Mass Transfer -1 (BCHE207L)

Module:5
Humidification
Dr. Kuldeep Roy
Assistant Professor
School of Chemical Engineering (SCHEME)
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
Email ID: [email protected]
Description of cooling tower- construction and operation
• A cooling tower is a special type of heat exchanger in which the warm water
and the air are brought in direct contact for evaporative cooling.

• It must provide a very good contact of air and water in terms of the contact
area and mass transfer coefficient of water vapour while keeping the air
pressure drop low.

• The first water cooling tower was built in the USA by George Stocker in 1898.
It was a wooden packed tower.
Generalized cooling tower system
Cooling tower
The important factors that govern the operation of a cooling tower are:
(i) the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of the air;
(ii) the temperature of warm water;
(iii) the efficiency of contact between air and water in terms of the volumetric
mass transfer coefficient and the contact time between the air and the
water;
(iv) the uniformity of distribution of the phases within the tower;
(v) the air pressure drop;
(vi) the desired temperature of the cooled water.
A tower is irrigated at the top through nozzles. A large air–water contact area
and contact time are offered by a typical tower packing. Air may enter the tower
driven by a density gradient (natural draft), may be pushed into the tower
(forced draft) at the base or sucked into the tower (induced draft) assisted by a
fan.
Cooling tower
Several types of cooling towers have been designed on the basis of the factors
and operating strategies. The types of cooling towers are classified and
described below.
Atmospheric tower
An atmospheric tower consists of a big rectangular chamber with two opposite louvered
walls. The tower is packed with a suitable tower fill. Atmospheric air enters the tower
through the louvers driven by its own velocity. An atmospheric tower is cheap but
inefficient. Its performance largely depends upon the direction and velocity of wind.
Natural Draft Towers
• A natural draft cooling tower has a large reinforced concrete shell of hyperbolic shape (also
called ‘hyperbolic tower’).

• A small part of it near the bottom is filled with a high void packing consisting of inclined
wood or PVC battens of suitable size fitted into slots along the supporting frames.

• Alternative layers of battens run in perpendicular directions.

• The warm water splashes to form droplets as it falls from one batten to the next lower.

• Evaporation, and the resulting cooling of water, occurs at the water film on the battens as
well as on the surface of a droplet. A few layers of batten placed above the water
distributor act as the drift eliminator, which arrests fine water droplets that tend to be
carried away by the up-flowing air.
Natural Draft Towers
A natural draft tower is so called because natural flow of
air occurs through the tower.
Two factors are responsible for creating the natural draft:
(i) rise in temperature and humidity of air in the
column reduces its density and
(ii) the wind velocity at the tower bottom.
The pressure drop across the tower is low and the air
velocity above the packing may vary from 1–1.5 m/s.
Air enters the tower at the bottom through the large
openings in between the supporting columns and moves
countercurrent to water.
In some cases, a few fans are installed at the bottom to
enhance the air flow rate. This type of tower is called
‘fan-assisted’ natural draft tower. Figure Counterflow natural draft tower
Natural Draft Towers
Natural draft towers are used in big installations like steam power plants requiring a huge
quantity of cooling water.
The diameter may be as large as 100 m and the height about 150 m and the capacity may
be as high as 500,000 gpm (gallons per minute) water.
The hyperbolic shape is made because of the following reasons:
(i) more packing can be fitted in the bigger area at the bottom of the shell;
(ii) the entering air gets smoothly directed towards the center because of the shape of the
wall, producing a strong upward draft; and
(iii) greater structural strength and stability of the shell is provided by this shape. The initial
cost of a hyperbolic tower is high.
However, the absence of a fan reduces the fixed cost and particularly the operating and
maintenance costs making it economical over a long period of time.
Mechanical Draft Towers
Because of their huge shape, construction difficulties and cost, natural draft
towers have been replaced by mechanical draft towers in many installations.
Compact and relatively small size units of rectangular shape are now available
and preferred in process industries and petroleum refineries.
A mechanical draft tower uses fans to move the air through the tower.
The two types of such towers are:
(i) forced draft towers, and
(ii) induced draft towers.
Mechanical Draft Towers (Forced draft towers)
It has one or more fans located at the tower bottom to push air into the tower. This is why it
is called forced draft. The air flows counter-current to water.
The advantages of the forced draft system are the following:
(i) A part of the velocity head of air thrown by the blower is converted to pressure head on
entering into the tower. This makes the forced draft tower slightly more energy efficient
than the induced draft type.
(ii) The system is less susceptible to vibrations because the fans are installed near the
ground on a solid foundation.
The disadvantages of the forced draft system are:
(i) the air flow through the packing or fill may not be uniform, particularly if the tower is big
and a big fan is used;
(ii) some of the warm and humid air may be recirculated back into the tower thereby
reducing the performance.
The recirculation rate becomes low if the wind velocity is high. Forced draft towers are not
very popular except for small capacities
Mechanical Draft Towers (Forced draft towers)

Figure: Schematic of a forced draft cooling tower

 Mechanical Draft Towers (Induced draft towers)
• An induced draft tower has one or more fans located at the top. The fans suck fresh
air through the air inlets at the bottom. The air flow or draft is ‘induced’ by the
suction created by the fans and hence the name.
• The induced draft tower may be of two types—crossflow and counterflow—
depending upon the air inlet and flow pattern.
• In a ‘counterflow induced draft tower’, a vertical movement of air countercurrent to
the warm water occurs. The major advantage of this flow configuration is that the
relatively dry air contacts the coldest water at the bottom, and the humid air
contacts the warm water at the top of the tower. This ensures maximum average
driving force for both heat and mass transfer. But more fan horsepower is required
because of the restricted area of air flow at the bottom and, unlike the forced draft
system, the velocity head of the air thrown out of the tower by the fan is dissipated.
• The crossflow induced draft cooling tower provides horizontal air flow along the
packed height. The air flow is crosscurrent to the down-flowing water. Louvers are
provided all along the walls of the tower to allow the air to move in. For the same air
flow rate, the tower requires less motor horsepower than the counterflow type. But
the growth of algae on the fills is more because the tower interior gets more sunlight
through the larger number of louvers.
 Mechanical Draft Towers (Induced draft towers)

Figure Schematic of a counterflow-induced draft Figure Schematic of a crossflow induced draft cooling tower.
cooling tower.
Structural components of a cooling tower
The major structural components of a cooling tower are:
(i) the shell or the framework and casing walls,
(ii) the tower fill,
(iii) the louvers,
(iv) the drift eliminator,
(v) The water distributor,
(vi) the cold water basin,
(vii)the fan deck and fan cylinders, and
(viii) mechanical equipment supports.
Cooling tower calculations

An air–water contacting tower may have three major applications:

1) evaporative cooling of warm water from the cooling water circuit in a

plant,

2) cooling of a hot gas by direct contact with cool water, and

3) dehumidification of a warm moist gas in contact with cool water.

Sizing of a cooling tower
For sizing a cooling tower we primarily need to calculate:
(i) the tower cross-section required to take the given load of warm water, and
(ii) the height of packing required to achieve the desired cooling of the water.
We have to write down the mass and enthalpy balance equations for the air
and the water streams over a thin section of the tower and integrate these
equations for the calculation of the required height of packing.
The following analysis is based on a few assumptions:
(i) The rate of vaporization of water is much less than the rate of water input
to the tower; and
(ii) adiabatic cooling of water occurs in the tower (there is no heat gain or loss
at the tower wall).
Sizing of a cooling tower
Let L (kg/m2s) be the ‘constant’ rate of water
flow and Gs be the air flow rate [expressed in
(kg dry air)/m2s].
The temperature of water decreases by dTL
and the enthalpy of the air increases by dH’
across a differential thickness dz of the bed.
Then the change in the enthalpy of the water
= LcwLdTL, and the change in the enthalpy of
the gas = GsdH’. The differential enthalpy
balance over a thin slice of the bed in Figure
is given by
(A)

The enthalpy balance over the envelope I Figure Mass and enthalpy balance in a
gives cooling tower
(B)
Sizing of a cooling tower
• Equation (B) is the operating line for the air–water contact. Since L, cwL and Gs
remain unchanged along the tower, it is a straight line on the TL–H plane
having a slope of LcwL/Gs.
• Also making an enthalpy balance over the entire tower, we get the following
relation
(C)

• It appears from Eqs. (B) and (C) that the operating line may the obtained by
joining the terminal points (TL1, H’1) and (TL2, H’2).
• The ‘equilibrium curve’ for the air–water system on the TL–H’ plane is the plot
of enthalpy of saturated air versus the liquid temperature at equilibrium.
• As in other heterogeneous contacting, we assume that equilibrium prevails at
the gas–liquid interface, i.e. the temperature and enthalpy of air at the air–
water interface (TLi, H’i) lie on the equilibrium line.
Sizing of a cooling tower
Sizing of a cooling tower
The rate of transfer of water vapour to air in the differential volume is
(D)

The decrease in the temperature of the gas because of sensible heat transfer to the water is
given by
(E)
The differential form of Eq. (F) is multiplied by Gs and then Eqs. (D) and (E) are used to yield

(F)
Sizing of a cooling tower

• Using the definition of enthalpy of the gas

• The above equation is unique in the sense that the change in the energy content of the gas
over the differential thickness dz is expressed in terms of a transport coefficient and the
‘enthalpy driving force’. The height of packing in the cooling tower can be obtained by
integrating the above equation

(G)
Sizing of a cooling tower

(H)
A simplified design equation based on the overall enthalpy transfer coefficient
• If an overall enthalpy transfer coefficient KY’ is used, the differential mass balance becomes

• Here H’* is the enthalpy of the saturated air at a temperature equal to the bulk liquid
temperature,TL.
On integration,

The above integral is the number of overall gas-phase enthalpy transfer units.

(I)

The above method is often called the ‘Marked method’ and the integral representing NtOG,
the ‘Marked Integral’.
Expression of the overall enthalpy transfer coefficient in terms of the individual coefficients
• If the individual gas-phase enthalpy transfer coefficient kY’ and the liquid-phase heat
transfer coefficient hL are known, these can be combined to express the overall coefficient.
• Since TL is the bulk water temperature and TLi is the temperature at the air–water interface,
the flux of energy transport from the liquid may be written as

• From above equations

Step-by-step design procedure
1) Specify the inlet and outlet temperatures and the flow rate of warm water. These
quantities are governed by the requirement of cooling water in the heat
exchangers and other cooling devices in a plant.
2) Select the design values of the dry-bulb and the wet-bulb temperature of air at
the proposed geographical location of the cooling tower. The relevant data are
available at the weather office in the region.
3) Draw the ‘equilibrium curve’, i.e. the saturation–humidity curve. The enthalpy
data can be calculated using the vapour pressure equation for water and the
physical properties of air and water vapour.
4) Locate the lower terminal of the operating line Q on the TL–H’ plane by the point
(TL1, H1’). This point indicates the condition at the bottom of the tower in the case
of water cooling.
5) Draw a tangent to the equilibrium line through the point Q. The slope of this
tangent gives the ratio of the liquid and the minimum gas flow rates. The water
rate is given. The minimum air rate is calculated. The actual air rate taken is
usually 1.25 to 1.5 times the minimum. This step is not relevant if the air rate is
given.
 Step-by-step design procedure
6) The upper terminal of the operating line is located by point P(TL2, H2’). It is the point
where the operating line of the slope determined in step (e) meets the vertical line
through TL2. It can also be located by calculating top end enthalpy H2’ Eq.(C).
7) Evaluate the integral in Eqs.

8) This is the number of gas-phase enthalpy transfer units. The volumetric transfer
coefficients are required for this purpose. As described above, set of
parallel lines of slope is drawn between the operating line and the
equilibrium line. The values of H’ and H’i are taken from the terminals of these lines.
The integral is evaluated numerically or graphically.
9) If the overall enthalpy transfer coefficient KY’ is known and used, the ‘tie lines’ are
vertical. For a given value of H’, the value of H’* is given by the point on the
equilibrium line vertically above it. The integral in the Eq. (I) gives the number of
overall transfer units in this case.
10) The height of a transfer unit is calculated from Eq. . The
packed height is the product of the height of a transfer unit and the number of
transfer units.
Step-by-step design procedure
Example-1
Warm water at 45°C is to be cooled to 30°C by countercurrent contact with air
in a tower packed with wood slats. The inlet air has a dry-bulb temperature of
31°C and a wet bulb temperature of 22°C. The mass flow rate of water is 6000
kg/m2h and that of air is 1.4 times the minimum. The individual gas-phase mass
transfer coefficient is

The volumetric water-side heat transfer coefficient is given by

in kcal/m3hK
where L and Gs are mass flow rates of water and air (dry basis).
Determine (a) the dry air flow rate to be used, (b) the height of packing, and (c)
the wet bulb depression at the bottom of the tower.
Summary (Important Formula for cooling tower design)
Solution
Solution Temperature, oC Hi kJ/kgoC Hi kcal/kgoC
• Equilibrium Curve data
20 57.3973 13.7182
25 76.2669 18.2282
30 99.6709 23.8219
35 128.9816 30.8273
40 166.0171 39.6790
45 213.2337 50.9641
50 274.0351 65.4960
55 353.2896 84.4382
60 458.2389 109.5325
65 600.1868 143.4481
70 797.8856 190.6992
75 1084.9915 259.3192
80 1528.7248 365.3740
Solution
Solution (Step – 1 Draw the Equilibrium Curve)

Equilibrium Curve
Solution (Step – 2 Find the minimum gas flow rate required)

Equilibrium Curve

Slope = 10.76

(TL1, H1)

(30,64.3)
Solution (Step – 3 Find the actual gas flow rate required)
Solution (Step – 3 Find the Operating line data)
Solution (Step – 4 Draw the Operating Line)

Equilibrium Curve

(TL2, H2)
(45,179.53)

Operating Line
Slope = 7.68
(TL1, H1)

(30,64.3)
Solution (Step – 5 Calculate the slope of the tie line)
Solution (Step – 6 Draw the tie lines)

Tie Lines (Slope = - 11.4)

Solution (Step – 7 Get the enthalpy of air in bulk and at the interface)

TL,oC 30 35 40 45
Hi, kJ/kg 89 118 156 198
H, kJ/kg 64.3 101 141.4 179
Solution (Step – 8 Calculate 1/(Hi-H) using the data)

TL,oC 30 35 40 45
Hi, kJ/kg 89 118 156 198
H, kJ/kg 64.3 101 141.4 179
1/(Hi-H), kJ/kg 0.0405 0.0588 0.0685 0.0526
Solution (Step – 9 Plot 1/(Hi-H) Vs. H)

Ntg = Area under the curve = 6.67

64.3 179
Solution (Step – 9 Alternative method - Numerical methods to find Ntg)
H, kJ/kg 64.3 101 141.4 179 x
1/(Hi-H), kJ/kg 0.0405 0.0588 0.0685 0.0526 f(x)

• Simpson method will produce less error for the given data, suppose we use
Trapezoidal method, then
Solution (Step – 10 Calculate Htg using the given data)
Solution using Kern Formula
Kerns method solution using numerical methods
Example-2
A cooling tower receives warm water at 43°C at a mass flow rate of 7000
kg/m2h. A cooling range of 13°C is to be achieved by countercurrent contact
with air. The air enters at a rate of 4200 kg/m2h at a dry-bulb temperature of
31°C and a humidity of 0.01516 kg/(kg dry air).
The overall volumetric mass transfer coefficient is

(a) Determine the number of overall gas-phase transfer units and the height of
packing.
(b) Plot the gas temperature profile along the tower.
Solution
Solution
Solution
Solution