Form two combined science notes: compiled by Mr Musona

Biology Section

Variation
-these are the differences shown by organisms of the same species e.g. height, colour, sex,
shoe size, e.t.c.

Types of variation
-there are two types of variation: (a) continuous variation (b) discontinuous variation
(a) Continuous variation/Environmental variation
-these are differences between organisms of the same species which do not have clear cut
differences and have intermediates (in-between differences/changes)
-these characteristics change gradually e.g. height, weight, surface area of leaves, leaf length,
finger length, heart rate e.t.c
-the characteristics are measurable
-when measuring height, it starts with the shortest going to the tallest, however, from one
height to the next, there are possible heights connecting the trend
-it shows a normal distribution curve (bell-shaped) because the results are so close to each
other
-it is a change which can be made by the environment to which an organism is living in e.g. a
plant may be influenced in its height by factors such as soil fertility, water availability e.t.c.
and the weight of an animal may be influenced by the quality and quantity of food available
to one animal than the other of the same species

Continuous variation on number of seeds per pod

Number of seeds per pod

20
18
16
14
Number of pods

12
10
8 Number of seeds per pod
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5
Number of seeds per pod

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(b) Discontinuous variation/Inheritance variation
-these show clear cut differences without any intermediates e.g. presence or absence of
earlobes in humans, tongue rolling, sex, eye colour, blood groups(only four groups: A, B, AB
or O), finger prints e.t.c

Discontinuous variation in blood groups

Blood Group
50
percentage of opulation

40

30

20
Blood Group
10

0
A B AB O
Blood Group

Comparing continuous and discontinuous variations

Continuous variations Discontinuous variations

1. They refer to small, indistinct Refer to the large, conspicuous differences
differences from the normal condition from the parents
2. They are already present in They are new variations through similar
population variations which might have occurred
previously
3. Usually unstable and non-heritable Usually stable and heritable

4. Can be represented by a smooth curve A curve is not produced

5. Very common in all organisms Appear suddenly and in few cases only

Nutrition: compiled by Mr Musona: 07/12/2017

Definition
-it is the study of food and its relationship to health
Nutrition in plants

Plants as universal producers of food

-green plants are the ultimate source of food for all organisms, including themselves.
-therefore, plants are primary producers

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-green plant leaves harness sunlight and convert carbon dioxide and water into chemical
energy in the form of carbohydrates (glucose/starch) through photosynthesis

Photosynthesis
-is a process by which green plant leaves make food using carbon dioxide, water and in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll

Word equation for photosynthesis

sunlight
Carbon dioxide + water → carbohydrates + oxygen
Chlorophyll
-the carbohydrates manufactured during photosynthesis are readily soluble, therefore cannot
be stored for future use by plants, hence are converted to starch which is insoluble and stored
for future use in plants
-therefore, to test if plants are photosynthesising we test for starch in green plant leaves
Experiment 1: Testing for starch in a leaf

Materials
-soft green leaf which has been in the light
-iodine solution
-alcohol
-dropper
-test tube or small bottle
-beaker or boiling tin
-burner and tripod stand
-gauze
-test tube holder
-white tile
Method
-boil the leaf in water (kill the leaf)
-remove the boiled leaf from water and boil it in alcohol over a water bath (to remove
chlorophyll)
-remove the leaf from alcohol and dip it in hot water for a minute to soften it (alcohol makes
it brittle and hard)
-place the soft leaf on a white tile and add two drops of iodine solution on it
Observations
Colour changes where there is starch to blue-black (dark black)
-iodine itself is brown in colour
Where there is no starch, there is no colour change.
Conclusion
Green plant leaves make food through photosynthesis and stored as starch

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 Test tube

Beaker Leaf

Boiling water alcohol

Burner

Tripod stand

Caution

Alcohol is inflammable! Put test tube with alcohol in a beaker of boiling water after putting
out the burner.

NB: killing the leaf is to destroy enzymes that help in chemical reactions of photosynthesis.

Leaf structure

Energy from sun

Translocation

Water

Carbon dioxide oxygen

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Internal structure of a leaf

What makes the leaf the universal food producer?

-the presence of chlorophyll (green pigment) which traps sunlight

-has a large surface area to collect sunlight (shape of the leaf)
-has stomata (pores) underneath through which carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf and
oxygen and water vapour diffuses out of the leaf
-their thickness allows light to reach all cells inside the leaf (they are thin)
-they have stalks which hold them in a proper position to trap most sunlight
-they have veins by which water is distributed to all the cells and manufactured food away
from the cells
NB: plants are the only food producers and animals are consumers. Wherever there is a
feeding system, the first stage always has plants.

Digestive system
Digestion is the breaking down of large insoluble particles of food into small soluble particles
that can be absorbed by the body.
-therefore, digestive system is a group of organs that are involved in the breaking down of
food particles into smaller particles which can be used by the body.

The alimentary canal

-is the path starting from the mouth, followed by food during digestion until excreted as
waste through the anus
-the organs that are involved are: mouth, gullet, stomach, small intestines, large intestines and
the anus
-it is also known as the digestive tract
Types of digestion

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-there are two types of digestion:
(1) Physical digestion or mechanical digestion
(2) Chemical digestion

The alimentary canal/digestive tract of human

1. Physical /mechanical digestion

-is the breaking down of large particles of food into smaller ones by the teeth in the
mouth and also by the stomach muscles squeezing food molecules mixing it with
digestive juices
2. Chemical digestion
-is done by the enzymes and digestive juices during chemical reactions with the food
-enzymes are special biological chemicals
-each enzyme has a special or specific food to act on e.g. salivary amylase work starch,
Enzymes in the stomach work on proteins e.t.c.
-it starts in the mouth where there is an enzyme (salivary amylase) in the saliva
-it continues along the alimentary canal until excretion of wastes
-after food is digested, its nutrients are absorbed into the blood stream in the small intestines
-the absorbed nutrients are used by the cells in the body for different functions that include;
growth, as energy, repairing of damaged tissues
-excess nutrients are stored by the liver
Functions of organs in the alimentary canal

1. Mouth

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 -using teeth, chops the food, lubricate it with the saliva
-mixes it with enzyme amylase which acts on starch
2. Gullet/oesophagus
-a tube which propels food from the mouth to the stomach using its muscles
3. Stomach
-stores and churns food
4. Small intestines
-is where most of the digestion system occurs and absorption of nutrients from digested
Food by the body
5. Large intestines
-reabsorbs fluids and stores faecal matter before excretion at the anus
Respiration Compiled by Mr Musona : 11/12/2017

Definition:
-it is the release of energy from food substances by the cells
Word equation
Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + heat energy
Experiment to show that there is energy in food.

Is there energy in carbohydrates?

Materials
Ø Mealie-meal
Ø Burner
Ø Stand
Ø beaker or boiling tin
Ø Thermometer
Ø heating dish

Method
-place some mealie-meal in a heating dish or tin lid
-heat the mealie-meal until it begins to burn

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-light the mealie-meal in the dish with a match and remove the burner so that the meal can
burn on its own
-place a beaker of water above the burning meal
-record temperature changes using a thermometer from the start until the meal has burnt away
Observations
Temperature increases as the water is heat by the burning meal

Conclusion
Any fuel which is burnt releases energy in the form of heat. The energy trapped in plant
material during photosynthesis is released in our bodies by respiration.

Respiratory system

-the group of organs involved in the respiratory system are: nose and nasal passage, mouth,
windpipe or trachea, bronchi, lungs, bronchioles, air sacs (alveoli), diaphragm
-when air enters through the nose, dust and smoke particles are filtered
-the nasal passages warm and moisten the air
-the trachea divides into two bronchi
-each bronchus enters a lung and further divides into bronchioles
-the bronchioles have minute air sacs at their ends

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Transport systems compiled by Mr Musona : 11/12/2017

Transport system in plants

The internal structure of the dicotyledonous plant root

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The internal structure of a dicotyledonous plant stem

Functions of the internal structures of the plant root and stem

1. Xylem – for water and mineral transport in plants

2. Phloem –for food transport within the plant
3. Cambium –separates the xylem and phloem
4. Epidermis –for absorption and protection
5. Cortex –for diffusion of water and mineral salts to the vascular bundles and storage of
food and water
6. Root hair-are the finger-like outgrowths which increases surface area for absorption
of water and mineral salts

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Osmosis

-is the movement of water molecules from a region of their high concentration to a region of
their low concentration through a semi-permeable membrane

-this the process which helps plants get water from the soil

Water uptake by plants

-root hairs and the roots have cells which have vacuoles filled with cell sap
-the sap is a solution of mineral salts
-therefore, there is less water concentration in the root hairs and the roots than in the soil
-water moves from the soil around the root hairs into their cells’ vacuoles where there is high
concentration of cell sap and low water concentration
-concentration of cell sap increases across root cortex towards the xylem at the centre of the
roots
-the xylem then takes water up the stem
The active transport
-is the movement of ion particles from an area of low concentration to an area of high
concentration, against a concentration gradient.
-mineral salts move from the soil where they are less concentrated, towards the root hair
vacuoles where there is high concentration of cell sap
-it requires energy to move against concentration gradient
-the energy is obtained from cell respiration
-it is an opposing movement to osmosis
Transport in mammals

The heart

Labels:
1. Vena cava
2. Right atrium
3. Tricuspid valve

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 4. Right ventricle
5. Left ventricle
6. Left atrium
7. Pulmonary vein
8. Aorta
9. Pulmonary artery
bicuspid valve
semi-lunar valve

Main blood vessels to and from the heart

1. Vena cava
-carries blood with less oxygen from the body to the heart
-it is in two branches: (a) superior vena cava (b) inferior vena cava
(a) Superior vena cava
-brings in blood from the head to the heart
(b) Inferior vena cava
-brings in blood from the legs to the heart
2. Pulmonary vein
-carries blood with more oxygen to the heart from the lungs
3. Pulmonary artery
-carries away blood with less oxygen from the heart to the lungs
4. Aorta
-the largest artery in the body which carries blood with more oxygen from the heart to the rest
of the body

Functions of the heart

-receiving and pumping of blood around the body

___________________________________________________________________________

Reproduction systems: compiled by Mr Musona ZPCS 30/12/2017 Kadoma

The internal structure of dicotyledonous plant seed (bean)

Bean seed external structure

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Monocotyledon plant seed (maize)

-germination is the beginning of growth in a plant

-the embryo (plumule and radicle) grows into a new plant
-bean seed has two cotyledons (first leaves) where food is stored
-maize seed has one small cotyledon
-food in a maize seed is stored in the endosperm

Flowering plants

Structure of wind pollinated plant flower

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-has long stamen sticking out loosely at the tip of the filament
-has small, dull-coloured and less attractive flower
-does not produce nactor
-the anthers produce large quantities of tiny, light, smooth and dry pollen which can easily be
blown by wind
-the anthers are big and higher than stigmas
-the stigmas are large and feathery so that they catch any pollen grains blowing past
-examples of wind pollinated plant flowers are: maize plant, grass e.t.c.

Structure of insect pollinated plant flower

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-has large colourful petals
-produce scent and nector
-has sticky stigma
-has small anthers
-has large coarse, spiky pollen and few in number
-the reproductive parts are enclosed in colourful petals
-examples of insect pollinated plant flowers are: bean plant, rose flower, orchid plant e.t.c
-a group of petals is called corolla
-a group of sepals are called calyx
Functions of parts of a flower
1. Anther
-a male sex organ which produces pollen grains
-pollen grains are the male sex cells
2. Filament
-is also part of male sex organ for flowers which holds the anther on proper position
For pollination
2. Stigma
-the female sex organ which collects pollen grains from anthers
4. Style
-also female sex organ for flowering plants which holds the stigma in position up and
Allows the pollen tube to grow down to the ovary
5. Nectary
-produces nectar which attracts insects
6. Sepals
-protects the flower when it is still in the bud (the unopened flower)
7. Petals
-coloured or scented to attract insects or birds
8. Ovary
-contains the ovules

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9. Ovules
- the female sex cells
Reproduction system in human

Male reproductive system

1. Prostate gland
-secretes an alkaline fluid that protects sperms from damage by male urethral and
vaginal acids

2. Sperm
-is the male sex cells
3. Testes
-produces the sperms and secretes the hormones which make boys change in their
Bodies at puberty stage e.g. testosterone
4. Sperm duct
-are tubes through which sperms reach the urethra from the testes
5. Urethra
-is a tube which stretches from the bladder through which urine and sperms pass out
6. Penis
-the male reproductive sex organ for ejaculating sperms and passing out urine

Female reproductive system

1. Ovary
-produce female sex hormones, progesterone and oestrogen
-produce, store and release the female sex cells, the ova (plural) or ovum (single)
2. Uterus
-it is where implantation of a fertilized ova occurs and the embryo grows
3. Cervix
-is the opening of the uterus
4. vagina

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 -receives penis during sexual intercourse and is the birth canal during child birth
5. oviduct
-is the site of fertilization and conducts the ovum to the uterus

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Health and diseases compiled by Mr Musona 14/12/2017 ZPCS Kadoma

Healthy
-is a state of the body when all its systems are working normally (well-being)
-when the body systems are not working normally, then we talk of diseases
What should we do to remain healthy?
-have balanced diet
-exercise regularly
-need clean air and water
-protection from extremes of weather
-avoid stale food
Causes of diseases
-pathogens
-poisons
-poor nutrition
-inherited factors
(1) Pathogens
-these are disease giving organisms, examples:
Kind of pathogen Size Examples of diseases caused
Viruses Less than millionths of a Aids, common cold, flu
millimetre
Bacteria Less than thousandths of a Sore throat, pneumonia
millimetre

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Fungi Greater than hundredths of a Ringworm of the skin
millimetre
Protozoa Greater than hundredths of a Sleeping sickness, dysentery
millimetre
Worms Visible to the naked eye Bilharzia, elephantiasis

Bilharzia
-is also known as snail fever or schistosomiasis
-it is caused by worms
-it is a water borne disease
-the parasite may live in any part of the body of the host animal (human)
-if the parasite lives in the brain or heart of the host, death may result
Parasite
-is an organism which depends on another living organism for its food
Symptoms
-itchiness on the skin
-feel tired and weakness after a week
-headaches and nausea
Signs
-may have blood in urine or faeces
Prevention of bilharzia
-avoid contact with infected water
-avoid swimming in rivers
-stop urinating and defecating around water sources and in water
-avoid fishing with feet in water
-avoid washing clothes in rivers
-avoid bathing in rivers
-it can also be controlled through breaking its life cycle
-through educating people on avoiding to get contact with fresh water bodies such as rivers,
ponds and dams which may be contaminated by the parasite
Treatment
-it can be treated using a single dose of praziquantel drug

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 Life cycle of bilharzia parasite

inside eggs
human host

worms
burrow into free larvae
skin

adult parasite
worms inside snail

__________________________________________________________________________

Chemistry Section compiled by Mr Musona 2017

(1)
Separation methods and applications

1. Filtration

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Definition: it is a method of separating insoluble solids from fluids (liquids or gases) by
adding a medium through which only the fluid can pass

-a mixture of liquid and solid is placed into a filter paper

-the liquid flows through the filter paper into the container
-the liquid in the container is called filtrate
-the remaining solid in the filter paper inserted into a funnel is called the residue

Application of filtration in our daily lives

1 It is used in vacuum cleaners
-dust-filled air is passed through a filtering bag inside the machine
-solid particles are trapped within the bag while clean air passes out through the machine
2 In motor vehicles

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-dirt particles are filtered from fuels by filters to avoid choking of the engines
3 In water treatment
-solid dirt particles are trapped by sand filled tanks before chemicals are added to purify
water before pumped to the consumers

2. Winnowing
-used to separate solid dry substances of different weights
Application of winnowing in our daily lives
-it is used when grain is separated from chuff
-chuff weighs less and is blown away by wind living grain in the dropping container
-this method uses wind as medium for separation

3. Magnetism
-is the ability to attract other materials
Application of magnetism in our daily lives
-it used to separate metallic objects from grain at the grinding mills

4. Evaporation
-a method used to separate soluble substances from solutions using their chemical and
physical properties

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-it is used to collect a soluble solid (solute) from the solvent
NB. Avoid heating directly over burner since the heat may cause the crystals not form well.

Application in the industry

-used in the manufacture of salt

5. Simple distillation
-used in recovering solvent from a solute
-it has two aspects of evaporation at boiling point followed by condensation

Application in the industry

-used in the purification of drinking water e.g. producing fresh water from sea water

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6. Fractional distillation
-used in the separation of a mixture of miscible liquids
-the separation is achieved by having various out-let pipes at different heights along the
column

Application in industry
-in the separation of crude oil

Matter
-is anything that has mass and volume (occupies space)
Mass
-the measure of amount of matter in a substance
Concentration

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-is the amount of solute that is dissolved in a solvent
Solvent
-is a liquid that allows substances to dissolve in it
Solute
-is a substance that dissolves in a solvent
Determining the concentrations of solutions
-it can be done when the solute and the solvent in a solution are identified
-solutes can be solids, gases or other liquids
-units of concentration are: g/cm3or kg/l [mass of solute per volume of solvent]
Dilution
-is a solution that is made by adding more solvent to a solution of known concentration
Experiments

Experiment 1:0
Aim
To prepare a set of dilute solutions

Materials
Ø Four large beakers
Ø Dye
Ø Water
Ø Glass rod
Procedure
· Label the four beakers (A;B;Cand D)
· Pour about 50ml of water into the beaker A
· Add five drops of dye to the water
· Stir the liquid using a glass rod until all the water is coloured [a solution of the dye
has been made]
· Pour about 5ml of the prepared solution into beaker B
· Add water to beaker B until the water level rises to the 50ml mark [the solution will
have been diluted ten times]
· Compare the solutions in beaker A and B
· Use beaker B solution to repeat pouring into a further container C about 5ml of that
solution and pour the water until it reaches the 50ml mark [solution diluted further
ten times]
· Repeat the process into beaker D
Observations
v Each time the solution was diluted, it became paler [weaker] until the colour
disappeared
Results
è This means that there were very few dye particles left in the 50ml of water

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-high concentrations of a substance give solutions of darker or deeper colours
-when dilution is increased the colour density decreases, but some colour particles will
remain in the solution

Calculating dilutions
-the dilutions are represented as percentage values out of 100% solution value
e.g. 80%, 20% concentration

For liquid solutes use the following formula:

Total volume of solution x 100%

Volume of solvent

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Examples
1. Calculate the volume of the solvent needed in each test tube in order to create a set of
sample solutions that represent 100%, 80%, 60%, 40% and 20% concentrations.

Concentration Solute (ml) Solvent (ml) Total volume (ml)

100% 10 0 10
80% 8 2 10
60% 6 4 10
40% 4 6 10
20% 2 8 10
0% (reference 0 10 10
sample)

Solute =% of concentration x Total volume of solution

Example 1

What is the volume of the solute in a solution of total volume 10ml when the concentration is
80%?

Given that: solute = % of concentration x Total volume of solution

è = 80/100 x 10ml
è = 80 x 10
100
=8ml
To calculate the volume of the solvent of the same concentration of 100%:

Percentage of solute to solvent: 100% -80% = 20%

Therefore, volume of solvent= 20 x 10 (total volume of solution)
100
= 2ml
Mole Concept

Mole
-is a measure of the number of particles, molecules or atoms in a sample of substance
-the number of particles, atoms or molecules in one mole of anything is always equal to
= 6.023 x 10 23
1 mole = 6.023 x 10 2
6.23 x 1023 is an Avogadro’s constant (number)

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Example
The mass of hydrogen atom is 1g.
1 mole of hydrogen atom= 6.023 x 1023 particles

Formula for calculating moles: number of moles= mass of a given substance

Mass of 1 mole of that substance
Worked example
One mole of potassium permanganate crystals has a mass of 158g. Calculate the mass of
0.01 mole of potassium permanganate and the number of particles in that mass of potassium
permanganate.

(1)
Number of moles =given mass of a substance
Mass of 1 mole of that substance
Given: number of moles = 0.01 moles
Mass of 1 mole of substance=158g
Given mass=?

è 0.01moles = given mass of a substance

è 158g
è 0.01 x 158= mass
↔ mass = 0.01 x 158
=1.58g
(2)

Number of particles= 6.023 x 1023 =1 mole

1 mole =6.023x1023particles
0.01moles =less?
Therefore, let the number of particles in 0.01moles be x
Solve for x in the equation:
x= 0.01 moless x 6.023x1023 particles
1mole
x= 6.023x10 21particles
___________________________compiled by Mr Musona 0774377378_______________________
Acids and bases

Acid
-is a chemical compound that neutralises a base
Base
-a chemical compound that neutralises an acid

How to identify acids and bases

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 1. Acids
-they turn blue litmus paper red
-the red litmus paper remains red, it does not change its colour
Properties of acids
-have a sour taste
-can be corrosive
-become less acidic when combined with alkalis
-change the colour of the blue litmus from blue to red
Examples of acids
-hydrochloric acid (chemical formula: HCI)
-sulphuric acid (chemical formula: H2SO4)
-a lemon juice
-tea

2. Bases
-turns the red litmus paper colour from red to blue
-the blue litmus paper remains blue, it does not change its colour

Properties of bases
-feel slippery
-can be corrosive
-become less alkaline when combined with acids
Examples of bases
-bicarbonate of soda
-handy Andy
-sodium hydroxide (chemical formula: NaOH)
-all carbonates e.g. calcium carbonate
-all metal oxides e.g copper oxide
-all metal hydroxides e.g NaOH
Acid –base reactions
-when a base and an acid react they neutralise each other
-then, a reaction between a base and an acid is a neutralisation reaction
-during acid-base reaction, a salt and water are formed
-the type of salt formed depends on the type of acid involved in the reaction

Examples of salts formed

1. Sulphuric acid → sulphates e.g. copper sulphate, ammonium sulphate
2. Nitric acid → nitrates e.g. Ammonium nitrate
3. Hydrochloric acid → chlorides e.g. NaCI (sodium chloride)
General word equation for neutralisation reactions:
Acid + Base → salt + water

(Are reactants) (Are products)

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Types of neutralisation reactions
1. Acid + metal oxide → salt + water
2. Acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water
3. Acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide gas
Neutralisation experiments

Experiment 1
Acids + metal oxides → (a salt) + water (neutralization reactions)
Aim:
To investigate the reactions of acids with metal oxides

Materials
Ø Beaker
Ø Conical flask
Ø Spatula
Ø Stirring rod
Ø Filter funnel
Ø Filter paper
Ø Burner
Ø Tripod stand
Ø Gauze
Ø Red and blue litmus papers
Ø Tongs
Ø Dilute sulphuric acid
Ø 1g of copper(II) oxide
Procedure
v Put 20cm3of dilute sulphuric acid in a beaker
v Heat it over a burner until it is almost boiling
v Use spatula to add small quantities of copper(II) oxide to the heated mixture
v Stir the mixture each time after adding copper(II) oxide
v Use tongs to lower pieces of red and blue litmus paper into the solution
v Record the colour changes of the litmus paper, if any
v Heat the mixture for another minute or two
v Turn off the burner and let the mixture cool
v Test the mixture using the red and blue litmus papers again
v Record the your observations
v Filter the cooled mixture
Results
· A blue solution in the conical flask left after filtering
NB: if the solution is not clear, repeat the filtration

Conclusion
The blue solution left in the flask is the copper sulphate (a salt) and water

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Experiment 2
Acids + metal hydroxides → (a salt) + water (neutralization reactions)
Aim:
To investigate the reactions of acids with metal hydroxide

Materials
· Sodium hydroxide solution
· Dilute hydrochloric acid
· Dropper
· Universal indicator
· Test tube / small beaker
· Measuring cylinder/ teaspoon
Procedure
Ø Place about 10ml (two teaspoons) of sodium hydroxide solution in the test tube or
beaker
Ø Add a drop of universal indicator
Ø Use the colour of the indicator to determine the pH of the sodium hydroxide (dark
blue, pH-14)
Ø Use the dropper to add hydrochloric acid to the sodium hydroxide solution
Ø Swirl the beaker or test tube after every few drops
Ø When the indicator turns light blue, add one drop of acid at a time, stop when the
indicator turns green (neutral colour)
Results
v Hydrochloric acid reacts with the sodium hydroxide solution to produce sodium
chloride (salt) and water
v Equation of the reaction in the test tube:
v Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water

Experiment 3
Acids + Carbonates → (a salt) + water + carbon dioxide (neutralization reactions)
Aim
To investigate the reactions of acids with carbonates.

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Materials
· Three test tubes
· Retort stand
· Spatula
· Sodium carbonate
· Nitric acid NB: corrosive!!
· Hydrochloric acid [Corrosive!!]
· Sulphuric acid [Corrosive!!]
· Lime water
· Delivery tube
· Cork
Procedure
v Place 2mI of dilute hydrochloric acid in a test tube
v Add a spatuIa of sodium carbonate
v Fit the cork and delivery tube to the top of test tube
v Submerge the other end of the delivery tube into lime water in another test tube
v Observe and record observations
v Test the gas produced [ carbon dioxide ]
v Repeat the experiment two more times using other acids and record the observations
Results
-they are recorded in a table
Reaction of sodium Observations Gas evolved (if any)
carbonate and acids
1. Hydrochloric acid -a brisk effervescence occurs Carbon dioxide gas
-clear lime water turned
milky→ presence of carbon
dioxide
2. Sulphuric acid -a fizz is noticed during the carbon dioxide gas
reaction
-the clear lime water turned
milky →presence of carbon
dioxide
3. Nitric acid -a fizzy sound is produced Carbon dioxide gas
during the reaction
-the clear lime water turned
milky→ presence of carbon
dioxide

Products of the reactions

v sodium chloride (a salt) + water + carbon dioxide
v sodium sulphate (a salt) +water + carbon dioxide
v sodium nitrate (a salt) + water + carbon dioxide
Applications of Acid-base reactions

31 | P a g e
 1. Baking bread
Ø Bicarbonate soda (NaHCO3) as a base is used in baking
Ø Reacts with acidic ingredients in bread or cake dough
Ø Carbon dioxide gas is emitted and that makes the mixture to rise

2. Relief in insect bites

Ø bicarbonate soda as base is used to neutralise Bee (insects) bites that inject
acidic chemicals from their bites
Ø an alkaline injection from Wasp bite is treated using a weak acid like vinegar

3. Teeth cleaning
Ø Most toothpaste contain calcium carbonate or aluminium hydroxide
Ø Their particles are slightly rough, they remove plaque from our teeth when we
brush using them
Ø Toothpaste neutralizes acids in the mouth to protect teeth from corrosion
(decay)
Plaque: is a sticky leftover from food that contain bacteria

4. Crop farming
Ø Agricultural lime is used in crop fields to neutralise soil acids because some
crops do not well in acidic soils
Ø the lime contains calcium carbonate or calcium hydroxide that reduces acidity
in soil, thereby allowing sensitive crops to flourish
5. Stomach acid problems
Ø Excess stomach acid causes heartburn and indigestion
Ø Anti-acids are used to neutralise the excess acid in the stomach
Ø These anti-acids contain bases like: calcium carbonate (CaCO3); magnesium
carbonate (MgCO3); magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2] and aluminium
hydroxide [AI(OH)3]
6. Swimming pools
Ø Swimming pool water requires constant balance between acid and base
Ø Soda ash is used to increase the pH and pool acid is used to lower the pH
when necessary
____________________compiled by Mr Musona(ZPS Kadoma)______________________________

Industrial Processes

1. Soap Production

Saponification
-is a process used to produce soaps
-it is the combining of a fat or oil and an alkaline to form a soap and glycerol

32 | P a g e
What are soaps?
-soaps are sodium salts made by reacting sodium hydroxide with fats or oils
Fat + alkali →soap + glycerol
How is soap made?

1. Raw materials
-clean, purified form of fat (often vegetable-based oils) e.g. palms kernel oil, coconut
oil (olive oil)
-animal fat (has to be purified because has many impurities)
-sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide (alkalis)
-the alkali determines the solubility of the soap in water
(a) soaps made from sodium hydroxide are more water- soluble and soft
(b) liquid soaps are made from potassium hydroxide
Reactions during saponification:
Ø Sodium hydroxide + oil/fat →heat + soap + glycerine
Ø Potassium hydroxide + oil/fat →heat + soap + glycerine
-glycerine keeps the soap moist
-salt is applied to solidify the soap
Small-scale soap manufacturing process
-is known as batch process
-is a basic process
-it is four-stage process
-its stages are:
Ø Boiling –mixture of alkali and fat boiled until they react into soap and glycerol
Ø Separation-salt is added to make the soap float in the mixture and glycerol settle at
the bottom
Ø Refinement –some strong alkali is added to make sure the unreacted fat remains,
react into soap
Ø Pitching –involves boiling soap with water to separate the mixture into two layers
-neat soap forms at the top layer and nigre (water and some impurities) form the
bottom layer
-neat soap is poured off into moulds and allowed to cool
Large-scale soap manufacturing process
-uses the Continuous process
-raw materials are continuously added and the product respectively removed
-it is more efficient and quicker process
-it is a three stage process
-the stages are:
Ø Splitting –hot water used to break fat into glycerol and fatty acids (in the hydroliser)
Ø Mixing –alkali and other additives are added
Ø Cooling –moulds of soap cooled and cut into different shapes

33 | P a g e
Oxidation and reduction

Chemical reaction
-is a process when chemical substances interact and their atoms are rearranged into new
different substances.

E.g. during photosynthesis, carbon dioxide interacts with water in green plant leaves in the
presence of chlorophyll and sunlight , the atoms of the reactants are rearranged and,
carbohydrates and oxygen are produced as new products.
Physical and Chemical changes

Physical change

-it is a type of change of substances that does not result in the formation of a new different
substance, change in appearance only (shape, size, colour, volume)
Examples of Physical changes

- change of state [melting, solidification/freezing, condensation, e.t.c.]

-crumpling a sheet of aluminium
-boiling water
-evaporating alcohol
-breaking a bottle
-shredding paper
-sublimation of dry ice into carbon dioxide vapour

Properties of Physical changes

-the internal composition of substances remains unchanged

-it results in the formation of mixtures
-it is reversible
-there is no absorption and evolution of energy taking place

Chemical change

-this is a type of change of substances which results in change of appearance and the
formation of new different substance
Examples of chemical changes

-combustion (burning of wood)

- rusting of iron
- cooking of egg
- metabolism
- mixing of an acid and a base
- mixing baking soda and vinegar to produce carbon dioxide gas
- electroplating a metal

34 | P a g e
- rotting bananas
- milk going sour e.t.c.

Properties of chemical changes

-the internal composition changes

-it is irreversible
-there is absorption and evolution of energy taking place during the reaction
-it results in the formation of compounds
Oxidation
-it is the addition of oxygen to substances in a chemical reaction

Examples of oxidation reactions

In the combustion of magnesium:

1. Magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide

(2Mg) + (O2 ) → (2Mgo)

-oxygen is added to magnesium during burning to form magnesium oxide

During rusting of metals:

2. Iron + water + Oxygen → hydrated iron (III) oxide (rust)

3. Aluminium + oxygen →aluminium oxide
4AI(s) + 3O2(g) →2AI2O3(s)

Oxidation and reduction

Oxidation

-is the addition of oxygen to a substance in a reaction or it is the reaction of a substance with
oxygen

Reduction

-it is the removal of oxygen or the addition of hydrogen in a chemical reaction

Examples of oxidation

1. Burning of sulphur in air

Sulphur + oxygen heat sulphur dioxide
2. Rusting
-it is the corrosion of iron when it has been exposed to moisture and air (water and
oxygen in air)

35 | P a g e
 -rust is an iron oxide formed through a chemical reaction of iron/steel metal and
oxygen in the presence of water (moist air)
-a chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of
chemical substances to another
-it is the combination of two or more reactants to form a new product
-it results in change of shape, change in colour

-it is a compound of iron and oxygen

Iron + water oxygen hydrated iron (III) oxide (rust)

Conditions that promote rusting

-it occurs to metals
-it occurs in the presence of water and oxygen
-it occurs when there are impurities in the iron, the presence of water vapour, acids, salts
and carbon dioxide hastens rusting

Experiment on rusting iron nails

Aim: to investigate conditions necessary for rusting to occur

Materials
-three iron nails
-three test tubes
-soda lime
-water
-boiled water
-oil
Method
-label the test tubes A, B and C
-put one nail in each test tube
-put boiled water in test tube A and a thin layer of oil
-in test tube B, put a small bag of soda lime
-in test tube C put ordinary water
-all the three test tubes should be tightly closed to
Results and observation

Test tube A
-nails do not rust, they have water but there is no oxygen
-boiling water drives off dissolved oxygen
-the thin layer of oil prevents oxygen in air from reaching the water in the test tube

Test tube B
-nails do not rust

36 | P a g e
-they have air, but no water and carbon dioxide (soda lime absorbs all the carbon dioxide
and water vapour)

Test tube C
-nails placed in the water and there is air in water and water vapour
-they rust

Methods of preventing rusting

1. Galvanising
-it is a method of preventing rusting by coating iron with a layer of Zinc
-it prevents oxygen and water from reaching the iron or steel metal
-zinc acts as a sacrificial metal, i.e. it reacts first with oxygen and water than iron
-Tin also acts as a barrier to the iron by simply preventing water and oxygen to reach to iron
or steel
-it is used on bolts and nuts
2. Painting
-it provides with a thin layer of cover iron bodies like cars preventing water and oxygen
reaching the metal iron or steel
3. Grease
-it also prevents rusting by preventing oxygen and water reaching the iron or steel
-that is the reason why it is applied on bicycle chains and many other areas to prevent
rusting
4. Oil
-applying oil on iron or steel materials also prevents rusting
5. Plating
-is a surface covering in which a metal is deposited on a conductive surface
-this prevents oxygen and water getting into contact with iron under the surface cover of
another metal thereby preventing rusting

37 | P a g e
Organic chemistry compiled by Mr Musona.(Bttc.science)

-is the study of structures, properties and behaviours (reactions) of compounds of carbon
atoms.
Fuels
-are any substances that react with oxygen to release energy (light and heat).
-can be liquid, solid or gas
Combustion
-is another term for burning a fuel.
-is an exothermic chemical reaction (releases heat).
-the new chemical substances formed are called exhaust
-the exhausts are products of the combination of a fuel and oxygen during combustion
Source of heat
-generally, fuel + oxygen → exhaust + heat

Fuel
Exhaust

Oxygen

Heat heat

Types of combustion
-there are two types of combustion:
(a) Complete combustion
(b) Incomplete combustion

Complete combustion
-this type of chemical reaction occurs in a plentiful supply of air (oxygen)
-carbon is oxidised into carbon dioxide
-hydrogen is oxidised into water

Source of heat
Fuel + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
Equation for complete combustion

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

Incomplete combustion
-this form of chemical reaction occurs when the supply of air is limited

38 | P a g e
 Source of heat
Fuel + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
Equation for incomplete combustion

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen → carbon monoxide + carbon + water

-the carbon is in the form of soot
-carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas
Bunsen burner
-uses natural gas as fuel
-the natural gas is methane (CH4)
-the gas is a hydrocarbon (a compound of carbon and hydrogen)
-the Bunsen burner has an air hole open which allows air for complete combustion

Methane + Oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

-this results in a very hot blue flame

-when the air hole is close, a yellow flame is produced
-the yellow flame has less heat than the blue flame
-the yellow flame is also known as the safety flame
-the safety flame is produced during incomplete combustion

Methane + oxygen → carbon monoxide + carbon + water

Global warming
-it is the recorded general increase in the earth’s average temperature
Causes
-it is caused by the presents of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

Greenhouse gases
-carbon dioxide
-methane
-water vapour
-CFCs
What is the greenhouse?
It is a glass or plastic house which is used to promote plant growth by trapping warmth/ heat
inside.
-it traps sun rays heat inside it and keeps the inside warm by preventing heat from escaping
-therefore, it is what these gases also do in the atmosphere and were called greenhouse gases
Effect of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
-they absorb and hold heat from the sun’s rays causing the earth’s average temperature to
rise

Sources of greenhouse gases

-combustion of fuels

39 | P a g e
-deforestation
1. Combustion of fuels
-when fuels are burnt the exhausts are carbon dioxide and water vapour during complete
combustion
-during incomplete combustion carbon monoxide, carbon and water vapour are also
discharged
-the carbon released during incomplete reaction will react with oxygen in the atmosphere
forming carbon dioxide a greenhouse gas
-the carbon monoxide is a dangerous gas to breath, but it may also react with oxygen in the
atmosphere and furthermore form carbon dioxide
-when burning bunsen burners using methane, carbon dioxide is increased in the atmosphere

2. Deforestation
-green plants are the universal cleaners of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
-they use carbon dioxide to make carbohydrates during photosynthesis
-when these cleaners are destroyed, carbon dioxide concentration increases uncontrollably
in the atmosphere leading to trapping and holding of more solar heat causing global
warming
___________________________________________________________________________

Physics Section

Physics
-the study of matter, energy, its motion and behaviour through space and time
Data Presentation
-graphs of different types of data help some people who are unfamiliar with the data to
understand
Straight line graph
-shows one set of data in relation to another
-we draw the y-axis and the x-axis
-we choose an appropriate scale
-the collected data is presented on the y-axis (vertical line)
-plotting of the points follows
-finally, joining of the plotted points

Drawing line graphs

Experiment

Aim
To investigate the relationship between voltage and current in a series circuit

40 | P a g e
Materials
Ø 4 cells
Ø A resistor
Ø An ammeter
Ø Connecting wire

Procedure
Ø Connect a circuit as shown above
Ø Record the current for zero voltage (it is zero)
Ø Record the readings as you add more cells in a table like the one below:

Number of cells 0 1 2 3 4
Voltage (V)
Current (A)

Ø Include two cells and record the current flowing

Ø Continue by increasing by one cell at a time and recording the corresponding
currents until four cells are connected
Ø Plot a graph of voltage versus current

Results
Voltage (V) 0 1.5 3.0 4.5 6
Current (A) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

41 | P a g e
Current vs. voltage graph
0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3
Current (A)

0.2

0.1

0 2 4 6 10
Voltage (V)
-interpreting the straight line graph: voltage is directly proportional to the current flowing
-if voltage increases, current also increases proportionately
-the gradient of such a graph gives resistance of the bulb if the circuit was like the diagram
below:

-pairs of variables that give straight line graph are also interpreted proportionately in
physics

42 | P a g e
Inverse Proportionality

-under this graph when one variable increases, the other decreases
-products of such graphs are always constant
-in the graph, as Q increases, P decreases
-a straight line graph is best used to show progression of information
-it shows one set of information in relation to another in the form of a line
Data
-is information collected using specific methods for a specific purpose

43 | P a g e
Graph
-is a way of presenting data or information in the form of diagrams
Straight line graph
-is a diagram drawn where data is presented in a line form
Plotting
-is making of points on a graph to present collected data
Information
-is re-organised or processed data that can be used to make decisions
______________________ compiled by Mr Musona 0774377378 whatsup ________________________
Exercise
An experiment was done to investigate the relationship between the distance travelled and the
time taken for a cart to move along a linear track. The data was tabulated as below:

The distance travelled by the cart

Time 0 2 4 6 8 10
(s)
Total 0 5 10 15 20 25
distance
(m)

(a) Identify the variables being investigated [2]

(b) Plot a graph of the variables [6]
(c) What is the relationship between the variables? [2]
(d) What does the gradient of this graph tell us about the cart? [2]
Measurements

Measurement
-is the process of detecting an unknown physical quantity by using standard quantity
or

-the act of comparing any physical quantity with its standard unit
Unit
-a quantity used as a standard measure
-many different units are used in measurements
-there are internationally used units known as S.I. units (S.I. stands for ‘system international
d’Unites. Which means, international system of units?)

Physical quantities, symbols and their S.I units

Quantity symbol S.I Units
Length (I) Metre (m)
Time (t) Second (s)
Mass (m) Kilogram (kg)
Temperature (T) Kelvin (K)
Current (I) Ampere (A)
Amount of substance (M) Mole (mol)

44 | P a g e
 Luminous intensity (light) Candela (cd)
Pressure (P) Pascal (Pa)/ N/m2
Voltage (V) Volts (V)
Displacement (S) Metre (m)
Force (F) Newton (N)
Work (W) Joules (j)
Density (p) Kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3)
Acceleration (a) Metres per second squared (m/s2)
Moment (M) Newton metres (Nm)
Distance (d) Metres (m)
Power (P) Watts (w)
Volume (V) Cubic metre (m3)
Momentum (p) Kilogram metre per second (kgm/s)
Resistance (R) Ohms (Ω)

Prefixes of units of measurements

Deka- means 10
Hecto- means 100
Kilo- means 1000
Deci- means one tenth
Centi- means one hundredth
Milli- means one thousandth

Examples in units of length

10 millimeters (mm) =1centimeter (cm)

10centimeters (cm) =1 decimetre (dm) =100 millimetres (mm)
10decimeters (dm) =1 meter (m) =1000 millimetres (mm)
10meters (m) =1 dekameter (dam)
10 decametres=1 hectometre (hm) = 100 meters
10 hectometres= 1 kilometre (km) = 1000 meters
Hecto=100
Deca=10
Deci=0,1
Centi=0,01
Milli=0,001

Units of area
100 square millimetres (mm2) = 1 square centimetre (cm2)
100square centimetre = 1 square decimetre (dm2)
100 square decimetres= 1 square metre (m2)
100 square metres= 1 square decametre (dam2) = 1are

Units of volume

45 | P a g e
1000cubic millimetres (mm3) =1 cubic centimetre (cm3)
1000cubic centimetres= 1 cubic decimetres (dm3) = 1000 000 cubic millimetres
1000 cubic decimetres=1 cubic metre (m3) =1000 000 cubic centimetres (cm3) =
1 000 000 000 cubic millimetres

Units of mass
10 milligrams = centigram (cg)
10 centigrams = 1 decigram (dg) =100 milligrams
10 decigrams =1 gram (g) = 1000 milligrams
10 grams = 1 dekagram (dag)
10 dekagrams = 1 hectogram (hg) = 100 grams
10 hectograms = 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams
1000 kilograms = 1 mega gram (Mg) or 1 metric tonne (t)
Kilo = 1000

Conversions of measurements

Length
1cm= 10mm
1m=100cm= 1000mm
1 km=1000cm
-the SI unit is the metre (m)

Mass
1kg= 1000g=1000000mg

Time
-the measured or measurable period during which an action, process or condition exists or
continues (dictionary)
-what clock measures (physicist, Albert Einstein)
1minute= 60 seconds
1hour= 60 minutes=3600s
-the SI unit is the second (s)

Volume
-the amount of space occupied by the object
-the SI unit is the cubic metre (m3) in solids and litre (L) in liquids

1 litre= (10cm) 3=1000cm3=0,001m3=1000ml

1m3=1000 litres
1ml=0,001 litres = 1cm3
1cm3=1cm x 1cm x 1cm= 10mm x 10mm x 10mm=1000mm3=1ml

46 | P a g e
1m x 1m x 1m=1m3=10cm x 10cm x 10cm= 1 000cm3=1litre
1 000 000ml=1m3=1000 litres=1 000 000cm3

Changing ml to litres

Formula: Given volume in ml x 1 litre

1000ml
Example 1

a.How many litres are there in 359ml? b. How many litres are there in 20ml?
→359ml x 1litre
1000ml →20ml x 1litre
= 359 x1litre 1000ml
1 x 1000 =20 x 1 litre
=359 litres 1 x 1000
1000 = 20
=0,359litres 1000
=0,002litres
Changing cm3 to litres

Formula: Given volume in cm3 x 1 litre

1000cm3

Example 2.

a. How many litres are there in 4896cm3? → 4896 cm3x 1 litre

1000cm3
3
= 4896cm x 1 litre
1x 1000cm3
= 4896 litres
1000
=4,896 litres
b. How many litres are there in 15 000cm3? → 15000cm3 x 1 litres
1000cm3
=15000cm3 x 1 litres
1 x 1000cm3
=15 000 litres
1000
=15 litres
Mass
-a scientific measure of amount of matter an object is made up of
1gram=1000milligrams
1kg=1000g=1 000 000mg
1 tonne= 1000kg= 1000 000g

47 | P a g e
-the SI unit is the kilogram (kg)

Changing grams to kilograms

Formula: Given mass in grams x 1 kg

1000gramms

Example 1.

a. How many kilograms are there in 375g?

→375g x 1 kg
1 x 1000g
= 375 kg
1000
=0,375kg

b. Convert 4007g into kg.

4007g x 1 kg
1000g
= 4007 kg
1000
=4,007kg

Changing milligrams to grams

Formula: Given mass in milligrams x 1g

1 000 000mg

Example 1

a. Convert 10mg into grams

10mg x 1 g
1 000 000mg
=10 x 1 g
1 x 1 000 000
= 10 g
1 000 000 =0,00001g

Time conversions

1 minute=60 seconds
1 hour=60 minutes= 3600 seconds

Converting seconds to minutes

48 | P a g e
Formula: Given time in seconds (s) x 1 minute
60 seconds (s)

Example 1.

a. Convert 3 seconds into minutes (b). how many seconds are there in 15 seconds?
→ 3s x 1 minute
60 s 15 s x 1 minutes
= 3 x 1 minutes 60 s
1 x 60 = 15 x 1 minutes
= 3 minutes 1 x 60
60 = 15
= 0,05 minutes 60
=0,25minutes
Converting minutes to seconds

Formula: Given time in minutes (min) x 60 seconds

1 minute

Example 1

How many seconds are there in 3 minutes?

1 minute= 60 seconds
3minutes= ?
=3minutes x 60 seconds
1 minute
= 3 x 60 s
1x 1 =3 x 60s=180s
Measuring mass of liquid [experiment 1]

Aim: to measure mass of a liquid.

Materials
-a beaker
-water
-a balance

Procedure
-place an empty beaker onto the balance and measure its mass
-record its mass e.g. y (g) mass of empty beaker
-take the beaker off the balance and fill it with water
-place the full beaker back onto the balance and take the measurement again

49 | P a g e
-record the mass of beaker full of water e.g. X (g) mass of beaker and water
-subtract the mass of an empty beaker [ y (g)], from mass of beaker and water [X (g)]
-the resultant mass is the mass of water, [ z (g)]

→ mass of beaker and water – mass of an empty beaker= mass of water

→ X g – y g= z g

Measuring volume of irregular object [ experiment 2]

Aim: to measure the volume of an irregular object

Materials
-measuring cylinder
-water
-irregular object e.g. a stone
-string

Procedure
-tie the string around the irregular object
-place the irregular object into a measuring cylinder with the string hanging outside the
cylinder
-pour enough water to submerge (cover) the object.
-measure the volume of the water

50 | P a g e
-remove the object from the water carefully and measure volume of the water again
-subtract your second volume from the first one
-convert your answer to cubic centimetres
Determining the volume small objects (experiment 3)

Aim:
To determine the volume of a single ball bearing (or bead)

Materials
Ø 50 ball bearings or beads
Ø A measuring cylinder
Ø Water
Procedure
§ Pour some water to about a third of the measuring cylinder
§ Record the volume of this water
§ Place the 50 ball bearings or beads into the water in the measuring cylinder without
splashing it
§ Record the new volume of water and the ball bearings/ beads
§ Find the volume of the 50 ball bearings by subtracting the first volume (water only)
from the second volume of water + ball bearings (beads)
§ Calculate the volume of one ball bearing
§ Record the results with their units
Results

Volume of water alone=_________________

Volume of water and ball bearings (beads)=___________
Volume of 50 ball bearings only=_________ _ _______________
=___________
Volume of one ball bearing =volume of 50 ball bearings only
Total number of the ball bearings
=volume of one ball bearing

51 | P a g e
Determining the thickness of small objects (Experiment 3 )

Aim
To determine the thickness of a sheet of paper

Materials
Ø A thick book
Ø A ruler
Procedure
v separate the cover of the book from the rest of the pages
v press together the rest of the pages and then measure the thickness of the book
v find out how many sheets of paper you have measured (a sheet has two pages)

Results

Total number of sheets=___________

Thickness of _______sheets =_____________
Thickness of one sheet= thickness of the book
Total number of sheet
=____________________

Density
-is the amount of matter (mass) within the volume of an object
-units of density are g/cm3and kg/m3
Example 1
-aluminium has a density of 2.7g/cm3
-this means that, in every cubic centimetre there is 2.7g of aluminium

52 | P a g e
Formula for calculating density

Density = mass of substance

Volume of substance
=grams
Cubic centimetres
=g/cm3
a) A cylinder of aluminium has a radius of 7cm and a height of 20cm. The mass of the
cylinder is 8.316kg. calculate the density of aluminium.

Given that: Density=mass

Volume
Mass=8.316g
Volume= volume of cylinder= πr2h
Where π=3.143 or 22 ; h=20cm and r=7cm
7
1 : volume of the cylinder= 3.143 x (7)2 x 20
st

=3080.14cm3
2nd : convert 8.316kg to grams (units of density:g/cm3)
1kg=1000g

8.316kg x 1000g=8316g
1kg
Then, mass=8316g and volume=3080.14 cm3
Therefore, density= 8316g
3080.14cm3
=2.699877278g/cm3
=2.7g/cm3 (2 s.f.)

b) What is the density of a cube of sugar weighing 11.2g measuring 2cm on a side?
Given that : Density = mass
Volume
Given mass=11.2g ; length of a side of a cube=2cm (LxWxH:volume of cube)

53 | P a g e
 Then volume of a cube of sugar=(2cm)3=8cm3
Therefore, Density =11.2g
8cm3
=1.4g/cm3
The sugar cube has a density of 1.4g/cm3

___________________________________________________________
Forces
Force

-is push or pull acting on an object

Units of force

-it is measured in Newtons (N)

-it is measured using a force meter

Main types of forces

-there are only two main types of forces:-
a) Contact forces
b) Non-contact forces

Examples of main types of forces

a) Contact forces
-normal force
-spring force
-applied force
-tension force
-frictional force

b) Non-contact force
-gravitational force
-electrical force
-magnetic force

Describing a forces

Four points used to describe a force

-what is exerting the force
-on what is the force being exerted
-the direction in which the force is being exerted (represented by an arrow)
-the magnitude (size) of the force (labelled on the arrow)

Properties of forces

54 | P a g e
-a push or a pull
-have direction and magnitude
-forces cannot just be added
-is either a contact or non-contact force
-acts on an object
-therefore, are vector quantity (vectors are physical quantities that have both direction and
magnitude)

Formula for calculating force

Force = Mass (amount of matter in an object)

Acceleration (the rate of change of velocity)
F=M
A
1N=1kg x 1m/s2
1N=kgm/s2
-this means 1Newton of force is required to accelerate 1kg mass of an object per 1 metre per
second squared
1kg=10N (weight, force of gravity)

Resultant Force
-is a total of forces acting on a body including their directions
-it is a single force that has the same effect as two or more forces that are acting on an object
-a body at rest or moving at same velocity has a resultant force of zero
-when forces acting in the same direction are added to get the resultant force or net force
Formula: FR=F1 + F2

Effects of forces
-change of size (by stretching or compression)
-change of shape (by twisting , stretching, compression or shearing)
-change magnitude of speed or its direction (e.g. braking or object in circular motion)
-turning effect (e.g. concept of moments)

Inline/ Co-linear forces

-are forces acting on the same line
-forces pointing to the right are positive (+)
-forces pointing to the left are negative (-)

-the opposing forces can either be balanced or unbalanced

Balanced forces
-forces with equal magnitude but acting in different directions

55 | P a g e
-an object under balanced forces either remains stationary or keeps on moving at a constant
velocity
-effect of the force is zero (the forces cancel each other (-) (+))

Unbalanced forces
-these are two forces acting on an object that are not equal in magnitude
-these cause a change in the motion of an object and there is a non-zero resultant force
-when an object has unbalanced forces acting on it, when that object is at rest, it moves and
when moving it starts changing its direction or velocity

Example 1

-adding vectors acting in a straight line in the diagram below:-

a) the force to the right 50N + 100N=150N

b) the force to the left -50N

c) the resultant force= 150N-50N=100N (to the right, since it is positive)

50N
50N
100N

-when a resultant force is negative it shows that it a force to the left

Example 2

5N
20N
25N

-adding vectors in a straight line above:

a) force to the right= 20N

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b) force to the left= -5N + -25N=-30N
Resultant force on the object= 20N-30N= -10N (to the left)

Moment of force
- moment is just a measure of the tendency of a force to cause a body to rotate about a
specific point or axis/ the turning effect of a force around a fixed point called a pivot
- it is a physical quantity and distance
- moment of force is a product of the force (F) and the moment arm (d)
- the moment arm or lever arm is the perpendicular distance between the line of action
of the force and the centre of moments
- moment= force x distance
- measured in Nm (Newton metres)
Example 1

Distance =0.50m

Turning point force

10N

Moment= Fd
=10 x 0.50
=5.0Nm

The Principle of moments

-when an object is in equilibrium, the sum of the anticlockwise moments about a turning
point must be equal to the sum of the clockwise moments

Sum of anticlockwise moments= sum of clockwise moments

d1 d2

F1 F2

F1 x d 1 = F2 x d2

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Friction
-a force that opposes motion
-it exists between two surfaces that are in contact while in motion

W pulling force
Wooden block
Friction wo surface

Measuring friction

Materials
-Wooden block
-a force meter
-a string

Procedure
-tie a piece of string around the wooden block’s length and hook the force meter to the string
-pull the wooden block
-take note of the reading on the force meter scale
-record the maximum force read on the force meter scale before the block start moving
-continue pulling the block so that it slides with minimum force
-record the reading on the force meter scale while the block is moving

Observations
-the block was pulled until a certain force was reached before the block starts moving
-a smaller force was required to keep the wooden block sliding
Conclusion
The opposing force has a maximum size such that when that size is exceeded, the object
starts moving.
-the maximum size of friction recording is the starting or static friction
-sliding or dynamic friction or kinetic friction is the balance reading which is smaller than
static friction
Causes of friction
-rough surfaces
-an increase in mass of moving objects

Applications of friction
-car braking system
-tyre treads
-soles of shoes
-road surfaces

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How do we reduce friction?
-using lubricating oils on moving parts of machinery
-using ball bearings
-polishing surfaces until they are smooth
-add wheels
-use rollers

Machines
-are devices that that transmit or modify force
-make work easier
Simple machines
§ levers
§ inclined planes
§ screws
§ wheels and axle
§ pulley system
§ wedges
levers
· consist of a bar that turns (pivots) on a fixed support (fulcrum) and transfers force
· changes force applied on one end to opposite force on another end e.g. crowbar, see-
saws
Parts of a lever
o a fulcrum (pivot)
o load
o effort
classes of levers

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Effort
§ is the force required to move the object
Load
§ is the object being moved or pushed by the lever
Fulcrum / Pivot
§ is the fixed point at which the lever turns
NB: the closer the load to the fulcrum, the easier it is to move it
Complex machine
· is a combination of simple machines
Experiment (Activity)

Aim:
To build a simple lever (simple machine)

Materials
· objects of different masses
· ruler
· sharpener (or other small wedged object)
Procedure First stage
§ place the sharpener under the 10cm mark on the ruler
§ place masses on the 2cm mark on the ruler to balance it (load)
§ place masses on the ruler’s 28cm mark until the load moves up (effort)
Second stage
§ move the sharpener to the 20cm mark on the ruler
§ add masses to the ruler’s 28cm mark (effort) until the load moves up
Observations
In which of the two demonstrations was less mass required to lift the load?
Conclusion
What would be your conclusion?

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 Energy
Energy
§ is the ability to do work
§ it is found in different forms e.g. potential energy, kinetic energy, light energy,
gravitational potential energy e.t.c
§ it cannot be seen, but its effects are seen and felt
§ how do you know that energy is used(work done)?
§ measured in joules (J)
Example of calculating energy
A pendulum of mass 500g is raised 25cm. Calculate the gravitational potential energy it
possesses at this point.
Given that: Gravitational Potential energy= mass (kg) x height raised(m)
=weight (N) x height (m)

(1kg=10N) = 500g x 1kg x 25cm x 1m

1000g 100cm

= 0.5kg (x10N) x 0.25m (converting mass to weight)

= 5N x 0.25m
=1.25Nm (J)
Therefore, as the pendulum swings down, 1.25J of energy is converted to kinetic energy
and when it swings back up 25cm again, it will have 1.25J of potential energy again.

Work
§ is the movement of force (is done when a force moves)
§ work done = energy used (amount of energy used)
§ the SI units are the joules (J)
§ other units are newton metres (Nm) (work done=when a force of 1 N moves through
1m) 1J=1Nm
§ it is a scalar quantity
§ work done = force x distance moved in the direction of force [w=fxs]
Example
1. what is the work done when a force of 50N moves steadily a box of sand 3m in the
direction of the force?
Work done= force x distance
= 50N x 3m
150J = 150Nm
Joules = Nm
2. What is the work done if a 5N force pushes a box a distance of 30m?
3. What is the energy used to push a wheelbarrow 40m, when a force of 3N is exerted in
the direction of motion?
4. What is the force exerted if 500J of energy is used to move an object 25m?

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The law of conservation of energy:
« energy cannot be created or destroyed, but transforms from one form of energy to
another
light Energy
-the study of light energy is called Optics
Important effect of light energy on animals
« helps humans and animals to see things
« when things are illuminated (shone), they reflect light into our eyes, then we can be
able to see them
Properties of light
Ø travels in a straight line
Ø a thin shaft of light is a ray
Ø when the ray of light is larger, it is called a beam of light
Ø a beam can be parallel, divergent or convergent

Sources of light energy

o sun
o stars
o fire
o electric bulbs
o candles
o LEDs
Experiment

Aim: To demonstrate that light travels in a straight line

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Materials
§ Three cardboard
§ Cotton
§ A pin
§ A light source (flashlight or lamp)
§ Wood
§ Brick
§ Tape
Procedure
Ø Place the pieces of cardboard on top of one another and punch a hole through the
middle of all three
Ø Thread the cotton through the cardboard and pull it tight to line up all the three
pieces of cardboard
Ø Secure the cardboard to the table using wood, books or tape
Ø Remove the thread and place the light source behind one piece of cardboard

Ø
Observation
v Light shines through the other two cardboard pieces
Conclusion
« Light travels in a straight line
Exxamples that show that light travels in a straight line:
-formation of shadows
(a) if light is blocked by a figure with sharp straight edges, a sharp shadow of the object with
well defined edges is cast onto the screen.
(b) if light is made to pass through a narrow slit, a straight ray of light is produced
Experiment

Aim: To demonstrate the formation of shadows

Materials
§ Compact source of light e.g. penlight
§ Large source of light e.g. large flashlight
§ White screen or wall
§ A ball

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Procedure

Stage A
Ø in a dark room, arrange a compact light source so that its light falls on a white screen
Ø hold the ball between the light source and the screen
Ø a complete shadow (umbra) should appear on the screen, normally longer than the
ball and its edges are sharp and clear

Ø
Ø a shadow is formed using a small bulb
Stage B
o repeat the experiment in stage A, but using a large bulb

o shadow formed using a large bulb

Observations
« a complete shadow [umbra] is formed surrounded by a partial shadow [penumbra]
Sound energy
-travels in a medium and not in a vacuum [air, water, steel e.t.c]
-travels in waves

Experiment

Aim: To demonstrate that sound needs a medium to travel

Materials
o bell jar
o electric bell
o vacuum pump
o hose
Procedure
Ø pump air into the bell jar

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 Ø ring the bell
Ø remove the air from the bell jar
Ø ring the bell

Observations
« at a particular vacuum the bell ringing is not heard
« the sound could not be heard because of the vacuum inside the jar
Conclusion
v sound wave cannot travel through a vacuum
v it needs a medium
Production of sound
-through vibrations (from one molecule to another )
Propagation of sound
-sound is a longitudinal wave that transmits through back and forth vibration of particles in
the direction of movement
-e.g. when a loudspeaker vibrates outwards, it brings air particles closer together
(compression), when it vibrates inwards, it pulls air particles apart forming rarefaction

Comparing light and sound energy

Light energy Sound energy
Can travel through the vacuum Does not travel through the vacuum
Travels in a straight line Travels in waves, radiating from the object
Produced by self-luminous objects Produced by disturbing an object that can
vibrate

Umbra –a complete shadow, with no light passing through it

Penumbra- a partial shadow, with some light passing through it

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Magnetism and Electricity

Magnetism
Ø a property of some materials of attracting certain materials

Magnets
-are objects that exhibit properties of magnetism or produces a magnetic field
Laws and properties of magnets
Ø law of magnetism: like poles repel, unlike poles attract; the force between the poles
decreases as the separation increases
Ø properties of magnets
· have two poles: north and south poles
· attract metal magnetic materials e.g. iron , but, not copper
· have an area where the force of attraction is experienced (magnetic field)
· exert attractive and repulsive forces
· lies along the same line if it is allowed to hang freely
· points its north pole northwards
· have magnetic field lines running from north pole to south pole
Ø magnetic lines of force (magnetic field lines)
-imaginary lines representing the direction of magnetic field
Ø Properties of magnetic field lines
§ Are continuous and unbroken, forming closed loops
§ Begin at the north-pole and ends at the south-pole
§ All have the same strength
§ They never cross one another
§ They seek the path of least resistance between the opposite magnetic poles
Experiment

Aim
To investigate which items are attracted to a magnet

Materials
§ bar magnet
§ different materials from local environment: copper wire, wood, plastic, iron nail
Procedure
o bring the different materials close to the magnet and observe what happens
Observations
Attracted item Not attracted item
Iron nail
Copper wire
Wood
Plastic
NB: other objects that can be attracted by magnets are cobalt and nickel (ferro-magnetic
materials)

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Experiment

Aim
To find where magnetism is concentrated in a bar magnet

Materials
o bar magnet
o iron filings
o paper
Procedure
Ø wrap the magnet around with paper to prevent iron filings clinging directly to the
magnet as they are difficult to remove
Ø place the bar magnet at the centre of the piece of paper
Ø sprinkle the iron filings generously along the length of the magnet
Ø observe where, along the length of the magnet, the iron filings concentrate
Results
v iron filings showing the magnetic field lines below:

Observations
iron filings are attracted mostly at areas around the poles of the magnet

Experiment

Aim
To use a bar magnet to find direction (as compass)

Materials
o bar magnet
o copper wire
o cotton thread

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Procedure
« suspend the bar magnet as above
« the other end of the cotton thread should not be tied to iron or steel (neither should
the materials be nearby, they may interfere with the direction of the magnet)
« allow the magnet to swing freely until it comes to rest
« note the direction
« disturb the magnet and again let it come to rest freely
Results
v each time the magnet comes to rest, it points the same north-south direction
v pole pointing north is called the north-seeking pole (north pole) and the other one is
the south pole

Experiment

Aim
To find behaviour of poles when they are next to each other

Materials
o bar magnets of known poles
Procedure
Ø bring the ends of the magnets towards each other
Ø start with N-S, N-N and S-S

Experiment

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Aim
To observe magnetic field patterns

Materials
§ two bar magnets
§ two books of the same thickness as the magnets
§ white A4 paper
§ fine iron filings

Procedure
-position the two books and magnets as in the picture above
-cover the magnet with the A4 paper such that it rests on the two books
-sprinkle iron filings in the area over and around the magnet and tap gently at the corners of
the paper

Observations
-as the iron filings are sprinkled and the tapping is done, the iron filings trace out a pattern

direction of magnetic field

Exercise
1. state properties of magnets.
2. What is the law of magnetism?
3. Draw magnetic field lines of a bar magnet.
4. How does a hanging magnet lie?
5. Which materials are attracted to a magnet?
6. What effect does the magnetic force have when the magnets are brought near each
other?
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 Electricity compiled by Mr Musona. (Bttc Science Dept, Spreading the light)

Electricity
-is the flow of electric charge
-it comes from other forms of energy like chemical energy and kinetic energy of generators
-in a hydro-electric power station, potential energy is changed into kinetic energy which is
change into electrical energy
-in a battery chemical energy is changed into electrical energy
Current
-is the amount of charge passing through a point at a time or a flow of electrons
-the SI units for current are an Ampere (A)
-the number of amperes (A) tells how fast current flows in a conductor
Voltage
-is the force that pushes the current around a circuit
-the SI units for voltage are Volts (V)
-it is also known as the potential difference
-number of volts in a circuit tells how much force of current flow is exerted
Formula for calculating voltage

Voltage =electrical power divided by current

V= P/amps
V=watts/amps
-electrical power is measured in watts (w)
Power (watts)=volts x amps
Current= watts
volts
Power is also calculated as: Power= energy divided by time
Power= joules/time in seconds
Power=Joules
Seconds
Example
1. What is the power generated when a 6V battery drives a 2A current through a light
bulb?
2. How much current will a 2kW heater take from a 250V mains supply?
[1kW=1000W]
3. What voltage is necessary for 0.05A of current to pass through a 10W speaker?

-this implies that voltage is the ability of a current to do work

-the greater the voltage, the greater the current

Circuit
-is the complete path through which current flows made of conductors
Components of a circuit
-a cell as source of energy
-a lamp

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-switch, which breaks circuit and stop current flowing

Open circuit diagram

-when the switch is open, we have open circuit

-when the switch is closed, we have a closed circuit

Conductors
-are materials that allow electricity pass through e.g. all metals like copper, aluminium, salt
water, sulphuric acid e.t.c
Insulators
-are materials that do not allow electricity to pass through them (all non-metals except
graphite) e.g. rubber, plastic, wood e.t.c

Measuring current and voltage

-current is measured on an ammeter

-it is placed in a circuit between any two points

-Voltage is measured on a voltmeter

-it is placed in the circuit across the points between which you want to measure a potential
difference (voltage)

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Lamps in series and their circuit diagram

resistor being measured V

Voltmeter connected parallel to resistor and the ammeter connected in series in the circuit
Cells as source of energy

Current flows from positive to the negative terminal in a circuit (Y to X)- conventional
current flow

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