MAT 205 LINEAR ALGEBRA (2 UNITS)

Course Content:
Vector space over the real field, Subspace, linear independence, basic and dimension.
Linear transformations and their representation by matrices-range, null space, Rank,
singular and non-singular transformation and matrices, Algebra of matrices.
DEFINITION OF A MATRIX
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers that are enclosed within brackets. It can be
further defined as a set of real or complex numbers (or elements) arranged in rows and
columns to form a rectangular array. Aij={aij/m x n}.
A matrix having m rows and n columns is called a m x n (i.e. m by n) matrix and is
referred to as having order m x n. Matrices are denoted by the upper case (capital letter)
bold face roman letters (A,B, etc) and elements by italicized lower case letter (a ij, bij, etc)

A matrix is indicated by writing the array within brackets, e.g (56 7 2

3 8 )
is a 2 x 3 matrix

i.e. 2 by 3 matrix, where 5,7,2,6,3,8 are the elements of matrix.

Note that, in describing the matrix, the number of rows is stated first and the number of
columns second.

( )
5 6 4
2 −3 2
is a matrix of order 4 x 3, i.e 4 rows and 3 columns.
7 8 7
6 7 5

( )
6 4
So the matrix 0 1 is of order 3 x 2 and the matrix
2 3
2 5 3
6 7 4 ( 4
9)is of order 2 x 4

A matrix with only one row of elements is called a row matrix. A matrix with only one
column of elements is called column matrix.
e.g ( 4 3 7 2 ) is a row matrix of order 1 x 4 up

()
6
3 is a column matrix of order 3 x 1.
8
To conserve space in printing, a column matrix is sometimes written on one line but with
‘ curly’ brackets e.g { 6 3 8 } is the same column matrix of order 3 x 1.
So, from what we have already said:
a) (52) is column matrix of order 2 x 1
b) ( 4 0 7 3 ) is a row matrix of order 1 x 4
c) { 2 6 9 } is a column matrix of order 3 x 1
Single element matrix: A single number may be regarded as a 1 x 1 matrix, i.e having 1
row and 1 column.
Double suffix notation: Each element in a matrix has its own particular ‘address’ or
location which can be defined by a system of double suffixes, the first indicating the row,
the second the column, thus:

( )
a11 a12 a13 a 14
i=row
a21 a22 a23 a 24 NB: (−1 )i+ j
j=column
a31 a32 a33 a 34
∴ a23 indicates the element in the second row and third column.
Therefore, in the matrix

( )
6 −5 1 −3
2 −4 8 3
4 −7 −6 5
−2 9 7 −1
the location of :
a) the element 3 can be stated as a 24
b) the element −1can be stated as a 44
c) the element 9 can be stated as a 42
Examples:

( )
1 2 3
A= (
1 2
−1 0 ) B= 3 1 2 C=
2 3 1
1 2 4
3 1 0 ( )
A is a 2 x 2 square matrix while B is a 3 x 3 square matrix. C is a 2 x 3 matrix [ 1 2 4 ]

and [ 3 1 0 ] are rows and its columns are [ 13] ,[ 21] ,[ 40 ]

Exercises: Given the ffg matrices

[ ]
3 4
A. 1. 3 −1
2 3
2. [−23 −1 0
1 4 ] 3. [ 20 12]
Write out the rows and columns.
B. State the orders of the ffg matrices:

[ ] [ ] [ ]
x y
3 6 x y 1
i) [ 10 01] ii) 9 2
−1 5
iii) 1 x
y 1
y
x
iv)
z 1
2 z
y 3
C. Write down an example of:
i) 3 x 2 matrix
ii) 2 x 4 matrix
iii) 3 x 3 matrix
iv) 1 x 4 matrix
D. How many elements are in a matrix of order:
i) 2x2
ii) 1x3
iii) 3x2
iv) 2x4

[ ]
6 y z
x 1 5
E. Given that P= identify the row and column in which the ffg
1 3 −4
−1 2 w
elements appear: a) 5 b) -4 c) y d) -1

F. Which of these matrices is not a square matrix?

[ ] [ ]
1 2 3 a b c d
i) [ 1] ii) [ ]
1 2
3 4
iii) 2 0 2
2 −1 4
iv) 1 2 3 4
0 0 0 0
G. Using letters write down two examples each of the ffg order of matrices
i) 1x3 ii) 2 x 2 iii) 3 x 3 iv) 4 x 2

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF MATRICES

To be added or subtracted, two matrices must be of the same order. The sum or difference
is then determined by adding or subtracting corresponding elements.
Example
1. [ 4 2 3 1 8 9
+
][
=
][
4+1 2+ 8 3+9
5 7 6 3 5 4 5+ 3 7 +5 6 +4
=
5 10 12
8 12 10 ][ ]
Addition
2. Add up the matrices:

[ ] [ ]
2 4 3 3 1 2
A= 3 2 1 B= 1 3 1
0 1 −2 −2 −1 3
Solution

[ ][ ]
2+3 4+ 1 3+2 5 5 5
A+ B= 3+1 2+3 1+1 = 4 5 2
0−2 1−1 −2+3 −2 0 1
Ex:

3. [ 62 5 4 1 1 4 2 3
+
][
3 −7 8 6 −1 0 5
=[ ]
]
Subtraction

[ ][ ][ ][ ]
8 3 6 1 2 3 8−1 3−2 6−3 7 1 3
4. 5 2 7 − 4 5 6 = 5−4 2−5 7−6 = 1 −3 1
1 0 4 7 8 9 1−7 0−8 4−9 −6 −8 −5

5. If A= [ 42 −1 −2
3 1
, B=
] [
2 −2 3
1 −1 4 ]
Evaluate A-B

A−B=
[ 4−2
2−1
−1−−2 −2−3
3−−1 1−4
=
][
2 1 −5
1 4 −3 ]
Ex:

Given that A= [ 29 83] , B=[12 59]∧C=[ 36 75]

Evaluate a) A+B-C b) A+C-B c) C+B-A
Note that subtraction of matrices is not commutative.
MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES
1. Scalar Multiplication
To multiply a matrix by a single number (i.e a scalar), each individual element of the
matrix is multiplied by that factor.
e.g 4 × [ 3 2 5
6 1 7
=
12 8 20
24 4 28][ ]
i.e, In general, k(aij) = (kaij)
It also means that, in reverse, we can take a common factor out of every element – not
just one row or one column as in determinants,

Therefore, [ 1035 25 45
15 50 ]
can be written as 5 ×
2 5 9
7 3 10 [ ]
2. Multiplication of two matrices
Two matrices can be multiplied together only when the number of columns in the first is
equal to the number of rows in the second,
e.g

[]
b1
if A=( aij )= [ a 11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a 23 ] and b= ( ij ) b 2
b =
b3

Then
multiplier

][ ]
⃗ b1
a a
[a
A . B= 11 12 13 b2
a 21 a22 a23
b3
multiplicant

¿
[ a11 b1 +a 12 b2 + a13 b 3
a21 b 1+ a22 b 2+ a23 b 3 ]
Example 1:

][ ] [
8
[ 4 7 6
2 3 1
5=
9
4 × 8+7 ×5+ 6 ×9 32+35+54
2 × 8+3 ×5+1 ×9
=
16+15+ 9
= ][
121
40 ][ ]

[]
3

[ 2 3 5 1 4
4 6 0 7 2
= ] [
2 ×3+3 × 4+5 × 2+ 1× 9
4 ×3+6 × 4 +0 ×2+7 × 9
=
6+12+10+ 9
12+ 24+0+ 63
=
37
99 ][ ][ ]
9

[ ]
1 5
Example 2: If A=( aij )= 2 7 ∧B=( bij )=
3 4
8 4 3 1
2 5 8 6 [ ]
 [ ][
1 5
Then A . B= 2 7
3 4
8 4 3 1
2 5 8 6 ]
[ ]
1× 8+5 ×2 1× 4 +5 ×5 1× 3+5 ×8 1× 1+5 ×6
AB= 2× 8+7 × 2 2× 4 +7 ×5 2× 3+7 ×8 2× 1+7 ×6
3 × 8+4 ×2 3 × 4+ 4 × 5 3 ×3+ 4 × 8 3 ×1+ 4 × 6

[ ]
8+10 4 +25 3+ 40 1+30
¿ 16+ 14 8+35 6+ 56 2+ 42
24 +8 12+ 20 9+32 3+ 24

[ ]
18 29 43 31
¿ 30 43 62 44
32 32 41 27
Note that multiplying a (3 x 2) matrix and a (2 x 4) matrix gives a product matrix of order
(3 x 4)
i.e order (3 x 2) x order (2 x 4)
order (3 x 4)
In general then, the product of an (1 x m) matrix and an (m x n) matrix has order (1 x
n).
Exercise:

1. Find the product of A and B if A= [ 31 22]∧B=[ 21 33]

[ ]
3 2
2. Multiply 1 3 by
2 1
[
1 2 1
2 1 3 ]

3. Multiply the ffg:

 [] []
2
10
a) ( 2 3 6 ) 8 b) ( 1 0 1 )
12
1
0 [] c) ( 2 4 3 )
−3
−1
d)
2

[ ][ ] [ ][ ]
2 3 1 2 1 2
1 2 −1
4 1 2 −1 e) −2 1 f)
3 1 2
3 2 2 3 3 0

[ ][ ]
a b c 1 2 3
d e f × 2 2 1
g h i 3 1 2

4. [ 45 23]−2[ 13 42]=[ac db]

If 3 × find a,b,c and d.

If P=[ [ 21 −13 ]. Find the matrix product; a) PQ b) QP c) P

4 2]
3 1
5. , Q= 2

6. If A= (31 42)∧B=(13 22), evaluate a) AB b) BA Note: AB≠ BA

7. If P= [ 24 36 ], evaluate 3P – 2P
SQUARE MATRICES
Definition: Given an m x n matrix. If m=n, i.e, when the number of rows = the number of
columns = n, then the n x n matrix is called a square matrix of order n.
Example: Consider the matrices

1. A=
[ 21 10] This has order of 2 i.e a 2 x 2 matrix.

[ ]
1 3 4
2. 4 0 −1 This has an order of 3 i.e a 3 x 3 matrix.
−3 1 2

ZERO OR NULL MATRIX

A matrix in which every element is zero is called a zero matrix. Zero matrix or null
matrix can have any order.
For example:

A=
[ 00 0 0
0 0 ]
is a zero matrix of order 3
[ ]
0 0 0
0 0 0 3 x 3 square matrix.
0 0 0

DIAGONAL MATRIX
A diagonal matrix is a square matrix in which every off diagonal element is zero. That is,
if A=[aij] is a diagonal matrix then aij = 0 for i≠ j

[ ]
2 0 0
Example: consider a 3 x 3 square matrix given as 0 2 0 every other element is equal
0 0 1
to zero except a11 = 2, a22 = 2 and a33 = 1

TRIANGULAR MATRICES
A square matrix A = (aij) of matrix n is an upper triangular matrix if all entries below the
main diagonal are all zeros. That is, if aij = 0 for i > j where I,j = 1,…,n

[ ]
a11 a 12 a13 ⋯ a1 n
0 a 22 a23 … a2 n
This is written as follows: A=
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
0 0 0 … amn

Similarly, a square matrix A = (aij) of order n is a lower triangular matrix if its elements
aij = 0 for i < j where I,j = 1,…,n. In other words, a lower triangular matrix is a square
matrix whose entries above the main diagonal are zero, and it is written as follows:

[ ]
a11 0 0 ⋯ 0
a a 21 0 … 0
A= 21
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
a n1 an 2 an 3 … anm

[ ]
1 1 2
Example: The matrix given as 0 1 2
0 0 1
Is an upper triangular matrix of order 3

[ ]
2 0 0 0
4 2 0 0
While is a lower triangular matrix of order 4.
3 2 1 0
1 1 1 1
UNIT MATRIX OR IDENTITY MATRIX
A unit matrix or identity matrix is a square matrix of order n having all its diagonal
element unit and zero elements elsewhere. It is denoted by the symbol In and it is written
as follows:

[ ]
1 0 0 ⋯ 0
0 1 0 … 0
I n= A=
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
0 0 0 … 1
The role or importance of the special matrix In lies in the fact that it plays a role similar to
that of the number 1 in a real number system.
Example: The matrix I3 given as [ 1 0 0 ]

EQUALITY OF MATRICES
Two matrices A,B of the same order m x n are equally written A = B if and only if the
corresponding elements are equal, that is aij = bij for every I,j. where A = (aij) and B =
(bij).
Example: The matrices given as

[ ]
2 3
A= [
2 1 3
3 1 1 ]
∧B= 1 1
3 1
A ≠ B since A is a matrix of 2 x 3 and B is a matrix of 3 x 2.
Example: The matrices

A=
[ 42 1 3
1 5] [
B=
2 1 3
2 1 5 ]
are equal.

TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
If the rows and columns of a matrix are interchanged:
i.e the first row becomes the first column
the second row becomes the second column
the third row becomes the third column, etc.
Then the new matrix so formed is called the transpose of the original matrix. If A is the
original matrix, its transpose is denoted by A1 or AT
Examples

[ ]
4 6

2 5
T
If A= 7 9 , then A =
4 7 2
6 9 5 [ ]
Therefore, given that

[ ]
4 0
A= [ 2 7 6
3 1 5 ]
∧B= 3 7
1 5
find (AB)T

][ ]
4 0
Then A . B= [ 2 7 6
3 1 5
3 7
1 5

¿
[23×× 4+7
4 +1× 3+5 ×1 3 ×0+1 ×7 +5 ×5 ]
× 3+6 ×1 2× 0+7 ×7 +6 ×5

¿
[8+12+3+ 5 0+7+25 ] [ 20 32 ]
21+ 6 0+49+30
=
35 79

( AB ) =[ 35 30 ]
T
79 32

SYMMETRIC MATRIX
Let A be an n x n square matrix. If the transpose of A is equal to A (i.e, AT = A) then A is
called a symmetric matrix. In other words, A is a symmetric matrix if aij = aji for all i and
j.
Example: The matrix

[ ] [ ]
1 2 3 1 2 3
T
A= 2 4 −5 A = 2 4 −5
3 −5 6 3 −5 6
T
∴ A= A is a symmetric matrix.

SKEW SYMMETRIC
Let A be an n x n square matrix. If AT = -A then A is said to be a skew symmetric matrix.
In other words A is equal to the negative of its transpose. In this case aij = -aji for all i and
j.
Example: Given that

[ ] [ ]
0 −2 3 0 2 −3
T
A= 2 0 4 , A = −2 0 −4
−3 −4 0 3 4 0

[ ] [ ]
0 2 −3 0 2 −3
T
− A= −2 0 −4 , A = −2 0 −4
3 4 0 3 4 0
T
∴− A= A is a skew symmetric matrix
i.e, it has been shown that AT = -A. In any skew matrix the elements in the leading
diagonal are all equal to zero.

Revision exercise:

1. If A=( 43 6 5 7
1 9 4
and B= )
2 8 3 −1
5 2 −4 6 ( )
, determine a) A+B c) A-B

( )
4 3
2. If 2 7 and B=
6 1
5
4 ( 9 2
0 8 )
, determine a) 5A b) A.B c) B.A

( ) ( )
2 6 3 2
3. If A= 5 7 and B= 0 7 , then A.B = ( )
4 1 2 3

4. Given that A= ( 41 2 6
8 7 )
determine a) AT and b) A.AT

CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have defined a matrix. You have also stated various types of matrices.
For example, you know that in a square matrix, the number of row is equal to its number
of column. You now know how to find the transpose of a matrix as wee as determine
whether any two given matrices are equal. In the next unit, you will use the properties of
a square matrix to perform some algebra involving matrices.
SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied:
i. How to define a matrix.
ii. How to identify various types of matrices e.g square matrix, symmetric matrix,
skew symmetric matrix, e.t.c.
iii. To find the transpose of a given matrix.
iv. Toto determine whether the matrices are equal.
v. Identify a unit matrix and a null matrix.

Exercises
1. Find the order of a matrix A given that

[ ]
0 4
A= 6 1
1 3

2. Given that A= [ 20 −3
−4 ]
4
5
and B= [
2 x 4
y −4 z ]
Determine the values of x, y and z for which A = B

[ ] [ ]
1 2 4 5
4 6
3 4 5 6
3. If A= 7 9 , B= Find (i) AT (ii) BT
3 1 2 −1
2 5
1 1 4 −5
Given the ffg matrices

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
1 0 0 0
2 0 0 1 4 4 3 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
(a) 0 −1 0 (b) 1 2 2 (c) (d) (e) 1 3 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 3 1 3 1 4 1 2
0 0 0 1

[ ] [ ] [ ]
1 2 9 0 1 6 5 5 3
(f) 0 1 1 (g) −1 0 3 (h) 5 1 3
0 0 1 −6 −3 0 3 3 2
Determine in each case
4. The square matrix
5. The skew symmetric matrix
6. Identity matrix
7. Null matrix
 DETERMINANT OF A MATRIX

Let A= [ ab dc ] be a 2 x 2 square matrix. The determinant of A = |A| or det(A)

|A| = |
b d|
a c
= ad – bc

Example

Let A = [ 32 15], then |A| = |32 15| = ( 3 ×5 )−(2 ×1)

¿ 15−2
¿ 13
Determinant means the products of leading diagonal – (minus) the other diagonal.
For a 3 x 3 square matrix

[ ]
a b c
Let A= d e f , |A| = a
g h i
e f
g h
−b | | | | | |
d f
g i
+c
d e
g h

The determinant is the magnitude or size of the matrix.

The determinant of a square matrix is the determinant having the same elements as those of the
matrix. For example:

( ) | |
5 2 1 5 2 1
The determinant o 0 6 3 is 0 6 3 and the value of this determinant is
8 4 7 8 4 7
5 ( 42−12 )−2 ( 0−24 ) +1(0−48)
¿ 5 ( 30 )−2 (−24 ) +1 (−48 )
¿ 150+ 48−48
¿ 150

( )
5 0 8
Note that the transpose of the matrix is 2 6 4 and the determinant of the transpose is
1 3 7

| |
5 0 8
2 6 4 , the value of which is 5 ( 42−12 )−0 ( 14−4 ) +8 ( 6−6 )
1 3 7
¿ 5 ( 30 )
¿ 150
That is, the determinant of a square matrix has the same value as that of the determinant of the
transpose matrix.

MORE EXAMPLES

( )
3 2 5
1. The determinant of the matrix 4 7 9 has the value?
1 8 6

| |
3 2 5
4 7 9 =3 ( 42−72 )−2 ( 24−9 )+ 5 ( 32−7 )
1 8 6
¿ 3 (−30 )−2 ( 15 )+5 ( 25 )
¿5

( )
2 0 0
2. The determinant value of the diagonal matrix 0 5 0 has the value?
0 0 4

| |
2 0 0
0 5 0 =2 ( 20−0 )−0 ( 0−0 )+ 0 ( 0 )
0 0 4
¿ 2 ( 20 )
¿ 40

( )
1 1 0
3. Given that A= 2 0 3 . Find |A|
0 1 4
Solution:

| |
1 1 0
|1 4| |0 4| |0 1|
| A|= 2 0 3 =1 0 3 −1 2 3 + 0 2 0
0 1 4
¿ 1 ( 0−3 )−1 ( 8−0 )+ 0 ( 2−0 )
¿−3−5+ 0
¿−8
 ( )
1 0 2
4. Given that Q= 3 4 5 , find |Q|
0 7 −1
Solution:

|Q|= 4 |7 −15 |−0|30 −15 |+ 2|30 74|

¿ 1 (−4−35 ) −0 (−3−0 ) +2 (21−0 )
¿−39+42
¿3
Exercise

( )
1 4 3
1. If A= 6 2 5 , determine |A|
1 7 0

( )
1 2 3
2. Given that B= 4 −2 3 , find |B|
0 5 −1
Using Sarrus Rule to find the determinant of a matrix.
By mathematician Sarrus.
Given that ¿ ss

DD
Now, adding the first 2 columns to the 3 x 3 matrices

ss ss
a b c a b
d e f d e
g h i g h
DD
DD
DD
∴ Det = DD – SS
DD = aei + bfg + cdh
SS = gec +hfa + idb
∴ Det = DD – SS
= aei +bfg + cdh – (gec + hfa + idb)
= aei +bfg +cdh – gec – hfa – idb
Examples

[ ]
1 1 −1
1. If R = 2 −1 0 find the determinant of R by using Sarrus rule
2 1 2
Solution SS SS
SS
1 1 −1 1 1
2 −1 0 2 −1
2 1 2 2 1
DD DD
Det = DD – SS
DD
= - 2 + 0 – 2 – (2 + 0 +4)
= - 4 – (6)
= -10
Using co-factor rule for matrix R

| |
1 1 −1
|R| = 2 −1 0
2 1 2

|R| = 1 |−11 02|−1|22 02|−1|22 −11 |

|R| = (- 2 – 0 ) – (4 – 0 ) – (2 – (- 2))
|R| = - 2 – 4 – 4
|R| = - 10
2. Determinant of a 4 x 4 matrix

[ ]
2 −1 3 0
−3 1 0 4
A=
−2 1 4 1
−1 3 0 −2
Solution
First we need to set up the “checkerboard” of positive and negative signs, we write positive
to the first entry in the upper right corner then we alternate signs the first row and along
Next we pick a row or column with the most zeros as the will be much easier.
 | |
+¿¿
2 −1 3 0
−¿ ¿
−3 1 0 4
|A| = +¿¿
−2 1 4 1
−1 3 0−¿¿ −2
|A|=(3)¿

[ | | |
|A| = ( 3 ) −3
1 1
3 −2
−1
−2 1
−1 −2
+4
−2 1
−1 3 | |
−0+ 4 2
1 4
3 −2
−1
−3 4
−1 −2 |]
+0
−3 1
−1 3
−0
[| | | | | |]
|A| = ( 3 ) [ −3 (−2−3 )−1 ( 4+1 )+ 4 (−6+ 1 ) ] −0+ 4 [ 2 (−2−12 )−1 ( 6+ 4 )+ 0 (−9+1 ) ] −0
|A| = 3[15 – 5 – 20] – 0 + 4[ -28 + 10] – 0
|A| = 3[-10] – 0 + 4[ - 18 ] – 0
|A| = - 30 – 72
∴ |A| = -102

[ ]
1 2 2 1
1 2 4 2
3. A = , Find the |A| using row operation.
2 7 5 2
−1 4 −6 3

Solution
Replace row j with row j – c x row i, (do not change det(A) upper triangle) can be used to
frequent of determinant.
Every element below diagonal is zero (0)

[ ] [ ]
x x x x x 0 0 0
0 x x x x x 0 0
0 0 x x x x x 0
0 0 0 x x x x x

Now, let’s try to get this matrix A into upper triangular form.

[ ][ ]
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 R −R
2 1
1 2 4 2 0 0 2 1
R −2 R1
2 7 5 2 0 3 1 0 3
−1 4 −6 3 0 6 −4 4 R 4−R 1

Note that we have 2 zeros in the row 3, so let’s swap some rows because I want a pivot
entry right here. I want to do it in upper triangular form. So I want a non-zero entry here.
Therefore, we have

[ ]
1 2 2 1
0 3 1 0
0 0 2 1
0 6 −4 4
Now can I just swap entries like that?
Well, I can, but you have to remember that when you swap entries, your resulting
determinant is going to be the negative of your original determinant.

[ ]
1 2 2 1
0 3 1 0
−
0 0 2 1
0 6 −4 4
To get this matrix above into upper triangle form, it will be nice to get 6 to be zero.

[ ]
1 2 2 1
0 3 1 0
−
0 0 2 1
0 0 0 7

∴ |A| = - ( the product of the diagonal entries)

DETERMINANT OF 4 X 4
Find the determinant of :

| |
0 1 0 1
−1 0 1 3
0 1 0 2
−1 −3 −2 0
Solution
We need the first element to be a non-zero number that may be positive or negative
number, but other than 0, to get a non-zero number at this position. We have to
interchange the column 1 with any of the columns which has a non-zero number in the
top line. So we can interchange column 1 with either column 2 or column 4.
Therefore, we have
 | |
1 0 0 1
0 −1 −1 3
− n =4, i.e order.
1 0 0 2
−3 −1 −2 0

| |
|10 −10 ||10 −10 ||10 13|
−1
(1)
4−2 |11 00||11 00||11 12|
|−31 −10 ||−31 −20 ||−31 10|
We need non-
zero number
cos if this
1
number is 0
0
Next is to find the minor of each blocks. Minor means taking the determinants of each
is undefined
bocks.

| |
−1 −1 3
−1
¿ 0 0 1
1
−1 −2 3

¿
−1
(−1)
3−2
|
|−1
−1 −2||−1 3|
−1 −1 3
|
|−10 −10 ||−10 31|

Next find the minor

¿ |
1 0 −1
11 0 |
¿ 1 [ ( 0 ×0 ) −( 1×−1 ) ]
¿ 1 [1 ]
¿1
 SINGULAR AND NON SINGULAR MATRICES
Singular Matrices:
Definition: Let A be a matrix, we say that matrix A is singular if the determinant of A is
zero i.e Matrix A is singular if |A| = 0 else Matrix A is Non-singular (if det A is Non-
zero) i.e Matrix A is non-singular if |A| ≠ 0
Note:We are only talking about square matrices here because only square matrices can
have determinants. So, we can say that a square matrix is singular if Det = 0 and non-
singular if Det ≠ 0
Examples

1. A = [ 12 48] singular?
Solution
We need only to find the determinant

|A| = |12 48|=( 1 ×8 )−( 4 ×2)=8−8=0

Since |A| = 0, then A is singular

2. B = [ 31 42] singular?
|B| = |
1 2|
3 4

= ( 3 ×2 ) −( 4 × 1 )
¿ 6−4
¿2
Since |B| ≠ 0, then B is non-singular
3. For what value of x is the matrix

[ ]
1 −2 3
1 2 1 is singular?
x 2 −3

Solution

|A| = 1 |22 −31 |— 2|1x −31 |+ 3|1x 22|=0

 ¿ 1 (−8 ) +2 (−3−x ) +3 ( 2−2 x )=0
¿−8−6−2 x +6−6 x=0
¿−8−8 x =0
¿ 8 x=−8
¿ x=−1

POWER OF A SQUARE MATRIX

A= [ 12 34]
2×2

A2 = A.A = [ 12 34] [12 34 ]

¿
[1+6
2+8 6+16 ]
3+ 12

¿
[107 1522]
Example
1. f(x) = x2 – 5x + 6

A= [ 12 34], find f(A) = A – 5A + 6I

2

Solution

A2 = A.A = [ 12 34] [12 34 ]

¿
[107 1522]
∴ f ( A )=
[ 107 1522]−5 [12 34 ]+6 [ 10 01 ]
¿
[107 1522]−[ 105 1520 ]+[ 60 06]
¿
[10−10+0 22−20+6 ]
7−5+6 15−15+ 0

f ( A )=
[80 08]
2. If A = [
3 1]
2 2 3 2
and f(x) = x – x – 4I
 Find f(A)
Solution
f(A) = A3 – A2 – 4I

[ ] [ ] [ ]
3 2
2 2 2 2 1 0
¿ − −4
3 1 3 1 0 1

¿
[3839 2625]−[ 109 67]−4 [ 40 04]
¿
[2430 2014 ]
3. If S = [ 23 −11 ], find S + 3S + 2I, given that I is a 2 x 2 unit matrix.
2

Solution

I= [ 10 01] , S = [ 23 −11 ] [ 23 −11 ]=[ 6−3

2 4 +3 2−1
3+1 ]=
[ 3 4]
7 1

3S = 3 [ ] [ ] , 2I = 2 [ ] [ 0 2]
2 1 6 3 1 0 2 0
= =
3 −1 9 −3 0 1
2
∴ S +3 S +2 I

[ 73 14] +[ 69 −33 ]+[ 20 02]

[ 1512 43]
COFACTORS
If A = (aij) is a square matrix, we can form a determinant of its element:

[ ]
a11 a 12 a13 ⋯ a1 n
a21 a 21 a23 … a2 n
a31 a 32 a33 … a3 n
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
an 1 an 2 a n 3 … anm

Each element gives rise to a cofactor which is simply the minor of the element in the determinant
together with its “place sign”.
 ( )
2 3 5
For example, the determinant of the matrix A = 4 1 6 is
1 4 0
Det (A) = |A| = ¿ which has a value of 45

The minor of the element 2 is |14 60|=0−24=−24

The place sign is +. Therefore the cofactor of the element 2 is + (−24 )=−24

Similarly, the minor of the element 3 is |41 60|=0−6=−6

The place sign is −¿. Therefore, the cofactor of the element 3 is −(−6 )=6 .
In each case the minor is found by striking out the line and column containing the
element in question and forming a determinant of the remaining elements.

Therefore, the minor of the element 6 is |21 34|=8−3=5

The place sign is −¿. Therefore, the cofactor of the element 6 is −5
Example: Find the cofactor of the element 3 and that of the element 4 in the given matrix

( )
7 1 −2
6 5 4
3 8 9
Solution
Cofactor of 3 is 4− (−10 )=14

ADJOINT OF A SQUARE MATRIX

Adjoint of a 2 x 2 square matrix

A= [ a11 a12
a21 a22 ] Adj (A) = [ a22 −a12
−a21 a11 ]
Example:

A= [ 23 18 ] Adj (A) = [−38 −12 ]

Adjoint of a 3 x 3 square matrix
 [ ] | |
2 3 5 2 3 5
If we start afresh with A = 4 1 6 , its determinant det(A) = |A| = 4 1 6 from which we
1 4 0 1 4 0
can form a new matrix C of the cofactors.

[ ]
A11 A12 A 13
C = A 21 A22 A 23 where A11 is the cofactor of a 11
A 31 A32 A 33

Aij is the cofactor of a ij etc.

|14
A11 =+ | 6
0
=+ ( 0−24 )=−24 |34
A21=−
5
0 |
=−( 0−20 )=20

A =−|
0|
A =+|
0|
4 6 2 5
12 =−( 0−6 ) =6 22 =+ ( 0−5 )=−5
1 1

A =+|
4|
A =−|
4|
4 1 2 3
13 =+ ( 16−1 )=15 23 =−( 8−3 )=−5
1 1

A =+|
6|
A =−|
6|
3 5 2 5
31 =+ ( 18−5 )=−13 32 =−( 12−20 )=8
1 4

A =+|
4 1|
2 3
33 =+ ( 2−12 ) =−10

[ ]
−24 6 15
∴ The matrix of cofactor is C = 20 −5 −5
13 8 −10

[ ]
−24 20 13
And the transpose of C, i.e, CT = 6 −5 8
15 −5 −10
This is called the adjoint of the original matrix A and is written as adjA
Therefore to find the adjoint of a square matrix A:
1. We form the matrix C of cofactors
2. We write the transpose of C, i.e CT

[ ]
5 2 1
Hence, the adjoint of 3 1 4 is ……………..
4 6 3

[ ]
−21 0 7
adjA = C = 7T
11 −17
14 −22 −1
Properties of Adjoint of a Matrix

1. A = [ a11 a12
a21 a22], adj (A) = [ a22 −a12
−a21 a11 ]
2. adj(0) = 0 ; adj(In) = In
3. (adj(A))T = adj(AT) ; (adjA)0 = adj(A0)
4. Adj(AB) = adj(B)adj(A)
To multiply a matrix with its
5. A.(adjA) = (adjA)A = |A|In
adjoint cofactor

[ ][ ]
a11 a12 a13 A 11 A 12 A 13
i.e a21 a22 a23 A21 A 22 A 23 1st row × 1st column = |A|
a31 a32 a33 A31 A 32 A 33
1st row × 2nd column = 0

[ ]
¿ A∨¿ 0 0 2nd row × 2nd column = |A|
= 0 ¿ A∨¿ 0∨ A∨¿
0 ¿ 3rd row × 3rd column = |A|

Another way to get adj for a 2 x 2

A= [ 13 24] , find Adj A

Ans: A11 =+4 ∴ matrix of cofactor of A

A12=−3 = [−24 −31 ]

A21=−2 ∴ (matrix of cofactor of A )T =

A22=+1 ∴ ( Adj A )=
[−34 −21 ]
INVERSE OF A MATRIX
To find the inverse of a 2 x 2 matrix:
1. Interchange the top lefthand and bottom righthand elements
2. Multiply the other elements by –1
3. Divide the resulting matrix by the determinant of the initial matrix.
DETERMINANT METHOD (ADJOINT METHOD)
Example
 1. Find the inverse of (a) [ ] [ ]
6 3
2 1
(b)
8 5
3 2
−1
A =
1
| A|
Adj (A )

Solution

(a) [ 62 31]= A, Det (A) = |A| = |62 31|=6−6=0

There is no inverse for that matrix A. Matrix A is singular.

(b) [ ]
8 5
3 2
=B, Det (B) = |B| =
8 5
3 2 | |
=16−15=1 B is non-singular

−1 1
∴B =
[
¿ B∨¿ 2 −5 , B−1=
−3 8
1 2 −5 −1
1 −3 8 ]
B = 2 −5 ¿
−3 8 [ ] [ ]
To check

−1
B× B =I , [ 83 52][−32 −58 ]=[ 10 01 ]
−1
∴B =
[−32 −58 ]
ELEMENTARY TRANSFORMATION METHOD
Guass – Jordan / Row Reduction method (Echelon row reduction).
Examples
1. Using elementary transformation, find the inverse of each of the matrices if it exists.

(a) [ 27 14] (b) [ ] (c) [ ]

Solution
−1
A A =I
A = IA

(a) [ 27 14]= A
[ 27 14 / 10 01 ]
R1
2

( | )
1 1
1 0
2 2
7 4 0 1 R 2−7 R1
 ( | )
1 1
1 0
2 2
1 −7
0 1
2 2 2 R2

( | )
1
1 1 R 1− R2
2
1 0
2 2
0 1 −7 2

(10 01|−74 −12 )

∴A =
−1
[−74 −12 ]
To check: A A−1 =I

[ 27 14] [−74 −12 ]

[ 28−28 −7+8]
¿ 8+(−7) −2+2

¿
[10 01]
(b) B = [
3 2]
8 5

( B|I ) → ( I : B−1 )

( | )
R1
8 51 0 8
3 20 1

( | )
5 1
1 0
8 8
3 2 0 1 R2−3 R 1

( | )
5 1
1 0
8 8
1 −3
0 1
8 8 8 R2

( | )
5
5 1 R 1− R2
8
1 0
8 8
0 1 −3 8

(10 01|−32 −58 )

 −1
∴B =
[ 2 −5
−3 8 ]
(C) C = [ 83 52]
(d) D = [
2 5]
1 3

( e) A = [
3 4]
1 2

(13 24|10 01) R2 −3 R1

(10 −22 |−31 01)

R 1+ R2

(10 −20 |−2

−3 1 )
1
−1
2
R2

( | )
−2 1
1 0
3 −1
0 1
2 2

INVERSE OF A 3 X 3 MATRIX
ADJOINT METHOD
−1 1
A =
| A|
A is a square matrix and non-singular.
Examples

[ ]
1 3 −1
1. Given that A= 2 1 0 , determine the inverse of A
1 2 3
Solution
We first find the determinant of A
| A|=1 ( 3−0 )−2 ( 9+2 ) +1(0+ 1)
| A|=3−22+1
| A|=−18
Secondly, we will also find AdjA ( Transpose of cofactor) i.e CT
Cofactor method:
¿
A11 =+ ( 3−0 )=3 A22=+ ( 3+ 1 )=4 A33=+ (1−6 ) =−5
A12=−( 6−0 )=−6 A23=− ( 2−3 )=1 A13=+ ( 4−1 )=3
A31=+ ( 0+ 1 )=1
A21=− ( 9+2 )=−11 A32=−( 0+2 )=−2

[ ] [ ]
T
3 −6 3 3 −11 1
∴ −11 4 1 → AdjA = −6 4 −2 ←(a)
1 −2 −5 3 1 −5
−1 1
∴A =
¿ A∨¿ Adj A ¿

[ ]
−1 11 −1
6 18 18

[ ]
3 −11 1
−1 1 1 −2 1
A = −6 4 −2 =
−18 3 9 9
3 1 −5
−1 −1 5
6 18 18

Another method of getting Adj A:

C1 C2 C3 C1 C2
R1 1 3 -1 1 3
R2 2 1 0 2 1
R3 1 2 3 1 2
R1 1 3 -1 1 3 R2 2 1 0 2 1

[ ]
3 −11 1
−6 4 −2 ↔ (b)
3 1 −5
We can see that (a) and (b) are equal

[ ]
0 1 2
2. A= 1 2 3 , find A−1
3 1 1
Solution
 −1 1
A = | A|=0 ( 2−3 )−1 ( 1−9 )+ 2(1−6)
¿ A∨¿ × Adj A ¿
¿ 0−1 (−8 ) +2 (−5 )
¿ 8−10
| A|=−2 ≠ 0 → A−1 exist

[ ]
−1 1 −1
−1 1
∴A = 8 −6 2
−2
−5 3 −1

Now to get adj A

C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 Rough work
R1 0 1 2 0 1 ( 2−3 )=−1
R2 1 2 3 1 2 ( 2−1 )=1
R3 3 1 1 3 1 ( 3−4 )=−1
R1 0 1 2 0 1 ( 9−1 )=8 R2 1 2 3 1
2 ( 0−6 ) =−6
( 2−0 )=2

[ ]
−1 1 −1
8 −6 2 ( 1−6 )=−5
−5 3 −1
( 3−0 )=3
( 0−1 )=−1
Exercise
1. Find the inverse of each matrix, if one exists using Adjoint method.

[ ] [ ] [ ]
0 0 1 3 −1 2 0 1 2
(a) A= 2 −1 3 (b) A= 5 1 0 (c) 1 2 3
1 1 4 −2 3 4 3 1 1

[ ] [ ]
2 0 −1 9 2 1
−1
2. (i) A= 5 0 1 , find A−1 if it exists. (iv) 4 2 0 =A ; A =?
1 1 3 1 0 3
 [ ] [ ]
1 2 3 2 −1 0
−1
(ii) B= 0 1 5 , find B−1 (iii) A= 0 1 2 A =?
5 6 0 1 1 0

[ ]
6 24 1
3. Find the Adjoint of 3 x 3 matrix 12 16 10
20 17 15

[ ] [ ]
3 −3 4 2 −1 1
−1 −1
4. (i) A= 2 −3 4 . find A (ii) B= −1 2 −1 B =?
0 −1 1 1 −1 2
NB: To form the inverse of a square matrix A:
(a) Evaluate the determinant of A, i.e |A|
(b) Form a matrix C of the cofactors of the determinant of |A|
(c) Write the transpose of C, i.e CT, to obtain the adjoint of A
(d) Divide each element of CT by |A|
(e) The resulting matrix is the inverse A−1 of the original matrix.
Using Elementary Transformation (Row Reduction/operation method)
Reduced Echelon Form (rref)
Examples

[ ]
2 1 1
1. A= 3 2 1 A−1=?
2 1 2
Solution
[ A / I ] → [ I : A−1 ]
Augment matrix A with the identity matrix

( | )
R1
2 1 11 0 0 2
3 2 10 1 0
2 1 20 0 1

( | )
1 1 1
1 0 0
2 2 2
3 2 1 0 1 0
R2−3 R1
2 1 2 0 0 1 R3−2 R1
 ( | )
1 1 1
1 0 0
2 2 2
1 −1 −3 2 R2
0 1 0
2 2 2
0 0 1 −1 0 1

( | )
1
1 1 1 R 1− R2
2
1 0 0
2 2 2
0 1 −1 −3 2 0
0 0 1 −1 0 1

( | )
1 0 1 2 −1 0
R −R3
0 1 −1 −3 2 0 1
0 0 1 −1 0 1 R2 + R3

( | )
1 0 0 3 −1 −1
−1
0 1 0 −4 2 1 ∴ A A =I
0 0 1 −1 0 1

[ ][ ][ ]
2 1 1 3 −1 −1 1 0 0
3 2 1 −4 2 1 =0 1 0
2 1 2 −1 0 1 0 0 1

[ ]
1 −1 −1
2. Find the inverse of matrix A= −1 2 3
1 1 4
Solution
[ A : I ] → [ I : A−1 ]

( | )
1 −1 −1 1 0 0
−1 2 3 0 1 0
R2 +R1
1 1 4 0 0 1 R 3−R1

( | )
R 1+R 2
1 −1 −1 1 0 0
0 1 2 1 1 0
0 2 5 −1 0 1

( | )
1 0 1 2 1 0
0 1 2 1 1 0
0 2 5 −1 0 1 R3−2 R2

( | )
R1−R3
1 0 1 2 1 0 R2−2 R3
0 1 2 1 1 0
0 0 1 −3 −2 1
 ( | )
1 0 0 5 3 −1
0 1 0 7 5 −2
0 0 1 −3 −2 1
And just like that, we’ve gotten the A part of our augmented matrix into reduced echelon
form. The rref (A).

[ ]
2 4 1
−1
3. A= −1 1 −1 , A =?
1 4 0

Solution
We will form an augmented matrix, i.e, [ A : I ] → [ I : A−1 ]
We will augment matrix A with the identity matrix and then perform the inverse row operations.

( | )
2 4 1 1 0 0
[ A : I ] = −1 1 −1 0 1 0
2 R 2+ R 1
1 4 0 0 0 1 2 R3− R 1

( | )
R 1−R3
2 4 1 1 0 0 R 2−R3
0 6 −1 1 2 0
0 4 −1 −1 0 2
R1

( | )
2 0 2 2 0 −2 2
0 2 0 2 2 −2 R2
0 4 −1 −1 0 2 2
R3 −2 R 2

( | )
1 0 0 1 0 −1
0 1 0 1 1 −1
0 0 −1 −5 −4 6 ×−1

( | )
1 0 0 1 0 −1
0 1 0 1 1 −1
0 0 1 5 4 −6

∴[ I : A ]
−1

[ ]
1 0 0 1
0 2 1 2
4. Use the row operator to find the inverse of A=
2 1 0 1
2 0 1 4
Solution
[ A / I ] → [ I / A−1 ]

( | )
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 2 1 2 0 1 0 0
2 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
R 3−2 R1
2 0 1 4 0 0 0 1 R 4−2 R1

( | )
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 2 1 2 0 1 0 0
R ↔ R3
0 1 0 −1 −2 0 1 0 2
0 0 1 2 −2 0 0 1

( | )
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 −1 −2 0 1 0
0 2 1 2 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 2 −2 0 0 1 R3 −2 R2

( | )
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 −1 −2 0 1 0
0 0 1 4 4 1 −2 0
0 0 1 2 −2 0 0 1 R4 −R3

( | )
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 −1 −2 0 1 0
0 0 1 4 4 1 −2 0
R4
0 0 0 −2 −6 −1 2 1 ÷ 2 ,i . e,
2

( | )
R1−R 4
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
−2 0 1 0
0 1 0 −1
4 1 −2 0
0 0 1 4
1 −1
0 0 0 −1 3 −1
2 2 R2−4 R4

( | )
−1 1
−2 1
1 0 0 0 2 2
0 1 0 −1 −2 0 1 0 R +R
2 4
0 0 1 0 −8 −1 2 2
0 0 0 1 1 −1
3 −1
2 2
( | )
−1 1
−2 1
2 2
1 0 0 0
1 −1
0 1 0 0 1 0
2 2
0 0 1 0
−8 −1 2 2
0 0 0 1
1 −1
3 −1
2 2

i.e [ I : A−1 ]
Exercise
Use row operation to find the inverse of the ffg matrices

[ ] [ ] [ ]
1 2 3 2 −1 0 3 −3 4
1. B= 0 1 5 2. A= 0 1 2 3. A= 2 −3 4
5 6 0 1 1 0 0 −1 1

[ ] [ ]
0 1 0 1
0 0 1
4. A= 2 −1 3
1 1 4
5. A=
−1 0 −1 3
0 1 0 2
6. B= [ 21 2 3
0 1 ]
−1 −3 −2 0
Finding an inverse Matrix
Def:
If A A−1 =A−1 A=I n where In is the identity matrix, then A−1 is the inverse of A
Note:
1. Not all square matrices have an inverse.
2. Non-square matrices cannot have an inverse.
Examples

1. Show that B is the inverse of A; where A= [−1

−1 1 ]
2
, B=
[ 11 −2
−1 ]

AB=BA=
[ 10 01] proof
→ AB=
[−1 ] [
2 1 −2
−1 1 1 −1 ] =
[ 1 0
0 1 ] ; BA=
[ ] [
1 −2 −1 2
1 −1 −1 1 ]=
[ 0 1]
1 0

Conclusion: Since we are able to get the identity, B is the inverse of A.

Properties Of The Inverse

Uniqueness: If A is a matrix, if an inverse of A exists. It actually is unique, and that’s why we
can say V −1 A is not just an inverse. How do you prove uniqueness. The idea is, how do you
prove that anything is unique, the idea is, as soon as there are two such objects, (B,C) and prove
that they have to be the same and this proves uniqueness.
Suppose we have a square matrix A and that we have the inverses B and C.
Suppose that B is an inverse of A and so, AB=BA=I →(1)
Suppose, we have the second inverse of a say C =, so C will have the same property.
AC=CA=I →( 2)
Now we want to show that B = C
B=BI from (1) and from (2)
B=B ( AC )=( BA ) C=IC=C
∴ B=C
Hence A has an inverse and its inverse is unique.
−1
1. ( A−1 ) = A
−1 T
2. ( AT ) =( A−1 )
−1 1 −1
3. ( KA ) = A , for any K ≠ 0
K
4. ( AB )−1=B−1 A−1
5. ( ABC )−1=C−1 B−1 A−1
−1 −1 −1 −1 −1
6. ( A1 , A 2 , … A n ) = A n , A n−1 , … A 2 , A 1
−1 n
7. ( A n ) =( A−1 ) , for any n ∈ z +¿ ¿
Proof:
1. The inverse of A−1 is equal to A, now to prove this statement A−1 A=I
4. The inverse of AB is equal to B−1 A−1 now to prove this statement, we can multiply
−1 −1
B A by AB
( B−1 A−1 ) ( AB )=B−1 ( A−1 A ) B=B−1 B=I

INVERTIBLE MATRIX
 If A is square matrix of order m ( m means m x m), if there exists “B” another square
matrix of order m, such that AB = BA = Im, then B is called inverse of matrix A denoted
by A−1. In that case A is invertible.
Let A be a square matrix A is called invertible if ∃ a matrix B such AB = I
Matrix A is invertible (non-singular) if matrix A is a matrix such that AB = BA = In.
In is the identity matrix and B is the inverse of A. B = A-1
Remarks: (1) If AB = I, then BA = I
(2) If A is invertible then B is unique.
Matrix A is invertible (non-singular) if det(A) ≠ 0.
Let’s see a numerical illustrations for better understanding.
Examples
1. Determine if a 2 x 2 matrix is invertible (1) determine
Determine if the following matrices are invertible

(a) C= [−23 −12 ] (b) A=[−44 −22 ]

Solution

(a) C= [−23 −12 ]

det(C) ¿|
−2 2 |
3 −1

det(C) = 3(2) – (−2 ×−1 ¿

det(C) = 6 – 4 = 2 ≠ 0
∴ Matrix C is invertible.
Meaning that matrix C does have an inverse. Hence matrix C is non-singular.
So, C × C−1 =C−1 ×C=I n

(b) A= [−44 −22 ]

det(A) = |
−4 2 |
4 −2

det(A) = (4×2) – (-4 × -2)

det(A) = 8 – 8 = 0
Hence, matrix A is not invertible. Meaning, A does not have an inverse. Hence singular.
 [ ]
3
2. Given that A= [ ]
2 3
2 2 2 ×2
, B=
−1
1
2
−1 2×2

Show that AB = BA =Im

Solution

[ ][ ][
3
AB=
2 3 −1
2 3
2 =
1 −1
1 0
0 1
=I 2 ]

[ ][
3
BA=
−1
1
2
−1
2 3
2 2
=
1 0
0 1 ][ ]
=I 2

∴ AB=BA=I n
Therefore, A is the inverse of B. B is the inverse of A.

[ ]
5 −1
3. A= [ 42 15 ] −1
then A =
6
−2
6
1
3 3

[ ][ ][ ]
5 −1
−1 2 1 6 6 1 0
AA = =
4 5 −2 1 0 1
3 3

[ ][ ] [ ]
5 −1
−1 6 6 2 1 1 0
A A= =
−2 1 4 5 0 1
3 3
−1 −1
∴A A =A A=I n
Hence A is invertible.

4. A= [ 12 12] is not invertible.

Solution
det(A) = (2) – (2) = 0
Since det(A) = 0
Hence, A is not invertible (singular)
 [ ][ ] [ ]
1 1 a b
2 2 c d
=
1 0
0 1

a+c=1 (1)
b+d=0 (2) No solution!
2a + 2c = 0 (3)
2d + 2d = 1 (4)
Remark: Note that there is a method for determining if A and finding A-1 if it is.
This system should have a solution, but obviously it does not have a solution. For
example, (1) and (3) contradict each other. Given it has no solution, hence matrix A has
no inverse.
Theorem:
1. If both A and B are invertible, then AB is invertible and ( AB )−1=B−1 A−1
−1 T
2. If A is invertible than AT is invertible and ( AT ) =( A−1 )
Proof:
1. ( AB ) ( B−1 A−1) = A ( B B−1) A−1= AI A−1= A A−1=I
This means that AB is invertible.
T T
2. AT ( A−1 ) =( A−1 A ) =I T =I
We say A is invertible matrix B with the property that AB = BA = I
Not every matrix is invertible
O is not invertible cos O.A = A.O = O
I is invertible (take B = I)
For 1 – 1 matrix “(a)” is invertible a≠0

B= ( 1a ) i.e the inverse

For a 2 x 2 matrices, i.e A= ( ac bd) is invertible ad – bc ≠ 0

Then A =
−1 1 d −b
ad−bc −c a [ ]
Determine if a 3 x 3 matrix is invertible.
1. Determine if the ffg matrices are invertible (non-singular)
 [ ] [ ]
1 −2 3 1 2 −1
(a) A= 3 5 −2 , (b) C= 3 7 −10
−1 3 −4 7 16 −21
Solution
1 −2 3 1 −2
Det(A) = 3 5 −2 3 5 Sarrus rule to get the det(A)
−1 3 −4 −1 3
Det(A) = (-20 + 4 + 27) – (-15 + 6 + 24)
Det(A) = 11 – 15 = - 4 ≠ 0
Since d(A) ≠ 0. Then A is invertible, meaning A has an inverse. Hence non-singular.

[ ]
1 2 −1
(b) C= 3 7 −10
7 16 −21

Det(C) = 1 |167 −10

−21
−2
3 −10
7 −21 | |
+(−1)
3 7
7 16 | | |
= 1 (−147−(−160) )−2 ¿
= 1 ( 13 )−2 ( 7 ) −1(−1)
= 13−14+1=0
Det(C) = 0, which means matrix C is not invertible meaning matrix C does not
have an inverse.
Hence C is singular.

Necessary conditions for a matrix to be invertible

1The matrix must be a “square matrix”
2. Det ≠ 0
Exercise
1. Determine whether the ffg matrices are invertible and find the inverse where it exists.

(a) A= [ 42 15 ] (b) B=[−13 −24 ] (c) C= [13 04 ] (d) D=¿

2) Find a such that A is non-invertible (doesn’t have an inverse)

[ ]
−5 0 a
A= 1 −2 3 ; key note det(A) = 0
6 −2 1
 Solution
Det(A) = −5 ¿
= −5 [ 4 ] + a [ 10 ] =0
= −20+10 a=0
10 a=20
a=2

When a = 2, put it in matrix A, and this matrix does not have an inverse because then the
determinant will equal zero and that’s how it’s done.

CONCLUSION
In this unit, you have studied how to compute the inverse of a matrix using the
determinant method. You have extended the determinant method to adjoint method. In
other words, you have studied how to find the inverse of a general n x n square matrix by
the method of adjoint. You have also studied how to find the inverse by the method of
elementary row operations. All these methods, will form the necessary tools to solve
system of n equation in n unknown simultaneously, which will be the subject of the study
in the next unit.
SUMMARY
In this unit, you have studied how to
a. Compute the inverse of a square matrix by the method of elementary row operations.
b. Compute the inverse of a square matrix by the determinant method.
c. How to compute the inverse of a square matrix by the adjoint method.
d. How to identify/determine if a matrix is invertible, i.e, ¿ A∨≠ 0, hence n0n-singular.
e. How to identify/ determine if a matrix is not-invertible, i.e, | A|=0 , hence singular.

y = ax + c linear equation
Order 1
ρ=ax +by +cz linear equation
The system of the equation a 11 x 1 +a 12 x 2+ …+a1 m x m=¿b (x) ¿

Where a 11 , a12 … a 1m are constant and x 1 , x 2, … x n are the unknown variables is called a linear
equation.
If b(x) = 0, the linear equation is called a homogeneous equation and if b(x) ≠ 0 is said to be non-
homogeneous.
The set of linear equation
a 11 x 1 +a 12 x 2+ … a1 n x n=b1
a 21 x 1+ a22 x 2 +… a2 n x n=b2
⋮
a m 1 x 1+ am 2 x2 + … amn x n=bm
Is called a system of equation.

SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATION

Elimination method
Adjoint method
Gaussian elimination method.
Crammer’s rule
Examples 2 X 2 Matrix / 2 unknown
1. Elimination method Crammer’s rule
Solve for x and y x+y=7
x+y=7 2x – 3y =1

2x – 3y =1 (12 )( ) ( )
1 x
−3 y
=
7
1

let P = (
2 −3 )
1 1
Solution

x+y=7 x2 (1) |2 −31 |=−3−2=−5

|P|= 1

;|N |=|
1 −3|
let N =(
1 −3 )
7 1 7 1
2x – 3y =1 x1 (2) x x

2x + 2y = 14 |N x|=−21−1=−22
(-) 2x – 3y = 1 let N y = (12 71);|N |=|12 71|
y

2y + 3y = 14 – 1 |N y|=1−14=−13
5y = 13 Now to get the values of x and y
 13 x=¿ N x ∨ ¿ ¿
y= ¿ P∨¿ ; y=¿ N x ∨ ¿ ¿¿
5 ¿ P∨¿ ¿
3 −22 −13
y=2 x= ; y=
5 −5 −5
13 22 13
put y = in equ (1) x= ; y=
5 5 5
2 3
x+y=7 x=4 ; y=2
5 5
13
x+ =7
5
13
x=7-
5
22
x=
5
2
x =4
5
Exercise
Solve for 2x + 3y = -1
3x + y = 5
Using Crammer’s and elimination method.
Simultaneous Equation of 3 unknown
Example
1. Elimination method
x +2 y+ 3 z=1 … … … …..(1)
2 x−3 y + z=3 … … … … ..(2)
2 x+ y−z=−1 … … … … ..(3)
Solving (1) and (2) simultaneously
x +2 y+ 3 z=1 … … … …(1)
2 x−3 y + z=3 … … … …(2)
2 x+ 4 y +6 z=2 … … … …(1)

7 y +5 z=−1 … … … …( a)
Now solving (2) and (3) simultaneously
2 x−3 y + z=3 … … … …(2)
¿
−4 y +2 z =4 … … … …(b)
22 36
Now solving (a) and (b) x− + =1
17 17
14
7 y +5 z=−1 … … … …(a) x+ =1
17
14
−4 y +2 z =4 … … … …(b) x=1−
17
3
28 y +20 z=−4 … … … …(a) x=
7
3
¿ ∴ x=
17
−11
34 z=24 y=
17
34 z 24 12
= z=
34 34 17
12
z=
17
12
Put z= in equatn (a)
17
7 y +5 z=−1

7 y +5 ( 1217 )=−1
60
7 y+ =−1
17
60
7 y=−1−
17
−77
7 y=
17
7 y −77 1
= ×
7 17 7
−11
y=
17
 Substitute for z and y in equation (1)
x +2 y+ 3 z=1 … … … …(1)

( )
1 1 3
x +2 ( ) ( )
−11
17
+3
12
17
=1 … … … … (1) let N y = 2 3 1
2 −1 −1

| |
1 1 3
Using Crammer’s rule |N x|= 2 3 1
2 −1 −1
x +2 y+ 3 z=1 … … … (1)
SS SS
1 1 3 1 1 SS
2 3 1 2 3
2 −1 −1 2 −1 DD
DD DD
2 x−3 y + z=3 … … …(2)
2 x+ y−z=−1 … … …(3) DD = - 3 + 2 + (-6) = -3 + 2 -6 = - 7

( )( ) ( )
1 2 3 x 1
2 −3 1 y = 3 SS = 18 + (-1) + (-2) =18 – 1 – 2 =15
2 1 −1 z −1

( )
1 2 3
Let A= 2 −3 1 |Ny| = DD – SS = - 7 – 15 = - 22
2 1 −1

| | ( )
1 2 3 1 2 1
| A|= 2 −3 1 let N z= 2 −3 3
2 1 −1 2 1 −1
SS SS

| |
SS 1 2 1
| z| 2 −3 3
N =
2 1 −1
1 2 3 1 2
2 −3 1 2 −3
2 1 −1 2 1 SS SS
DD SS
DD DD 1 2 1 1 2
2 −3 3 2−3
2 1 −1 2 1
DD
DD = 3 + 4 + 6 =13 DD DD

SS = - 18 + 1 – 4 = - 21 DD = + 3 + 12 + 2 = 17
|A| = DD – SS = 13 – 21 SS = - 6 + 3 – 4 = - 7
|A| = 34 |Nz| = DD – SS = 17 – ( - 7 ) = 24

( )
1 2 3
N
Let x = 3 −3 1
−1 1 −1

∴ x ¿ N x∨ ¿ ¿
¿ A∨¿ ; y=¿ N y ∨ ¿ ¿¿
¿ A∨¿ ; z=¿ N z∨ ¿ ¿¿
¿ A∨¿ ¿

| |
1 2 3
6 3 −22 −11 24 12
|N x|= 3 −3 1 x= = ; y=
34 17 34
=
17
; z= =
34 17
−1 1 −1
SS
SS 3 −11 12
SS ∴ x= ; y= ; z=
17 17 17
1 2 3 1 3
3 −3 1 3 −3 Exercise
−1 1 −1 −1 1
DD Solve: x +2 y+ z =4
DD DD
DD = 3 + (- 2) + 9 = 10 3 x−4 y−2 z=2
5 x+ 3 y+5 z=−1
SS = 9 + 1 – 6 = 4
|Nx| = DD – SS = 10 – 4
|Nx| = 6

Adjoint Method
Consider the set of linear equations:
a 11 x 1 +a 12 x 2+ a13 x 3 +…+ a1 n x n=b 1
a 21 x 1+ a22 x 2 +a23 x3 + …+a2 n x n=b2
⋮⋮⋮⋮⋮
a n 1 x 1+ an 2 x 2 +a n 3 x 3 +…+a nn x n=b n
From our knowledge of matrix multiplication, this can be written in matrix form:

( )( ) ( )
a 11 a12 a13 ⋯ a 1n x 1 b1
a21 a22 a23 ⋯ a 2n x 2 b
= 2
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
an 1 a n 2 an 3 ⋯ ann x n b3

i.e AX=b
 ( ) () ()
a 11 a12 a13 ⋯ a 1n x1 b1
a a22 a23 ⋯ a 2n x b2
Where A = 21 X = 2 and b =
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
an 1 a n 2 an 3 ⋯ ann xn b3

If we multiply both sides of the matrix equation by the inverse of A, we have:

A-1AX = A-1b
But A-1A = I ∴ IX = A-1b ; i.e X = A-1b
Therefore, if we form the inverse of the matrix of coefficients and pre-multiply matrix b by it, we
shall determine the matrix of the solutions of X.
Example
To solve the set of equations:
x 1+ 2 x 2 + x 3=4
3 x 1−4 x 2−2 x 3=2
5 x 1+3 x 2 +5 x3 =−1
Solution
First write in matrix form, which gives:

[ ][ ] [ ]
1 2 1 x1 4
3 −4 −2 x 2 = 2
5 3 5 x 3 −1

Secondly, we will find the inverse of A

[ ]
1 2 1
−1
A= 3 −4 −2 , A =?
5 3 5
−1 1
A =
¿ A∨¿ AdjA ¿

| |
1 2 1
| A|= 3 −4 −2 =−14−50+29=29−64=−35 ∴| A|=−35
5 3 5
Adj A = Rough work
1 2 1 1 2 (−20−(−6) )=−14 ( 3−(−2) )=5
3 -4 -2 3 -4 ( 3−10 )=−7 ( 9−(−20) ) =29
 5 3 5 5 3 (−4−(−4) )=0 ( 10−3 )=7
1 2 1 1 2 (−10−15 )=−25 (−4−6 )=−10 3 -4
-2 3 -4 ( 5−5 )=0

[ ]
−14 −7 0
∴ Adj A= −25 0 5
29 7 −10

[ ]
−14 −7 0
−1 −1
∴A = −25 0 5
35
29 7 −10
−1
∴ X= A b

[ ][ ]
−14 −7 0 4
−1
X= −25 0 5 2
35
29 7 −10 −1

[ ][ ]
−70 2
1
¿− −105 = 3
35
140 −4

[ ][ ]
x1 2
Finally, X = x 2 = 3 ∴ x 1=2 , x 2=3 , x 3=−4
x 3 −4

Exercise
Solve: 2 x1 −x2 +3 x 3=2
x 1+ 3 x 2−x 3=11
2 x1 −2 x 2 +5 x3 =3
Using Adjoint method only.

[ ][ ] [ ]
2 −1 3 x 1 2
=
1 3 −1 x 2 11
2 −2 5 x 3 3

AX = b
−1
∴ X= A b
−1 1
A =
¿ A∨¿ Adjoint ( A)¿
|A| = 9
 [ ] [ ]
13 −7 −8 13 −1 −8
T
C= −1 4 2 : Adj A=C = −7 4 5
−8 5 7 −8 2 7
−1 1
A =

[ ]
13 −1 −8
1
¿ A∨¿ Adj A= −7 4 5 ¿
9
−8 2 7

[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
13 −1 −8 2 −9 −1
−1 1 1
X =A b= −7 4 5 11 = 45 = 5
9 9
−8 2 7 3 27 3

[][ ]
x 1 −1
∴ X= x 2 = 5 ∴ x 1=−1 , x2=5 , x 3=3
x3 3

Gaussian elimination method for solving a set of linear equations

( )( ) ( )
a 11 a12 a13 ⋯ a 1n x 1 b1
a21 a22 a23 ⋯ a 2n x 2 b
= 2 , AX = b
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
an 1 a n 2 an 3 ⋯ ann x n b3

All the information for solving the set of equation is provided, the matrix of coefficients A and
the column matrix b, if we write the elements of b with the matrix of A, we obtain the augmented
matrix B of the given set of equations.

[ ]
a11 a12 a13 ⋯ a1n ⋮ b1
a a a23 ⋯ a2n ⋮ b2
i.e B= 21 22
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
an 1 a n 2 a n3 ⋯ ann ⋮ bn

(a) We then eliminate the elements other than a 11 from the first column by subtracting
a 21/a 11 times the first from the second row and a 31/a 11 times the first row from the
third row etc
 [ ]
a11 a12 a13 ⋯ a1 n ⋮ b1
0 c22 c 23 ⋯ c2 n ⋮ d2
(b) This gives a new matrix of the form:
⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
0 cn 2 cn 3 ⋯ c nn ⋮ dn

This process is then repeated to eliminate c 12 from the third and subsequent rows.
Example
1. Solve x 1+ 2 x 2−3 x 3=3
2 x1 −x2 −x3 =11
3 x 1+2 x 2 + x3 =−5
This can be written as

[ ][ ] [ ]
1 2 −3 x 1 3
2 −1 −1 x 2 = 11
3 2 1 x 3 −5

The augmented matrix becomes

[ ]
1 2 −3 ⋮ 3
2 −1 −1 ⋮ 11
R 2−2 R1
3 2 1 ⋮ −5 R 3−3 R3

[ ]
1 2 −3 ⋮ 3
0 −5 5 ⋮ 5
4
0 −4 10 ⋮ −14 R 2− R 2
5

[ ]
1 2 −3 ⋮ 3
0 −5 5 ⋮ 5
0 0 6 ⋮ −18
Note that as a result of these steps, the matrix of coefficients of x has been reduced to a
triangular matrix.
Finally, we detach the right hand column back to its original position:

[ ][ ] [ ]
1 2 −3 x1 3
0 −5 5 x 2 = 5
0 0 6 x 3 −18

Then by back substitution, starting from the bottom row, we get:

 6 x 3=−18 ∴ x 3=−3
−5 x 2+5 x 3=5 ∴−5 x 2=5−5 x3 x 3=−3
−5 x 2=5−5 (−3)
−5 x 2=5+15
−5 x 2=20 x 2=−4
∴ x 1=3−2 x 2+ 3 x 3
x 1=3−2 (−4 )+3 (−3)
x 1=3+8−9 , x 1=11−9=2
∴ x 1=2; x 2=2 ; x 3=−3

Exercise
1. Solve: by Gaussian elimination method
x 1−4 x2 −2 x 3=21
2 x1 + x 2 +2 x3 =3 Ans: x 1=3 , x2 =−5 , x 3=1
3 x 1+2 x 2−x 3=−2
2. x−3 y + z=−1 solve using elimination method, Crammer’s rule
2 x+ y−4 z=−1 and Gaussian elimination method and Adjoint
6 x−7 y +8 z=7 method
Ans: x=1 , y=1 , z =1
3. 3 x+ 2 y + z=0
5 x+ 2 y + z=−2
7 x +5 y+ 2 z=1
Use any of the methods above to solve for x, y and z.
4. 3 x+ 2 y −z=19
4 x− y +2 z=4
−5 2 7
2 x+ 4 y−5 z=32 Ans = x= , y= , z=
6 3 6
Solve for x, y and z
 PART 4 MAT 205
Vector space / Linear space with examples
Subspace of a vector space
Linear independence, basis and dimensions
Rank of a matrix

VECTOR SPACE / LINEAR SPACE

Def: let X be a non-empty set. K is a scalar field usually IR, suppose
+: X × X → X closed under addition.
.:K ×X → X closed under scalar multiplication
Addition and multiplication are defined such that
1. X is n abelian group
2. K is left distributed over X, i.e, [a(x+y)] = ax + ay
3. X is right distributed over X, i.e, [x(a+b)] = ax + bx
4. ( αβ )x =α ( β x ) ⍱α , β ∈ K ∧x ∈ X
5. 1. x=x , ⍱1 ∈ K ∧x ∈ X
Then X is called a linear space or vector space over a field k.

The axioms of vector space above are listed in 3 groups.

1. Closure Axioms
C1: closure under addition
For every pair of elements x and y ∈ X there corresponds a unique element in X called
the sum of x and y denoted by x + y, i.e, x + y ∈ X
C2: closure under multiplication by real numbers.
For every x ∈ X and every number a there corresponds an element in X called the product
of a and x denoted by a × x=ax ∈ X
2. Axioms for Addition
A3: commutative law: For all x and y in X you have that x + y = y + x
 A4: Associative law: For all xy and z in X you have that (x + y) + z = x + (y + z)
A5: Existence of zero element: There is an element in X, denoted by 0 such that x + 0 = x
⍱x∈ X
A6: Existence of negative (additive inverse): For every x ∈ X the element (-1)x has the
property x + (-1)x = 0
3. Axioms of Multiplication:
M7: Associative law: For every x ∈ X and all real numbers α ∧β you have α ( βx ) =α (βx)
M8: Distributive law for addition in X: For all x and y and y ∈ X and all real α you have
α ( x + y ) =αx+αy
M9: Distributive law for addition of numbers: For all x ∈ X and all real α and β you have
( α + β ) x=αx+ βx
M10: Existence of identity. For every x ∈ X you have 1. x=x
The above vector space is simultaneous referred to as real vector space since you multiply
throughout by real numbers.
For us to determine whether a given set of vector is a vector space, all you need to do is to test if
the set of vector satisfies the axioms 1 to 10 enumerated above.
Examples:
1. Show that the real number R is a vector space.
Solution
We need to show that R satisfies all the axioms from 1 to 10.
C1: The sum of any two real numbers is a real number.
C2: The product of any two real numbers is a real number.
A3: The set of real number are commutative.
A4: If x, y, z ∈ R then ( x + y) + z = x + (y + z)
A5: 0 is the zero element of R
A6: For each x ∈ X, ∃ an element −x ∈ X such that x + (-x) = 0 (inverse)
M7: k ( x + y )=kx+ ky ⍱ x , y ∈ X∧α ∈ R distributive in terms of scalar multiplication.
M8: ( α + β ) x=αx+ βx distributive ⍱ x ∈ X∧α , β ∈ R
M9: ( αβ ) x=α ( βx ) ⍱ x ∈ X , α , β ∈ R
M10: There exist a number called one (1) ∈ R
1. x=x .1=x ⍱ x ∈ X (Existence of identity element)
Example
2. Prove that R2 is a vector space.
Proof:
Here R2 must satisfy all the ten axioms as outlined above.
C1: closure under addition. For every pair of elements x and y ∈ R2. There corresponds a
unique element in R2 called the sum of x and y denoted by x + y i.e x + y ∈ R2
C2: closure under multiplication. For every x, y ∈ R2 and every under a, there
corresponds an element in R2 called the product of a and x denoted by x ∈ R2 = a(x1,x2) =
(ax1, ax2) ∈ R2
A3: x ∈ R2 → x=(x 1 , x 2)
2
y ∈ R → y =( y 1 , y 2 )
→ x+ y = y + x
A4: ( x + y ) + z=x +( y + z )
A5: Obviously 0 = (0,0) ∈ R2
A6: Trivially, every element of R2 has its inverse in R2
M7: α ( x + y ) =αx+αy
M8: ( α + β ) x=αx+ βx
M9: ( αβ ) x=α ( βx )
M10: There exist 1 ∈ R2 such that
1. x=x .1=x ⍱ x ∈ R
Since x is arbitrary
Hence R2 is a vector space.
3. Prove that R2 is also a vector space
Proof:
The solution here is the same as the case of R2 above.
4. Show that Z (the set of all integers) is not a vector.
Solution
You can pick an example to confirm that statement.
1 1 3
Obviously 3 ∈ Z , ∈ R but 3× = =1.5 ∉ Z
2 2 2
Thus Z is not a vector space.
 Note the first axioms is satisfied, i.e, ⍱ xy ∈ Z , x + y = y + x
The satisfaction of that axioms does not make Z a vector space since you can find one of
the axioms, which a set of integers failed to satisfy.
5. N (the set of all natural number) is not a vector space since ∄ -10 ∈ N such that 10 + (-
10) = 0 ∉ N
6. A set of non-singular 2 x 2 matrices is not a vector space.

[ 10 01] ←2 ×2 matrices (non−singular )

¿
[−10 01] ← 2× 2matrices (non−singular )
but (10 01)+(−10 01)=(00 02)∉
Is a member of non-singular matrix
Hence, non-singular is not a vector space
7. Show that a set of 2 x 2 matrices is a vector space.
Solution
A3: Addition of 2 x 2 matrices gives a 2 x 2 matrices and they are commutative.

[ ][
a11 a12 b 11 b12
+
a21 a22 b21 b22
a +b
][ a +b
= 11 11 12 12
a21+ b21 a 22+b 22 ]
[ a 11 +b11 a12+ b12
a21 +b21 a22+ b22 ][ ][
a a b b
= 11 12 + 11 12
a21 a 22 b21 b 22 ]
Thus A + B = B + A
A4: Let A, B and C be elements of 2 x 2 matrices.

Then (A + B) + C = [ ][
a 11 +b11 a12+ b12 c 11 c 12
+
a21 +b21 a22+ b22 c 21 c 22 ]
¿
[ a11 + b11 + c11 a12+ b12 +c 12
a21+ b21+ c 21 a22+ b22 +c 22 ]
¿
[ ][
a11 a12 b11 + c 11 b12+ c 12
+
a21 a22 b21+ c 21 b22+ c 22 ]
[ a11 a12
a21 a22 ] {[
b b c
+ 11 12 + 11 12
c
][
b21 b 22 c 21 c 22 ]}
A+(B +C)
Thus (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

A5: Trivially [ 00 00] ∈ 2 x 2 matrix

A6: [ +
][
a11 a12 −a 11 −a12
a21 a22 −a21 −a22
a −a
][
a −a
= 11 11 12 12 =
0 0
a21−a 21 a22−a 22 0 0 ][ ]
M7: α
{( )(
a11 a12 b11 b 12
+
a21 a22 b21 b 22
a +b
)} [ a +b
=α 11 11 12 12
a21 +b21 a22+ b22 ]
¿
[ α ( a11 +b 11 ) α ( a12+ b12 )
α ( a21 +b 21) α ( a22+ b22 )
=
][ ]
α a11−α b11 α a12−α b12
α a 21−α b21 α a22−α b22

= [ ][
α a11 α a 12 α b 11 α b 12
+
α a 21 α a 22 α b 21 α b 22 ]
¿ αA + αB
Thus α ( A +B )=αA + αB
M8: ( α + β ) A=αA + αB

[ ( α + β ) a 11 ( α + β ) a12
( α + β ) a21 ( α + β ) a22 ]
¿
[ α a 11 + β a11 α a12+ β a12
α a21 + β a21 α a22+ β a22
=
][ ][
α a11 α a 12 β a11 β a 12
+
α a 21 α a 22 β a 21 β a 22 ]
¿α
( a11 a12
a 21 a22 ) (
a a
+ β 11 12
a21 a 22 )
¿ αA + βA
Thus ( α + β ) A=αA + βA

M9: ( αβ ) A=α ( βA )= [ a11 a 12

a21 a 22 ]
¿
[ αβ a11 αβ a 12
αβ a21 αβ a 22 ]
¿α
[ β a11 β a 12
β a 21 β a 22 ]
¿α β
([ a11 a12
a21 a22 ])
¿ α ( βA )
Thus ( αβ ) A=α ( βA )

[ 10 01] ∈2 ×2 ¿
M10: ∃

0 1] [ a ]
∃[ ]= A=[
1 0 1 0 a 11 a 12
0 1 21 a 22

¿
[ a11 +0 a 12+0
0+ a21 0+ a22 ]
¿
[ a11 a12
a21 a22 ]
Thus 1. A= A .1
Since A is an existing matrix, it therefore stands the chance to represent all matrices of 2 x 2.
Hence a set of 2 x 2 matrix is a vector space.

SUBSPACE
Definition: A subset of vector space which is also a vector space is clled a subspace. In other
word, a subset of vector space is termed a subspace if the ffg conditions hold.
Let S be a subset of a vector space X, then
i) If x , y ∈ S then x + y ∈ S
ii) If x ∈ S , a ∈ R then ax ∈ S
Therefore, S is closed under scalar multiplication and vector addition.
Examples
1. Let X be any vector space over a field K, then the set [ 0 ] consisting of O vectore alone
and also the entire space X are always subspace of x
Note: A subspace of X other than X itself is called proper substance of X.
2. Let S={(x 1 , x2 , x3 )T ⋮ x 1=x 2
Show that S is a subspace of IR3
Solution
You only need to show that conditions (i) and (ii) above are satisfied.
T
(i) x=( x 1 , x 1 , x 2 ) ∈ S then
T T
ax=α ( x 1 , x 1 , x 2 ) =( α x 1 , α x 1 , α x 1 ) ∈ S
T
(ii) If ( x 1 , x 1 , x 2 ) and ( a , a , b )T are arbitrary elements
 T T T
then, ( x 1 , x 1 , x 2 ) + ( a , a , b ) =( x 1+ a , x1 +a , x 2 +b ) ∈ S
T
( x 1 +a , x 1+ a , x 2 +b ) ∈ S
Hence S is a subspace of IR3
3. Show that S the set of all 2 x 2 symmetric matrices is subspace of 2 x 2 matrices.

Let A ∈ S → A= [a11 a12

a21 a 22 ]
And B∈ S → B= [ b11 b 12
b21 b 22 ]
So A+ B= [ a 11 +b11 a12+ b12
a21 +b21 a22+ b22
∈S
]
Also αA =α [ =
][
a11 a 12 α a11 α a12
a21 a 22 α a21 α a22
∈S
]
Hence a set of 2 x 2 symmetric matrices is a subspace of 2 x 2 matrices.

LINEAR COMBINATIONS
Let X be a vector space over a field K and let U 1 , U 2 , U 3 , …, U be some elements of V. any
n

vector in X of the form α 1 U 1 + α 2 U 2+ α 3 U 3 +…+ α n U n

THEOREM: Let X be a vector space over a field K and let S be a non-empty subset of X,
then the set of all linear combinations of element of S denoted by L(S) is a subspace of X
containing S. Furthermore, if w is another subspace of X containing S, the L(S) ⊆ w
(subset of w). Thus L(S) is the smallest subspace of X containing S. It is called the
subspace of X spanned or generated by S.
Proof:

LINEAR INDEPENDENCE, BASIS AND DIMENSION

 1. Let X be a vector space over a field K. The vector U 1 , U 2 , … U n ∈ X are said to be
linearly dependent over or simply dependent if ∃ scalars α 1 , α 2 ,… ,α n ∈ K , not zero
such that α 1 U 1 + α 2 U 2+ …+α n U n=0 (zero vector)
2. Let X be a vector space over a field K. The vectors U 1 , U 2 , … , U n are said to be
linearly independent or simply independent if given α 1 U 1 + α 2 U 2+ …+α n U n=0 with
α 1 ∈ R implies α 1=α 2=α 3=… α n=0
Remark:
Let X be a vector space over field K and suppose that α 1 U 1 + α 2 U 2+ …+α n U n=O ,
U j (1 ,2 , … , n)∈ X
i. If one of the vectors U 1 , U 2 , … , U n is the O (i.e, U i=0 ¿ then the vectors must be
dependent for 0. U 1 +0. U 2 +…+1. U i +0. U i+1 +…+ 0.U n=0. The coefficient of U i is
not zero. On the other hand, any n0n-vectors U is by itself independent for
α U =0 , U ≠ 0→ α =0
ii. If two of the vectors U 1 , U 2 , … , U n are equal i.e (U 1=U 2), the vectors are dependent
1. U 1+ 1.U 2+1. U 3 +0. U 4 + …+U n=0. The coefficient of U i are not all zero, thus we
conclude that it is linearly dependent.
iii. A set which contains a dependent subset is itself dependent. Hence any subset of an
independent set is independent.
iv. If one of the α is not zero, then the vectors are linearly dependent.
v. If a set of vectors U 1 , U 2 , … , U n is independent then any rearrangement of the vectors
is also independent.
Examples
1. Determine whether each of the ffg sets of vectors are linearly dependent or independent

( ) ( ) ( )
1 3 2 9 1 −6
A= 1 2 , B= 4 −2 and C= −5 13
2 1 4 −5 −4 −8

Solution
α A + λB+ γC=0
 [ ] [ ] [ ][ ]
1 3 2 9 1 −6 0 0
α 1 2 + λ 4 −2 +γ −5 13 = 0 0
2 1 4 −5 −4 −8 0 0
α +2 λ+γ =0
3 α + 9 λ−6 γ =0
α +4 λ−5 γ=0
2 α −2 λ+13 γ =0
2 α + 4 λ−4 γ =0
α −5 λ−8 γ =0

( )( ) ( )
1 2 1 0
3 9 −6 0
α
1 4 −5 0
λ =
2 −2 13 0
γ
2 4 −4 0
1 −5 −8 0

( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 R −3 R 1 2 1 R2 1 2 1
2 1
3 9 −6 R −R 0 3 −9 3 0 1 −3
3 1
1 4 −5 0 2 −6 R 3 0 1 −3
R −2 R 1
2 −2 13 4 0 −6 11 2 0 −6 11
2 4 −4 R5 −2 R 1 0 0 −6 R 5 0 0 −1
1 −5 −8 R6 −R 1 0 −7 −9 6 0 −7 −9

( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 1 2 1
1 2 1
0 1 −3 R3−R2 0 1 −3 R4
0 1 −3
0 1 −3 R 4 +6 R 2 0 0 0 7 R −R 3
0 1 −1 4
0 −6 11 R5−0 R2 0 0 −7 R6 R −R3
0 0 −1 5
0 0 −1 R +7 R 0 0 −1 30
6 2 0 0 −1
0 −7 −9 0 0 −30

( )
1 2 1
0 1 −3
0 1 −1
0 0 −1
0 0 −1

( )( ) ( )
1 2 1 α 0
0 1 −3 λ = 0
0 1 −1 γ 0
 α +2 λ+γ =0
λ−3 γ =0
−γ=0
Try solving simultaneously
γ =0 , λ=0∧α =0
Therefore, the matrices A, B, C are linearly independent.

( )
1 2 1
Hence 0 1 −3 has 3 dimensions and basis ( 1 , 2, 1 ) , ( 0 ,1 ,−3 ) , ( 0 , 1 ,−1 )
0 1 −1
2. Which of the ffg collection of vectors are linearly independent
(a) ( 1 ,1 , 1 )T , ( 1 ,1 , 0 )T , ( 1 , 0 ,0 )T
(b) ( 1 , 0 ,1 )T , ( 0 , 1 , 0 )T
(c) ( 1 , 2, 4 )T , ( 2 ,1 , 3 )T , ( 4 ,−1 , 1 )T
Solution

[] [] [][]
1 1 1 0
α 1 +β 1 +γ 0 = 0
1 0 0 0

[][][][]
α β γ 0
+ +
α β 0 = 0
α 0 0 0
So α + β+ γ =0
α + β=0
α =0
→ β=0 , α =0
α =β=γ =0
The vector are linearly independent

[] [][]
1 0 0
(b) α 0 + β 1 = 0
1 0 0

[][][]
α 0 0
0 + β=0
α 0 0
[][]
α 0
β = 0 →α =0 , β=0
α 0
∴ The vectors are linearly independent.

[ ] | |
1 2 4 1 2 4
| |
(c) 2 1 −1 = A , A = 2 1 −1 =0
4 3 1 4 3 1
Hence the system has in addition to a trivial solution a nontrivial solution, which means that
there exists at least a ≠ 0 such that

[ ][ ] [ ]
1 2 4 a1 0
2 1 −1 a 2 = 0
4 3 1 a3 0

Hence the vectors are linearly dependent.

3. Let X be a vector space of polynomial of degree 3 of a real field IR. Determine whether
the vectors w 1 , w 2 , w3 are linearly dependent or independent, where
3 2
w 1=t + 4 t −2 t+3
3 2
w 2=t + 6 t −t + 4
3 2
w 3=3 t + 8t −8 t +7
Solution

[ ] [ ][ ] [ ]
1 1 3 R −4 R 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 3
2 1
4 6 8 0 −2 −4 0 −1 −2 R 3 + R2 0 −1 −2
R3 +2 R 1
−2 −1 −8 0 1 −2 0 1 −2 R 4 + R2 0 0 4
3 4 7 R 4−3 R1 0 1 −2 0 1 −2 0 0 4

[ ] [ ][ ]
1 1 3 1 1 3
1 1 3
0 −1 −2 0 −1 −2
R −R3 0 −1 −2
0 0 −1 4 0 0 −1
0 0 −1
0 0 −1 0 0 0

[ ][ ] [ ]
1 1 3 α 0
∴ 0 −1 −2 β = 0
0 0 −1 γ 0
α + β+ 3 γ =0 … … …(1)
−β−2 γ =0 … … … .(2)
−γ=0 … … … .(3)
 Solving simultaneously
From equation (1)
α + β+ 3(0)=0
α + β=0 … … … .. ( x )
From equation (2)
−β−2(0)=0
−β=0
From equation (x)
α + ( 0 )=0
∴ α =0
∴ α =0 , β=0 , γ =0
These vector are linearly independent since α =β=γ =0
4. Determine whether the ffg set of vectors are linearly dependent or independent:
(a) ( 1 , 2, 1 , 2 ) , ( 0 , 1 ,1 , 0 ) , ( 1, 4 , 3 ,2 )
(b) ( 0 , 1 ,2 ) , ( 1 ,1 , 1 ) , ( 1 , 0 , 0 )
Solution

[ ][ ] [ ]
R 2−2 R 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
2 1 4 0 1 2 0 1 2
(a) R3 −R 1 R −R2
1 1 3 0 1 2 3 0 0 0
R4 −2 R1 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0

(10 0 1 α
1 2 β
= )( ) ( )
0
0
α +γ =0 … … … (1)
β +2 γ =0 … … ..(2)

From (1)
γ =−α … … …(3)
Put 3 in (2)
β +2 (−α )=0
β−2 α =0
These 2 equations above are unsolvable, so, It is inconsistent.
 ASSIGNMENT
Let P and Q be the subspaces of R4 generated { ( 1 , 2 ,2 , 0 ) , ( 2 ,3 , 3 ,−1 ) , ( 2 ,2 , 0 ,−2 ) } and

{( 1 ,3 , 4 ,−2 ) , ( 12 , 1 ,1 ,−1) , ( 2 ,3 , 2 ,−3 )}

Find (i) dim ( P + Q) (ii) dim (p) (iii) dim (Q)

[ ] [ ] [ [] 00
0 1 1 0 R −R 0 1 1 0 1 1
(b) 1 1 0 2 1
0 −1 −1
2 1 0 0 R3−R 1 0 −1 −1 R 3−R2
0 −1 −1
0 0 0
1 1
−1 −1 ]
][ ] [ ]
α 0
[ 0 1 1
0 −1 −1
β=0
γ 0
β +γ =0 … … … (1)
−β−γ=0 … … …(2)
From (1)
β=−γ … … …(¿)
From equation (2), put (*) in (2)
−(−γ )−γ =0
γ −γ =0
0=0
These equations are not solvable, therefore, it is inconsistence and so, it is linearly independent.

Exercise
1. Determine whether the set of vectors is defined as

( )
6 0 0
2 5 0
U =( 6 , 2, 3 , 4 )
3 −3 7
4 1 −2

V = ( 0 ,5 ,−3 ,1 )
W =( 0 , 0 ,7 ,−2 )
Are linearly dependent or linearly independent.
 BASIS AND DIMENSION
Definition:
Let X be a vector space over a field K, then X is said to be of finite dimension n {written dim(x)
= n} if there exist linearly independent vector e 1 ,e 2 , e3 , … , en which are generated or spanned X

[ ]
1 2 1
e.g 0 1 −3 it has dim 3. Basis are ( 1 , 2, 1 ) , ( 0 ,1 ,−3 ) , ( 0 , 0 , 1 )
0 0 1
Definition:
Let X be a vector space over a field K. Then X is said to be of finite dimensions n such that
e 1 ,e 2 , e3 , … , en which are generated or spanned over X is said to be Basis.

Example
Determine the dimension of the vectors below and select a basis for it.
[ 1 ,1 , 1 ,1 ] 1
[ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]1
[ 1 ,2 , 3 , 4 ]1
[ 1 ,0 ,−1 ,−2 ] 1
Solution

[ ] [ ] [ ]
1 3 1 1 R −R 1 3 1 1 1 3 1 1
2 1
1 4 2 0 0 1 1 −1 R3 −2 R 2 0 1 1 −1
R −R1
1 5 3 −1 3 0 2 2 −2 R4 −3 R2 0 0 0 0
1 6 4 −2 R4 −R1 0 3 3 −3 0 0 0 0

∴
[ 10 3 1 1
1 1 −1 ] ∴ Dimension X = 2 Basis = ( 1 , 3 ,1 , 1 ) , ( 0 , 1 ,1 ,−1 )

iii) dim (Q)

 [ ] [ ]
1

[ ]
1 2 1
1 2 1 2
1 2 2
2 R 2−3 R1 −1 1
0 −3 R3−R2 −1
Q= 3 1 3 R3−4 R1 2 2 0 −3
2
4 1 2 R 4 +3 R1 0 −1 −6 R4 −R1
0 0 0
−3 −1 −3 1
0 3 0 0 0
2

∴ dim (Q) = 2

iv) dim (P + Q) = dim (P)+dim (Q)−dim ⁡(P ∩Q)

dim ( P+Q )−dim ( P )−dim ( Q )=−dim ⁡(P ∩Q)
4−3−2=−dim ⁡(P ∩Q)
−1=−dim ⁡( P ∩Q)
∴ dim ( P∩ Q )=1

RANK OF A MATRIX
Definitions:
1. the rank of a matrix is the number of non-zero row of the matrix after the matrix has been
reduced to echelon form. By this definition, you only need to reduce any given matrix to
row echelon form and the number of non-zero rows is obtained as the rank.
2. The rank of the matrix is defined as the largest order of any non-vanishing minor of the
matrix is denoted by R(A).
Examples
1. Find the rank of A if

[ ]
1 −2 1
A= 2 1 0
3 0 1
Solution

[ ] [ ] [ ]
1 −2 1 R −2 R 1 −2 1 1 −2 1
2 1 0 2 1
0 5 −2 5 R 3−6 R2 0 5 −2
3 0 1 R3−3 R 1 0 6 −2 0 0 2
From the above, the rank of A, denoted r(A) = 3 and is also called the dim(A) is dim(A) = 3
 [ ] [ ][ ]
1 −2 3 R −2 R 1 −2 3 R 1 −2 3
3
2. A= 2 −5 1 2 1
0 −1 −5 0 −1 −5
R −R 2
1 −4 7 3 1 0 −2 4 0 −1 2
r(A) = 3 = dim(A)
Exercise

[ ]
2 4 6
1. Find the rank of matrix B= −1 −2 −3
3 6 9