Journal of Sea Research 196 (2023) 102453

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Sea Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/seares

High-resolution optical remote sensing geomorphological mapping of coral

reef: Supporting conservation and management of marine protected áreas
Julia Caon Araujo a, *, José Carlos Sícoli Seoane a, Gislaine Vanessa Lima b,
Erandy Gomes da Silva b, Luis Guilherme França b, c, Elisa Elena de Souza Santos a,
Iago Mendes de Oliveira d, Pedro Henrique Cipresso Pereira b
a
Programa de Pós-Graduação em Geologia (PPGL), Departamento de Geologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
b
Projeto Conservação Recifal (PCR), Recife, Brazil
c
Departamento de Oceanografia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Brazil
d
Departamento de Ciências Florestais, Universidade Federal de Lavras, Minas Gerais, Brazil

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Brazilian corals are unique ecosystems with high endemism and low functional redundancy. Hence, mapping its
Google earth engine geomorphology is an important step to inferring analyzes on benthic habitats. We observe several difficulties
Remote sensing during this mapping of coastal areas by remote sensing and a lack of fine-scale depth data for reef areas in Brazil.
Bathymetry
The present study aims to present the bathymetry extracted by satellite imagery in murky waters using a mosaic
Geomorphology
Benthic terrain modeler
of Sentinel-2 images in Google Earth Engine (GEE) calibrated with field samples. We used the satellite extracted
Marine protected areas DBM to map the bottom geomorphology through BTM (Benthic Terrain Modeler). We then present the first
detailed geomorphological map for the largest marine coastal protected area in Brazil- MPA Costa dos Corais. The
geomorphological raster was differentiated into seven classes: Flat Plains, Depressions, Gentle Slopes, Slopes,
Terrestrial Reef Flat, Reef Flat, and Crest. Altogether, we estimate >275 km2 of area representing reef structures
(coral reef or beachrocks), or about 48% of the total MPA area. Mapping coral reefs can contribute to conser­
vation, particularly in selecting areas for in situ monitoring activities and in prioritizing the application of
remedial actions in the event of environmental disasters or threats to coral health, such as oil spills and bleaching
episodes. Our findings encourage the applicability of these methodologies in other reef areas and collaborate for
the management and monitoring of marine protected areas. In addition, all mapping is available online for any
user.

1. Introduction et al., 2020; Li et al., 2021; Roelfsema et al., 2018), providing basis for
mapping and monitoring benthic habitats, tracking fishing activity,
Coral reefs are among the most important ecosystems on Earth yet planning actions in situations of environmental disasters, maritime op­
are extremely threatened by human impacts. The pressure of climate erations and transport (Erdey-Heydorn, 2008, Goes et al., 2019, Li et al.,
change and the impacts of human activities in coastal areas are aggra­ 2019, Rajendran et al., 2021, Xu et al., 2020, Zhao et al., 2014).
vating factors for the conservation of coral reefs (Lyons et al., 2020, Several methodologies have been developed to derive satellite ba­
Sagar et al., 2020, Burke et al., 2011, Foo and Asner, 2019, Hughes et al., thymetry using a wide range of sensors with low spatial resolution (>30
2003, Moberg and Folke, 1999, Purkis, 2017, Roelfsema et al., 2018; m) and images typically used for terrestrial studies (Alves et al., 2018; da
Pereira et al., 2022a, 2022b). Therefore, remote sensing (e.g. satellite Silveira et al., 2020a, 2020b; Hedley et al., 2018; Li et al., 2019; Suggett
imagery) emerges as a solution capable of providing crucial information et al., 2012; Vargas et al., 2021). Low spatial resolution sensors can lead
for the optimization of environmental monitoring of coral reefs world­ to uncertainties in the land-water boundary and in the perception of
wide (Carlson et al., 2019; Foo and Asner, 2019; Purkis, 2017). High features. In addition, they may have a low temporal frequency, resulting
resolution mapping of shallow bathymetry is fundamental for the in a low supply of cloudless images, especially in tropical coastal regions
identification and characterization of coastal environments (Kutser (Li et al., 2021; Purkis, 2017). In Brazil, other factors may limit the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (J.C. Araujo).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seares.2023.102453
Received 3 July 2023; Received in revised form 14 October 2023; Accepted 19 October 2023
Available online 25 October 2023
1385-1101/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
J.C. Araujo et al. Journal of Sea Research 196 (2023) 102453

extraction of bathymetry by satellite, such as the high turbidity of Barletta et al., 2022; Bratic and Brovelli, 2022; Chen et al., 2021; Noi
coastal waters (Suggett et al., 2012) - limiting satellite mapping only to Phan et al., 2020; Pontes-Lopes et al., 2022; Roteta et al., 2021; Terres de
the period from late spring to late summer in the Southern Hemisphere, Lima et al., 2021). Using GEE, we built a mosaic of Sentinel-2 images
as well as by the scarcity of data on the physical conditions of the water with low percentages of clouds, sunshine, and other noise. We derived a
column for modelling purposes. This limitation arises from attenuation bathymetry with a spatial resolution of 10 m in shallow marine envi­
processes in the atmosphere before and after light interacts with ronments without field data calibration using the methodology of Li
seawater. These processes are disruptive, interfering with information et al. (2021) in the Marine Protected Area (MPA) Costa dos Corais re­
from the water column and not containing information about water. gion, in northeastern Brazil. After validation with field data (over
Masses (Hill and Loder, 2013), which are fundamental to the process 33,000 depth measurements), our bathymetry can be used with confi­
of establishing bathymetry. The most important interaction processes dence to depths of up to 32 m. We also can associate several method­
are those that occur at the water surface, specular reflection of direct ologies in the mapping of coral reefs, as in the present study, which used
sunlight (sunglint) or diffuse light from the sky (skyglint), and those that the bathymetry extracted by remote sensing with the Benthic Terrain
occur due to radiation from the water body resulting from the interac­ Modeler (BTM) in ArcGIS to map the geomorphology.
tion of light with the aquatic environment, which is influenced by the BTM is a suite of tools hosted on ArcMap (ESRI) that performs semi-
effects of interaction with the various constituent particles such as dis­ automatic seafloor classification by combining depth, slope, and wide
solved organic matter, phytolactone, and suspended sediments (Barbosa and fine-scale bathymetric position index (BPIs) information. BPI was
et al., 2019; Bukata et al., 1995; Eugenio et al., 2015). derived as a measure of where a georeferenced location, with a defined
Shallow water bathymetry is fundamental for the characterization of elevation, is relative to the overall landscape. The derivation involves
geomorphology. Mapping reef ecosystems helps understanding the evaluating the mean elevation differences between a focal elevation of
morphological organization of coral colonies, zoning areas of accumu­ the surrounding cells and a user defined circle (Lundblad et al., 2006), to
lation and removal of sediments, recognition of shallow lagoon flat top identify benthic zones based on an area-specific classification dictionary
zones and preferential current paths (Greene et al., 1999; Harris, 2012; (Walbridge et al., 2018). There is no generally applicable approach to
Araujo and Seoane, 2016; Harris et al., 2018; Ferreira et al., 2012). creating a classification dictionary, so it must be created empirically.
Through geomorphology, we can advance to the mapping of biological For this study, we carried out geomorphological mapping based on
communities and, consequently, in ecosystem understanding, from the the extraction of bathymetry by remote sensing in the coastal region of
association of ecological niches of animals and plants with geo­ MPA Costa dos Corais. The mapping of benthic structures is important in
morphologically distinct areas (Harris and Baker, 2012; Heyman and ecosystem studies, as morphology directly affects the distribution of
Wright, 2011). Similarly, several studies have applied geostatistical benthic communities.
methods to examine the relationship between physical parameters (re­
lief) and seafloor biological features to define habitats with similar relief 2. Materials and methods
characteristics, such as flat areas, slopes, caves, and depressions,
allowing association with distribution patterns of communities and 2.1. Study area
species. (Brown et al., 2011; Lecours and Espriella, 2020; Menandro
et al., 2020). The present study was conducted in the largest multiple-use Brazil­
Several methods are used to study the structural complexity of coral ian coastal MPA (Costa dos Corais, APACC in the Portuguese acronym),
reefs at different scales, such as transect methodology (e.g. Reef Check) created in 1997 to protect coral reef systems on Brazilian waters (Fig. 1).
and optical remote sensing. The transects are used to estimate the terrain This MPA stretches for 120 km along northeastern Brazil, including two
roughness index (benthic cover) or to characterize the fish community states (Pernambuco and Alagoas) and 12 municipalities. MPA Costa dos
(Hill and Wilkinson, 2004; Pereira et al., 2022a, 2022b). Transects are Corais covers a large range of different ecosystems, including shallow
line segments marked with a tape measure that are established at a reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds, rhodolith and sponge beds and meso­
constant depth range below a reef habitat (reef crest, reef slope, reef photic reefs, extending from the coast to the break of the continental
wall, fringing reef leeward, fringing reef seaward, lagoon, and reef flat). shelf (Pereira et al., 2022a, 2022b). Depth data collection was carried
The 20-m section will be divided into 5-m (more or less) bottles to create out in 2 (two) no-take zones, Maragogi and Carro Quebrado (Alagoas).
independent transect replicates (Hill and Loder, 2013). Optical remote No take zones (NTZ, are areas with no human disturbance allowed (no
sensing in coastal areas can be used to study landscape ecology, ba­ fishing and no visiting) and which only allows research activities (Per­
thymetry, and bottom types and map the structural complexity of coral eira et al., 2023). The satellite-derived maps cover the entire coastline of
reefs (Hedley et al., 2016; Roelfsema et al., 2018; Wedding et al., 2019; the MPA Costa dos Corais up to a depth of 32 m (bathymetric map) and
Lyons et al., 2020). Despite the multiple possibilities of remote sensing, 20 m (geomorphic map). These sites were chosen since they are among
its usefulness may be limited by environmental conditions such as the the long-term monitoring sites selected by the MPA management team,
presence of clouds, suspended sediments and depth (Li et al., 2021; Li from among high coral cover areas within the MPA. This study was
et al., 2019; Hedley et al., 2016). Thus, the various methods available conducted with the full approval of the Sistema Nacional de Informação
have their limitations in terms of sample size and environmental factors. sobre Biodiversidade (SISBIO) issued by the Brazilian Government.
Therefore, they must be used in a complementary manner or in accor­
dance with the specific objectives of each mapping scale. 2.2. Bathymetry mapping
In addition to the challenges inherent to remote sensing in coastal
waters and mapping large regions, in Brazil there is little investment in We used an adaptation of the automatic bathymetric mapping
hardware and software for digital image processing at universities, and method in Google Earth Engine (GEE) developed by (Li et al., 2021) for
the revisit times of satellites in the territory are longer compared to different geographic areas of the globe. Bathymetry was generated from
countries that develop orbital sensors. Inspired by the mapping carried a surface reflectance mosaic of Sentinel-2 images for shallow water.
out by the Allen Coral Atlas initiative and aiming to overcome our Sentinel-2 images have 13 spectral bands with a resolution of 10, 20 and
challenges in mapping Brazilian reef areas, we use here the methodology 60 m (European Space Agency, 2012).
proposed by (Li et al., 2021) to derive satellite bathymetry using the According to (Li et al., 2021), we used the QA60 band to exclude
Google Earth Engine (GEE), a cloud-based computer system for pro­ pixels with clouds. To mask non-aquatic targets, we apply the Scene
cessing satellite imagery. In Brazil and in the world, GEE has been used Classification map (SCL) band. To avoid selecting images affected by
for different types of environmental studies, such as monitoring forests, murky waters, sun glint and waves, we used a threshold value in each
fires, urban land use and coastal management (de Almeida et al., 2023; band (green band >0.01, red border 1 band <0.1, NIR band <0.03,

2
J.C. Araujo et al. Journal of Sea Research 196 (2023) 102453

Fig. 1. Study area for bathymetric and geomorphological mapping. Sentinel-2 true color mosaics (24-month mosaic) and field sample locations Maragogi (15.481
points collected) and Carro Quebrado (18.427 points collected). Yellow pixels are no-data areas, mostly located in surf zones or areas above sea level. (For inter­
pretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

3
J.C. Araujo et al. Journal of Sea Research 196 (2023) 102453

0.005 < band of water vapor <0.03), the same way that Li et al. (2021). results. Subsequently, in the ArcGIS PRO software, we adjusted the
In addition, we used the normalized difference water index (NDWI) to satellite-derived bathymetry for the depth of field points through a
mask non-aquatic targets, selecting only pixels with positive NDWI linear equation.
values (Gorelick et al., 2017). Where, Green (green band) and NIR (near
infrared). 2.3. Geomorphological classification
ρ(Green) − ρ(NIR)
NDWI = , (1) The DBM created from the mosaic of Sentinel-2 images with a spatial
ρ(Green) + ρ(NIR)
resolution of 20 m was used to generate the geomorphological classifi­
Images with low cloud cover, sunglint and water turbidity from cation using the Benthic Terrain Modeler (BTM) tool of ArcMap 10.8.
January 2018 to December 2019 were selected. Images with low noise The geomorphological classification (BTM) is based on the DBM, broad-
content reduce the uncertainties caused by the attenuation of the water scale and fine-scale of the Bathymetric Position Index (BPI), and slope.
column. The water reflectance values in the mosaic represent an average The internal and external radius parameters (Inner and Outer radius)
value over time (in our study, 24 months). used in Broad-scale and Fine-scale were defined based on the DBM pixel
According to (Li et al., 2021), from the mosaic surface reflectance size, as indicated by Lundblad et al. (2006), Table 2. To avoid the
ρ(λ), we calculate the remote sensing reflectance Rrs , as (Vanhellemont, autocorrelation observed in elevation data, the Broad and Fine grids
2019). Where ρm (λ) is water-leaving radiance reflectances. were standardized to 1 standard deviation, as indicated by (Weiss,
2001).
ρm (λ)
Rrs = (2) A decision table containing the classes and limits was applied to the
π
data to classify the relief structures of the bottom existing in the study
Then, we calculate the below-surface remote sensing reflectance area (Table 3). The classes were defined from a literature review
(rrs (λ)) from the Rrs (λ) to remove the air-water surface effect (Lee et al., involving the main geomorphological mapping research in reef areas or
2013). that used BTM (Erdey-Heydorn, 2008; Wienberg et al., 2012; NOAA,
2013; Walbridge et al., 2018; Goes et al., 2019; de Oliveira et al., 2020;
Rrs (λ)
rrs (λ) = (3) Conti et al., 2020; Kennedy et al., 2021; Santos, 2021) see (Supple­
0.52 + 1.7Rrs (λ)
mentary Material). In total, seven geomorphological classes were
To estimate bathymetry in shallow waters, we quantified different defined, namely: (ID 01) Flat Plains; (ID 02) Depressions; (ID 03) Gentle
levels of attenuation between the blue and green bands, as (Stumpf et al., Slopes; (ID 04) Slopes; (ID 05) Terrestrial Reef Flat; (ID 06) Crest and (ID
2003): 07) Reef Flat.
The slope was used to define the limits of the geomorphological
ln(1000*rrs blue)
Depth = m0 − m1 (4) structures between (ID 01) Flat Plains (up to 2 degrees of slope), (ID 03)
ln(1000*rrs grenn)
Gentle Slopes (between 2 and 3 degrees of slope) and (ID 05) Slope
To calculate the bathymetry parameters (m0 and m1) in the mosaic, (between 3 degrees and 10 degrees of tilt). Studies in areas with wide
we used a fixed value of chlorophyll-a (Chl-a = 0.5 mg m-3), as estab­ variation in depth used this information as another class limiter (Erdey-
lished by (Li et al., 2021; Li et al., 2019) for other regions of the world. Heydorn, 2008; Walbridge et al., 2018; de Oliveira et al., 2020). In our
Despite the particularities, the value used for Chl-a is within the average study, the area is limited to the isobath of − 22 m, not presenting a great
found in Brazilian coastal waters (Kampel et al., 2019). variation in depth; therefore, this criterion was not used as a limiting
factor, as in Goes et al. (2019). The classes were validated by associating
m0 = 52.073*e(0.957*Chla ) (5) the model with photos and videos taken in the field by scientific diving
and snorkeling. The study area, MPA Costa dos Corais, will be divided
m1 = 50.156*e(0.957*Chla ) (6) into 4 (four) sectors to compare the bottom geomorphology, they are:
On the GEE platform, we generated the final DBM (Digital Bathy­ South of Pernambuco (SPE); North of Alagoas (NAL); Central of Alagoas
metric Model) with a spatial resolution of 10 m. However, with the (CAL) and South of Alagoas (SAL), Fig. 1.
objective of optimizing the processing of the classification of geomor­ The methodology is presented in the flowchart below (Fig. 3). Each
phological structures, we chose to export it with a spatial resolution of step is detailed in the following sessions.
20 m.
To verify the bathymetry extracted by satellite, we used depth 3. Results
samples collected in the field in the closed areas of Carro Quebrado
(Santos, 2021) and Maragogi (Table 1). Depth data were collected from 3.1. Digital Bathymetric Model (DBM)
the planning of survey lines with a spacing of 200 m (Carro Quebrado)
and 100 m (Maragogi) using a single-beam echo sounder, side scan sonar The mosaic created in the 24-month interval (2018–2019) using the
and GPS (Raymarine Axiom, with RV- 100 All-In-One). In total, we GEE resulted in a final image (Fig. 1) of clear and cloudless waters, low
collected 33,908 depth points (Fig. 2). Points have been corrected for pixels representing crashing waves and sun glare. In total, 254 Sentinel-
tidal effects through the values of the tide table for the days of naviga­ 2 images were used to form the mosaic. Fig. 3 shows a RBG composition
tion, published by the Brazilian Navy. (B4-red, B3-blue, B2-green) of the mosaic for the coast of MPA Costa dos
Satellite-derived bathymetry was validated by comparing image Corais. Different types of benthic habitats are discernible, such as coral
values with depth-of-field measurements, applying root mean square reefs, hard bottom, beachrocks and sandy bottom, as well as deeper
error (RMSE) and the coefficient of determination (R2) to evaluate the formations, showing the quality of the mosaic. Pixels with no data (in
yellow in Fig. 1) are mainly located in surf zones or above sea level.
To analyze the mosaic reflectance, we investigated the surface
Table 1 reflectance values of four typical benthic targets (coral, sand, rubble and
Location of no-take zones and information about depth data collected.
seagrass) at about 4 m deep, as well as the ocean reflectance at over 10 m
No-take Zone Latitude / Number of Depth Points Depth Variation deep (Fig. 4). We sampled each target in the mosaic based on field co­
Longitude Collected (m)
ordinates in the vicinity of Maragogi. The spectral signature and corre­
Carro
− 9,37 / -35,43 18.427 1,77 - 20,62
sponding values represent reflectance variations in different benthic
Quebrado targets. For instance, sandy bottom had the highest mean value of
Maragogi − 9,03 / -35,17 15.481 1,03 - 23,64
reflectance, followed by seagrasses, gravel, coral and ocean. We

4
J.C. Araujo et al. Journal of Sea Research 196 (2023) 102453

Fig. 2. Sentinel-2 true color mosaic (24-month mosaic) and field sample locations for the two study sites (Maragogi and Carro Quebrado).

created in the GEE was also performed (Fig. 5). The DBM showed ba­
Table 2
thymetry values within the expected spatial pattern, increasing from
Values applied to the Inner and Outer radius parameters for Broad Scale BPI and
shallow to deeper water in the direction from the coast to the ocean. This
Fine Scale BPI and the automatically calculated values for the Scale factor.
pattern was consistent throughout the MPA Costa dos Corais area.
Parameters Broad Scale Fine Scale For example, in Maragogi (Alagoas) in the region close to the no-take
Inner radius 50 10 area, shallow depths (<5 m) were observed at 500 m, transitioning to
Outer radius 500 50 medium depths (5–10 m) at a distance from1 to 3.5 km from the coast,
Scale factor 10.000 1.00
followed by a new elevation at 0 m about the crests at the beginning of
the no-take area. 4.5 km away from the coast, and seawards, we observe
deeper waters (>12 m) up to the limit of the no-take area (see Transect
Table 3 Maragogi in Fig. 5).
Decision table with the factors used for the definition of geomorphological Close to the no-take area of Carro Quebrado (Alagoas), we also found
compartments in the study area.
the expected depth pattern for the region. Up to 1 km from the coast, the
ID Zone Broad-scale BPI Fine-scale BPI Slope (in depth goes from 0 to 5 m with an abrupt rise to 0 indicating a reef crest.
degrees)
In the area within the no-take zone of Carro Quebrado, 2.5 km away
Lower Upper Lower Upper Lower Upper from the coast, we observe a large extension of reefs emerging inter­
01 Flat Plains − 150 150 − 150 150 2 spersed with shallow depressions (5 to 7 m). Average depths (from 10 to
02 Depressions − 150 150 − 150 15 m) are observed from 4 to 5 km from the coast, where depths from 15
03 Gentle Slopes − 100 100 − 100 100 2 3 m to 22 m occur, indicating areas of plains with relative slope (see
04 Slopes 100 100 − 100 100 3 10
−
Transect Carro Quebrado in Fig. 5).
Terrestrial Reef
05 150 − 150 150
Flat
06 Crest 150 150 3.2. DBM evaluation
07 Reef flat − 100 − 100

To assess the quality of the DBM, we compared the values of depth

observed a decrease in the surface reflectance values of the red bands for from the remote sensing-generated bathymetric map to the depths
NIR was observed in all targets (Fig. 4). measured in the field at the 2 surveyed locations (no-take zones Mar­
Result of the bathymetry map generated using a 24-month mosaic agogi and Carro Quebrado). We used two error metrics to indicate the
differences between satellite-derived bathymetry and depth values

5
J.C. Araujo et al. Journal of Sea Research 196 (2023) 102453

Fig. 3. Flowchart of satellite bathymetry estimation in GEE and geomorphological classification by BTM for MPA Costa dos Corais.

Fig. 4. Surface reflectance plots for different benthic habitats at Maragogi (AL, Brazil).

collected by field echo sounder. The DBM showed a Root Mean Square and > 20 m presented RMSE with an average of 3.30 m. The 10–15-m
Error (RMSE) of 6.58 m. We corrected the DBM with a linear equation interval showed a RMSE 44% lower value when compared to the
derived from the comparison (Fig. 6), the RMSE decreased to 2.98 m, average RMSE of the other intervals. Overall, the model performs better
further fitting the model. The R2 value shows a high correlation between in shallow water (0 to 5 m, 5 to 10 m) and medium depths (10 to 15 m),
the bathymetry derived from GEE and the field measurements (R2 = and worse in deeper waters (15–20, >20 m). Deep water RMSE values
0.70), even before applying the correction. are almost 35% higher than shallow water. Due to the properties
We also evaluated the performance of the model through different inherent in the process of interaction between light and environment in
depth ranges (0 to 5 m, 5.1 to 10 m, 10.1 to 15 m, 15.1 to 20 m and > 20 remote sensing, the model is limited in deriving bathymetry in deeper
m). Similarly, to the general model, the intervals of 0–5, 5–10, 15–20 areas.

6
J.C. Araujo et al. Journal of Sea Research 196 (2023) 102453

Fig. 5. Spatial variations of shallow bathymetry models created using 24-month mosaics. Zoom of the four sectors of the marine protection área. The bathymetry
represents the spatial variation of the benthic geomorphology. Sector ID as in Fig. 1.

Fig. 6. Bathymetry estimation validation using the field measured depth sampling points.

7
J.C. Araujo et al. Journal of Sea Research 196 (2023) 102453

In addition, we compared satellite-derived depths with values dos Corais), we observe reef banks next to the coast and prominent lines
measured in the field along two transects at Maragogi and Carro Que­ of beachrocks. In the central portion, the reef banks begin to move away
brado (Fig. 7). These transects traversed different geomorphological from the coast, increasing in size and depth. Towards the south, it is
regions and background types and therefore provided varied environ­ possible to observe a greater diversity of features, with emphasis on
ments for performance testing. isolated reefs, deeper reefs and elongated lines of submerged beach­
rocks. As mentioned earlier, the seven classes are: (ID 01) Flat Plains; (ID
02) Depressions; (ID 03) Gentle Slopes; (ID 04) Slopes; (ID 05) Terres­
3.3. Coral reef geomorphology (or benthic structures)
trial Reef Flat; (ID 06) Crest and (ID 07) Reef Flat. Next, Table 4 high­
lights the main aspects of each class.
The first derivative of the satellite generated bathymetry results in a
We observed divisions of the relief in the different sectors of the MPA
map of the slope of the area, and BPI in broad-scale and fine-scale are
Costa dos Corais: in South of Pernambuco there is a predominance of flat
calculated. With the bathymetry, slope, BPIs and the decision table
reef formations and consequently of the Slope class; in North of Alagoas,
(Table 3), we generated a benthic terrain model (BTM) with the
we observed a decrease in the Reef Flat class and an increase in Flat
geomorphological classification for the study area divided into seven
areas; on the Central of Alagoas sector, we have the greatest influence of
classes (Fig. 8). See the mapping in detail on the online dashboard:
continental drainage, forming large areas of Terrestrial Reef Flats and in
(https://jcaon.maps.arcgis.com/apps/dashboards/57158942f9a246e1
South of Alagoas, we observed a large area of flat reef concentrated in
a0e74e044618c571).
deeper areas, and Flat Plains between isolated Reef Flat areas.
The DBM (Fig. 5) identifies a variety of geomorphological features
No class assigned - This is a class produced by BTM for areas not
present along the study area, along about 120 km of coastline. From
classified according to the limits established in the decision table (dic­
north to south, the occurrence of different sizes of reef banks, channels,
tionary). The entire unclassified area (3.74%) is located in the deepest
lines of beachrocks (paleolines of beaches) and isolated reefs were
region of the DBM (below − 22 m). This can be explained by the limit of
interpreted. In the South of Pernambuco (northern part of MPA Costa

Fig. 7. Comparisons between Google Earth Engine derived depth with field measured depth at Carro Quebrado and Maragogi, Alagoas, Brazil.

8
J.C. Araujo et al. Journal of Sea Research 196 (2023) 102453

Fig. 8. Map of the geomorphological classification (benthic structures) for the MPA Costa dos Corais region. The highlighted areas are located on the coast of
Maragogi (Alagoas, Brazil): (A) Slope; (B) Broad-scale Bathymetric Position Index (Broad-BPI); (C) Fine-scale.
Bathymetric Position Index (Fine–BPI); (D) Geomorphological classification of the study area.

9
J.C. Araujo et al. Journal of Sea Research 196 (2023) 102453

Table 4 geomorphology based on the analysis of local bathymetry from different

BTM Classes with respective areas (km2) and percentagens. approaches in Brazilian coast and worldwide (Torres et al., 2003; Motoki
Code Class/Zone Area (km2) Area (%) et al., 2012; Lucatelli et al., 2020; de Oliveira et al., 2020; Ang et al.,
2021). In the present study, we went beyond the visual representation of
– No class assigned 21,06 3,74
ID 01 Flat Plains 228,72 40,66 the relief, we used remote sensing to extract the bathymetry and spatial
ID 02 Depressions 37,47 6,66 analysis techniques in GIS to better represent the local geomorphology
ID 03 Gentle Slopes 66,68 11,85 at the largest Brazilian MPA. We consider different morphological de­
ID 04 Slopes 67,76 12,04 scriptors to determine relief zones and structures. This approach is
ID 05 Terrestrial Reef Flat 52,19 9,28
ID 06 Crest 19,58 3,48
unique and pioneering for the Brazilian reef areas, and through the re­
ID 07 Reef Flat 69,10 12,28 sults, new inferences can be made, such as the benthic classification,
TOTAL 562,56 100 classification of geodiversity, distribution of coral cover, biomass esti­
mation, among others. We bring a facilitator guide so that end users
(managers, field inspectors, researchers, students, fishermen, tourism
the method: without samples depth of field remote sensing bathymetry
agents, and dive operators) can use this spatial information (underwater
does not work beyond depths of − 20 m (Gao, 2009; Hedley et al., 2018;
relief – bathymetry; spatial relief patterns – geomorphology; types of
Hedley et al., 2016).
bottom – benthic map) in the monitoring and management of the marine
Flat Plains (ID 01) - The class with the highest occurrence (40.66%),
protected area. In addition, we provide online mapping and encourage
extending throughout the study area, occupying different depths. It is
the application of the methodology in other reef areas.
defined from flat regions with a BPI value close to zero. Flat areas are
Freely available bathymetry data for the Brazilian coast have coarse
also defined by low slope, that is, slopes between 0 and 2 degrees.
resolutions (Velozo and Alves, 2006; Becker et al., 2009; GEBCO, 2022)
Depressions (ID 02) - They are concave areas on the ground, points of
making high-precision studies necessary for conservation impossible.
negative bathymetry. They are represented with negative BPI values
Herein, we apply the methodology proposed by Li et al. (2021) to
greater than one standard deviation from the mean in the negative di­
perform automatic bathymetric mapping in shallow water using
rection, occurring in 6.66% of the area. They are important sedimen­
Sentinel-2 imagery with a spatial resolution of 10 m. Furthermore, we
tation areas, presenting coarser grains (rubble). They are often located at
also used Google’s platform for digital image processing in the cloud,
the rear of reef flats.
GEE. We efficiently derived bathymetry for the coast of MPA Costa dos
Gentle Slopes (ID 03) - They are areas of slope between 2 and 3
Corais, a region with high biodiversity of benthic habitats, such as coral
degrees, without differentiation of concave or convex shapes. They are
reefs, and great geomorphological variety. The extraction of bathymetry
located between flat areas and on the edge of slopes, occurring in
is necessary for the construction of the Brazilian reef atlas, as it allows
11.85% of the study area.
specific mappings such as the geomorphological and benthic. We built
Slopes (ID 04) - These are areas of steep slopes, between 3 and 10
our mosaic from filtering images over a period of 24 months (January
degrees, and occur in 12.04% of the total area, located around reef
2018 to December 2019). (Li et al., 2021) achieved excellent results
features. Values above 10 degrees were not representative in the study
through a 12-month mosaic. Thus, due to the specificities of the South
area. The slope limiting values of each class may be different for other
Atlantic coral reefs, such as the high sedimentary input (e.g. river
study areas, as they are determined from the measured slope.
discharge) - the qualitative-quantitative water balance of the Costa dos
Terrestrial Reef Flat (ID 05) - This class represents broad, flat and
Corais MPA region is considered highly critical by the Brazilian Water
shallow areas in association with fringe reef areas. They are directly
Authority (ANA, 2021). The water balance considers the capacity for
connected to the coast and, therefore, subject to the influence of fresh
absorption of inland organic loads by water bodies, i.e., the rivers of the
water and continental sedimentation and occur in 9.28% of the area.
region are an important source of sediment and wastewater discharges
Crest (ID 06) - They are represented by elongated shapes, associated
on the coast of the study are) that produces high turbidity in coastal
with old beach lines (beachrocks) and the top of structures parallel to the
waters. This process may difficult the acquisition of clean images for
current shoreline. They are concentrated in shallower areas, creating
bathymetry extraction. Furthermore, due to continuous cloud cover, we
surf zones. They occur in 3.48% of the area, located mainly in areas of
have increased the time interval for the imagery search. GEE made it
higher energy.
possible to use a powerful automatic search tool capable of filtering
Reef Flat (ID 07) - Areas of more accentuated relief may have a more
images without clouds, shadows, sunglint, and breaking waves and
elongated body or isolated as pinnacles at greater depths. Normally,
water saturated in suspended sediment. This methodology presents itself
they are adjacent to reef crests, occurring in 12.28% of the area.
as an advance for coral reefs studies, mainly due to the reduction of time
The size and shape of reef features help determine the geomorphic
in the search for the best images and the need for hardware for pro­
zone. In this way, the spatial arrangement of the zones can contribute to
cessing, compared to other bathymetry extraction methods used else­
the understanding of the mapping. The association of geomorphological
where (Agus et al., 2021; Cao et al., 2019; Poursanidis et al., 2019;
classes with field images is presented below (Table 5). More photo ex­
Vargas et al., 2021).
amples for each class can be found in Supplementary Material.
We have also evaluated the quality of the mosaic from the reflectance
To estimate the total area of reef structures in each sector of MPA
value of the different benthic habitats (sand, gravel, seagrass, coral and
Costa dos Corais and establish the region with the greatest morpholog­
ocean). As expected, and observed in other remote sensing studies on
ical complexity, we considered the sum of the area of the classes: Gentle
coral reefs (Garcia et al., 2015; Li et al., 2019), benthic habitats show
Slopes, Slopes, Terrestrial Reef Flat, Crest and Reef Flat. Table 6 presents
specific spectral signatures according to their physicochemical proper­
the estimation of complex structures for each sector.
ties and depth. This result confirms the efficiency of the mosaic also for
It is possible to notice that the sectors with more complex geo­
mapping benthic habitats. The mosaic created for the MPA Costa dos
morphology are located in the north of the MPA Costa dos Corais, SPE
Corais region can provide highly detailed information for various types
sectors (71.40 km2) and NAL (80.30 km2), followed by sectors with more
of studies in coastal environments, such as bathymetry for mapping and
homogeneous morphology, although with relative complexity, CAL
monitoring benthic habitats in protected areas, navigation, and fishing
(63.65 km2) and SAL (59.84 km2).
activity. Excellent results for South Atlantic waters were achieved,
proving the possibility of the method being applied to other coastal areas
4. Discussion
of the country.
To validate the bathymetry, we used depth of field measurements
Several studies have proposed the characterization of underwater
collected for two no-take zones within the MPA. The selected areas have

10
J.C. Araujo et al. Journal of Sea Research 196 (2023) 102453

Table 5
Representation in clean water mosaic and photographic example of each class.
Zone Example Field Photo Example

Flat plains

Depressions

Gentle Slopes

Slopes

Terrestrial Reef Flat

Crest

(continued on next page)

11
J.C. Araujo et al. Journal of Sea Research 196 (2023) 102453

Table 5 (continued )
Zone Example Field Photo Example

Reef Flat

Martínez et al., 2021). For example, according to Ferreira and Maida

Table 6
(2006), Brazilian reefs have a zone of corals generally found in most reef
Estimation of the area of morphologically complex structures.
formations along the coast. In general, small colonies of Favia gravida,
Zone/Class Area (Km2) Sector Siderastrea stellata, and Porites spp. are found on the reef tops; Melobesiae
SPE NAL CAL SAL algae and vermetid gastropods form the reef crests; a zone of Palythoa
Gentle Slopes 15,13 19,69 15,21 16,60 and Millepora spp. occur below the algal crest; a zone of Mussismilia spp.
Slopes 21,13 20,44 12,69 13,48 on the intermediate slopes of the reefs; and a cave-like Montastraea zone
Terrestrial Reef Flat 12,65 10,67 18,72 10,13 in deeper waters. The results of the BTM geomorphological mapping for
Crest 4,94 5,94 5,66 3,02 the Costa dos Corais MPA were consistent with the mapping conducted
Reef Flat 17,55 23,56 11,37 16,61
TOTAL 71,40 80,30 63,65 59,84
by the Brazilian Geological Survey (Mendes, 2017) and with georefer­
enced data collected in the field in the Carro Quebrado and Maragogi
non-take areas and during the expedition through the deep reefs of the
a variety of benthic habitat types, with relative depth variation. Costa dos Corais MPA (Pereira et al., 2022a, 2022b).
Therefore, bathymetry variations could be validated in a diverse Using bathymetry extracted by satellite imagery and freely available
geomorphological range. In addition to the validation, we used the field software is an advantage for mapping coastal ecosystems and conse­
depth measurements to further adjust the DBM, decreasing the RSME to quently for the conservation of habitats. For the MPA Costa dos Corais
2.98 m after correction. The 10–15 m interval showed a 44% lower area (up to the isobath of 22 m) seven geomorphological classes by the
RMSE value compared to the average RMSE of the other intervals, which BTM that can be associated with benthic structures. The mapping
can be explained by the lower influence of continental sedimentation confirmed the diversity of the seabed and presented the first geomor­
providing clearer waters in the average of the images. Overall, DBM phological map for the MPA. From a methodological point of view, BTM
performed better at shallow to moderate depths (0–15 m). In coastal emerges as an important alternative for large-scale mapping without the
waters, as those found on the Brazilian coast, some initiatives can help in need, a priori, of in situ data. Applying BTM from DBM created by clean
refining the model, such as collecting field data related to chlorophyll-a water mosaic is an advantage as survey lines can create anisotropic
indices to predict the influence of water column attenuation in the ba­ features and influence classification.
thymetry calculation and taking depth measurements at spaced points in One of the most commented difficulties in relation to the BTM
the study area to increase model fit. Contrary to Li et al. (2021), we classification method is the choice of classes and the establishment of
corrected the final DBM due to the need for greater precision for limits, that is, the creation of the decision table (Walbridge et al., 2018;
geomorphological mapping using the BTM. Goes et al., 2019; Conti et al., 2020). To determine the classes used, we
Regarding BTM, we obtained excellent results from the use of ba­ performed a review of the nomenclature used by other authors that have
thymetry extracted from Sentinel-2 image processing as a basis for worked with BTM (Supplementary Material). Some terms are widely
benthic classification and description of the geomorphological struc­ used like flat plains, depression, slope and crest. Others may consider­
tures of substratum. Few studies used satellite-extracted bathymetry for ably vary such as reef flat, gentle slope and terrestrial reef flat. For
BTM; Conti et al. (2020) performed the classification from the ba­ geomorphological classification of reef areas, Kennedy et al. (2021)
thymetry extracted from World View images and Agus et al. (2021) from carried out an extensive review of the nomenclature to determine classes
a single Sentinel-2 scene. Both applied the BTM tool to small areas with that could be applied in global coral reefs mapping. Differences in
reduced relief variation. Several studies on the Brazilian coast and nomenclature can be explained by the mapping scale and depth varia­
around the world have used BTM based on bathymetric models created tion of the study area. Regarding the creation of the decision table,
from depth data collected in situ with single-beam and multibeam echo Lundblad et al. (2006) presented a decision tree scheme that helps in
soundings, or from data provided by the Brazilian Navy or by the Na­ determining values from the characteristics of the normalized models
tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (de Oliveira BPI Broad and BPI Fine.
et al., 2020; Goes et al., 2019; Mayorga-Martínez et al., 2021; Menandro Our results showed high morphological complexity of the seabed in
et al., 2020; Pereira and Bonetti, 2018). However, depth data at the the shallow portion of the MPA Costa dos Corais (<− 22 m), which can
appropriate scale for the study area are not always available or require be associated with the high levels of biodiversity and abundance found
extensive field surveys. BTM geomorphologic classes correspond to in the region, as stated by studies focused on the quantification of fish
other researchs and maps in the region. Flat plains and depressions and benthic communities (Pereira et al. de Almeida et al., 2023; Pereira
correspond to zones of sediment deposition (sand and gravel) and/or flat et al., 2018; Pereira et al., 2022a, 2022b). This result allows charac­
areas (sand); Gentle slopes and slope areas are sloping areas (coral reef terizing the background geodiversity in protected areas, which in gen­
walls); Terrestrial Reef Flat are areas of coral reefs associated with the eral is an aspect little considered in the creation and management of
continent, characterized by the deposition of finer sediments and the conservation units (Pereira and Bonetti, 2018).
influence of tides and continental drainage; Crest and Reef Flat corre­ Almost 50% 49% of the studied area has greater morphological
spond to the reef body (biogenic reefs or sandstone reefs). The delin­ complexity (Terrestrial Reef Flat, Gentle Slope, Slope, Reef Flat and
eation of relief features is strongly influenced by bathymetry and slope. Crest), which may indicate greater possibilities for shelter and occupa­
One of the variables that most affects habitat prediction in coral reefs is tion of marine biodiversity.guiding the creation of preferential conser­
geomorphology. Therefore, delineating relief patterns is essential to vation zones for different marine species that occupy
relate them to species spatial distribution (Goes et al., 2019; Mayorga- geomorphologically distinct areas associated with their ecological niche

12
J.C. Araujo et al. Journal of Sea Research 196 (2023) 102453

(Greene et al., 1999; Harris, 2012; Harris and Baker, 2012; Heyman and difficult to access for research in the field (Foo and Asner, 2019).
Wright, 2011; Araujo and Seoane, 2016). Here these areas are mostly
located in the NAL (80,3 Km2) and SPE (71,40 km2) sectors. 5. Conclusion
Previous studies demonstrated that management and zoning strate­
gies can influence coral reef communities with different ecological ef­ The present study highlighted the importance of using geo­
fects (Mumby and Harborne, 2010; Harrison et al., 2012; Emslie et al., technologies (remote sensing and geoprocessing) for the conservation of
2015; Williamson et al., 2019; Pereira et al., 2022a, 2022b). Pereira reef ecosystems. We extracted bathymetry using Sentinel-2 images and
et al., 2023 identified areas of greater coverage and coral richness in the cloud processing in the GEE, proving the method’s efficiency and
NAL, followed by the SPE and the lowest in the SAL. However, the applicability worldwide. DBM was able to provide accurate bathymetric
highest levels of fish abundance were observed in SAL. The same occurs data at a fine scale, ideal for BTM processing and geomorphological
for specific zoning areas of the MPA Costa dos Corais, where greater characterization for analysis of the structural complexity of reefs down
coral cover was observed in no-takes zones (no fishing and no visiting). to − 22 m depth. The relief of MPA Costa dos Corais presented a great
The results corroborate the geomorphological mapping realized in the variety of morphological features, previously unknown at greater depths
present work, where we identified more complex areas in the NAL and and the analyses performed at the present study can support efficient
SPE. Thus, the detailed mapping of marine geomorphology is an ally in management and zoning strategies at Marine Protect Areas (MPAs.)
the management and zoning of marine protected areas. The mapping and quantification of morphologically complex areas
The greater the morphological complexity, the greater the capacity contributes to the location of areas of greater biodiversity. This can
to protect high levels of biodiversity. However, about 47% of the area is direct measures for inspection and monitoring of coral reefs in the face
composed of flat plains and depressions, located mainly in the CAL and of pressure from human activities, such as tourism and overfishing;
SAL. The low morphological complexity of these areas may indicate climate change impacts such as ocean warming; and environmental di­
areas of lower biodiversity. This was also observed at greater depths in sasters such as the recent oil spill.
the MPA Costa dos Corais, where mesophotic reefs at average depths of This work reinforces the need for mapping marine conservation units
− 35 m harbor a diversity of sponge, coral, and fish species (Pereira et al., in Brazil to increase knowledge on high ecological, social and economic
2022a, 2022b). Almost 10% of the area is occupied by Terrestrial Reef import areas.
Flats, which despite the low slope are important areas for biodiversity,
mainly due to the greater influence of tidal variation and freshwater Declaration of Competing Interest
flow, which provide a favorable connectivity environment for several
species. We wish to confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest
Depth also has effects on corals and fish communities (Pereira et al., associated with this publication and there has been no significant
2018; Pereira et al., 2023). The authors observed that as depth increases, financial support for this work that could have influenced its outcome.
coral cover decreases while the abundance of fish and sponges increases. All of the sources of funding for the work described in this publication
Likewise, we also observe complex structures that are little known at are acknowledged below: Rufford Foudation and FUNBIO (Fundo Bra­
greater depths. Based on further investigations, zoning strategies can be sileiro para Biodiversidade). The funding was exclusively for the stages
used in these areas, such as the creation of no-takes areas parallel to the of field work (daily, food, fuel, equipment, among others).
coastline and at greater depths, as suggested by Santos (2021) for the
Carro Quebrado region (Alagoas). Data availability
As reefs are arranged over a large area, mapping coral reefs using
traditional survey methods, such as transects and scientific diving, be­ Data will be made available on request.
comes challenging, time consuming and increasingly expensive. Large-
scale geomorphic mapping for MPA Costa dos Corais should be used Acknowledgment
to support local management efforts with tourism, navigation, com­
mercial and recreational fishing, research and monitoring. In addition, it We thank the Rufford Foundation and FUNBIO (Brazilian Fund for
will be used to classify benthic habitats, generating more information Biodiversity) for funding; thanks to CAPES (Coordination for the
about reef habitats. The mapping carried out at the present study rep­ Improvement of Higher Education Personnel) for the first author’s
resents about 14% of the total area of MPA Costa dos Corais, but covers doctoral scholarship, and the support from ICMBio Costa dos Corais
the entire coast, 8 (eight) NTZs and all main visitation areas, including (Ministry of the Environment of Brazil), Fundação SOS Mata Atlântica,
the natural pools of Maragogi, which alone receive about 85% of the Fundação Toyota do Brasil and Projeto Conservação Recifal (PCR).
total visitors to the conservation unit annually. Improvements in the
management of coastal areas through mapping were observed in several Appendix A. Supplementary data
regions of the world, such as Australia, Indonesia and Caribe (Allen
Coral Atlas, 2020; M. A. Ferreira et al., 2012; Roelfsema et al., 2020; Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
Zitello et al., 2009). In this way, the use of remote sensing for mapping org/10.1016/j.seares.2023.102453.
coral reefs aims to visually communicate information about these eco­
systems, support research and conservation work and be an important
References
tool in emergencies such as bleaching episodes and oil spills. (Ferreira
et al., 2012; Kennedy et al., 2021; Mohanty et al., 2013; Pereira et al., Agus, S.B., Siregar, V.P., Susilo, S.B., Sangadji, M.S., Tasirileleu, G.F., Budi, P.S., 2021.
2022a, 2022b). Mapping marine habitats is the basis for evaluating the Mapping of shallow water bathymetry and reef geomorphology using Sentinel-2
satellite imagery in Genteng Besar and Genteng Kecil Island, Kepulauan Seribu. IOP
success of conservation measures. Maps can be used to analyze areas of
Conf. Series: Earth Environ. Sci. 944 (1) https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/944/
thriving habitat, and this requires knowing the extent and arrangement 1/012048.
of different habitat types(Brown et al., 2011; Lacharité et al., 2018; Allen Coral Atlas, 2020. Allen coral atlas maps of the benthic cover and geomorphic
MESH, 2008). Our mapping of coral reefs for APACC can be seen as a zones of coral reefs in western Micronesia. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/
ZENODO.3953053.
stimulus to introduce satellite imaging systems in Brazil to monitor coral Alves, D.C.L., de Almeida Espinoza, J.M., Albuquerque, M.D.G., da Silva, M.B.,
reefs over time, especially given the inevitable effects of climate change, Fontoura, J.S., Serpa, C., Weschenfelder, J., 2018. Bathymetry estimation by orbital
such as environmental stress from ocean warming and acidification. data of OLI sensor: A case study of the Rio Grande Harbor, Southern Brazil. J. Coast.
Res. 85, 51–55. https://doi.org/10.2112/SI85-011.1.
Remote sensing mapping is critical to understanding the distribution ANA, 2021. Agência Nacional de Águas Saneamento Básico. Balanço Hídrico Quali-
and changes in the reef ecosystem, as it can cover isolated areas that are Quantitativo por Bacia. Https://Dadosabertos.Ana.Gov.Br/Maps/9c6f901f4ca44

13
J.C. Araujo et al. Journal of Sea Research 196 (2023) 102453

89b9aeab59a6d3c1a6f/About. https://dadosabertos.ana.gov.br/maps/9c6f901f4 Goes, E.R., Brown, C.J., Araújo, T.C., 2019. Geomorphological classification of the
ca4489b9aeab59a6d3c1a6f/about. benthic structures on a tropical continental shelf. Front. Mar. Sci. 6 (FEB) https://
Ang, W.J., Park, E., Alcantara, E., 2021. Mapping floodplain bathymetry in the middle- doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00047.
lower Amazon River using inundation frequency and field control. Geomorphology Gorelick, N., Hancher, M., Dixon, M., Ilyushchenko, S., Thau, D., Moore, R., 2017.
392, 107937. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.GEOMORPH.2021.107937. Google earth engine: planetary-scale geospatial analysis for everyone. Remote Sens.
Araujo, J., Seoane, J.C., 2016. In: Zilberberg, C., Abrantes, D., Machado, J., Environ. 202, 18–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2017.06.031.
Marangoni, L. (Eds.), Mapeamento físico de recifes de coral. Museu Nacional, Greene, H.G., Yoklavich, M.M., Starr, R.M., O’Connell, V.M., Wakefield, W.W.,
pp. 245–258. Sullivan, D.E., McRea, J.E., Cailliet, G.M., 1999. A classification scheme for deep
Barbosa, C., Novo, E., Martins, V., 2019. In: Barbosa, C., Novo, E., Martins, V. (Eds.), seafloor habitats. Oceanol. Acta 22 (6), 663–678. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0399-
Introdução ao Sensoriamento Remoto de Sistemas Aquáticos, 1st ed. INPE. 1784(00)88957-4.
Barletta, C., Capolupo, A., Tarantino, E., 2022. Exploring the potentialities of landsat 8 Harris, P.T., 2012. Seafloor geomorphology—coast, shelf, and abyss. Seafloor
and sentinel-2 satellite data for estimating the land surface albedo in urban areas Geomorphol. Benthic Habitat 109–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-
using GEE platform. Comp. Sci. Appl. 435–449 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031- 385140-6.00006-2.
10545-6_30. Harris, P.T., Baker, E.K., 2012. Why map benthic habitats?. In: Seafloor Geomorphology
Becker, J.J., Sandwell, D.T., Smith, W.H.F., Braud, J., Binder, B., Depner, J., Fabre, D., as Benthic Habitat. Elsevier Inc., pp. 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-
Factor, J., Ingalls, S., Kim, S.H., Ladner, R., Marks, K., Nelson, S., Pharaoh, A., 385140-6.00001-3
Trimmer, R., von Rosenberg, J., Wallace, G., Weatherall, P., 2009. Global Harris, D.L., Rovere, A., Casella, E., Power, H., Canavesio, R., Collin, A., Pomeroy, A.,
bathymetry and elevation data at 30 arc seconds resolution: SRTM30_PLUS. Mar. Webster, J.M., Parravicini, V., 2018. Coral reef structural complexity provides
Geod. 32 (4), 355–371. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490410903297766. important coastal protection from waves under rising sea levels. Sci. Adv. 4 (2)
Bratic, G., Brovelli, M.A., 2022. Crowdsourcing for deforestation detection in the https://doi.org/10.1126/SCIADV.AAO4350/SUPPL_FILE/AAO4350_SM.PDF.
Amazon. Remote Sens. Spatial Inform. Sci. XLIII-B4, 231–238. https://doi.org/ Harrison, H.B., Williamson, D.H., Evans, R.D., Almany, G.R., Thorrold, S.R., Russ, G.R.,
10.5194/isprs-archives-XLIII-B4-2022-231-2022. Feldheim, K.A., van Herwerden, L., Planes, S., Srinivasan, M., Berumen, M.L.,
Brown, C.J., Smith, S.J., Lawton, P., Anderson, J.T., 2011. Benthic habitat mapping: A Jones, G.P., 2012. Larval export from marine reserves and the recruitment benefit for
review of progress towards improved understanding of the spatial ecology of the fish and fisheries. Curr. Biol. 22 (11), 1023–1028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
seafloor using acoustic techniques. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 92 (3), 502–520. https:// cub.2012.04.008.
doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2011.02.007. Hedley, J.D., Roelfsema, C.M., Chollett, I., Harborne, A.R., Heron, S.F., Weeks, S.J.,
Bukata, R.P., Jerome, J.H., Kondratyev, A.S., Pozdnyakov, D.V., 1995. Optical Properties Skirving, W.J., Strong, A.E., Mark Eakin, C., Christensen, T.R.L., Ticzon, V.,
and Remote Sensing of Inland and Coastal Waters. CRC Press. Bejarano, S., Mumby, P.J., 2016. Remote sensing of coral reefs for monitoring and
Burke, L., Reytar, K., Spalding, M., Perry, A., 2011. Reefs at Risk. www.wri.org. management: A review. Remote Sens. 8 (Issue 2) https://doi.org/10.3390/
Cao, B., Fang, Y., Jiang, Z., Gao, L., Hu, H., 2019. Shallow water bathymetry from rs8020118. MDPI AG.
WorldView-2 stereo imagery using two-media photogrammetry. Eur. J. Remote Hedley, J.D., Roelfsema, C., Brando, V., Giardino, C., Kutser, T., Phinn, S., Mumby, P.J.,
Sens. 52 (1), 506–521. https://doi.org/10.1080/22797254.2019.1658542. Barrilero, O., Laporte, J., Koetz, B., 2018. Coral reef applications of Sentinel-2:
Carlson, R.R., Foo, S.A., Asner, G.P., 2019. Land use impacts on coral reef health: A ridge- coverage, characteristics, bathymetry and benthic mapping with comparison to
to-reef perspective. In: Frontiers in Marine Science, vol. 6. Frontiers Media S.A. Landsat 8. Remote Sens. Environ. 216, 598–614. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00562. RSE.2018.07.014.
Chen, S., Woodcock, C.E., Bullock, E.L., Arévalo, P., Torchinava, P., Peng, S., Heyman, W.D., Wright, D.J., 2011. Marine geomorphology in the design of marine
Olofsson, P., 2021. Monitoring temperate forest degradation on Google earth engine reserve networks, 63 (4), 429–442. https://doi.org/10.1080/
using Landsat time series analysis. Remote Sens. Environ. 265, 112648 https://doi. 00330124.2011.585074.
org/10.1016/J.RSE.2021.112648. Hill, J., Loder, J., 2013. Reef Check Australia Survey Methods.
Conti, L.A., Torres da Mota, G., Barcellos, R.L., 2020. High-resolution optical remote Hill, J., Wilkinson, C., 2004. Methods for Ecological Monitoring of Coral Reefs.
sensing for coastal benthic habitat mapping: A case study of the Suape Estuarine- Australian Institute of Marine Science.
Bay, Pernambuco, Brazil. Ocean Coast. Manag. 193 https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Hughes, T.P., Baird, A.H., Bellwood, D.R., Card, M., Connolly, S.R., Folke, C.,
ocecoaman.2020.105205. Grosberg, R., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Jackson, J.B.C., Kleypas, J., Lough, J.M.,
da Silveira, C.B.L., Reuss Strenzel, G.M., Maida, M., Ferreira, B.P., 2020a. Pushing Marshall, P., Nyström, M., Palumbi, S.R., Pandolfi, J.M., Rosen, B., Roughgarden, J.,
satellite imagery to new depths: seascape feature mapping in a tropical shelf. Remote 2003. Climate change, human impacts, and the resilience of coral reefs. Science 301
Sens. Appl. Soc. Environ. 19 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSASE.2020.100345. (5635), 929–933. https://doi.org/10.1126/SCIENCE.1085046.
da Silveira, C.B.L., Strenzel, G.M.R., Maida, M., Araujo, T.C.M., Ferreira, B.P., 2020b. Kampel, M., Oliveira, N., Cortivo, F., dos Santos, J., de Freitas, L., Cesar, G., Valerio, A.,
Multiresolution satellite-derived bathymetry in shallow coral reefs: improving linear 2019. Caracterização sazonal de campos superficiais estimados por sensoriamento
algorithms with geographical analysis. J. Coast. Res. 36 (6), 1247–1265. https://doi. remoto na bacia sedimentar de Sergipe-Alagoas. In: Ambiente Pelágico da Bacia de
org/10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-19-00029.1. SergipeAlagoas. UFS, pp. 179–221.
de Almeida, K.C., da Costa, A.P.F., da Rocha, T.B., 2023. Utilização do Google Earth Kennedy, E.V., Roelfsema, C.M., Lyons, M.B., Kovacs, E.M., Borrego-Acevedo, R.,
Engine para Análise Comparativa da Linha de Costa de Dois Deltas da Costa Leste Roe, M., Phinn, S.R., Larsen, K., Murray, N.J., Yuwono, D., Wolff, J., Tudman, P.,
Brasileira entre 1986 e 2021: Delta do rio São Francisco (Al/Se) e delta do rio 2021. Reef cover, a coral reef classification for global habitat mapping from remote
Paraíba Do Sul (Rj). Geo UERJ, 42. https://doi.org/10.12957/geouerj.2023.74650. sensing. Sci. Data 8 (1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-021-00958-z.
de Oliveira, N., Bastos, A.C., da Silva Quaresma, V., Vieira, F.V., 2020. The use of benthic Kutser, T., Hedley, J., Giardino, C., Roelfsema, C., Brando, V.E., 2020. Remote sensing of
terrain modeler (BTM) in the characterization of continental shelf habitats. Geo-Mar. shallow waters – A 50 year retrospective and future directions. Remote Sens.
Lett. 40 (6), 1087–1097. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00367-020-00642-y. Environ. 240, 111619 https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RSE.2019.111619.
Emslie, M.J., Logan, M., Williamson, D.H., Ayling, A.M., MacNeil, M.A., Ceccarelli, D., Lacharité, M., Brown, C.J., Gazzola, V., 2018. Multisource multibeam backscatter data:
Cheal, A.J., Evans, R.D., Johns, K.A., Jonker, M.J., Miller, I.R., Osborne, K., Russ, G. developing a strategy for the production of benthic habitat maps using semi-
R., Sweatman, H.P.A., 2015. Expectations and outcomes of reserve network automated seafloor classification methods. Mar. Geophys. Res. 39 (1–2), 307–322.
performance following re-zoning of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Curr. Biol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11001-017-9331-6.
25 (8), 983–992. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.01.073. Lecours, V., Espriella, M.C., 2020. Can multiscale roughness help computer-assisted
Erdey-Heydorn, M., 2008. An ArcGIS seabed characterization toolbox developed for identification of coastal habitats in Florida?. In: Proceedings of the Geomorphometry
investigating benthic habitats. Mar. Geod. 31 (4), 318–358. https://doi.org/ Conference, 111–114 https://doi.org/10.30437/GEOMORPHOMETRY2020_24.
10.1080/01490410802466819. Lee, Z., Weidemann, A., Arnone, R., 2013. Combined effect of reduced band number and
ESA, 2012. In: Fletcher, K. (Ed.), Sentinel-2 : ESA’s optical high-resolution mission for increased bandwidth on shallow water remote sensing: the case of WorldView 2.
GMES operational services. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 51 (5), 2577–2586. https://doi.org/10.1109/
Eugenio, F., Marcello, J., Martin, J., 2015. High-resolution maps of bathymetry and TGRS.2012.2218818.
benthic habitats in shallow-water environments using multispectral remote sensing Li, J., Knapp, D.E., Schill, S.R., Roelfsema, C., Phinn, S., Silman, M., Mascaro, J.,
imagery. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 53 (7), 3539–3549. https://doi.org/ Asner, G.P., 2019. Adaptive bathymetry estimation for shallow coastal waters using
10.1109/TGRS.2014.2377300. planet dove satellites. Remote Sens. Environ. 232 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Ferreira, B., Maida, M., 2006. Monitoramento dos recifes de coral do Brasil. Ministério do rse.2019.111302.
Meio Ambiente. Li, J., Knapp, D.E., Lyons, M., Roelfsema, C., Phinn, S., Schill, S.R., Asner, G.P., 2021.
Ferreira, M.A., Andrade, F., Mendes, R.N., Paula, J., 2012. Use of satellite remote sensing Automated global shallowwater bathymetry mapping using google earth engine.
for coastal conservation in the eastern african coast: advantages and shortcomings. Remote Sens. 13 (8) https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13081469.
Eur. J. Remote Sens. 45 (1), 293–304. https://doi.org/10.5721/EuJRS20124526. Lucatelli, D., Goes, E.R., Brown, C.J., Souza-Filho, J.F., Guedes-Silva, E., Araújo, T.C.M.,
Foo, S.A., Asner, G.P., 2019. Scaling up coral reef restoration using remote sensing 2020. Geodiversity as an indicator to benthic habitat distribution: an integrative
technology. Front. Mar. Sci. 6 (MAR) https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00079. approach in a tropical continental shelf. Geo-Mar. Lett. 40 (6), 911–923. https://doi.
Gao, J., 2009. Bathymetric mapping by means of remote sensing: methods, accuracy and org/10.1007/s00367-019-00614-x.
limitations. Prog. Phys. Geogr. 33 (1), 103–116. https://doi.org/10.1177/ Lundblad, E.R., Wright, D.J., Miller, J., Larkin, E.M., Rinehart, R., Naar, D.F.,
0309133309105657. Donahue, B.T., Anderson, S.M., Battista, T., 2006. A benthic terrain classification
Garcia, R.A., Hedley, J.D., Tin, H.C., Fearns, P.R.C.S., 2015. A method to analyze the scheme for American Samoa. Mar. Geod. 29 (2), 89–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/
potential of optical remote sensing for benthic habitat mapping. Remote Sens. 7 (10), 01490410600738021.
13157–13189. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs71013157. Lyons, M., Roelfsema, C., Kennedy, E., Kovacs, E., Borrego-Acevedo, R., Markey, K.,
GEBCO, 2022. Gridded bathymetric data. In: General Bathymetry Chart of the Oceans. Roe, M., Yuwono, D., Harris, D., Phinn, S., Asner, G.P., Li, J., Knapp, E., Fabina, N.,
Https://Www.Gebco.Net/Data_and_products/Gridded_bathymetry_data/. Larsen, K., Traganos, D., Murray, N., 2020. Mapping the world’s coral reefs using a

14
J.C. Araujo et al. Journal of Sea Research 196 (2023) 102453

global multiscale earth observation framework. Remote Sens. Ecol. and Conserv. 6 Roelfsema, C., Kovacs, E., Ortiz, J.C., Wolff, N.H., Callaghan, D., Wettle, M., Ronan, M.,
(4), 557–568. https://doi.org/10.1002/rse2.157. Hamylton, S.M., Mumby, P.J., Phinn, S., 2018. Coral reef habitat mapping: A
Mayorga-Martínez, M., Bello-Pineda, J., Perales-Valdivia, H., Pérez-España, H., combination of object-based image analysis and ecological modelling. Remote Sens.
Heyman, W.D., 2021. Characterizing geomorphology of mesophotic coral reef Environ. 208, 27–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2018.02.005.
ecosystems in the southwestern Gulf of Mexico: implications for conservation and Roelfsema, C., Kovacs, E., Ortiz, J.C., Callaghan, D., Hock, K., Mongin, M., Johansen, K.,
management. Front. Mar. Sci. 8 https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.639359. Mumby, P., Wettle, M., Ronan, M., Lundgren, P., Kennedy, E.V., Phinn, S.R., 2020.
Menandro, P.S., Bastos, A.C., Boni, G., Ferreira, L.C., Vieira, F.V., Lavagnino, A.C., Habitat maps to enhance monitoring and management of the Great Barrier Reef.
Moura, R.L., Diesing, M., 2020. Reef mapping using different seabed automatic Coral Reefs 39 (4), 1039–1054. https://doi.org/10.1007/S00338-020-01929-3.
classification tools. Geosciences (Switzerland) 10 (2). https://doi.org/10.3390/ Roteta, E., Bastarrika, A., Franquesa, M., Chuvieco, E., 2021. Landsat and sentinel-2
geosciences10020072. based burned area mapping tools in google earth engine. Remote Sens. 13 (4), 1–30.
Mendes, V., 2017. Geologia e Recursos Minerais do Estado de Alagoas, Mapa Geológico https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13040816.
escala 1:250.000. CPRM - Serviço Geológico do Brasil. Sagar, S., Falkner, I., Dekker, A., Huang, Z., Blondeau-Patissier, D., Phillips, C.,
MESH, 2008. In: Davies, J., Young, S. (Eds.), MESH Guide to Habitat Mapping. Joint Przeslawski, R., 2020. Earth Observation for monitoring of Australian Marine Parks
Nature Conservation Committee. and other off-shore Marine Protected Areas. Report to the National Environmental
Moberg, F., Folke, C., 1999. Ecological goods and services of coral reef ecosystems. Ecol. Science Program. Marine Biodiversity Hub. Geoscience Australia.
Econ. 29 (2), 215–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(99)00009-9. Santos, E., 2021. Mapeamento Batimétrico e Modelagem Bentônica de Terreno de Zona
Mohanty, P.C., Mahendra, R.S., Bisoyi, H., Kumar Tummula, S., Grinson, G., Nayak, S., de Preservação em Barra de Santo Antônio, APA Costa dos Corais. AL, UFRJ.
Kumar Sahu, B., 2013. Assessment of the coral bleaching during 2005 to decipher Stumpf, R.P., Holderied, K., Sinclair, M., 2003. Determination of water depth with high-
the thermal stress in the coral environs of the Andaman Islands using remote sensing. resolution satellite imagery over variable bottom types. Limnol. Oceanogr. 48 (1 II),
Eur. J. Remote Sens. 46 (1), 417–430. https://doi.org/10.5721/EuJRS20134624. 547–556. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.2003.48.1_part_2.0547.
Motoki, A., Motoki, K.F., Pereira De Melo, D., 2012. Caracterização da morfologia Suggett, D.J., Kikuchi, R.K.P., Oliveira, M.D.M., Spanó, S., Carvalho, R., Smith, D.J.,
submarina da Cadeia Vitória-Trindade e áreas adjacentes-ES, com base na batimetria 2012. Photobiology of corals from Brazil’s near-shore marginal reefs of Abrolhos.
predita do Topo Versão 14.1. Rev. Brasil. Geomorfol. 13 (2), 151–170. www.ugb. Mar. Biol. 159 (7), 1461–1473. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00227-012-1925-6.
org.br. Terres de Lima, L., Fernández-Fernández, S., Gonçalves, J.F., Magalhães Filho, L.,
Mumby, P.J., Harborne, A.R., 2010. Marine reserves enhance the recovery of corals on Bernardes, C., 2021. Development of tools for coastal management in Google Earth
Caribbean reefs. PLoS One 5 (1). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0008657. Engine: uncertainty bathtub model and Bruun rule. Remote Sens. 13 (8), 1424.
NOAA, 2013. Benthic Terrain Modeler for ArcGIS v10. http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2009/ https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13081424.
1072/html/appendix1.html. Torres, L.C., Jeck, I., Tavares, A.A., 2003. Configuração Morfológica do Cone do
Noi Phan, T., Kuch, V., Lehnert, L.W., 2020. Land cover classification using google earth Amazonas a Partir da Integração de Dados Batimétricos. Rev. Brasil. Geomorfol. Ano
engine and random forest classifier-the role of image composition. Remote Sens. 12 4 (1), 11–15.
(15) https://doi.org/10.3390/RS12152411. Vanhellemont, Q., 2019. Daily metre-scale mapping of water turbidity using CubeSat
Pereira, M.L., Bonetti, J., 2018. Caracterização geomorfológica do relevo submarino de imagery. Opt. Express 27 (20), A1372. https://doi.org/10.1364/oe.27.0a1372.
áreas marinhas protegidas brasileiras com base em técnicas de análise espacial. Rev. Vargas, R., Wasserman, J., Luis da Silva, A., Leal Tavares, T., Américo dos Santos, C.,
Brasil. Geomorfol. 19 (1), 127–147. https://doi.org/10.20502/rbg.v19i1.1008. Ferreira Dias, F., 2021. Satellite-derived bathymetry models from sentinel-2A and 2B
Pereira, P.H., Macedo, C.H., de Nunes, J.A., Marangoni, L., Bianchini, A., 2018. Effects of in the coastal clear waters of Arraial do Cabo, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Rev. Brasil.
depth on reef fish communities: insights of a “deep refuge hypothesis” from Geografia Física 14, 3078–3095.
southwestern Atlantic reefs. PLoS One 13 (9). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. Velozo, T., Alves, A., 2006. Características gerais do fenômeno da maré no Brasil. Anais
pone.0203072. Hidrográficos Da Diretoria de Hidrografia e Navegação, Tomo LXI.
Pereira, P., Lima, G., Pontes, A., Côrtes, L., Gomes, E., Sampaio, C., Pinto, T.K., Walbridge, S., Slocum, N., Pobuda, M., Esri, D.J.W., 2018. Unified Geomorphological
Miranda, R., Cardoso, A., Araujo, J.C., Seoane, J.C.S., 2022a. Unprecedented coral Analysis Workflows with Benthic Terrain Modeler. https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.
mortality on southwestern Atlantic coral reefs following major thermal stress. Front. figshare.5946463.
Mar. Sci. 9 https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.725778. Wedding, L.M., Jorgensen, S., Lepczyk, C.A., Friedlander, A.M., 2019. Remote sensing of
Pereira, P.H.C., Lima, G.V., Araujo, J.C., Gomes, E., Côrtes, L.G.F., Pontes, A.V., three-dimensional coral reef structure enhances predictive modeling of fish
Recinos, R., Cardoso, A., Seoane, J.C., Brito, C.C.P., 2022b. Mesophotic reefs of the assemblages. Remote Sens. Ecol. and Conserv. 5 (2), 150–159. https://doi.org/
largest Brazilian coastal protected area: mapping, characterization and biodiversity. 10.1002/rse2.115.
Diversity 14 (9). https://doi.org/10.3390/d14090760. Weiss, A., 2001. Weiss_2001_topographic positions and landforms analysis (Conference
Pereira, P., De Lima, G., Da Silva, E., Pontes, A., Côrtes, L., Sampaio, C., Pinto, T., Poster). In: The Nature Conservancy.
Belluci, M., Cardoso, A., Normande, I., 2023. Spatial distribution, zoning and depth Wienberg, C., Wintersteller, P., Beuck, L., Hebbeln, D., 2012. Coral patch seamount (NE
effects on reef biodiversity at the largest Brazilian coastal Marine Protected Area. Atlantic) coral patch seamount (NE Atlantic)-a sedimentological and macrofaunal
https://assets.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1827821/v1/9752d142-8519-4cb0-8d reconnaissance based on video and hydroacoustic surveys Coral Patch seamount (NE
c7-a2f98e9486c8.pdf?c=1659425369. Atlantic). Biogeosci. Discuss. 9, 18707–18753. https://doi.org/10.5194/bgd-9-
Pontes-Lopes, A., Dalagnol, R., Dutra, A.C., de Jesus Silva, C.V., de Alencastro Graça, P. 18707-2012.
M.L., de Oliveirae Cruz, L.E., 2022. Quantifying post-fire changes in the Williamson, D.H., Ceccarelli, D.M., Jones, G.P., Russ, G.R., 2019. Assessing the
aboveground biomass of an Amazonian Forest based on field and remote sensing Ecological Effects of Management Zoning on Inshore Reefs of the Great Barrier Reef
data. Remote Sens. 14 (7) https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14071545. Marine Park: Vol. Report 2 (Reef 2050).
Poursanidis, D., Traganos, D., Chrysoulakis, N., Reinartz, P., 2019. Cubesats allow high Xu, Y., Vaughn, N.R., Knapp, D.E., Martin, R.E., Balzotti, C., Li, J., Foo, S.A., Asner, G.P.,
spatiotemporal estimates of satellite-derived bathymetry. In: Remote Sensing, vol. 2020. Coral bleaching detection in the hawaiian islands using spatio-temporal
11, Issue 11. MDPI AG. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11111299. standardized bottom reflectance and planet dove satellites. Remote Sens. 12 (19),
Purkis, S.J., 2017. Remote Sensing Tropical Coral Reefs: The View from Above. https:// 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12193219.
doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-121916. Zhao, J., Temimi, M., Ghedira, H., Hu, C., 2014. Exploring the potential of optical remote
Rajendran, S., Vethamony, P., Sadooni, F.N., Al-Kuwari, H.A.S., Al-Khayat, J.A., sensing for oil spill detection in shallow coastal waters-a case study in the Arabian
Seegobin, V.O., Govil, H., Nasir, S., 2021. Detection of Wakashio oil spill off Gulf. Opt. Express 22 (11), 13755. https://doi.org/10.1364/oe.22.013755.
Mauritius using Sentinel-1 and 2 data: capability of sensors, image transformation Zitello, A., Bauer, L., Battista, T., Mueller, P., Kendall, M., Monaco, M., 2009. Shallow-
methods and mapping. Environ. Pollut. 274, 116618 https://doi.org/10.1016/J. Water Benthic Habitats of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. http://hdl.handle.net
ENVPOL.2021.116618. /1834/30736.

15