Study Guide for Assessment 2
A2.2: Prokaryote and Eukaryote Cell Structures
A2.2.5: Prokaryote Cell Structure
Key Features of Prokaryotic Cells:
o Cell Wall: Made of peptidoglycan in Gram-positive bacteria; provides shape
and protection.
o Plasma Membrane: Regulates entry and exit of substances.
o Cytoplasm: Semi-fluid matrix where cellular processes occur.
o Naked DNA in a Loop: DNA not bound to histones, forming a circular
chromosome in the nucleoid region.
o 70S Ribosomes: Smaller ribosomes involved in protein synthesis.
Examples: Gram-positive eubacteria such as Bacillus and Staphylococcus.
A2.2.6: Eukaryote Cell Structure
Key Features of Eukaryotic Cells:
o Plasma Membrane: Encloses the cell, regulates transport.
o Compartmentalized Cytoplasm: Contains 80S ribosomes and specialized
organelles.
o Nucleus:
Enclosed by a double membrane with pores.
Contains DNA bound to histones, forming chromosomes.
o Membrane-Bound Organelles:
Mitochondria: ATP production.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
Rough ER: Protein synthesis.
Smooth ER: Lipid synthesis.
Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins.
Lysosomes: Enzyme storage for digestion.
Vacuoles: Storage and waste disposal.
o Cytoskeleton: Made of microtubules and microfilaments for structure and
transport.
A2.2.7: Processes of Life in Unicellular Organisms
Key Functions:
o Homeostasis: Maintaining internal conditions.
o Metabolism: Biochemical reactions, including respiration.
o Nutrition: Uptake of nutrients for energy.
o Movement: Using structures like flagella.
o Excretion: Removing waste products.
o Growth: Increase in size or mass.
o Response to Stimuli: Detecting and responding to environmental changes.
o Reproduction: Asexual (e.g., binary fission) or sexual processes.
A2.2.8: Differences Between Animal, Fungal, and Plant Cells
Key Differences:
o Cell Walls: Present in fungi (chitin) and plants (cellulose); absent in animal
cells.
o Vacuoles:
Large and central in plant cells.
Small in animal cells.
Rare in fungi, except storage roles.
o Chloroplasts: Found only in plant cells for photosynthesis.
o Centrioles: Present in animal cells; absent in plants.
o Cilia and Flagella: Present in animals; rare or absent in plants and fungi.
A2.2.9: Atypical Eukaryotic Cell Structures
Examples:
o Aseptate Fungal Hyphae: Multiple nuclei within a continuous cytoplasm.
o Skeletal Muscle: Multinucleated fibers.
o Red Blood Cells: No nucleus in mature cells.
o Phloem Sieve Tubes: Lack a nucleus but maintain functionality.
A2.2.10: Identifying Cells in Micrographs
Prokaryotes: Nucleoid region, 70S ribosomes, and cell wall.
Eukaryotes: Nucleus, 80S ribosomes, and membrane-bound organelles.
A2.2.11: Drawing and Annotation Based on Electron Micrographs
Organelles and Structures:
o Include diagrams of the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, Golgi apparatus,
ER, and cell walls.
o Annotations should include their functions.
A2.2.12: Origin of Eukaryotic Cells by Endosymbiosis
Theory: Eukaryotes evolved from a common ancestor with a nucleus.
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts:
o Originated via endosymbiosis of prokaryotes.
o Evidence includes:
70S ribosomes.
Circular DNA.
Independent replication.
B2.1: Cell Membrane
B2.1.1–B2.1.2: Lipid Bilayers as the Basis of Membranes
Structure:
o Made of phospholipids that self-assemble into bilayers in water.
o Hydrophilic heads face outward; hydrophobic tails face inward, creating a
barrier.
Barrier Function:
o The hydrophobic interior prevents passage of polar molecules, ions, and large
molecules.
o Allows compartmentalization essential for cellular functions.
B2.1.3: Simple Diffusion Across Membranes
Mechanism:
o Molecules move down their concentration gradient without energy input.
o Examples: Oxygen (O₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂) pass directly through the
lipid bilayer.
B2.1.4: Integral and Peripheral Proteins in Membranes
Integral Proteins:
o Embedded in the lipid bilayer; may span the entire membrane (transmembrane
proteins).
o Functions: Transport, signal reception, and enzymatic activity.
Peripheral Proteins:
o Attached to the surface of the membrane (extracellular or cytoplasmic side).
o Functions: Structural support, cell signaling.
B2.1.5: Movement of Water by Osmosis
Osmosis:
o Water moves through semi-permeable membranes from low to high solute
concentration.
o Aquaporins: Specialized channels facilitating water transport.
Role of Solutes:
o Solute concentration differences create osmotic pressure driving water
movement.
B2.1.6: Channel Proteins for Facilitated Diffusion
Mechanism:
o Specific channel proteins allow ions/molecules to pass through.
o Selectivity depends on shape and charge of the channel’s interior.
Examples: Ion channels (e.g., Na⁺ or Cl⁻ channels).
B2.1.7: Pump Proteins for Active Transport
Active Transport:
o Requires ATP to move molecules against their concentration gradient.
o Examples: Sodium-potassium (Na⁺/K⁺) pump.
B2.1.8: Selectivity in Membrane Permeability
Mechanisms:
o Simple Diffusion: Non-selective, based on molecule size and properties.
o Facilitated Diffusion and Active Transport: Highly selective, involving
specific transport proteins.
B2.1.9: Glycoproteins and Glycolipids
Structure:
o Carbohydrates attached to proteins (glycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipids).
o Found on the extracellular surface of the membrane.
Functions:
o Cell adhesion and recognition, such as immune response and tissue formation.
B2.1.10: Fluid Mosaic Model of Membrane Structure
Components:
o Phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol, integral and peripheral proteins,
glycoproteins, and glycolipids.
Dynamic Nature:
o Components are not fixed; they move laterally, providing flexibility and
fluidity.
Key Features:
o Hydrophilic regions face water; hydrophobic regions avoid water.
B2.3: Cell Specialization and Differentiation
B2.3.1–B2.3.2: Production and Properties of Stem Cells
Stem Cell Characteristics:
o Unlimited division.
o Differentiation into various cell types.
Embryonic Stem Cells: Totipotent → Pluripotent → Specialized.
Adult Stem Cells: Multipotent (e.g., in bone marrow and hair follicles).
B2.3.3: Stem Cell Niches
Locations: Bone marrow (blood cells) and hair follicles (skin cells).
Function: Maintain stem cells or promote differentiation.
B2.3.4–B2.3.5: Cell Specialization and Size
Specialized Cells:
o Neurons: Long for signal transmission.
o Red Blood Cells: Small and biconcave for gas exchange.
B2.3.6–B2.3.7: Surface Area-to-Volume Ratios
Importance:
o Smaller cells exchange materials efficiently.
o Adaptations: Microvilli, flattening, and invaginations increase surface area.
C1.1: Enzymes and Metabolism
C1.1.1–C1.1.2: Enzymes as Catalysts
Role: Increase reaction rates and control metabolic pathways.
Specificity: Each enzyme works on a specific substrate.
C1.1.3: Anabolic and Catabolic Reactions
Anabolism: Builds molecules (e.g., protein synthesis).
Catabolism: Breaks down molecules (e.g., digestion).
C1.1.4–C1.1.7: Enzyme Mechanisms
Structure: Active site shapes are determined by enzyme 3D structure.
Induced Fit: Both enzyme and substrate adapt upon binding.
Denaturation: Loss of enzyme shape due to temperature, pH, or chemical stress.
C1.1.8–C1.1.10: Enzyme Kinetics
Effects on Activity:
o Temperature: Increases reaction rate until denaturation occurs.
o pH: Optimal range varies per enzyme.
o Substrate Concentration: Activity increases until saturation.
C1.1.14–C1.1.16: Inhibition and Regulation
Inhibition:
o Competitive: Inhibitor blocks the active site.
o Non-Competitive: Binds allosterically, changing enzyme shape.
Feedback Inhibition: End product inhibits pathway enzyme.
Additional Concepts
C1.1.12: Metabolic Heat Generation: Byproduct of inefficient energy transfer;
crucial for temperature regulation in birds and mammals.
C1.1.13: Metabolic Pathways: Include cyclical (e.g., Krebs cycle) and linear (e.g.,
glycolysis).
