shunned or suffer some kind of consequence.

Antiquity – the ancient past, especially the period of classical and other human civilizations before the
middle ages.
Detain – keep (someone) in official custody, typically for questioning about a crime or in a politically
sensitive situation.
Minorities – the smaller number representing less than half of the whole.
Chores – a routine task, especially a household one.

FACTORS OF PRODUCTION

(i) Land (including all natural resources),

(ii) Labour (including all human resources),
(iii) Capital (including all man-made resources), and
(iv) Entrepreneurship (which brings all the previous resources together for production.)
Importance of factors of production
•All four factors of production categories are important to the production of goods used in the wants-
and-needs-satisfying process that keeps human beings alive from one day to the next and makes living
just a little more enjoyable.
• Land provides the basic raw materials that become the goods.
• Labour does the hands-on work. One cannot create a product out of nothing and perform a service
without labour, which is also a factor of production.
• Capital is the tool that makes the job easier.
• While entrepreneurship organizes the entire process.
• Factors of production are the resources that allow us to create finished products and perform services.

•A modern economy cannot exist without factors of production, which makes them pretty important.

THE CONCEPT OF INDUSTRY

(a) Primary industries

It involves the extraction of raw materials like mining, fishing, farming activities and forestry.
(b) Secondary industries
They are involved in the processing of goods from raw materials into semi-finished or finished products.

(c) Tertiary or services industries

This type of industry provides skilled and semi-skilled people who offer services and knowledge to
improve performance and productivity.

Pre-colonial industrial sectors

Agriculture, mining, crafts, trade,

Contemporary industry

Mining, Agriculture

INFORMAL SECTOR

- A lack of stable employer-employee relationships.

• A small scale of operations.
• Skills gained outside of a formal education.
• Self-employment.
• Do not have access to secure work, benefits, welfare protection, or representation.
• The most prevalent types of work in the informal economy are home-based workers and street
vendors.
• Home-based workers are more numerous while street vendors are more visible.
• Informal sector offers more independence as workers have the chance to select their own working
hours.
• Gives workers the opportunity to work outside and near friends.
• Does not have any written rules or agreements as it exists merely on verbal understanding.
•It does not have fixed wages or fixed hours of work and mostly relies on daily earnings.
• In most cases, the work atmosphere is congested and unhygienic.
- Include people working as small farmers, street vendors, small traders,home-based workers, rag-
pickers, labourers, artisans and micro-entrepreneurs such examples include: Glen View 8 Furniture
Complex, Magaba Complex in Mbare,

Advantages and disadvantages of the informal sector

Some of the advantages of operating in the informal sector include:

• Higher turnover. Some employers pay well because company owners do not have many tax
obligations. Employee effort is directed towards achieving profit rather than satisfying irrelevant
routines.
• There can be a close and direct relationship with the employer, therefore making it easy to get
permission when in need of time off.
• Operators are saved from paying tax in form of Pay As You Earn (PAYE).
- There is no red tape when it comes to dealing with personnel issues which are expressly handled either
by the employer him or herself, or a senior manager.
• Sometimes employment is done on the spot with little emphasis on attending lengthy job interviews
and countless aptitude tests.

• Sometimes one is employed because of personal relationship with the employer rather than on merit.

The disadvantages include:

•the government cannot measure the actual state of the economy to help make policy makers.
• the government will not be collecting the taxes that it should.
• consumers are not protected from people selling fake or unsafe goods.
• workers injured on the job do not have recourse to required insurance.
• workers do not accumulate government pension benefits.
• informal businesses have to stay small to avoid attracting attention.
• little or no job security and odd working hours.

• a brief illness or injury can mean no financial means to survive.

• lack of funding from the government.
• limited access to information on market opportunities or access to markets.
• lack of access to credit facilities.
• non-availability of adequate training in business management.
• lack of appropriate infrastructure (for example storage and vending facilities) and technology as well
as absence of a conducive operating environment.

STORAGE OF INDIGENOUS AND CONTEMPORARY FOOD

Types of indigenous foods and their benefits

(i) Dried green leafy vegetables (Mufushwa/umufushwa)

(ii) Madora/amacimbi (mopane caterpillar worms)

(iii) Zviyo or rukweza (small seeded millet

(iv) Cowpeas (Nyemba/indumba

(v) Peanuts (Nzungu/amazambane)

Types of contemporary food

Baked beans, pizza,

Differences between traditional and modern food

Traditional methods include; slow cooking, drying and fermenting while modern methods include; fast
processing, high heat, industrial chemistry, addition of flavour extracts and colouring agents, as well as
preservatives.

Importance of food

- It gives the energy and nutrients to grow and develop,

•Protein is needed to build, maintain and repair muscle,

•Carbohydrate provides the body with its main source of energy.

- Vitamins and minerals are needed in very small amounts and are sometimes called micronutrients, but
are essential for good health.
Methods of food preservation

Drying, refrigeration, salting, smoking, canning, fermenting.

Glossary of terms
Inputs – what is put in, taken in, or operated on by any process or system.
Outputs – the amount of something produced by a person, machine, or industry.
Land – the part of the earth’s surface that is not covered by water.
Labour – work, especially physical work.
Capital – wealth in the form of money or other assets owned by a person or organisation or available for
a purpose such as starting a company or investing.

Entrepreneurship – the activity of setting up a business, taking on financial risks in the hope of profit.

Factors of production – is an economic term that describes the inputs that are used in the production of
goods or services in order to make an economic profit.
Industry – economic activity concerned with the processing of raw materials and manufacturing of
goods in factories.
Raw materials – substances used in the primary production or manufacturing of goods.
Pre-industry – refers to social attributes and forms of political and cultural organisation that were
prevalent before the advent of the industrial revolution, which occurred from 1750 to 1850.
Manufacturing – make something on a large scale using machinery.
Kinship system – the system of social relationships connecting people in a culture who are or are held to
be related and defining and regulating their reciprocal obligations.
Self-employment – the state of working for oneself as a freelance or the owner of a business rather than
for an employer.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

(a) Preservation of forests and wild animals

•we must control the cutting of trees through selective cutting. Mature trees are selected for cutting.
This process is to be followed in rotation.
• we must prevent forest fires.
• teach others about the importance of the environment and how they can help save forests.
• restore damaged ecosystems by planting trees on land where forests have been cut down.
• educate people to live in a way that does not hurt the environment.
- establish parks to protect forests and wildlife.
•support companies that operate in ways that minimize damage to the environment.
• reforestation and afforestation should be practiced frequently. Intensive forestry and plantation of fast
growing industrial woods on suitable deforested sites.
(b) Preservation of land

• by educating, informing and sensitizing all landholders about various aspects of this precious resource
and their sustainable use.
• contour ploughing is another measure to conserve our land. By this method, the fields are ploughed,
harrowed and sown along the natural contour of the hills.
•under the afforestation and reforestation programmes, planting of trees, bushes and grass help to
check the soil erosion.
•strict actions are taken to check reckless felling of trees and overgrazing.

(c) Preservation of minerals

• an important way to conserve some minerals is by substitution, when the plentiful resources are
substituted for scarce ones.
•use of minerals in a planned and sustainable manner.
• recycling of metals.
• use of alternative renewable substitutes like solar energy and wind energy instead of coal and oil so
that they can last longer.
•technology should be improved to use the low-grade ores profitably.
•mineral resources may also be conserved through recycling. A good example is recycling of scrap metal.

(d) Preservation of rivers and dams

• planting trees in the catchment area of water bodies to prevent soil erosion and subsequently reduce
the problem of siltation which in turn enables the survival of aquatic organisms.
• avoid the establishment of industries, chemical plants and thermal power plants near the water
sources as their discharge affect the ecology of water bodies resulting in loss of biodiversity.
• regulatory measures must be taken on waste water discharge in the water bodies to conserve
biological diversity, streams and dams.
•increasing public awareness is one of the most important ways to conserve aquatic biodiversity. This
can be accomplished through educational programs, incentive programs, and volunteer monitoring
programs.

POLLUTION

(i) Water pollution

Causes of water pollution

(a) Nutrients pollution – some wastewater, fertilizers and sewage contain high levels of nutrients.

(b) Chemical water pollution – when humans apply pesticides and chemicals to soils, they are washed
deep into the ground by rainwater.

(c) Oil spillage – oil spills usually have only a localized effect on wildlife but can spread for miles from the
sea transport.

(d) Sewage and waste water – other sewage systems run in underground tubes. Over time, they rust and
begin to leak.

Effects of water pollution

(a) Death of aquatic (water) animals

(b) Diseases

(c) Destruction of ecosystems

Prevention of water pollution

• use water wisely. Do not keep the tap running when not in use.

• do not throw chemicals, oils, paints and medicines down the sink drain, or the toilet.

• buy more environmentally safe cleaning liquids for use at home and other public places. They are less
dangerous to the environment.

• if you use chemicals and pesticides for your gardens and farms, be mindful not to overuse pesticides
and fertilizers.

• if you live close to a water body, try to plant lots of trees and flowers around your home, so that when
it rains, chemicals from your home do not easily drain into the water.

(ii) Land pollution

Types of land pollution

(a) Solid waste

(b) Pesticides and fertilizers

(c) Deforestation

Sources of land pollution

Agricultural sources – these include waste matter produced by crop, animal manure and farm residues.

Ashes – the residual matter that remains after solid fuels are burned. When waste is burned in
incinerators, two types of ashes are produced.

Mining sources – this includes piles of coal refuse and heaps of slag and underground debris.

Industrial sources – these include paints, chemicals, metals and aluminium, plastics and so on that are
produced in the process of manufacturing goods.

Sewage treatment – wastes that are left over after sewage has been treated, biomass sludge, and
settled solids.

Garbage or waste – these include household or municipal waste such as glass, metal, cloth, plastic,
wood, paper, and so on.

Construction sources – these include waste like debris, wood, metals and plastics that are produced
from construction activities.

Deforestation – this is when trees are cut down for economic purposes, mining, farming and
construction.

Effects of land pollution

• cause problems in the human respiratory system.

• cause problems on the skin.
•cause various kinds of cancers.

The toxic materials that pollute the soil can get into the human body directly by:

• coming into contact with the skin.

•being washed into water sources like reservoirs and rivers.
•eating fruits and vegetables that have been grown in polluted soil.
• breathing in polluted dust or particles.

Dump sites and landfills also come with serious problems like:
• very bad smell and odour in the town.
• landfills breed rodents like rats, mice and insects, who in turn transmit diseases.
• landfills in towns do not attract tourists to the town. The town will lose revenue.
•many landfills are always burning and they cause further air pollution.
How to prevent land pollution

•people should be educated and made aware of the harmful effects of littering. Discuss with friends and
family

-reuse any items that you can.

• the greatest prevention to land pollution is in the three ‘R’s’ Reduce waste, Reuse things and Recycle
things

-personal litter should be disposed properly.

• store all liquid chemicals and waste in spill-proof containers.

• eat organic foods that are grown without pesticides. Look out for fertilizer or pesticide free products
when you go to the market.

• governments can also ensure that there are incentives for people to recycle and re-use things.

(iii) Air pollution

There are two types of pollutants

Primary pollutants – are those gases or particles that are pumped into the air to make it unclean.

Secondary pollutants – when pollutants in the air mix up in a chemical reaction, they form an even more
dangerous chemical.

Causes of air pollution

1. Emissions from industries and manufacturing activities

2. Burning fossil fuels

3. Household and farming chemicals

Effects of air pollution

a) Acidification – chemical reactions involving air pollutants can create acidic compounds which can
cause harm to vegetation and buildings.

b) Eutrophication – rain can carry and deposit the nitrogen in some pollutants on rivers and soils.

c) Ground-level ozone – chemical reactions involving air pollutants create a poisonous gas ozone.

d) Particulate matter – air pollutants can be in the form of particulate matter which can be very harmful
to our health.

Air pollution prevention, monitoring and solution

(a) Government (or community) level prevention

• Governments throughout the world have already taken action against air pollution by introducing
green energy. Some governments are investing in wind energy and solar energy,

• Governments are also forcing companies to be more responsible with their manufacturing activities,
so that even though they still cause pollution, they are a lot controlled.
•Car manufacturing companies are also building more energy efficient cars, which pollute less than
before.

(b) Individual level prevention

•Other tips on reducing air pollution include saving energy, practicing energy efficiency tips,

•Recycle and re-use things.

•In the area of air pollution solutions for cars, some simple strategies include proper vehicle care etc

•Participating in social awareness programs

PANDEMICS AND CHRONIC ILLNESSES

Diabetes

Common symptoms of diabetes include:

• being more thirsty than usual
• passing more urine
• feeling tired and lethargic
• always feeling hungry
• having cuts that heal slowly
• itching, skin infections
-blurred vision
• unexplained weight loss
- gradually putting on weight
• headaches
•feeling dizzy

•leg cramps

(b) Hypertension (HBP)

Hypertension is high pressure. Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against the walls of arteries
as it flows through them.

•reducing salt intake

• reducing fat intake
•getting regular exercise
•quitting smoking
• reducing alcohol consumption
• managing stress

c) HIV and AIDS

What causes HIV?

• Most people get the virus by having unprotected sex with someone who has HIV.
• Another common way of getting it is by sharing drug needles with someone who is infected with HIV.
• The virus can also be passed from a mother to her baby during pregnancy, birth, or breastfeeding.

What are the symptoms of HIV?

Common early symptoms of HIV include:

• fever
• sore throat
•headache
• muscle aches and joint pain
• swollen glands (swollen lymph nodes)
•skin rash

• swollen lymph nodes

• extreme tiredness
• weight loss
• fever
• night sweats

How is it treated?
To monitor the HIV infection and its effects on the immune system, a doctor will regularly do two tests:

• viral load, which shows the amount of virus in the blood.

•CD4+ cell count, which shows how well the immune system is working.

Preventive measures of HIV

•Abstaining from sex

• Avoiding multiple sexual partners and being faithful to one partner.
• Use preventive pills to prevent mother to child transmission
• HIV testing first and use protection when indulging in sexual contact.
• Knowing one’s HIV status so as to behave responsibly.

Type of infectious diseases

(a) Ebola
Ebola is not an airborne virus.

The patient will usually experience the following symptoms:

• a high fever
• muscle pain
• severe headache
• weakness
• diarrhoea
• vomiting
• abdominal pain
• some patients also bleed from the nose and mouth.

Ebola treatment

Doctors have found that one of the most important treatments for patients afflicted with the virus is
simply keeping them well hydrated and helping them breathe, to give their immune system a better
chance to fight off the disease.
Glossary of terms
Automobile – a passenger vehicle designed for operation on ordinary roads and typically having four
wheels and a gasoline or diesel internal-combustion engine.
Atmosphere – the gaseous envelope surrounding the earth; the air.
Habitat – the natural environment of an organism; place that is natural for the life and growth of an
organism.
Ecosystem – a system, or a group of interconnected elements, formed by the interaction of a community
of organisms with their environment.
Aquatic life – living or growing in water.
Overexploitation – use or utilization, especially for profit.
Pharmaceuticals – a compound manufactured for use as a medicinal drug.

Landfill – a system of trash and garbage disposal in which the waste is buried between layers of earth to
build up low-lying land.
Land degradation – is any change in the condition of the land which reduces its productive potential. It is
the deterioration in the quality of land, its topsoil, vegetation, and water resources, caused usually by
excessive or inappropriate exploitation.

Desertification – the process by which fertile land becomes desert, typically as a result of drought,
deforestation, or inappropriate agriculture.

Radioactivity – the phenomenon, exhibited by and being a property of certain elements, of

spontaneously emitting radiation resulting from changes in the nuclei of atoms of the element.
Acidification – to make or become acid; convert into an acid.
Chronic condition – is a human health condition or disease that is persistent or otherwise long-lasting in
its effects or a disease that comes with time.

HAZARDS RISK AND DISASTERS

Types of drought
(a) Meteorological drought – this kind is usually determined by the general lack of moisture in the
weather such as lack of precipitation,

(b) Agricultural drought – this is when atmospheric moisture is reduced to the extent that soil moisture
is affected.

(c) Hydrological drought – this is when there is a deficiency of surface water and ground water supply in
a region, often as a result of less precipitation,

What causes drought?

(a) Lack of rainfall (or precipitation) – droughts can occur when there is the lack of ‘expected’
precipitation (rain and snow).
(b) Surface water flow – some regions are also well distributed with surface water (streams and rivers)
that have their sources from far away mountains and watersheds.

(c) Human factors – forests (trees) play a key role in the water cycle, as they help reduce evaporation,
store water and also contribute to atmospheric moisture in the form of transpiration.

(d) Global warming – it is on record that human actions have contributed to more greenhouse gasses in
the atmosphere.

Effects of droughts

1. Economic impacts of drought

• farmers will have to spend more money to irrigate the crops and provide water for livestock on animal
farms and ranches. They have to spend money to drill new wells or buy water in tankers from faraway
places.

• low crop yield means farmers lose a lot of money, farm workers have to take pay cuts and some may
even have to be laid off.

•businesses and industries that manufacture farm equipment and resources lose money because
farmers do not have the money to buy from them.

• less or no rains mean dryer conditions and more bush fires. Farms are destroyed,

• businesses spend more on electric generators or close production if hydro-energy companies operate
below capacity.

• businesses connected to water recreation, such as beaches and lake side activities may close down
because of low water levels or dried out water bodies.

2. Environmental impacts of drought

• soil moisture is key for the breakdown of organic matter. Droughts lower the quality of soils

• water bodies (lakes, creeks, ponds, and lagoon) dry out, and water animals die.

• desertification is when fertile lands become bare and infertile, often as a result of overgrazing,
deforestation and other economic activity.

• animals migrate long distances in search of water

3. Social impacts of drought

• Outbreak of diseases
- Hunger, malnutrition, anaemia and mortality impacts of droughts are indirect in nature.

• Fresh water levels and water discharge during droughts are low, resulting in less dilution in ecosystem
waters.

• People migrate to other places in search of better living conditions.

• Farm families suffer more when family members migrate.

• Anxiety, stress and the generally low and drained feeling of not knowing when things will improve can
have a negative effect on people.

• People feel unsafe and threatened by loss of forest and wild fires, as well as loss of human life.

Ways of minimising the impacts of drought

(i) Education – it is important that each of us learn about how droughts occur and how they affect us.

(ii) Preventing water pollution – taking measures to stop all forms of water pollution is important,
because on the onset of droughts, humans resort to surface water such as streams and lakes and the
like.

(iii) Water conservation and storage – water is precious and a scarce commodity everywhere in the
world and humans need to use water wisely as such.

(iv) The most important step in lessening the effects of drought is desalination of seawater.
(v) Water recycling and rainwater harvesting are all things that are currently under development to build
on existing water supplies

Flooding

What causes flooding?

Heavy rains, river overflows, strong winds in coastal areas, dam breaking and ice and snow melts.

Types of floods.

(i) Flash fl oods – it occurs within a very short time (2-6 hours, and sometimes within minutes) and is
usually as a result of heavy rain, dam break or snow melt. Sometimes, intense rainfall from slow moving
thunderstorms can cause it.

(ii) Rapid on-set fl oods – similar to fl ash fl oods, this type takes slightly longer to develop and the fl ood
can last for a day or two only.

(iii) Slow on-set fl oods – this kind is usually as a result of water bodies over flooding their banks.

Effects of flooding
(a) Economic – during floods (especially flash floods), roads, bridges, farms, houses and automobiles are
destroyed.

(b) Environment – the environment also suffers when floods happen. Chemicals and other hazardous
substances end up in the water and eventually contaminate the water bodies that floods end up in.

(c) People and animals – many people and animals have died in flash floods. Many more are injured and
others made homeless.

(d) Floodplains – there is also something good about floods, especially those that occur in floodplains
and farm fields.

What you can do before, during and after floods

Before the floods

(a) Know about your local relief centres and evacuation routes.
(b) Keep emergency numbers and important information handy, as well as emergency supplies, kits, and
first aid items.
(c) Make sure everything that is of importance is secured like documents and other valuables.

(d) Plant trees and shrubs and keep a lot of vegetation in your compound if you are in a low-lying area as
that can control erosion and help soften the speed of the flowing water

2. During the floods

(a) Flash floods occur in a short space of time. As soon as they start, be quick, keep safe and ensure that
children and elderly are safe by leaving the house to a higher ground.
(b) Turn off all electrical appliances, gas, heating and the like if there is a bit of time.
(c) Leave the area before it gets too late. Do not drive through the water as moving water can sweep
you away.
(d) Stay away from power lines or broken power transmission cables.
(e) Try to keep away from flood water as it may contain chemicals or other hazardous materials.

3. After the floods

(a) Make sure you have permission from emergency officers to get back inside your house.
(b) Keep all power and electrical appliance off until the house is cleaned up properly and until the
electrical personnel has confirmed that it is good to put them on.
(c) Make sure you have photographs, or a record of all the damage, as it may be needed for insurance
claims.
(d) Clean the entire home, together with all the objects in it very well before you use them again. They
may be contaminated.

Methods of flood prevention

(i) Town planning – it is important that builders acquire permission before buildings are erected.

(ii) Vegetation – trees, shrubs and grass help protect the land from erosion by moving water.

(iii) Education – is very important to inform and caution people about the dangers of floods, what causes
floods,

(vi) Detention basin – these are small reservoirs built and connected to waterways

HUMAN TRAFFICKING

Causes of human trafficking

(a) Leaving a place of poverty to gain wealth – many victims want to get out of their situation so they
risk everything to leave the place that sees them mired in poverty.

(b) Political conditions – political instability, militarism, generalized violence or civil unrest can result in
an increase in trafficking as well.

(c) War – armed conflicts can lead to massive forced displacements of people.

(d) Social and cultural practices – some societies and cultures devalue, abuse and exploit women and
children, creating difficult living conditions for these groups.

(e) Demand for cheap labour – there is also a demand for cheap domestic and agricultural labour.

Lack of knowledge – some people are involved in human trafficking without knowing that they are
abused.

Forms of human trafficking

1. Sexual exploitation

2. Forced labour

• threats or actual physical harm.

• restriction of movement and confinement to the workplace or to a limited area.
• withholding of wages or excessive wage reductions that violate previously made agreements.
• withholding of passports and identity documents so that the workers can neither leave nor prove their
identity status.
Impacts of human trafficking
• society – including the impacts of family and communities left behind
• trafficked people will be denied the right to freedom and education.

•health – women and children trafficked for the purpose of sexual exploitation are at risk of HIV/AIDS.

• rule of law – in both sets of countries, the operations of organised criminal groups, whose illicit
activities often extend beyond trafficking.

• victims of human trafficking have absolutely no freedoms, and experience horrors such as abuse,
violence, deprivation, and torture.

• human traffickers force those who are pregnant to have abortions, with unclean instruments by non-
certified practitioners.

• the children suffer from lack of self-esteem, emotional disturbance, disorientation, and depression and
are scarred for life.

• in some cases, victims are also subjected to substance abuse by being forced to take drugs.

• availability of such cheap labour hinders employment opportunities and subsequently, reduces per
capita income of the nation.

Ways of reducing human trafficking

• School students can take action at their schools by raising awareness about these issues and create
clubs and organisations to gain momentum to fight human trafficking.
• Join a task force initiative for law enforcement officials.

• Provide medical assistance to those who have survived human trafficking.

• Help survivors gain access to legal assistance, so that survivors can fight back as well.
• Write letters to magazines, newspapers and even internet blogs to bring awareness to these issues.
• Host events to discuss, show films or do anything related to raising awareness of human trafficking.
• Newspapers, radios and televisions must keep the public updated and educated about human
trafficking issues.
• Communities should create institutions that deal with cases of human trafficking.
• Volunteer and support anti-trafficking efforts in your community.

Glossary of terms
Afforestation – is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there was no previous
tree cover.
Reforestation – is the reestablishment of forest cover.
Recycling – convert waste into reusable material.
Aquatic – living in or near water or taking place in water.
Over-exploitation – the action or fact of making excessive use of a resource.
Aquatic biodiversity – is the variety of life and the ecosystems that make up the freshwater.

Leaching – drain away from soil or similar material by the action of percolating liquid, especially
rainwater.
Infectious disease – are disorders caused by organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites.

Drought – a prolonged period of abnormally low rainfall, leading to a shortage of water.

Flooding – a great flowing or overflowing of water, especially over land not usually submerged.
Siltation of rivers – earthy matter, fine sand, or the like carried by moving or running water and
deposited as a sediment.
Human trafficking – the action or practice of illegally transporting people from one country or area to
another, typically for the purposes of forced labour or commercial sexual exploitation.
Desertification – is a type of land degradation in which relatively dry area of land becomes increasingly
arid, typically losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and wildlife.

Compiled by:Muusha P