1 Hamming Distance
Hamming distance is a metric for comparing two binary data strings. While comparing
two binary strings of equal length, Hamming distance is the number of bit positions in
which the two bits are different.
Minimum Hamming Distance
In a set of strings of equal lengths, the minimum Hamming distance is the smallest
Hamming distance between all possible pairs of strings in that set.
2 Companding in PCM
The word Companding is a combination of Compressing and Expanding, which
means that it does both. This is a non-linear technique used in PCM which compresses
the data at the transmitter and expands the same data at the receiver. The effects of
noise and crosstalk are reduced by using this technique.
For digital audio signals, companding is used in pulse code modulation
(PCM). The process involves decreasing the number of bits used to record
the strongest (loudest) signals. In the digital file format, companding
improves the signal-to-noise ratio at reduced bit rates.
BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying)
Binary Phase-shift keying (BPSK) is a digital modulation scheme that conveys
data by changing, or modulating, two different phases of a reference signal
(the carrier wave). The constellation points chosen are usually positioned with
uniform angular spacing around a circle. This gives maximum phase-
separation between adjacent points and thus the best immunity to corruption.
They are positioned on a circle so that they can all be transmitted with the
same energy. In this way, the moduli of the complex numbers they represent
will be the same and thus so will the amplitudes needed for the cosine and
sine waves.
Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)
Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK) is a type of digital modulation
technique in which we are sending one bit per symbol i.e., ‘0’ or a ‘1’.
Hence, the bit rate and symbol rate are the same. In BFSK, the information
is encoded in the variation of the frequency of the carrier.
compare pcm ,dm,adm
difference between uniform and non uniform quantization
uniform non uniform
The type of quantization in which The type of quantization in which
the quantization levels are the quantization levels are unequal
uniformly spaced is the uniform is the nonuniform quantization.
quantization
Mid tread and mid rise Does not categorize further
quantization.
Has some amount of quantization Reduces quantization error.
error.
Properties of Line Coding
Following are the properties of line coding −
As the coding is done to make more bits transmit on a single signal, the
bandwidth used is much reduced.
For a given bandwidth, the power is efficiently used.
The probability of error is much reduced.
Error detection is done and the bipolar too has a correction capability.
Power density is much favorable.
comparative study of dpcm,adm,dm signal
difference between block codes and convolutional codes
3 Sampling Theorem Statement
The sampling theorem states that if a signal is sampled at regular intervals,
then the sequence of samples can be reconstructed to recreate the original
signal.
Most of the signals that we use frequently in communication and control
operations are analog signals. Even though it is easier to handle analog
signals in a simple operation like a simple telephone system where we
convert the sound signal into its analogous electrical signal in the form of
voltage, where the amplitude of the voice signal reflects in the voltage of
the electrical signal and transmitted at the velocity equal to that of the light.
But if they are to be sent to longer distances, the strength of the signal
decreases and leads to an increase in noise levels. Hence modern
telephonic systems have employed the concept of digital processing of the
voice, in which the signal is converted into digital code that can be handled
by a computer. If we wish to process the signal with digital equipment like a
computer it involves various processes called sampling, quantizing, and
coding.
LONG QS
2 Data Modulation
Data modulation is a process that converts analog signals into digital signals and
digital signals into analog signals. Computers store and process data in digital format.
Data modulation allows computers to store and process analog signals.
Let’s take a simple example. When you record and play an audio clip, the following
happens.
You use a microphone to record the audio clip. The microphone sends your voice to
the computer. Since the human voice consists of analog signals, the computer
converts the received voice into digital signals before processing and storing them
onto the hard disk.
When the recorded clip is played, the computer reads digital signals from the hard disk
and converts them into analog signals before sending them to the speaker.
4 What Does Aliasing Mean?
Aliasing is an effect that causes different signals to become
indistinguishable from each other during sampling. Aliasing is
characterized by the altering of output compared to the original signal
because resampling or interpolation resulted in a lower resolution in
images, a slower frame rate in terms of video or a lower wave resolution
in audio. Anti-aliasing filters can be used to correct this problem.
5 What is Quadrature Phase Shift Keying?
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying is a digital modulation method. In this
method, the phase of the carrier waveform is changed according to the digital
baseband signal. The phase of the carrier remains the same when the input
logic is the 1 but goes a phase shift when the logic is 0. In Quadrature Phase
Shift Keying, two information bits are modulated at once, unlike Binary Phase
Shift Keying where only one bit is passed per symbol. Here, there are four
carrier phase offsets with a phase difference of ±90° for four possible
combinations of two bits( 00, 01, 10, 11). Symbol duration in this modulation
is twice the bit duration.
The QPSK waveform for two-bits input is as follows, which shows the modulated result
for different instances of binary inputs.
