Cargo Handling and Stowage
Strength of Ships
The hulls of ships are subjected to a number of loads;
Even when sitting at dockside or at anchor, the pressure of surrounding
water displaced by the ship presses in on its hull.
The weight of the hull, and of cargo and components within the ship bears
down on the hull.
Wind blows against the hull, and waves run into it.
When a ship moves, there is additional hull drag, the force of propellers,
water driven up against the bow.
When a ship is loaded with cargo, it may have many times its own empty
weight of cargo pushing down on the structure (Wikipedia, 2015).
If the ship's structure, equipment, and cargo are distributed unevenly
there may be large point loads into the structure, and if they are
distributed differently from the distribution of buoyancy from
displaced water then there are bending forces on the hull.
STRESS ON SHIPS
The modern ship is made up steel plating, section and
builds up girders so connected as to provide adequate
strength in all parts to withstand the forces acting on the
ship under all condition of service. The forces acting on a
ship may be static or dynamic.
STATIC FORCES
The static forces are due to the difference in the weight and
buoyancy, which occur through out the ship.
These forces create:
Longitudinal stress
Transverse stress
Local stress
LONGITUDINAL STRESS
Longitudinal Stresses created by Hogging and Sagging
can be very severe and can cause a ship to break up.
The stresses are resisted by all continuous longitudinal
material especially those parts further from the neutral
axis. Double bottoms, i.e., centre girder, side girders,
inner bottom and outer bottom longitudinals, keel and
bottom shell, tank top plating. The side shell at the top
(the Sheer strake) and deck stringer plates. As the
decks, longitudinal girders and deck longitudinals also
help resist the stresses, In tankers, longitudinal
bulkheads also give great strength. Special steels for
high-stress areas are now used, especially in large ships.
HOGGING
Longitudinal bending stress would occur if the ship were
subjected to local loading at the fore end and after
ends, (e.g. ship with machinery aft and in light
condition with ballasted fore peak tank) the hull would
tend to ‘hog’. This effect would be made worse if the
wave crest were amidships with wave length similar to
ship length as shown.
HOGGING DUE TO WAVES
HOGGING DUE TO DISCONTINUITY IN LOADING
Consider a ship loaded with the weights concentrated at the bow and
the stern, which tends to droop. This leads to hogging of the ship hull.
SAGGING
If the load and the buoyancy distribution tended to distort the
hull as shown (e.g.,. could be a ship with machinery amidships
in light condition), is termed as sagging. This is made worse
when the wave crests are at the ends of the ship, with a
wavelength similar to ship length.
Sagging Due To Waves
In a heavy seaway, a ship may be supported at the ends by the
crestsof waves while the middle remains unsupported. If the wave
trough is now considered at midships then the buoyancy in this
region will be reduced. With the wave crest positioned at the ends
of the ship, the buoyancy here will be increased. This loading
condition will result in a bending moment which will cause the ship
to sag.
TRANSVERSE STRESSES
A transverse section of amidships is subjected to static pressure
due to the surrounding water as well as internal loading due to
the weight of the structure, cargo, etc.
The parts of the structure, which resist transverses, are
Transverse bulkhead
Floor in the double bottom
Bracket between deck beam and side frame, together with
bracket between side frame and tank top plating, or margin plate.
The pillars in hole and tween deck.
Racking
When a ship is rolling in a seaway or is struck by beam waves,
the ship’s structure is liable to distort in a transverse direction
as shown. The stress mainly affects the corners of the ship, i.e.,
on the tank side brackets and the beam knees, which must be
made strong enough to resist it. Transverse bulkheads, frames
and web frames provide very great strength to resist racking.
Water Pressure
Water pressure acts perpendicular to the shell of the ship,
increasing with depth. The effect is to push the ship’s sides in
and the bottom up. It is resisted by frames, bulkheads, floor and
girders.
LOCAL DYNAMIC STRESSES
Panting
Panting is an in and out motion of the plating which
occurs at the end of the vessel due to the variation in
water pressure as the vessel pitches in a seaway. The
effect is accentuated at the bow when making headway.
Pounding
When a ship is pitching, the bows often lift clear of the
water and then slam down heavily onto the sea,
subjecting the forepart to severe pounding. TO
compensate for this, the bottom is strengthened to
0.25L aft of F.P.
To resist pounding, the forward bottom structure is
strengthened for between 25% and 30% of the length,
depending on the ships Cb. Plate floors are fitted on
each frame station (transverse framing) or alternate
frame stations (longitudinal framing) with intercostal
side girders not more than 2.2m apart.
DYNAMIC FORCES
The dynamic effects arise from the motion of the ship itself. A
ship among waves as three linear motions.
Dynamic Forces
Surging: The forward and aft linear motion (along x) of a ship is called surging.
Heaving: The vertical up and down linear motion (along y) of a ship is called
heaving.
Swaying: The side to side linear motion (along z) of a ship is called swaying.
Rolling: The rotational motion of a ship about longitudinal axis is called rolling.
Yawing: The rotational motion of a ship about vertical axis is called yawing.
Pitching: The rotational motion of a ship about transverse axis is called pitching.
STRESS CALCULATION
Important to gather a large pool of statistical data
based on which we can develop empirical relationships
to directly predict hull stresses of a ship for a given sea
state and route. The different technologies which
would enable us to gather this valuable data:
STRAIN GAUGES
Strain gauges are the oldest among
the technologies to measure hull
stresses. These make use of
calibrated devices that express the
stress upon the sample in terms of
the strain induced on it.
Strain gauges are commonly of the
foil (electro-resistive) type, although
new technology is at hand these
days, sometimes providing better
accuracy.
Short baseline gauges are excellent for measuring shear stresses,
along with their low cost, and ability to be installed in small places
(measuring ¼ th of an inch). They are ideal for stresses at
‘hotspots’. The gauge matrix is safe for operation in explosive
atmospheres by virtue of their small voltages. Disadvantages include
directional accuracy and temperature errors.
Long baseline gauges are used for hull girder stress measurements
on commercial ships. The relative accuracy of their operation
depends on how closely they resemble uniaxial members. This
means they cannot be subjected to secondary stresses (stresses
arising as a result of internal adjustments in strain and not because
of loading). These devices use potentiometers (cheap, limited life),
transformers (longer life) or transducers (larger life, expensive).
Derived moment and stress calculations are done using
motion sensors in combination with calculated response
characteristics. These are location specific but have not
cleared the requirements of some classification
societies.
New technology has now found its way into application
onboard ships, some examples in stress measurement
include fibre optics, acoustic, LASERs, motion based
stress monitoring, FDS.
FIBER OPTIC
Fiber optic strain gauges have
been developed and deployed,
they are inexpensive but the
cost of their coupling is quite
high and beyond the current
expenditure trends. Their
reliability is also a big concern.
But, they may just develop a
niche in military applications,
explosive environments,
composites and low weight
applications etc.
ACOUSTIC
Acoustic strain gauges are capable
of operating without direct contact.
These have been traditionally used
for bridges, but we might see them
being extended to ships one day.
Advantages include the ability to
penetrate paint, rust and other
surface obstructions. Although they
have to be economically viable for
onboard application besides
calibration.
LASER / RADAR RANGING
The application of these to ship hull structures have their own
advantages and disadvantages. If applied, they would need to be
operated using shorter wavelengths offering higher accuracy which
would obviously come at a cost- both price and power consumption.
These are susceptible to errors from environmental conditions like
atmospheric moisture when operated at short wavelengths.
MOTION BASED STRESS
MONITORING
This method is quite the topic of research
today, with emphasis laid upon racking
stresses resulting from roll / sway motions
in ships. Real time motion measurements
are taken during voyage and compared
with predicted response according to finite
element analysis. Results generally show
good co-relation with derived
measurements. This method would aid
several procedures and decision making
during voyage. It also complement the
iterative design process.
FATIGUE DAMAGE SENSORS
(FDS)
Used to estimate the fatigue life of ship
structural member subjected to wave loads
and other forms of loading from the marine
environment. These are sometimes similar in
size and integration to strain gauges and are
often used in conjunction. The sensor reacts
to the strains in a structure and this strain
causes cracking in it. The length of the crack
is in direct relation with the fatigue life.
Currently this technology is being verified for
accuracy by comparison with conventional
fatigue assessment methods.
down in the center, known as
sagging
up in the center, known as
hogging
BULK CARRIER HULL STRUCTURAL PROBLEMS
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