2.1.
Origin and Evolution of Panchayati Raj in India
Panchayati Raj has been central to rural governance in India, evolving significantly over
time. Its origins trace back to ancient India, where self-governing village councils managed
local administration (Khurana, 1996). These traditional systems were transformed during
British colonial rule, leading to the establishment of a formal Panchayati Raj system in
independent India, further shaped by constitutional amendments and policy changes.
2.2 Key Historical Milestones
2.2.1 Ancient Origins and Vedic Period
Village panchayats date back to the Vedic period, referenced in texts like the "Rig Veda" and
"Atharva Veda." Early villages, or "Grama," were overseen by a headman or "Gramini"
(Jayaswal, 1967). These communities formed the foundational unit of social and political life,
evolving into more extensive administrative divisions (Khurana, 1996).
2.2.2 Assemblies and decline in Vedic Period
Village assemblies such as "Sabha" and "Samiti" held significant power, although their
influence waned in the post-Vedic era due to the expansion of kingdoms (Jayaswal, 1967).
Despite this decline, the legacy of these councils persisted through subsequent eras,
maintaining some local governance functions (Joshi, 2005).
2.2.3 Post-Vedic Era and Mauryan Period
In the post-Vedic period, village governance remained crucial, with texts like "Manu Smriti"
detailing the administrative roles of village headmen (Altekar, 1962). The Mauryan Empire
under Chandragupta Maurya formalized local administration, promoting village councils to
ensure effective grassroots governance (Chande, 2004).
2.2.4 Later Empires and Decline under Muslim Rule
Subsequent empires continued to emphasize local governance. However, during Muslim rule,
the centralized administrative approach led to a significant decline in village panchayats'
autonomy (Bharati, 1994).
2.2.5 Revival under Marathas and Decline under British Rule
The Maratha period saw a resurgence of local self-administration, but British colonial
policies later diminished the role of panchayats. The introduction of local bodies with
appointed members marked a shift towards centralized governance (Mathew, 2000).
2.2.6 Colonial and Post-Colonial Developments
2.2.6.1 Viceroy Mayo's Resolution (1870)
Viceroy Mayo's Resolution aimed at decentralizing power, establishing local committees to
manage district affairs (Jather, 1964).
2.2.6.2 Ripon Resolution (1882)
Lord Ripon's Resolution emphasized administrative efficiency and political education,
advocating for elected local bodies. However, implementation faced resistance and slow
progress (Mathew, 2000).
2.2.6.3 Royal Commission on Decentralization (1907)
This commission recognized the importance of village panchayats, recommending their
development to engage locals in administration (Stephen, 2001).
2.2.6.4 Village Panchayat Act (1912) and Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (1919)
These acts aimed at statutory panchayats and local self-government, although they struggled
with organizational and fiscal limitations (Stephen, 2001).
2.2.6.5 Government of India Act (1935) and Gandhi's Vision (1942)
The 1935 Act granted provincial autonomy, encouraging democratization of local
governance. Mahatma Gandhi's vision for panchayats centered on grassroots democracy and
self-rule, forming the ideological foundation for India's national movement (Mathew, 2000).
References
Altekar, A. S. (1962). State and Government in Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass.
Bharati, A. (1994). Village and Village Panchayats in India. Indian Law Institute.
Chande, M. B. (2004). The Police in Ancient India. Atlantic Publishers.
Chandra, S. (2007). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals. Har-Anand Publications.
Chaurasia, R. S. (2004). History of Medieval India. Atlantic Publishers.
Jather, V. R. (1964). The Government of India Act, 1935. Government Press.
Jayaswal, K. P. (1967). Hindu Polity: A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times.
Bangalore Printing and Publishing Co.
Joshi, P. C. (2005). Rural Sociology. Indian Council of Social Science Research.
Khurana, K. L. (1996). Ancient India. Lakshmi Narain Agarwal Educational Publishers.
Mathew, G. (2000). Status of Panchayati Raj in the States and Union Territories of India.
Concept Publishing Company.
Murkerji, R. (1920). The Foundation of Indian Economics. Longmans, Green, and Co.
Stephen, M. L. (2001). Evolution of Panchayati Raj in India. Deep & Deep Publications.
Tinker, H. (1968). The Foundations of Local Self-Government in India, Pakistan and Burma.
Pall Mall Press.
a streamlined timeline of major milestones from ancient times to the 73rd Amendment of
the Indian Constitution in 1992, focusing on key developments in governance, social
reform, and rights in India:
Ancient Period
1. Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1300 BCE): Advanced urban culture emerges with
sophisticated city planning, trade, and governance.
2. Vedic Period (1500–500 BCE): Development of Hindu religious texts and social
structures, including the Varna system.
3. Mauryan Empire (322–185 BCE): Emperor Ashoka promotes Buddhism and social
welfare policies after the Kalinga War.
4. Gupta Empire (320–550 CE): Known as the "Golden Age" of India, advances in arts,
sciences, and the concept of local administration through village councils.
Medieval Period
5. Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE): Centralized rule in Northern India; introduction of
Islamic governance and architecture.
6. Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646 CE): Flourishing of South Indian culture, trade, and
military organization.
7. Mughal Empire (1526–1707 CE): Establishment of centralized governance, law, and
the spread of Persian culture. Akbar’s reign emphasizes religious tolerance and
administrative reforms.
Colonial Period
8. Arrival of European Traders (1498): Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British set up
trading posts, leading to colonial ambitions.
9. Battle of Plassey (1757): British East India Company gains control over Bengal,
marking the beginning of British colonial rule.
10. Formation of the Indian National Congress (1885): Platform for Indian leaders to
demand greater autonomy from British rule.
11. Partition of Bengal (1905): First major division along religious lines, sparking
widespread protests and the Swadeshi Movement.
12. Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919): Introduction of limited self-governance
through dyarchy in provinces.
13. Government of India Act (1935): Expands provincial autonomy and proposes an
Indian federation, setting the stage for independence.
Indian Independence Movement
14. Non-Cooperation Movement (1920): Led by Mahatma Gandhi, aimed at non-violent
resistance against British rule.
15. Civil Disobedience Movement (1930): Salt March to Dandi highlights resistance
against British monopoly.
16. Quit India Movement (1942): Demand for an end to British rule, marked by mass
protests and arrests.
Post-Independence (Constitutional Development)
17. Indian Independence Act (1947): India gains independence from British rule;
partition leads to the creation of India and Pakistan.
18. Adoption of the Indian Constitution (1950): Establishes India as a sovereign
democratic republic with a framework for rights and governance.
19. First General Elections (1951-1952): India’s first democratic elections, establishing
parliamentary democracy.
Social Reforms and Key Amendments
20. Abolition of Zamindari System (1951): Land reforms to remove feudal land
ownership structures.
21. Hindu Code Bills (1955-1956): Major reforms in Hindu personal law to promote
gender equality.
22. 42nd Amendment (1976): Adds the terms "socialist" and "secular" to the Preamble,
emphasizing India's commitment to social justice.
Towards Decentralization and Local Governance
23. 73rd Amendment (1992): Constitutional amendment that mandates the
establishment of Panchayati Raj institutions (rural local self-government) to empower
local governance. It provides a three-tier structure for Panchayats, mandatory
elections every five years, and reservation of seats for women, SCs, and STs.
Ancient Era:
Vedic Period:
Mention of "Sabha", "Samiti", and "Vidatha" in Rigveda - early forms of village assemblies
with decision-making power.
Epic Era (Ramayana, Mahabharata):
Panchayat system with a group of five elders governing villages, often with judicial and
executive powers.
Colonial Period:
British Raj:
Decline of traditional Panchayats due to centralized administration and dominance of upper
castes.
Lord Mayo's Resolution (1870):
Introduction of limited decentralization with local boards, but still under heavy bureaucratic
control.
Lord Rippon's Reforms (1882):
Increased elected representation on local boards, considered a milestone for local self-
governance.
Post-Independence Era:
Constitutional Provision (Article 40): Directive Principle to establish village
Panchayats with self-governance powers.
Key Committees and Developments:
Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957): Recommended a three-tier Panchayati Raj
system (Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti, Zilla Parishad).
First Panchayati Raj Acts (1959): Implementation of the three-tier system in various
states.
Ashok Mehta Committee (1978): Suggested further empowerment of Panchayats
with taxation powers and constitutional recognition
73rd Constitutional Amendment (1992):
Legal Mandate: Panchayati Raj system given constitutional status with specific
powers and functions.
Three-Tier Structure: Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti, Zilla Parishad.
Reservation for Women and SC/STs: Mandatory representation of marginalized
groups in Panchayats.
Recent Trends:
Focus on Capacity Building: Training programs for elected representatives to
enhance their skills
Financial Decentralization: Increased allocation of funds to Panchayats to implement
development projects
Technology Adoption: Utilizing digital platforms to improve transparency and
accountability
Visual Representation:
Timeline: Key milestones from ancient times to the 73rd Amendment
Pyramid Chart: Three-tier structure of Panchayati Raj
Icons: Representing key functions like rural development, healthcare, education, and
sanitation
