3B Remainder and factor theorems

We saw in the last section that we can factorise polynomials

by comparing coefficients. For example, if we know that
( ) is one factor of x 3 x 2 x 2, we can write
x3 x 2 x 2 ( x + 2) (ax 2 + bx + c ) and compare coefficients
to find that the other factor is ( 2 ).
If we try to factorise x 3 2 x 2 x 5 using ( ) as one
factor, we find that it is not possible; ( ) is not a factor
of x 3 2 x 2 x 5. However, using the factorisation of
x3 x 2 x 2 we can write:
x 3 2x 2 x 5 ( x + 2)( x 2 1) + 3
The number 3 is the remainder – it is what is left over when we
try to write x 3 2 x 2 x 5 as a multiple of ( ). In the last
section we saw that factorising is related to division. In this case,
we could say that:
x3 2x 2 x 5
= ( x 2 + 1) ih i d 3
x+2
This is similar to the concept of a remainder when dividing
numbers: for example, 25 = 3 7 + 4, so we would say that 4 is
the remainder when 25 is divided by 7.
We can find the reminder by including it as another
unknown coefficient. For example, to find the reminder when
x 3 2 x 2 x 5 is divided by ( ), we could write
x3 2x 2 x 5 ( x + 2)(ax 2 + bx + c ) R
then expand and compare coefficients. This is not a quick task.
Luckily there is a shortcut which can help us find the reminder
without finding all the other coefficients. If we substitute in a
value of x that makes the first bracket equal to zero, in this case
x = −2, into the above equation, it becomes
3 (0 ) ( 2
+b + )+ R
so R = 3. This means that R is the value we get when we
substitute x = −2 into the polynomial expression on the left. Fill-
in proof sheet 6 on the CD-ROM, ‘Remainder theorem’, shows
you that the same reasoning can be applied when dividing any
polynomial by a linear factor. This leads us to the Remainder
theorem.

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 KEY POINT 3.2
t
exam hin The remainder theorem
b
x= The remainder when a polynomial expression is divided by
Notice that a
b
lu e w h ic h ( b) is the value of the expression when x = .
is the va a
b = 0.
makes ax −

Worked example 3.4

Find the remainder when x 3 + 2x

2 x 7 is divided by x + 2.

Use the remainder theorem by rewriting the ( + 2) (x − (−2))

divisor in the form (ax − b)…

When x = −2 ( − ) + 2 × ( − ) + 7 = −5
3
… then substitute the value of x (obtained from
b b So the remainder is −5
x = ) into the expression when x =
a a

If the remainder is zero then (ax − b) is a factor. This is

summarised by the factor theorem.
KEY POINT 3.3

The factor theorem

b
If the value of a polynomial expression is zero when x = ,
then ( b) is a factor of the expression. a

Worked example 3.5

Show that 2x − 3 is a factor of 2 x 3 133x 2 19 6.

3
To use the factor theorem we When x = :
3 2
need to substitute in x = ⎛ 3⎞
3 2
− 13 ⎛ ⎞ + 19 × ⎛ ⎞ − 6
2 3 3
2×
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
27 117 57
= − + −6 = 0
4 4 2

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 continued . . .

Therefore, by the factor theorem, ( ) is a factor of

2 x 3 13
3 2 19 6.

We can also use the factor theorem to identify a factor of an

expression, by trying several different numbers. Once one factor
has been found, then comparing coefficients can be used to find
the remaining factors. This is the recommended method for
factorising cubic expressions on the non-calculator paper.

Worked example 3.6

Fully factorise x 3 3x 2 33x 35.

When factorising a cubic with no obvious When x = 1 the expression is −64

factors we must put in some numbers and When x = 2 the expression is −81
hope that we can apply the factor theorem When x = −1 the expression is 0
Therefore x + 1 is a factor.

We can rewrite the expression as x3 3x2 33 x 35

( x + 1) × general quadratic and compare = ( x + 1) ( x 2 + x + )
coefficients
= ax 3 + ( + ) x 2 + ( + ) x + c
a , b = 2, c = −35
x3 3x2 33 x 35 ( x 1) (x 2 + 2x
2 x 35)

The remaining quadratic also factorises = ( + )(

) ( + )(x − 5)

exam hint
If the expression is going to factorise easily then you only
need to try numbers which are factors of the constant term.

A very common type of question asks you to find unknown

coefficients in an expression if factors or remainders
are given.

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 Worked example 3.7

x3 x 2 + ax + b has a factor of (x − 1) and leaves a remainder of 17 when divided

by (x − 2). Find the constants a and b.

Apply factor theorem when x = 1 :

1+4+a+b=0
⇔ a + b = −5 (1)

Apply remainder theorem when x = 2 :

8 + 16 + 2a + b = 17
⇔ 2a + b = −7 (2)

Two equations with two unknowns can (2) − (1)

be solved simultaneously a = −2
b = −3

Exercise 3B

1. Use the remainder theorem to find the remainder when:

(a) (i) x 2 + 3x
3x 5 is divided by x + 1
(ii) x 2 + x − 4 is divided by x + 2
(b) (i) x 3 6x 2 4 x + 8 is divided by x − 3
(ii) x 3 7 x 2 11x is divided by x − 1
(c) (i) 6 x 4 77xx 3 − 5x 2 5x
5x + 10 is divided by 2 3
100 x 3 + 11x 2 − 5 is divided by 3
(ii) 12 x 4 10x 1
(d) (i) x 3 is divided by x + 2
(ii) 3x 4 is divided by x − 1

2. Decide whether each of the following expressions are

factors of 2 x 3 73 3x + 2.
(a) x (b) x − 1
(c) x + 1 (d) x − 2
1
(e) x + 2 (f) x −
2
1
(g) x + (h) 2 x 1
2
(i) 2 x 1 (j) 3 1

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 3. Fully factorise the following expressions:
(a) (i) x 3 x2 x 2 (ii) x 3 x2 − 4x 4
(b) (i) x 3 7 x 2 16 x 12 (ii) x 3 6 x 2 12 x 8
(c) (i) x 3 3x 2 12 x 10 (ii) x 3 x 2 2 x − 15
(d) (i) 6 x 3 11x 2 6 x − 1 13x 2 − 37 x − 30
(ii) 12 x 3 13x

4. 6 3 2
b 8 has a factor (x + 2) and leaves a
remainder of −3 when divided by (x − 1).
Find a and b. [5 marks]

5. x 3 x 2 + ax + b has a factor of (x − 2) and leaves a

remainder of 15 when divided by (x − 3).
Find a and b. [5 marks]

6. The polynomial x kx k has a factor (x − k). Find the

possible values of k. [5 marks]

7. The polynomial x (k + 1) x 3 has a factor

(x − k + 1). Find k. [6 marks]

8. x 3 ax bx + 168 has factors (x − 7) and (x − 3).

(a) Find a and b.
(b) Find the remaining factor of the expression. [6 marks]

9. x 3 ax 2 + 9 x + b has a factor of (x − 11) and leaves a

remainder of −52 when divided by (x + 2).
(a) Find a and b.
(b) Find the remainder when x 3 ax 2 + 9 x + b is divided
by (x − 2). [6 marks]

10. f ( x ) = x 3 + ax 2 + 3x + b.
f(x) is just a
name given to the
The remainder when f (x) is divided by (x + 1) is 6. Find expression. You will
the remainder when f (x) is divided by (x − 1). [5 marks] learn more about
this notation in
11. The polynomial x 2 5x5x 6 is a factor of chapter 5.
3
155x + ax + b. Find the values of a and b.
2 x 15x 2
[6 marks]

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Exercise 3B (ii) y

x
1. (a) (i) 3 (ii) −2 −1 5
(b) (i) −7 (ii) 5
(c) (i) −2 (ii) −4
(d) (i) −8 (ii) 3
2. (a) No (b) No −35

(c) Yes (d) Yes

(e) No (f) Yes
(g) No (h) Yes
(i) No (j) No
3. (a) (i) ( x + 1)( x 1)( x + 2) (b) (i) y

(ii) ( x + 1))(( x − 2)( x + 2)

180
(x 2 ) ( x − 3)
2
(b) (i)
(ii) ( x + 2)
3

x
(c) (i) ( x 1)(x 2 − 2x + 10) 3 5

(ii) ( x 3)(x 2 + x + 5)
(d) (i) ( x 1)( )(2x − 1)(
)(3x − 1)
(ii) ( x + 2)(
)(4 x + 3)(
) (3 x − 5 )
(ii) y
4. a , b = −18
12
5. a , b = 48
6. k = 0, 4
1
7. k = −
2 x
8. (a) a , b = 59 (b) ( ) 1 2 3

9. (a) a , b = 22 (b) 0
10. 14
11. a , b = −30
(c) (i) y
Exercise 3C
1. (a) (i) y

x
12 0
4

x
23

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