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ME : Mechanical Engineering
Module 7 : Machining and Machine Tool Operations, Tool Engineering,
Metrology and Inspection, Computer Integrated Manufacturing

INDEX

Machining and Machine Tool Operations

Pg.
Contents Topics
No.
Mechanics of Machining 1
Single Point Cutting Tool (SPCT) 3
Mechanics of Chip Formation 6
Tool Life and Tool Wear 11
Mechanics of Cutting Forces 12
Economics of Machining 18

Notes Shaping and Planning 19

Turning and Boring 20
Drilling 22
Milling 24
NonTraditional Machining Processes
25
(Unconventional Machining Processes)
List of Formulae 46
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 56
Assignment1 60
Assignments
Assignment2 62
Test Paper1 65
Test Papers
Test Paper2 67
Practice Problems 70
Tool Engineering
Pg.
Contents Topics
No.
Principles of Work Holding Devices 75
Design of Jigs and Fixtures 75
Different Elements of Jigs and Fixtures 80
Types of Jigs 86
Types of Fixtures 89
Notes
Milling Fixtures 90
Turning Fixtures 91
Grinding Fixtures 92
Broaching Fixtures 93
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 94
Assignment Assignment 97

Metrology and Inspection

Pg.
Contents Topics
No.
Introduction 99
Limits, Fits and Tolerances 99
Linear and Angular Measurements 107
Comparators 115
Gauge Design 120
Interferometry 127
Notes Finish Measurement 129
Form Measurement 136
Gear Measurement 138
Screw Thread Measurement 143
Alignment and Testing Methods 150
List of Formulae 153
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 154
Assignment1 159
Assignments
Assignment2 161
Test Paper Test Paper 1 163
Computer Integrated Manufacturing
Pg.
Contents Topics
No.
Computer Aided Design (CAD) 166
Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) 172
Group Technology 173
Computer Aided Manufacturing 175
Notes
Robotics 177
Numerical Control 179
Computer Integrated Manufacturing 183
LMR (Last Minute Revision) 185
Assignments Assignment 190

Solutions
Machining and Machine Tool Operations
Answer Key 192
Assignments
Model Solutions 193
Answer Key 198
Test Papers
Model Solutions 199
Answer Key 205
Practice Problems
Model Solutions 206

Tool Engineering
Answer Key 211
Assignments
Model Solutions 212
Metrology and Inspection
Answer Key 213
Assignments
Model Solutions 214
Answer Key 218
Test Papers
Model Solutions 219
Computer Integrated Manufacturing
Answer Key 222
Assignments
Model Solutions 223
 Topic 1 : Machining and Machine Tool Operations

MECHANICS OF MACHINING
 The process in which the desired shape, size, and finish are obtained through the
removal of the unwanted, excess material from the workpiece is termed as
machining.
 The material is removed in the form of chips.
 The part which actually removes the excess material is called as cutting tool and the
machine providing the necessary relative motions between the work and the tool is
commonly known as machine tool.
 The relative motion for cutting action is known as primary motion and that responsible
for gradually feeding the uncut portion is secondary or feed motion.
 Depending upon nature of two relative motions different surfaces can be generated.
For this let us consider a point P where the material is being cut at a particular
instant. Now if the cutting motion and the feed motion both are rectilinear then the
surface will be plane.
a) The line generated by cutting motion is called generatrix.
b) By feeding motion is called directrix.

Cutting
motion
Generatrix

Feed Directrix
P
Creation of surface by a machine
t l
Now if the generatrix and directrix are rectilinear & are in the same plane the plain
surface will be obtained.

 And if the directrix is perpendicular to the plane of the generatrix then the cylindrical
surface will be produced.

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Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

The important parameters involved during machining are:

1. Thickness of uncut layer (t1)
2. Thickness of chips produced (t2)
3. The inclination of the chip tool interface with respect to the cutting velocity known
as rake angle.
4. The relative velocity of the workpiece and the tool.
5. A clearance angle between the job and the flank surface is provided to make the
cutting easier.
The figure below will clear the above parameters:

Basically the machining operations are

1. Orthogonal machining
2. Oblique machining
Orthogonal Machining :
The machining operation can be represented by a two dimensional figure only when all
the work and chip material particles move in the planes parallel to the plane of paper.
There is no component of velocity or motion in the direction perpendicular to the plane of
paper. Such a situation is realized when the cutting edge is straight and the relative
velocity of the work and the tool is perpendicular to the cutting edge. Figure (a) shows
such an idealized case. This type of machining is known as orthogonal machining.

Oblique Machining:
When the relative velocity of the work and the tool is not perpendicular to the cutting edge
(Figure b), all the work and chip material particles do not move in parallel planes, and
thus a twodimensional representation of the operation is not possible. Such a machining
is termed as an oblique machining. It is obvious that the study and analysis of the

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 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

orthogonal machining operations is much simpler. However, in a large number of

situations, the conditions for orthogonal machining are not satisfied, but to get an
approximate result, the orthogonal analysis may be sufficient.
Comparison :
In orthogonal cutting, the cutting edge of the tool stays perpendicular to the tool feed
direction, direction of chip flow velocity is perpendicular to the cutting edge of the tool,
cutting edge clears the breadth of the workpiece on both ends, and only two mutually
perpendicular components of cutting forces act on the tool.
Whereas in oblique cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is inclined at any acute angle to
the direction of tool feed, and the direction of the chip flow velocity is at an angle to the
normal of the cutting edge of the tool. In oblique cutting, the cutting edge may or may not
clear the breadth of the work material. The cutting edge of the tool is subjected to three
mutually perpendicular components of the cutting forces.

SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL (SPCT)

A single point cutting tool consists of a sharpened cutting part called its point and the
shank.
The figure below shows the single point cutting tool:

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Terminology of single point cutting tool :

Shank : It is the main body of the tool.
Flank : The surfaces below and adjacent to the cutting edge.
Face : It is the surface on which the chip slides.
Heel : It is intersection of flank and base of tool.
Nose : Nose is the point where side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect.
Cutting Edge :
It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material from the workpiece.
A single point cutting tool is either right or left hand cut tool depending on the direction of
feed.
 For the right cut tool the side cutting edge is on the side of the thumb when the right
hand is placed on the tool with the palm downward and fingers pointed toward the
tool nose.
 For left hand it is vice versa.
Designation of cutting tool :
Designation is nothing but nomenclature of cutting tool. Two systems to designate the
tool shape are,
1. American Standards Association System (ASA) or American National Standards
Institute (ANSI).
2. Orthogonal rake system (ORS).
1. American Standards Association System (ASA):
Here the angles of the tool face are defined in two orthogonal planes, one parallel to
and the other perpendicular to the axis of the cutting tool. Both the planes are
perpendicular to the base of the tool.
The various tool angles are :
a) Back rake angle (b) b) Side rake angle (s)
c) End relief angle (e) d) Side relief angle (s)
e) End cutting edge angle (Ce) f) Side cutting edge angles (Cs)
g) Nose radius (R)
Tool is designated as : b ,  s, e , s ,Ce ,Cs ,R
2. Orthogonal Rake System :
For this the planes for designating tools are the planes containing the principal or
side cutting edge and the plane normal to it :
We have following angles for orthogonal plane :
a) Side relief angle () b) The side rake angle ()
c) Wedge angle or lip angle () d) The end cutting edge angle (Ce)
e) Back rake angle (i) f) Orientation of auxiliary flank (’)
g) The cutting angle ()

Tool Designation : i    ’    Ce    
Inter conversion between ASA system and ORS :
tan   tan  s sin   tan b cos 
tan b  cos  tan   sin  tani
tan  s  sin  tan   cos  tani
tani  tan  s cos   tan b sin 

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.4
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

Importance of Tool Angles :

Rake angle :
It is the most important angle of the tool. The nominal rake angle is the angle made by
the face of tool and the planes parallel to the base of cutting tool. If the rake angle is
measured in the direction of tool shank, it is called ‘back rake angle’ and if measured in a
direction right angles to it, then it is called ‘side rake angle’. The effective rake angle
depends upon the position of tool relative to the job axis. The purpose of this angle is to
allow the chips to flow plastically over the tool face, so that smoother action can take
place. Rake angle is the only angle on which the strength of the tool depends. Rake
angle controls the chip formation, and is in turn governed by the mechanical properties of
the material being cut. The force on the tool is reduced by increasing the rake angle but
tool is weakened. Thus a compromise between the two factors has to be obtained. Here
is a table of back and side rake angles for some commonly used materials in production
engineering:

Negative Rake Angle :

In brittle materials like brass, zero rake angle is provided, but in tougher materials like
copper, negative rake angles are also used, because of tougher characteristic of the
materials. The tougher characteristic has a tendency to cause the cutting edge of the tool
to dig into the material and spoil the job surface. Carbide tipped tools usually have
negative rake angles. The main purpose of using negative rakes is, (1) to increase the
strength of the cutting tool point, (2) to give better finish, (3) to decrease the temperature
rise at the tool tip because more heat flows to chips from tool.
Clearance Angle :
It is angle of the end of side surfaces which are below the cutting edge. When the tool is
in horizontal position, the normal clearance angle is measured from the plane
perpendicular to the base of tool shank. The effective clearance depends upon the
position of the tool relative to the job. The purpose of this angle is to avoid any frictional
drag of the tool on the job and prevent the tool from rubbing on the surface already cut.
Its magnitude depends on the shape of the surface being cut, and is kept as small as
possible to avoid weakening of the tool. The shank of a cutting tool is generally
analysed for strength and rigidity. The tool is assumed to be loaded as a cantilever by
tool forces at the cutting edge. The main design criterion for shank size is rigidity. The
deflection at the cutting edge is limited to a certain value depending on the size of
machine, cutting conditions and tool overhung. Base is provided to give support to the
tool.
Cutting Angle :
The true cutting angle is the angle between the face of tool, and the line tangent to the
machined surface at the cutting point. Side cutting edge angle, Cs, is the angle which
prevents interference as the tool enters the work material. The tip of the tool is protected
at the start of cut, (Figure below) as it enables the tool to contact the work first behind the

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Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

tip. This angle affects tool life and surface finish. This angle can vary from 0 to 90. The
side cutting edge at increased value of SCEA will have more of its length in action for a
given depth of cut and the edge lasts longer. Also, the chip produced will be thinner and
wider which will distribute the cutting and heat produced over more of the cutting edge on
the other hand, the larger this angle, the greater the component of force tending to
separate the work and the tool. This promotes chatter. Satisfactory values of SCEA vary
from 15 to 30, for general machining. The shape of the workpiece will also determine
the SCEA. To produce a 90 shoulder, zero degree SCEA is needed. No SCEA is
desirable when machining castings and forgings with hard and scaly skins, because the
least amount of tool edge should be exposed to the destructive action of the skin.

End cutting edge angle, Cs, provides a clearance or relief to the trailing end of the cutting
edge to prevent rubbing or drag between the machined surface and the trailing (non
cutting) part of the cutting edge. Only a small angle is sufficient for this purpose. Too
large an ECEA takes away any material that supports the point and conducts away the
heat. An angle of 8 to 15 has been found satisfactory in most cases on side cutting
tools, like boring and turning tools. End cutting tools, like cutoff and necking tools often
have no end cutting edge angle.
Lip Angle :
It is the angle between the tool face and the ground end surface of flank. It is usually
between 60 to 80.
Nose Radius :
Side and end cutting edges can be joined to form a point but that is not desirable as it
leads to high heat concentration at the sharp point. Joining side and end cutting edges by
an arc (nose radius) is the common practice. Provision of nose radius improves tool life,
surface finish and reduces cutting forces. However, large nose radius results in chatter
and that too is not desirable. Therefore, nose radius should be selected properly.

MECHANICS OF CHIP FORMATION

Types of Chips :
1. Discontinuous chips
2. Continuous chips
3. Continuous chips with build up edge (BUE)

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 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

Discontinuous Chips :
These are produced when cutting more brittle materials like grey cost iron, bronze and
hard brass.
The discontinuous chips can be produced when cutting more ductile materials under
following conditions :
a) Large chip thickness
b) Low cutting speed
c) Small rake angle of tool
d) Cutting with the use of a cutting fluid
Continuous Chips :
Machining of more ductile materials produce these types of chips.
Here as the chip remains in contact with the tool face for a longer period, resulting in
more frictional heat. This difficulty is avoided by attaching a chip breaker on the tool face.
The conditions helping in production of continuous chips are :
a) Small chip thickness
b) High cutting speed
c) Large rake angle of cutting tool
d) Reducing the friction of chip along the tool face.
Continuous chips with built up edge (BUE) :
Builtup edge is formed when work materials of ductile material adhere or weld to the
cutting edge of the tool due to high temperature and pressure in cutting zone.
 The built up edges when broken make the machined surface rough.
 The builtup edge changes the geometry of the cutting tool.
 Low cutting speed contributes to the formation of builtupedge.
Built up edge can be reduced by :
a) Increasing the cutting speed
b) Increasing the rake angle
c) Using a cutting fluid
Chip Parameters :
When a wedge shaped tool is pressed against the work piece, chip is produced by
deformation of material ahead of cutting edge because of shearing action taking place in
a zone (treated as single plane) known as shear plane. Shear plane separates the
deformed and underformed material. When the tool moves with the velocities V against
the work, it shears the metal along the shear plane AB. The depth of cut ‘t’ which is
actually the feed in the turning operation changes into the chip thickness tc. This
experiences two velocity components Vc and Vs (Velocity of the chip relative to the tool,
and velocity of the chip relative to the workpiece along the shear plane). In accordance
with the principle of kinematics these three velocity vectors form a closed velocity triangle
as shown in the figure (b). It may be noted that the vector sum of cutting velocity V and
the chip velocity Vc is equal to the shear velocity vector Vs.

Fig(a): Geometry of Chip formation Fig(b): Cutting velocities triangle

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Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

The relationship between velocities are :

sin  cos 
Vc  V; Vs  V
cos      cos     
where
 = shear angle
 = rake angle
Relationship between  and  :
r cos 
tan  
1  r sin 
Chip thickness ratio :
It is defined as the ratio of depth of cut (t) to the chip thickness (tc) and is denoted by ‘r’.
t sin  
r   c (can be obtained from above relation)
t c cos      
 is the length of metal cut and  c is the chip length.
 1/r is termed as chip reduction coefficient or chip compression factor and is denoted
by k.
 The cutting ratio or chip thickness ratio is always less than unity and can be
evaluated by measuring chip thickness and depth of cut. But actually it is very difficult
to measure chip thickness precisely due to the roughness of the back surface of chip.
Hence chip thickness ratio may also be expressed in terms of lengths since it is
easier to measure the length of chip than thickness.
Cutting Ratio :
Cutting ratio can be defined as the ratio of the chip velocity Vc to the cutting speed V.
 
Vc    
 e 2 
V
where  is the coefficient of friction.
 When  is small, tc is large in comparison to ‘t’ which gives low cutting ratio and a
long shear plane. On the contrary, when  is large, tc is small and hence high cutting
ratio. In other words it approaches unity. It is always desirable to obtain a shortest
possible shear plane, because for fixed shear strength, reduction in shear plane area
reduces the shearing forces required to produce sufficient stress. It can be observed
that with carbide tools better cutting conditions can be achieved with negative rake
tools and high cutting speeds.
 Volume of metal removed = volume of chip
 tb  t c bc  c
( t,b, being thickness or depth, width and length of metal cut and c standing suffix
for chip).
Cutting tool materials :
Basically the cutting tool must be harder than the work material i.e. it must be atleast 35%
to 50% harder than the work material.
The tool material should have the following properties:
 It should maintain its hardness at elevated temperatures.
 It should be tough enough to withstand the shocks.

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 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

 It should provide large resistance to the wearing action so that excessive wear does
not occur.
 The coefficient of friction between the work and the tool should be low.
 Its thermal conductivity and specific heat should be high.

The commonly used materials are :

a) High Carbon Steel
b) High Speed Steel (HSS)
c) Cemented Carbides
d) Ceramics
For grinding and other machining processes abrasive minerals eg. silicon carbide,
aluminium oxide, and diamond are used.
 Carbon tool steels and high speed steels are both ferrous materials.
 Cemented carbide is produced by powder metallurgy technique.
Thermal Aspects in Metal Machining :
Considerable heat is generated at the
cutting edge of the tool due to friction
between tool and work as also due to
plastic deformation in the chip when the
tool is machining metal on a machine
tool. The heat is evolved at three zones,
A, B and C shown in the figure. In zone
A (shear zone) maximum heat is
generated because of plastic
deformation of metal, and practically all
of this heat is carried away by the chip
as machining is a rapid and continuous
process. A very minor portion of this
heat (510%) is conducted to work
piece. In zone B, known as friction zone Evolution of heat at three zones A, B and C
the heat is generated mainly due to
friction between chip and tool face and
partly due to secondary deformation of
the built up edge.
In zone C, known as work tool contact zone, the heat is generated due to burnishing
friction and the heat in this zone goes on increasing with time as the wear land on the tool
develops and goes on increasing. The direction of maximum heat flow from these zones
to chip or workpiece is indicated by arrows in the figure.
When a material is deformed elastically, some energy is spent to increase its strain
energy which is returned during unloading. But in plastic deformation, most of the energy
spent is converted into heat. During machining, the plastic deformation is large and takes
place at a very high rate, and under such conditions, almost 99% of the energy is
converted into heat. Though machining at a high speed is desired for higher productivity,
the faster tool wear due to the high temperature puts a limit to the cutting speed. Thus, an
understanding of the phenomena of heat generation and temperature rise during
machining is very important.

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The total power consumption ( total rate of heat generation) during machining is
W = FC V. If the rates of heat generation in the primary (Shear) and secondary (friction)
deformation zones are Wp and Ws respectively, then
W  Wp  Ws
Again : Ws  FC V  FrV
where VC is the chip velocity, F is the component of total force along the rake surface, FC
is the cutting force and r is the cutting ratio (chip thickness ratio) and V is the cutting
velocity.
Now W  Wp  Ws
 FC V  Wp  FrV
 Wp  FC V  FrV
When a material particle moves across the primary deformation zone, the temperature
rise is given by
1    Wp
p 
cVt1w
where
 = fraction of primary heat which goes to the work piece
 = density of the material
c = specific heat of the material
t1,w = uncut thickness, width of cut respectively.
 27.5 
Now  = 0.15ln  
  tan  
where  is a nondimensional quantity and is given by
cVt1
= ; k being the thermal conductivity of the material.
k
*  is called “thermal number”.

The maximum temperature rise s when the material particle passes through the
secondary deformation zone along the rake face of the tool can be approximately
expressed as
t 2  Ws 
s  1.13  
  cVwt1 
where  is the length of contact between the tool and chip. The corresponding average
temperature rise is obtained from the equation
Ws
Sav 
cVwt1
It has been found that

 1  tan       (t2 = chip thickness)
t2 
Hence
1 Ws
s  1.13
cVt1k 1  tan       w

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 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

The final temperature is given as

  0  p  s
where 0 is the initial temperature of the workpiece. This maximum temperature is along
the rake face of the tool.
The nature of variation in the overall chiptool interface temperature with the major
parameters can be approximately determined through dimensional analysis. The result is
Vt1
ov  Uc
kc
where ov is the overall temperature rise and Uc is the specific energy. The most
important information we get from this result is that the overall interface temperature rise
is proportional to the square root of the cutting speed. Figure below shows the variations
of the experimentally measured cutting temperature when machining the SAE B113 steel
with the K2SWC tool having a 20 rake angle and a 0.06mm uncut thickness.

Variation of temperature by cutting speed of tool

TOOL LIFE AND TOOL WEAR

Tool Life :
The total cutting time available before tool failure occurs is termed as ‘tool life’.
The two most commonly used criteria for measuring the tool life are :
a) Total destruction of the tool when it ceases to cut.
b) A fixed size of wear land or tool flank.
The tool life is greatly affected with the cutting speed and tool temperature which is
closely related to cutting speed.
 The tool life decreases parabolically with the increase in velocity.
Taylor gave the relationship between cutting speed and tool life, i.e. VTn  C
 The tool life also depends to a great extent on the depth of cut ‘d’ and feed rate per
revolution ‘f’ i.e. VTn dm f x  C
It is notable that decrease of life with increased speed is twice as great (exponentially) as
the decrease of life with increased feed.

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Exponents and constant of generalized Taylor equation

Work Material Tool Material C x m n

273 0.20
Steel WTiC
227 0.15 0.35 0.20
u = 75 kg/mm2 Co = 10%
221 0.45
Steel WTiC 292 0.30 0.15 0.18
u = 75 kg/mm2 Co = 6% 292 0.15 0.30 0.18
292 0.15 0.20 0.20
Cast iron : 243 0.15 0.40 0.20
WC
BHN = 190 324 0.40 0.20 0.28
324 0.20 0.40 0.28

Tool Wear :
The tool is subjected to three distinct factors :
a) Forces b) Temperature c) Sliding action
Basically the tool wear and tool failure may be classified as :
a) Flank wear
b) Crater wear on tool face
c) Localized wear such as the rounding of the cutting edge and
d) Chipping off of the cutting edge

 Flank wear occurs mainly due to

a) Inclusions in workpiece and abrasion by hard particles.
b) Shearing of micro welds between tool and work material.
c) Abrasion by fragments of built up edge flowing against the clearance face of the
tool.
 Crater wear usually occurs due to
a) Abrasion between tool face and the chip.
b) Due to high temperature in toolchip interface reaching the softening or melting
temperature of tool resulting in increased friction.
Under this wear diffusion is defined as the sharp increase in wear after the interface
temperature reaches a certain temperature.
 Crater wear is more common in cutting ductile materials which produce continuous
chips.
Chipping of tool may occur due to the following factors.
a) Tool material is too brittle
b) As a result crack that is already in the tool.
c) Excessive static or shock loading of the tool.
d) Weak design of the tool, such as a high positive rake angle.

MECHANICS OF CUTTING FORCES

Relation Between Cutting Forces (Merchant’s Theory) :
If the chip above the shear plane is considered as a rigid body moving with a constant
velocity, the resultant of the forces acting on it from the rake surface of the tool (R) and
the work surface along the shear plane (R) must be zero (Figure a). The total force R
can be resolved into two components N and F normal to and along the rake surface,

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 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

respectively. Since F must be the friction force due to the existence of the normal load N,
we have,
F

N
where  is the average coefficient of friction between the chip and the tool. The
coefficient of friction can be expressed also as
 = tan 
where  is the friction angle (Figure (a)). Similarly R can also be resolved into the
components along the directions normal and parallel to the shear plane, and let these
components be FN and Fs (Figure b).

L
D
F

 FS
FN

FC 
C O
 E x
FT K
 
 FN 
(a) Equilibrium of Chip 2
R J

B  G H

N 

(b) Merchant’s circle diagram

 = rake angle
 = Friction angle
 = Shear angle
r cos  t sin 
tan  = ; r 
1  r sin  t c cos     

FC = FS cos   FN sin   OE + EC 
FT = FN cos   FS sin  BF  CF 

EOH  90 
2
 
 x  
2 2
 x = (  )

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.13
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

F = OA = OG + GA = FC sin   FT cos 
N = BA = CJ = CG  JG = FC cos   FT sin 
FS  OD  OL  LD  FC cos   FT sin 
FN  BD  DK  KB  FC sin   FT cos 
FS FS
R 
cos    x  cos       
FC  R cos     
FT  R sin      (Note : FC and FT can be measured)

Also to get FS and FN in terms of FC & FT :

F cos       
FS  R cos         C
cos     
FC
FN  R sin         sin       
cos     
F FC sin   FT cos 
 
N FC cos   FT sin 
Now, since the inclinations of the shear plane and the rake surface vary, they do not
suffice to provide some standard invariant directions. For, this purpose, the directions
along and perpendicular to the cutting motion are quite suitable. So, the force acting on
the tool (which is equal to R in magnitude and opposite to the direction of R) can be
resolved into two components FC and FT along and normal to the cutting velocity V. FC
and FT are normally called the cutting and thrust components, respectively. Obviously, FC
is the component responsible for the energy consumption since it is along the direction of
motion.
The relationships among the different components and the resultant cutting force can be
best understood with the help of a diagram, first proposed by Merchant and commonly
known as Merchant’s circle diagram (Fig (b)). Since the resultants of FC, FT and FN, FS
are the same and those of F and N are the same in magnitude, the tips of all these force
vectors must lie on an imaginary circle of diameter R, as shown in the figure b. Using
figure b, the relations that we can write are
FC  FS cos   FN sin 
FT  FN cos   FS sin 
F  FC sin   FT cos 
N  FC cos   FT sin 
FS  FC cos   FT sin 
FN  FC sin   FT cos 
FS
R
cos       
FC  R cos     
FT  R sin     

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.14
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

* The measurement of FC and FT is easily done with the help of a tool dynamometer.
Also :
F cos       
FS  R cos         C
cos     
FC sin       
FN  R sin        
cos     
FC sin   FT cos  FC tan   FT
 
FC cos   FT sin  FC  FT tan 
If S is the ultimate shear stress of the work material, then the shear force FS along the
shear plane can be written as
wt 
FS  1 S
sin 
t
[Note : t c  1 ]
sin 
where w is the width of the workpiece under cutting and t1 is the uncut thickness.
FS sin  FC cos  sin   FT sin2 
Hence, S  
wt1 wt1
[Can be calculated for known FC, FT,  and t1. Or if TS is given, we can find FS and hence
R, FC, FT ]
Work done in overcoming friction between chip and tool can be calculated from the
formula:
F sin 
Wf 
wt1 cos     
The power consumption during machining is given by
Vwt1S cos     
W  FC V 
sin  cos       
Merchant also developed a relationship between the shear angle , the friction angle 
and cutting rake angle  as follows :
2 +    = C
where C is the machining constant for the work material dependent on the area and
change of the shear strength of the metal with applied, compressive stress, besides
taking the internal coefficient of friction into account. Machining constant is essential a
property of the metal being cut and its value is closely related to the plastic properties of
the metal. Since it has a direct control on the size of the shear angle, it determines to a
large degree how easily a material can be machined. It is not greatly affected by cutting
conditions. Value of C varies from 70 to 80 for various types of steel.

For minimum power consumption : 2     
2

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.15
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

Force in Orthogonal Cutting :

The cutting force F in orthogonal cutting can be expressed by the formula.
F  Ct1x w
where
F = cutting force in kg
t1 = uncut chip thickness in mm/rev or feed in turning operation.
w = width of cut in mm or depth in turning operation
x = constant for the material machined. Its value may be taken as 0.85 for all
steels over theusual ranges of rake angles.
C = a material constant at a given cutting speed and rake angle. It varies from
98 for freemachining carbon steel with hardness of 120HB to 224 for carbon
steel with hardness of225 HB for positive rake angles. For negative rakes of
high cutting speed, value of C is about 10 % higher.
Bridgeman Theory :
P.W. Bridgeman showed that S can be expressed as
S  O  k
where k is a constant and  is the normal stress acting on the shear plane. During
machining,  is given by
FN F tan       
  S
wt1 / sin  wt1 / sin 
= S tan       
Now, S  O  k
FS F tan       
  O  k S
wt1 / sin  wt1 / sin 
FS 1  k tan        
  
wt1 / sin 
Also,
wt1O
FS 
sin  1  k tan        
wt1o cos     
FC 
sin  cos         k sin        

* Machining constant C = cot1 k

Now W = UC Q
where UC = energy consumption per unit volume of material removal (sp. energy).
UC = Fc / wt1, Q is the volume rate of metal removal.
Shear Strain :
It is defined as the deformation per unit length. The amount of deformation that the metal
undergoes in the process of chip formation is measured by the shearing strain.
Shear strain,  = cos  + tan (  )
cos 
=
cos  cos     
Hence, VC = rV and VS =  sin  V

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.16
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

Theories of Mechanics of Metal Cutting :

Ernst  Merchant Theory:
According to this theory,
  
  
4 2 2
Merchant Theory :
S  O  k
C   cot 1 k  
=     
2 2 2 2 2 2
Stabler Theory :

 =  
4
Lee and Shaffer Theory :

   
4
Cutting Fluids :
In many of the cutting operations lot of heat is generated because of plastic deformations
of metals, friction over the rake face of the tool between the tool and the chip and also the
friction between the workpiece and flank of the tool. So, in such cases, the use of cutting
fluid becomes essential for one or many reasons, which are :
a) There is a cooling down of the chiptoolwork zone by carrying away some of the
generated heat.
b) It (cutting fluid) reduces the coefficient of friction at the chip tool interface due to
formation of a weaker compound at the interface.
c) Washing away the chips and clearing the machining zone.
d) Protecting the finished surface from corrosion.
e) Reducing the thermal distortion caused by temperature gradients generated during
machining.
The cutting fluid should have following properties:
a) It should have a large specific heat and thermal conductivity.
b) It should have a low viscosity and small molecular size.
c) Should have a suitable reactive constituent.
d) Should be nontoxic and corrosive.
e) Should be cheap and easily available.
Important points :
1. A cutting fluid prevents the formation of Builtup Edge.
2. At high cutting speed the effectiveness of the cutting fluid decreases.
3. A large amount of heat generated is carried away by the chip.
Basically there are two types of cutting fluid :
a) Water based fluids
b) Mineral oil based fluids.
The different cutting fluids used are :
 Lard oil, sperm or whale oil, olive, cotton seed and linseed oil.
 Turpentine oil distilled from vegetables oils is also used.

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.17
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

 Recently pure compounds like carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), chloroform (CHCl3),

trichloroethane and certain other chlorinated hydrocarbons can be used as
lubricants, however their main drawback is their toxicity.
Machineability :
Machineability is defined either in terms of the ease with which a work material could be
machined or in terms of life of tool before tool failure or resharpening or the quality of the
machined surface or the power consumption per unit volume of material removed.
Hence the machineability can be related with the tool life. Higher the tool life, the better is
the machineability of work material.
To study the machineability of the cutting tool materials a machineability rating or index is
standardized for the different materials.
cutting speed of material for 20 minute tool life
Machineability Index =  100
cutting speed of free cutting steel for 20 min tool life
The tools with a better machineability will have higher rating and viceversa.
Microconstituents of workmaterial strongly influence machineability, now as the
percentage of ferrite gets reduced in relation to other constituents, the machineability of
work material will go on reducing. Addition of certain materials like sulphur, lead and
tellurium to nonferrous metals as well as steels improves machineability. But sulphur is
added to steel only if there is sufficient manganese in it, sulphur forms manganese
sulphide which exists as an isolated phase and acts as an internal lubricant and chip
breakers.
Nickel and chromium are added to Cast Iron. Lead added to brass and bronze and
copper, lead and bismuth to aluminium to improve machineability. Such types of
compositions are said to be “Free machining” or “Free cutting”. The machineability is also
affected by tool angles.

ECONOMICS OF MACHINING
The basic consideration for economics of machine tool is to be able to produce a
satisfactory part at the best possible cost. The tool lasts long at low cutting speed, tool
cost is low but the metal removal rate is low and hence cutting cost and total cost is high.
But on the other hand if cutting speed is high, the metal removal rate will be high giving
low cutting cost but tool life will be shorter giving high cost of tooling, making the total
cost high.
Total cost of cutting a unit volume of metal
= cost of machining metal per unit volume of metal cut + cost of replacing of
servicing tools per unit volume of metal cuts.
Let cm = machining cost per minute (labour cost /min + overheads/min)
So, the time to machine the unit volume of metal in minutes is,
1 c
=  1, c1 = constant for a given material.
df v V
c c
 Cost of machining metal per unit volume of metal cut = m 1
V
c1 c
 Number of tool replacements of servicing in minutes = 1 minutes.
V TV

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.18
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

n
c n 
 Optimum value of total cost = c  m  
 c1 1  n 
 Total cost = machining + machine setup + loading unloading + Tooling
cost cost & handling cost cost
c p  c m  c s  c1  c t
LD
 machining time / piece; Tm =
1000fv
where L, D = length & diameter of workpiece
f = feed rate
v = velocity of cutting

SHAPING AND PLANING

Figure shows the geometry and kinematics of shaping and planing. The basic nature of
material removal process is the same in both the cases.

The major difference between the two is that, in shaping, the primary (cutting) motion is
provided to the tool and the feed is given to the workpiece, where as in planing, it is just
the opposite. The cutting operation is intermittent in nature and takes place during the
forward stroke. During the return of the tool (or the job, as the case may be), the feed
motion is provided when there is no cutting action. Figure below shows some details of
the cutting zone.

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.19
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

In an actual cutting operation the major parameters are the strokes per unit time (N),
stroke length (s), quick return ratio (R), (displacement/ stroke), depth of cut (d), and the
tool angles. The uncut thickness and the width of cut are given by the relations:
t1 = f cos 
w = d / cos 
where  is the primary principal cutting edge angle. The rake angle is found to be  (also
called normal rake) from the sectional view (fig above). Fig below shows the cutting and
thrust components of the force. The cutting component FC acts against V and FT acts
perpendicular to the transient surface.

Components of machining force during shaping

FT can be again resolved into two components, namely, Ff (feed component) and Fn
(component normal to the machined surface), as
Ff  FT cos 
Fn  FT sin 
The metal removal rate is given by LdfN, where L is the length of the job and N is the
number of cutting strokes per unit time. The cutting time can also be found out if the
breadth (B) of the job, the total depth by which the work surface has to be lowered (H),
the depth of cut (d), the feed (f), and the cutting stroke per unit time (N) are given.
H B 1
The total time, TC   
d f N
Since the cutting speed changes during the cutting stroke, the average cutting speed V
can be expressed as
NS 1  R 
V
2
where, S = stroke length
R = quick return ratio
N = number of strokes per unit time

TURNING AND BORING

Figure (a) shows a simple turning operation. The tool used for such an operation is
commonly treated as a single point tool. The detailed geometry of this operation is
illustrated in figure (b).

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.20
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

Figure below shows the different views and angles of a single point turning tool.

angle

angle

The parameter in the corresponding basic machining operation can be found out as
t1  f cos 
w  d / cos  where  is the side cutting edge angle.
The cutting speed is given as V =  DN
where N is the number of job revolutions per unit time and D is the job diameter.

The condition of orthogonal machining is satisfied when tan b cos   tan  s sin 
where b and s are the back and side rake angles. The normal rake angle can be
expressed in terms the other tool angles as:
 
1  tan b sin   tan  s cos  
  tan
 2 
 1   tan b cos   tan  s sin   

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.21
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

The force components on the tool during turning are shown in figure. The cutting
component FC is in the vertical direction and FT acts in the horizontal plane and
perpendicular to the cutting edge. The feed and radial components Ff and FR are
Ff  FT cos 
FR  FT sin 

Components of machining force during turning

The power consumption, neglecting the feed component, is
W = FC V
and the material removal rate is given by f dV. When a cylinder of length L is being turned
at a spindle speed N with a feed f (advancement of the tool/revolution of the job), the total
1
machining time is Tc 
fN

DRILLING
Figure shows a drilling operation. If the total advancement of the drill per revolution (the
feed rate) is f, then the share of each cutting edge is f/2 because each lip is getting the
uncut layer the top surface of which has been finished by the other lip 180 ahead (during
180 rotation, the vertical displacement of the drill is f/2).

The uncut thickness t1 and the width of cut w are given as

f
t1    sin 
2

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.22
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

D
 
w2 where  is the half point angle (Fig. b).
sin 
The normal rake angle  can be approximately expressed as
  2r / D  tan  
  tan1  
 sin  
r being the radius of the point on the cutting edge where the normal rake is being
evaluated, D is the nominal diameter of the drill, and  the helix angle (Figure below).

The effect of all the forces acting on the drill (Fig. below) can be represented by a
resisting torque M and a thrust force F. The total thrust force F can be expressed as
F = 2FT sin   Fch  Ffriction
where Fch is the force from the chisel edge and Ffriction is the friction force

From experiment results, it has been found that Fch

is almost 60% of the total thrust force and Ffriction is
very small (about 3%). Similarly the total moment M
can be written as:
M = FC z  Mch  Mfriction
where Mch is the moment from the chisel edge and
Mfriction is the moment due to friction. About 80% of 
M comes from the cutting action of the lips, whereas
Mch and Mfriction are about 8 % and 12% of M,
respectively. Thus, the final approximate
expressions for M and F can be written as :
M  0.6FcD
F  5FT sin 

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.23
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

MILLING
The scheme of chip formation during plain slab milling using a straight cutter is explained
in the figure (a). The cutter has a diameter D and the depth of cut provided is d. When
milling is done with a straight  edge cutter, the operation is orthogonal and the
kinematics of chip formation is as shown in the figure(b).

Land
Cle

Land

If f is the feed velocity of the table in mm/min, the effective feed per tooth in mm will be
f/(NZ), where N is the cutter rpm and Z is the number of teeth in the cutter. The material
removal rate per unit width of the job is given by fd.
The expression for maximum uncut thickness is :
f
t1max  sin 
NZ
where  is the angle included by the contact arc at the cutter centre O in radians.
d
Now sin   2
D
2f d
hence t1max 
NZ D
The average uncut thickness can be taken as half of the maximum value
f d
t1ab 
NZ D
The average values of FC and FT can be approximately found out using this value and
using Merchant’s equations. Since FT acts in the radial direction (figure), it does not
produce any torque and the arbor torque is only due to the component FC.
d
So, the torque M due to one cutting tooth is Fc  
2
DN
Cutting speed = V = m / minute
1000

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.24
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

D = dia. of milling cutter

N = RPM

Classification of milling :
(a) Peripheral milling : In this, the milled surface is generated by teeth located on the
periphery of the cutter body.
(b) Face milling : In this, the cutter is mounted on a spindle having an axis of rotation
perpendicular to the workpiece surface.
(c) End milling : The cutter in end milling generally rotates on an axis vertical to the
workpiece surface.
(d) Gang milling : In this, two or more cutters are mounted on the arbor and all of them
remove the metal simultaneously.
Centreless Grinding
i) Less metal is removed
ii) No tendency for chatter and deflection of the work
iii) It can be used for mass production
iv) No centre holes is necessary
v) Size of work is controlled

NONTRADITIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES (UNCONVENTIONAL

MACHINING PROCESSES)
 The name itself suggests that these are quite different from the traditional type of
machining process. In traditional type, cutting tool is in contact with the work piece
but opposite to that in nontraditional machining the workpiece is not in contact with
the cutting tool.
 Higher production rate and economic requirements may demand the use of
nontraditional machining processes.
 Also as the machining (conventional) of many superalloys is difficult they can be
machined by nontraditional machining processes.
Now to tackle such hard jobs two approaches are possible :
a) a modification of the traditional processes.
b) the development of new processes.
The various types of nontraditional machining processes are discussed below :
Abrasive  Jet  Machining (AJM) :
 In this, the material removal occurs due to impingement of the fine abrasive particles
onto the work surface. Abrasive particles move with high speed air (or gas) stream.
 Generally the abrasive particles are 0.025 mm diameter.

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.25
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

Mechanism of material removal in abrasive jet machining

Mechanics of AJM :
A tiny brittle fracture occurs due to the impingement of abrasive particles on the work
surface at a high velocity and the air stream carries away the disloged small workpiece.
Hence we can say that the process is more suitable when the work material is brittle and
fragile.
Process Parameters :
The characteristics of process depends upon :
a) The material removal rate.
b) The geometry of cut.
c) The roughness of surface produced.
d) The rate of nozzle wear.
Major parameters controlling these quantities are :
a) The abrasive (composition, pressure and velocity).
b) The gas (composition, pressure and velocity).
c) The nozzle (geometry, material, distance from and inclination to the work surface).
The abrasives :
Generally two types of abrasives are used :
a) Aluminium oxide
b) Silicon carbide
Borazon :
It is the hardest substance that is artificially produced. Borazon is the crystal created by
heating equal quantities of Boron and Nitrogen at temperature greater than 1800C. It is
the only substance that can scratch a diamond. It is used in industrial applications to
shape tools as it can withstand temperatures greater than 2000C.
The Gas :
 The AJM units normally operate at a pressure of 0.2 N/mm2 to 1 N/mm2
 The high velocity obviously causes a high material removal rate even if mass flow
rate of abrasive is kept constant.
The Nozzle :
 As the nozzle is continuously in contact with the abrasive grains the material must be
very hard to avoid any significant wear. Generally, Tungsten Carbide or sapphire is
used.
 One of the most important factors in AJM is the distance between the work surface
and the tip of the nozzle, normally called the nozzle tip distance.

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.26
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

 At a point when nozzle tip distance increases, the velocity of the abrasive particles
impinging on the work surface increases due to their acceleration after they leave the
nozzle.
3/ 4
  
The material removal rate in abrasive jet machinery = kNd3 v 3 / 2  
 12H 
where k = constant
N = number of abrasive particles impacting per unit time
d = mean diameter of abrasive particles
v = velocity of abrasive particles
 = density of abrasive particles
H = hardness of work material
For best cutting results, Al2O3 abrasive particles of size 15 m to 20 m are used.
Ultrasonic Machining (USM) :
 Initially the USM was used only as a finishing operation for the components
processed by the electrospark machines.
 Basically the USM process involves a tool (made of a ductile and tough material)
vibrating with very high frequency and a continuous flow of an abrasive slurry in the
small gap between tool and the work surface.
 In USM the abrasive slurry carries away the small wear particles produced by impact
of the hard abrasive grains.
 Tool material being tough and ductile wears out at a much slower rate.

Mechanics of USM :
The material removal in USM is due to :
a) The hammering of abrasive particles on work surface by the tool
b) Impact of abrasive particles on work surface
c) Cavitation as a result of erosion and
d) Chemical action associated with the fluid used.
Assumptions made during material removal are that :
a) The rate of work material removal is proportional to the volume of work material per
impact
b) Rate of work material removal is proportional to number of particles making impact
per cycle
c) Rate of work material removal is proportional to frequency
d) All impacts are identical
e) All abrasive grains are identical and spherical in shape

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.27
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

Process Parameters :
Different parameters affecting the process are :
a) Frequency
b) Amplitude
c) Static loading (feed force)
d) Hardness ratio of tool and workpiece.
e) Grain size
f) Concentration of abrasive in slurry.
The metal removal rate for this process according to Prof. Shaw is given by the relation.

M.R.R. = 5.97 (Ryo)1/2 mm / sec
H

where f = frequency of the active grits striking work surface in c.p.s.

R = radius of grit in mm
yo = Amplitude of vibration in mm
 = Stress developed in tools in kg/mm2
H = Surface hardness of the workpiece in kg/mm2
=   compression fracture strength of abrasive particles

Ultrasonic Machining unit :

The main elements of an ultrasonic machining unit are :
a) The acoustic head
b) The feeding unit
c) The tool
d) The abrasive slurry and pump unit (B4C, SiC, AL2O3, diamond, borosilicarbide).
e) The body with work table.

The following figure shows all the above components:

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.28
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

Electrochemical Machining (ECM) :

 It is based on the principle of Electrolysis
 It is the reverse of electroplating.
 In case of Electrochemical machining as the objective is to remove the metal, the
workpiece is connected to the positive and the tool to the negative terminal.
 The gap between tool and workpiece is filled with a suitable electrolyte.
 When the current is passed, the dissolution of anode occurs.
 The dissolution rate is more where the gap is less and vice versa as the current
density is inversely proportional to gap.
 If the tool is given a forward motion the work surface tends to take the same shape
as that of the tool and at a steady state the gap is uniform.
 The electrolyte is so chosen that the anode is dissolved but no deposition takes place
on the cathode (tool).
 Here there is practically no tool wear. Since machining is done electrochemically, the
tool experiences no direct force except those exerted by the high pressure fluid in the
gap.
The Electrolyte used performs the three basic functions :
a) Allowing the large current to pass and completing the electrical circuit.
b) Carrying away the heat generated and the waste product.
c) Sustaining the electrochemical reactions.
Electrolytes used are:
a) Choride solution in water
b) HCl or mixture of brine and H2SO4
c) NaCl
d) Strong alkaline solutions.

Material Removal Rate :

IA t
M.R.R. = cm3 /min
Fv
where I = Current flowing through the electrolytic cell in amp.
At = Machined area in cm2
F = Faraday’s constant = 96500 columbs = 26.8 amp hours
v = Valency of Metal dissolved
 = density of workpiece, gm/cm3

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.29
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

Vk f
Current density = 
y z
where y = gap between tool and workpiece,
V = applied voltage
k = conductivity of electrolyte (mho/mm)
 = density of work material (kg/mm3)
f = tool feed rate (mm/sec)
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) :
The process of material removal by controlled erosion through a series of electric sparks
is commonly known as the electric discharge machining.

VGap_ref

VGap_act

Fig. EDM system

Fig. EDM system plant model
 When a discharge takes place between two points of anode and cathode, intense
heat generated near the zone melts and evaporates the materials in sparking zone.
Here the workpiece and the tool are submerged in a dielectric fluid i.e. hydrocarbon
or mineral oils.
 It is notable that if both the electrodes are made of the same material, the electrode
connected to the positive terminals generally erodes at a faster rate hence for this
reason, the workpiece is normally made the anode.
 A predetermined spark gap is maintained by a servocontrol unit.
 Spark frequency is normally in the range of 200500 Hz.
Mechanics of EDM :
Depending upon the local gap between the tool and work piece, as there are irregularities
over the work surface the uniform gap between the tool and workpiece is maintained by
the spark generators.

 After gaining a sufficient velocity, the electrons collide with the molecules of the
dielectric fluid, breaking them into electrons and positive ions, the electrons so
produced also accelerate and ultimately dislodge the other electrons from the
dielectric fluid molecules and this results in a narrow column of ionized dielectric fluid
molecules which results in the material removal.

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.30
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

 So we can say that the material is removed by melting and evaporation aided by
cavitation.
 In this process, high specific energy is consumed, also when forced circulation of
dielectric is not possible, removal is quite low.
 It is feasible only when conducting materials are used.
The material removed rate in EDM is given by:
M.M.R = 1.42 tc U2 mm2/sec
1
tc = RC loge
 U
1 E 
 
where tc = charging time
U = voltage across the capacitor
C = capacitor of condenser in farads
E = e.m.f applied across the circuit for charging the condenser.
R = charging resistance, ohms
k2
1 
Surface roughness = k1  CU2  tpk3
2 
where k1 ,k2 and k3 are constants for a particular electrode and dielectric.
tp = pulse duration in  sec
Electron Beam Machining (EBM) :
In this process, as the name suggests, a stream of high speed electrons impinges on the
work material produces intense heating. This heat melts or vaporizes the workpiece.
 EBM is nothing but a very precisely controlled vaporization process. It is used for
drilling fine holes and cutting narrow slots.
 An EBM can be manoeuvered by the magnetic deflection coils, making the machining
of complex contours easy.
 Here to avoid a collision of the accelerating electrons with the air molecules, the
process is conducted in vacuum. Which limits the process to small workpieces.
The following figure shows schematic view of EBM :

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.31
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

 As shown in the figure the electron beam is emitted from the cathode which is
shaped by the grid cup. The potential difference between the cathode and anode
accelerates the electron beam.
 The beam is focused with the help of the electromagnetic lens, the deflecting coils
(beam control) controls the beam movement in any required manner.
 The hole diameter of the drilled holes depends on the beam diameter and the energy
density.
 Most holes drilled with EBM are characterized by a small crater on the beam incident
side of the work.
Mechanics of EBM :
 Electrons with a mass of 9.109  1031 kg and negative charge of 1.602  109
coulomb, when emitted from electron gun having a kinetic energy of
1
2
 
me u2  uo 2  eV  due to potential difference penetrates through a layer
undisturbed. There it starts colliding with the molecules and ultimately is brought to
rest.
 The layer through which the electron penetrates undisturbed is the transparent layer.
 When electron begins colliding with lattice atoms it starts giving up the K.E., heat is
generated. So generation of heat is taking place below transparent layer.
 Here the material is removed by melting & evaporation.
v2
Total penetration range = 2.61017 mm

where v = accelerating voltage in volts, and  = density of material in kg/mm3
The velocity required by the electrons of the work material is given by the relation
2k
V =
Mw
where k = Boltzmann’s constant
= 1.38 1023J/  k/atom
Mw = mass of one atom of the workpiece in gm
 = temperature rise through election bombardment,  K
Laser Beam Machining (LBM) :
A Laser is a highly coherent beam of electromagnetic radiation with wavelength having
large range in ‘m’.
Due to the fact that the rays of a laser beam are perfectly parallel and monochromatic, it
can be focused to a very small diameter and can produce a high power density.
Generally a ruby laser produces a high power, the continuous CO2  N2 laser has also
successfully used in machining operations.
 Here the emitted laser beam is focused by a lens system and the focused beam
meets the work surface, removing a small portion of the material by vaporization and
high speed ablation.

The following figure shows the LBM :

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.32
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

Mechanics of LBM :
Material is removed by laser beam due to :
a) Interaction by laser beam with work material
b) Heat conduction and temperature rise.
c) Melting, vaporization and ablation.
 LBM depends on the thermooptic interaction between the beam and the solid work
material, so the work surface should not reflect back too much of the incident beam
energy.
 Basically here the metal is removed by melting and vaporization.
 This process requires large power consumption and cannot cut materials with high
heat conductivity and high reflectivity.
Plasma Arc Machining (PAM) :
A plasma is a high temperature ionized gas.
 Due to the impingement of plasma jet the workpiece is heated up and quick melting
occurs.
 PAM is widely used for machining materials with electrical conductivity.
 The plasma is generated by bombardment of an arc to a flowing gas, so an arc is set
up between the electron and the anodic nozzle, the gas is forced to flow through this
arc.
The high velocity electrons of the arc collide with the gas molecules causing a
dissociation of the diatomic molecules or atoms into ions and electrons resulting in a
substantial increase in the conductivity of the gas which is now in plasma state.
As this is an exothermic process a further increase in temperature takes place when the
ions and free electrons recombine into atoms or when the atoms recombine into
molecules.

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Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

The Mechanics of Metal removal is based on :

a) Heating & melting
b) Removal of molten metal by the blasting action of the plasma jet.
The figure below shows PAM :

Sintering is used for heating the powdered metal below the melting point.
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example :
Mild steel is being machined at a cutting speed of 200m/min with a tool of rake angle 10.
The width of cut and the uncut thickness are 2 and 0.2 respectively. If the average value
of the coefficient of friction between the tool and the chip is 0.5 and the shear stress s of
the work material is 400 N/mm2, determine (i) the shear angle and (ii) the cutting and the
thrust components of the machining force.
Solution :
Using equation

2 +   =
2
where
 = tan1 = tan1 0.5 = 26.57
 = 10
90  10  26.57
(i) Thus  =  36.7
2
wt1s 2  0.2  
(ii) FS =   267.72N
Sin sin36.70
FS 267.72
R =  = 447.67N
cos(    ) cos  36.70  26.57  10 
FC = R cos (  ) = R cos (26.5710) = 429.08N
FT = R sin (  ) = R sin (26.5710) = 127.67N

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.34
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

Example :
Determine the maximum temperature along the take face of the tool when machining mild
steel, given
 = 0, V = 2m/s, t1 = 0.25 mm,  = 0.5,  = 7200kg/m3,  = 40c, k = 43.6
W/mC
C = 502 J/kgC, s = 400 N/mm2
Use Lee’s and Shaffer’s shear angle relationship.
Solution :
According to Lee’s and Shaffer’s condition
 = 45  tan1 (0.5) + 0 = 18.43
wt1 s 2  0.25  400  106
Then, FS = = = 632.6N
sin  sin18.43  106
F cos(  )
Now, FC = S
cos(    
632.6 cos 26.57
=  800N
cos 45
sin  sin 
Now r =  [ = 0]
cos(  ) cos 
= tan = tan 18.43 = 0.333
Again, FT = FC tan (  ) = FC tan  =  FC = 0.5 800 = 400N
Now; F = FC sin  + FTcos = FT = 400N ( = 0)
WP = FC VFrV = (800  400  0.333)  2 = 1333W
WS = FrV = 400  0.333 2 = 266.7W
CVt1 7200  502  2  0.25  103
Thermal number,  =   41.5
k 43.6
 tan  = 41.5 0.333 = 13.8
 27.5 
now;  = 0.15 Ln  
  tan  
 27.5 
= 0.15 Ln    0.1
  
Now , the temperature rise in the primary zone is
(1  )Wp (1  0.1)  1333  103  103
p = = = 332C
CVt1 w 7200  502  2  0.25  2
The maximum temperature rise along the rake face due to the secondary source is given
by
1 W
s = 1.13 . s
CVt1k[1  tan(   w
1 262  103
= 1.13 .  458c
7200  502  2  0.25  43.6  1.333 2
Finally, the maximum temperature along the rake face of the tool becomes
 = o + p + s
= 40 + 332 + 458 = 830c

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Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

Example :
Determine the three components of the machining force when shaping a cast iron block
with depth of cut = 4mm, feed = 0.25 mm/ stroke, normal rake angle of tool = 10,
principal cutting edge angle = 30, coefficient of friction between chip and tool = 0.6, and
ultimate shear stress of cast iron = 340N/mm2. (Use Lee and Shaffer relationship)
Solution :
Using Lee and Shaffer’s relationship
 = 10
 = tan1(0.6)  31.
Hence, as ( = 45 +   ),
  = 45 + 10  31 = 24
The uncut thickness and width of cut are 0.25 cos 30 mm and 4/cos 30 mm,
respectively.
wt1 s cos(  )
Now, FC =
Sin cos(    )
0.25  4  340  cos(31  10)
=  1099N
sin24  cos 45
sin(  ) sin21
FT = FC = 1099  422N
cos(  ) cos 21
The feed and the normal thrust components are given by
Ff = FT cos  = 422 cos 30 = 365N
Fn = FT sin  = 422 sin 30 = 211 N
Example :
A mild steel bar of 100mm diameter is being turned with a tool with the specification
6 10  5  7  10 30  0.55mm. The depth of cut is 2.5 mm and the feed is
0.125mm / revolution. The rpm of the job is 300. Determine the components of the
machining force and the power consumption. The ultimate shear stress of the work
material is 400N/mm2 and the coefficient of friction between the tools and the chips 0.6.
Solution :
Normal rake can be found by
 tan b sin   tan  s cos  
 = tan1  
 
 1  tan b cos   tan  s sin   

Here,  = 30, b = 6, S = 10
 0.1051 0.5  0.1763  0.866 
 = tan1  
 1  0.000292 
 = tan1 (0.20225) = 11.6
 = tan1 0.6  31

Using Lee and Shaffer’s relation:

 = 45 + 11.6 31 = 25.6
wt1s cos(  )
FC =
sin  cos(    )

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 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

d
w = d/cos  and t1 = f cos   wt1 =  f cos  = df
cos 
400  0.125  2.5  cos(31  11.6)
F = = 386N
sin25.6 cos 45
The thrust component is given by
FC cos(  )
=
FT sin(  )
sin(  ) sin19.4
 FT = FC  FC  136N
cos(  ) cos19.4
Also Ff = FT cos 30 = 118N
FR = FT sin 30 = 68N

Example :
Estimate the torque and the thrust force when drilling a solid block of mild steel with a
normal twist drill. Given : D = 20mm,  s work material = 400N/mm2
rpm = 240, feed = 0.25 mm/ revolutions
 = 59,  = 30 ,  = 0.6
Solution :
The effective rake angle at the middle of each cutting lip is
  2r / D  tan  
  tan1  
 sin  
 {2(D / 4) / D} tan30 
 tan-1    18 [r= D/4]
 sin59 
The uncut thickness is
f
t1 = sin = 0.125 sin59 = 0.11mm
2
The corresponding width of cut per cutting lip is
D 1
w    10 / sin59  11.67mm
2 sinB'
 = tan1 = tan1 0.6 = 31

From Lee and Shaffer’s relationship

 = 45+ 1831 = 32
wt1s cos(   0.125  11.67  400  cos(31  18)
FC = =  1517N
sin  cos        sin32  0.707
FT = Fc tan      = 350N
Drilling torque and thrust are
0.6  1517  20
M  0.6FC D   18.2N  m
1000
F  5FT sin  5350sin59  1500N

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.37
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Example :
In an orthogonal cutting process, following data were observed: chip length of 80 mm
was obtained with an uncut chip length of 200 mm and the rake angle used was 20 and
depth of cut 0.5 mm. FC = 2000N and FT = 200N
Determine the shear plane angle, chip thickness, friction angle and resultant cutting
force.
Solution :
Chip thickness ratio, r = chip length / uncut chip length
80 2
=   0.4
200 5
r cos 
0.4 cos 20
Shear plane angle  = tan1 1  r sin  = tan1  23
1  0.4 sin20
t t 0.5
r = 1  t2 = 1 =  1.25mm
t2 r 0.4
FT 200
Friction angle;  = tan1 +  = tan1  20
FC 2000
= 5.8 + 20 = 25.8
FT
{ From Merchant’s circle; tan( ) = }
FC
Resultant cutting force R = FC 2  FT 2  200 1002  12  2008N

Example :
A simple cutting tool has 90 rake angle and 3 clearance angle. The maximum length of
the blank wear allowed before regrinding is 1 mm. Assuming volume rate of wear from
the flank face of the tool to be constant, what will be the percentage increase in tool life if
the clearance angle is increased to 7.
Solution :
Since  = 0, the volume of wear corresponding to development of flank wear hf can be
1
expressed as whf 2 tan  (where  is the clearance angle and w is width of cut). In case
2
1
of constant volume rate of wear, tool life is given as, T = A whf 2 tan , (A is constant of
2
proportionality)
1
Now, if the clearance angle is increased to , the new tool life is given by T = A whf 2
2
tan 
So the percentage increase in tool life can be expressed as
T ' T tan  ' tan  tan7  tan3
% increase =  100   100 =  100 = 13.4 %.
T tan  tan 3

Example :
An experiment was conducted on a M.S. tube of 200 mm diameter and 3 mm thick. An
orthogonal cut was taken with a cutting speed of 20mm and 0.15 mm per rev. feed with a
cutting tool having back rake angle of 10. It was determined that cutting force = 150kg,

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.38
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

feed force = 40kg, net horsepower for cutting was 3.h.p. and chip thickness was 0.25
mm. Calculate the shear strain and strain energy per unit volume.
Solution :
Feed 0.15
r =   0.6
ChipThickness 0.25
r cos  0.6  cos10
tan     0.566 {for ve rake}
1  r sin  1  0.6 sin10
Shear strain = tan( ) + cot  = tan 39.5 + cot29.5
= 0.590

Shear stress = s =
FC 
cos   FT sin  sin 
wt1
150  cos 29.5  40 sin29.5  sin29.5
=
0.15  3
= 121 kg. / mm2
Shear energy per unit volume = shear stress  shear strain
= 121  2.59
= 312 kg/mm 2
Example :
In an orthogonal cutting setup, the depth of cut was 10mm, feed = 1mm /rev, cutting
speed 60m.p.m., back rake angle= 10, stress = 100 kg./cm2. Assume that value of
constant k, in equation 2 +    = cot-1 k, is 0.2. (r = 0.33)
Calculate the resultant force, rate of metal removal, shear strain, h.p. at the tool per cm3
of metal per minute.
Solution :
r cos10 0.33  0.985
tan =   0.3485
1  r sin10 1  0.33  0.1735
  = 19.2, cot1 k = cot1 0.2 = 78.7
2 +    = 78.7  2  19.2 +   10 = 78.7
  = 50.3
now s = o  k
 = s tan ( +  )
 s = o + k s tan ( +  )
o
 s =
1  k tan(     )
wt1 o cos(  )
* FC =
Sin cos(    ) 1  k tan(     
10  10  1 cos  50.3  10 
=
1  0.2 tan 19.2  50.3  100   sin19.2 cos  59.5  
= 636 kg.
FT = FC tan (  ) = 686  tan (50.310) = 584 kg

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Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

R = FC2  FT 2  6862  5842  900kg

Rate of metal removal = wt1 V= 10160100mm3/mt
= 60,000 mm3 /mt = 60cm3 /mt
F V 686  60
H.P. = C =  9.15
4500 4500
9.15
H.P./cm3 /min. =  0.152
60
Shear strain = cot + tan (  ) = cot19.2 + tan(19.2  10)
= 1.0136
Example :
Determine the power consumption in a milling operation with a straight slab milling cutter
with 24 teeth, 50mm diameter and 10 radial rake, the cutter rotates at 50rpm, depth of
cut is 1mm and table feed velocity is 10mm/min, the width of mild steel block is 25mm.
Assume coefficient of friction at rake face = 0.5. Shear stress of the work material
s = 420N /mm2.
Solution :
360
Angle subtended by two consecutive edges =  15
24
d 1
Angle of contact ’ = sin-1 2  sin1  16.4
D 50
2f d 2  10 1
Maximum uncut thickness, t1 max = 
NZ D 50  24 50
= 0.00236mm
1
Coefficient of friction,  = tan   tan  = 
 tan10.5 = 26.57

According to Lee and Shaffer theory  +    =
4
  = 45  26.57 + 10 = 28.43
Maximum value of cutting component of the machining force
wt1max cos(  )s
FT max =
sin  cos(    )
25  0.00236×cos(26.57° - 10°)×420
=  70N
Sin28.43 cos 45
Maximum value of torque;
D 50 1
Mmax = FTmax  = 10   1.75N  m
2 2 1000
Average value of torque is slightly greater than 1/2 1.75
Let us take average value as 0.9Nm
2N 2  50
Angular speed = 
60 60
2  50
Approx power =  0.9 watts = 4.8 watts
60

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.40
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

Example :
A steel specimen requires 4W/mm3/s of power to turn it. If maximum power available at a
machine spindle is 5kW, determine the maximum material removal rate. Also determine
the cutting force and depth of cut at maximum material removal rate if cutting speed is
30m/min and feed rate is 0.2 mm /rev.
Solution :
Given specific power consumption = 4W/mm3 /s
power
4
M.R.R.
5  1000
 Max. metal removal rate = = 1250mm3/s
4
power 5  1000
Cutting force =   10000N
CuttingSpeed 30 / 60

Materialremovalrate
Depth of cut =
Cutting Speed× feed rate
1250mm3 / sec
=  12.5mm
30 m mm
 0.2  1000
60 sec rev
Example :
A lathe while running consumes 500W and 2500W when cutting a steel specimen at
30m/min. Determine the cutting force and torque at the spindle at 120 rpm. Also
determine the specific power consumption if the depth of cut is 4mm and feed is 0.25
mm/rev.
Solution :
Power consumed in cutting = 2500  500 = 2000W
Material removal rate is =fdv
1000
= 4  0.25  30  = 500 mm3 /s
60
2000
Specific power consumption = = 4W/mm3/s
500
power 2000  60
Torque at the spindle =   159.15Nm
Spindle speed(rev / s) 2  120
power 2000  60
Cutting force =   4000N
Cutting speed(m / s) 30

Example :
A bar 75 mm diameter is reduced to 70 mm diameter by means of a cutting tool for which
k = 90 and for which the cutting edge lies in the plane containing the work axis of
rotation. The mean length of the cut chip = 73mm, the rake angle  = 15 and feed of 0.2
mm/rev is used. Find the cutting ratio and the value of Shear plane angle.

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.41
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

Solution :
t1 l2 73
t1l1 = t2l2 or r =    0.32
t 2 l1 75 7

2
r cos  0.32  cos15
tan  =   = 19
1  r sin  1  0.32  sin15
Example :
The following data were obtained from a cutting test : = 20, k = 90, depth of cut 6.4
mm, feed 0.25 mm/rev, chip length before cutting 29.4mm, chip length after cutting 12.9
mm. The cutting forces were: axial force = 427N, vertical force 1050N. Use Merchant’s
analysis to calculate
(a) the direction and magnitude of the resultant force
(b) the shear plane angle
(c) the frictional force
(d) the friction angle
Solution :
Since k = 90, it is a case of orthogonal cutting and Merchant’s relations are applicable.
 = 20, d = 6.4mm, f = 0.25mm/rev
l 12.9
r = 1   0.44
l2 29.4
FT = 427N , FC = 1050N

Resultant force = FC2  FT 2 = 1134N

FT 427
angle = tan1 = tan1  22
FC 1050

r cos 
tan =
1  r sin 
0.44  cos 20
=  26
1  0.44 sin20

Frictional force, F = FT cos  + FC sin 

= 427  cos20 + 1050  sin20 = 760N

FT  FC tan 
Friction angle = tan1
FC  FT tan 
427  1050 tan20
= tan1  42
1050  427 tan20

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.42
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

Example :
The following values relate to a cutting condition for machining aluminium. Forces as
determined by dynamometer FC and FT are:
FC = 1500N, FT = 1000N,  = 10, r = t1/t2 = 0.37.
Determine as per Merchant’s theory, the cutting forces FN,FS, N and F. Also determine
the coefficient of friction at the chiptool interface.
Solution :
r cos  0.37  cos10
 = tan1  tan1  21.5
1  r sin  1  0.37 sin10

FS = FC cos   FT sin 
= 1500 cos 21.5  1000 sin 21.5 = 1029N

N = FC cos   FT sin  = 1500 cos10  1000 sin 10 = 1303N

F = FT cos  + FC sin  = 1000 cos10 + 1500 sin 10 = 1245N
FN = FC sin  + FT cos  = 1500 sin 21.5º + 1000 cos 21.5º = 1480N
F 1245
= = 0.955
N 1303
Example :
A lathe is used to turn a 20mm diameter bar. In Talyor’s equation, the value of n = 0.12
and tool life is 60 min at a speed of 100m/min. At what speed spindle should run to obtain
a tool life of 5 hours. If a length of 50 mm per component is machined and the feed rate is
0.20mm/rev, produced between tool changes?
Solution :
V2  (560)0.12 = 100  600.12
 V2 = 82.3m/min
82.3  1000
Spindle speed (N ) =  1310rev / min
  20

50  60
Cutting time per piece =  11.4s
1310  0.2
5    
No. of components per tool change =  1580
11.4
Example :
During orthogonal cutting of a MS tube at 15m/min with a HSS tool having 15 rake, the
chip thickness ratio was 0.35 and the friction force on the tool chip interface measured by
means of special setup was 48 kgf with coefficient of friction 0.6. Estimate the
components of the cutting forces, shear angle, shear strain and work done in
deformation.
Solution :
 = 15, r = 0.35, Friction force = 48 kgf ,  = 0.6
Frictionforce
 =
Normal force

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.43
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

48
 Normal force =  80kgf
0.6
R = 482  802 = 93.3kgf
FC = R cos ( ) = 93.3 cos (31  15)
 90kgf
 r cos    0.35  cos15 
 = tan1    tan1    20
 1  r sin    1  0.35 sin15 

Shear strain = cot + tan (  ) = cot 20 + tan (20  15)

 2.83
kgm
Work done = FCV= 90  15= 1350
min
Example :
During an orthogonal machining operation on mild steel, the results obtained are:
Uncut chip thickness = 0.25mm, chip thickness = 0.75mm, width of the cut = 2.5mm,
Rake angle =0, Horizontal cutting force = 900N, Thrust force 400N. Compute the
coefficient of friction between the tool and chip interface. Determine also the ultimate
shear stress of the work material.
Solution :
FC = 900N, FT 400N, = 0
F sin   FT cos  900  sin0  400  cos 0
 = C 
FC cos   FT sin  900  cos 0  400  sin0
400
= = 0.44
900
1
0.25 1 r cos  3 1
r =  , tan    
0.75 3 1  r sin  1 3
  = 18.4
wt 1 0.25  2.5
Area of shear =   1.98mm2
sin  sin 
Shear force = Fc cos  FT sin  = 900  0.95  400  0.316

= 728.6N
shear force 728.6
Ultimate Shear stress =   378N / mm2
shear area 1.98
Example :
It is required to drill a hole of 1.69 mm diameter to a depth of 7.32 mm in steel plate using
RC circuit by electrodischarge machining method using a brass electrode. The surface
finish required is 20 micron. Determine the source voltage to be set up for a condenser
and resistance setting of 120 microfarads and 100 ohms respectively. Also find out the
time required for drilling. Assume sparking period = 100 s. k1, k2 and k3 are constants

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.44
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

and their values for brass electrode and steel workpiece are 13, 0.45 and 0.22
U
respectively. (take = 0.8)
E
Solution :
Surface roughness
k
1 
2

= 20 microns = k1  CU2  tpk3

2 
0.45
1 
= 13   120  10 6  U2  tp 0.22
 2 
(pulse duration = sparking time = 100 sec)
 20 microns = 13(60  106  U2)0.45  (100)0.22
 U = 67.3V
U 67.3
= 0.8  E =  84V
E 0.8
M.R.R = 1.42 tC U2
1 1
tC = RC loge = 100  120  106 loge
 U 1  0.8 
1 E 
 
= 19.3  103s
M.R.R. = 1.42  19.3  103  70  70mm2/s

Total metal to be removed =  (1.69)2  7.32  1.64mm3
4
16.4
 Time required =  1.1sec approx
15

Example :
In an ECM process for machining iron it is desired to obtain a metal removal rate of
1 cm3 /min. Determine the amount of current required for the process, assuming that At
wt of iron = 56gm, valency at which dissolution occurs = 2, density of iron = 7.8gm/cm3
and Faraday’s constant = 1609 ampmin.

Solution :
Given atomic weight of iron = At = 56gm
Valency of iron dissolution = 2, Density of iron =  = 7.8gm/cm3
Faraday’s constant F = 1609 ampmin
IA t I  56
Metal removal rate = 1cm3 /min = 
FV 1609  2  7.8
1609  2  27.8
 I =  448Amp
56

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.45
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

Example :
A hole is to be drilled in 20 mm thick tungsten carbide sheet by ultrasonic method. The
1
slurry is made of 1 part of 320 grit (15 micron radius) boron carbide mixed with 1 parts
4
of water. The static stress is 1.4 kg/cm3 and the amplitude of tool oscillation is 0.025 mm.
The machine operates at 25,000 cycles/sec. The compression fracture strength of WC is
225kg/mm2. Calculate the time required to perform drilling. Assume that only one pulse
out of 10 pulses is effective.
Solution :
The metal removal rate for ultrasonic machining is given by

M.R.R. = 5.97 (Ryo)1/2   mm3 /sec
H
where  = static stress in tool = 1.4kg/cm2 = 1.4  102kg./mm2
R = radius of grit = 15 microns = 15  103mm
yo = amplitude of vibration = 0.025mm,
f = frequency = 25000 cps
1
Pulse efficiency  =  0.1
10
kgf
Fracture strength = 225 kgf/mm2, Surface hardness H =   225
mm2
1.4  102
Hence M.R.R. = 5.9  25000  (15  103  25  103)0.5 
  225
= 5.7  103
Considering  = 0.1, Actual M.R.R. = 5.7  103 mm/sec
Since plate thickness is 10mm, the required time for machining
20
= sec. = 58.4min
5.7  103
Example :
Estimate the thermal velocity acquired by an electron of the work material due to electron
bombardments, if the vaporization temperature of the work material concerned is 3327C.
Solution :
k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38  1023 joules /k/atom
 = 3327 +273 = 3600K
Mw = Mass of one atom of workpiece = 9.1  1028gm
2k 2  1.38  1023  3600
Vw =   10.4  105 m / s
MW 9.1 1028

LIST OF FORMULAE
 American Standard Association (ASA) :
Tool is designated as :
b ,  s, e , s ,Ce ,Cs ,R
 Orthogonal Rake System :
Tool Designation :
i    '    Ce    

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.46
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

 Inter conversion between ASA system and ORS :

tan   tan  s sin   tan b cos 
tan b  cos  tan   sin  tani
tan  s  sin  tan   cos  tani
tani  tan  s cos   tan b sin 
( is the orientation of face for normal)
 Relationship between Velocities:
The relationship between velocities are :
sin  cos 
Vc  V; Vs  V
cos      cos     
where
V = Cutting Velocity
Vc = Velocity of chip relative to the tool
Vs = Velocity of chip relative to the workpiece along the shear plane
 = shear angle
 = rake angle
Relationship between  and  :
r cos 
tan  
1  r sin 
 Chip thickness ratio :
It is defined as the ratio of depth of cut (t) to the chip thickness (tc) and is denoted by
‘r’.
t sin  
r   c
t c cos      
 is the length of metal cut and  c is the chip length.
 1/r is termed as chip reduction coefficient or chip compression factor and is denoted
by k.

 Cutting Ratio :
Cutting ratio can be defined as the ratio of the chip velocity Vc to the cutting speed V.
 
Vc    
 e 2 
V
where  is the coefficient of friction.

 Volume of metal removed = volume of chip

 tb  t c bc  c
( t,b,  being thickness or depth, width and length of metal cut and c standing suffix
for chip).

 The total power consumption ( total rate of heat generation) during machining is W
= FC V. If the rates of heat generation in the primary (Shear) and secondary (friction)
deformation zones are Wp and Ws respectively, then
W  Wp  Ws

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.47
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

Again : Ws  Fc V  Fr V
where VC is the chip velocity, F is the component of total force along the rake
surface, FC is the cutting force and r is the cutting ratio (chip thickness ratio) and V is
the cutting velocity.
Now W  Wp  Ws
 FC V  Wp  Fr V
 Wp  FC V  Fr V
When a material particle moves across the primary deformation zone, the
temperature rise is given by
1    Wp
p 
cVt1w
where
 = fraction of primary heat which goes to the work piece
 = density of the material
c = specific heat of the material
t1,w = uncut thickness, width of cut respectively.
 27.5 
Now  = 0.15ln  
  tan  
where
 is a nondimensional quantity and is given by
cVt1
= ; k being the thermal conductivity of the material.
k
*  is called “thermal number”.
The maximum temperature rise s when the material particle passes through the
secondary deformation zone along the rake face of the tool can be approximately
expressed as
t 2  Ws 
s  1.13  
  cVwt1 
where  is the length of contact between the tool and chip. The corresponding
average temperature rise is obtained from the equation
Ws
Sav 
cVwt1
It has been found that

 1  tan       (t2 = chip thickness)
t2 
Hence
1 Ws
s  1.13
cVt1k 1  tan       w
The final temperature is given as
  0  p  s
where 0 is the initial temperature of the workpiece. This maximum temperature is
along the rake face of the tool.

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.48
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

The nature of variation in the overall chiptool interface temperature with the major
parameters can be approximately determined through dimensional analysis. The
result is
Vt1
ov  Uc
kc
where ov is the overall temperature rise and Uc is the specific energy.
 Taylor gave the relationship between cutting speed and tool life, i.e.
VTn  C
 The tool life also depends to a great extent on the depth of cut ‘d’ and feed rate
per revolution ‘f’ i.e.
VTn dm f x  C
 Merchant’s Theory:
If F and N are normal and tangential components of R, the total force acting on the
rake surface of the tool then:
F

N
where  is the average coefficient of friction between the chip and the tool. The
coefficient of friction can be expressed also as :
 = tan 
The relationship among various forces are:
FC  FS cos   FN sin 
FT  FN cos   FS sin 
F  FC sin   FT cos 
N  FC cos   FT sin 
FS  FC cos   FT sin 
FN  FC sin   FT cos 
FS
R
cos       
FC  R cos     
FT  R sin     
FC cos       
FS  R cos        
cos     
FC sin       
FN  R sin        
cos     
FC sin   FT cos  FC tan   FT
 
FC cos   FT sin  FC  FT tan 

where: FC = Cutting component of force

FT = Thrust component of force
FS = Component of force parallel to the shear plane
FN = Component of force normal to the shear plane

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.49
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

If S is the ultimate shear stress of the work material, then the shear force FS along
the shear plane can be written as
wt 
FS  1 S
sin 
where w is the width of the workpiece under cutting and t1 is the uncut thickness.
FS sin  FC cos  sin   FT sin2 
Hence, S  
wt1 wt1
Work done in overcoming friction between chip and tool can be calculated from the
formula :
F sin 
Wf 
wt1 cos     
The power consumption during machining is given by
Vwt1S cos     
W  FC V 
sin  cos       
Merchant also developed a relationship between the shear angle , the friction angle
 and cutting rake angle  as follows :
2 +    = C
where C is the machining constant for the work material
Value of C varies from 70 to 80 for various types of steel.
For minimum power consumption :

2     
2
 Force in orthogonal cutting :
The cutting force F in orthogonal cutting can be expressed by the formula.
F  Ct1x w
where
F = cutting force in kg
t1 = uncut chip thickness in mm/rev or feed in turning operation.
w = width of cut in mm or depth in turning operation
x = constant for the material machined. Its value may be taken as 0.85 for all
steels overthe usual ranges of rake angles.
C = a material constant at a given cutting speed and rake angle. It varies from 98
for free machining carbon steel with hardness of 120HB to 224 for carbon steel
with hardness of 225 HB for positive rake angles. For negative rakes of high
cutting speed, value of C is about 10 % higher.
 Bridgeman Theory :
P.W. Bridgeman showed that S can be expressed as
S  O  k
where k is a constant and  is the normal stress acting on the shear plane. During
machining,  is given by
FN F tan       
  S = S tan       
wt1 / sin  wt1 / sin 

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.50
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

FS 1  k tan        
 
wt1 / sin 
wt1o cos     
FC 
sin  cos         k sin        

Machining constant C = cot1 k

Now W = UC Q
where UC = energy consumption per unit volume of material removal (sp. energy).
UC = Fc / wt1, Q is the volume rate of metal removal.

 Expression for shear strain:

cos 
shear strain,  = cos  + tan (  ) =
cos  cos     
Hence ; VC = rV and VS =  sin  V
 Theories of Mechanics of Metal Cutting :
Ernst  Merchant Theory : According to this theory ;
  
  
4 2 2

Merchant theory :
S  O  k
C   cot 1 k  
=     
2 2 2 2 2 2
Stabler Theory :

 =  
4
Lee and Shaffer Theory :

   
4
 Machineability Index is given by
cutting speed of material for 20 minute tool life
=  100
cutting speed of free cutting steel for 20 min tool life
 Economics of machining:
cm = machining cost per minute (labour cost /min + overheads/min)
So, the time to machine the unit volume of metal in minutes is,
1 c
=  1 , c1 = constant
df v V
c c
 Cost of machining metal per unit volume of metal cut = m 1
V
c1 c
 Number of tool replacements of servicing in minutes = 1 minutes.
V TV

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.51
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

n
c n 
 Optimum value of total cost = c  m  
 c1 1  n 
 Total cost = machining + machine setup + loading unloading + Tooling
cost cost & handling cost cost
c p  c m  c s  c1  c t
LD
 Machining time / piece; Tm =
1000fV
where,
L, D = length & diameter of workpiece
f = feed rate
V = velocity of cutting
 Shaping and Planing:
The uncut thickness and the width of cut are given by the relations :
t1 = f cos 
w = d / cos 
where  is the primary principal cutting edge angle. The rake angle is found to be 
(also called normal rake). f is the feed and d is the depth of cut.
Ff (feed component) and Fn (component normal to the machined surface) are given
by:
Ff  FT cos 
Fn  FT sin 
where: FT = Thrust component of force
The metal removal rate is given by LdfN, where L is the length of the job and N is the
number of cutting strokes per unit time. The cutting time can also be found out if the
breadth (B) of the job, the total depth by which the work surface has to be lowered
(H), the depth of cut (d), the feed (f), and the cutting stroke per unit time (N) are
given. The total time,
H B 1
TC   
d f N
Since the cutting speed changes during the cutting stroke, the average cutting speed
V can be expressed as
NS 1  R 
V
2
where,
S = stroke length
R = quick return ratio
N = number of strokes per unit time
 Turning and Boring:
The parameter in the corresponding basic machining operation can be found out as
t1  f cos 
w  d / cos 
where  is the side cutting edge angle. The cutting speed is given as
V =  DN

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.52
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

where N is the number of job revolutions per unit time and D is the job diameter.
The condition of orthogonal machining is satisfied when
tan b cos   tan  s sin 
where b and s are the back and side rake angles. The normal rake angle can be
expressed in terms the other tool angles as:
 
tan b sin   tan  s cos 
  tan1  
 2 
 1   tan b cos   tan  s sin   
Feed and radial components Ff and FR are
Ff  FT cos 
FR  FT sin 
The power consumption, neglecting the feed component, is
W = FC V
and the material removal rate is given by f dV. When a cylinder of length L is being
turned at a spindle speed N with a feed f (advancement of the tool/revolution of the
job), the total machining time is
1
Tc 
fN
 Drilling:
The uncut thickness t1 and the width of cut w are given as
f
t1    sin 
2
D
 
w2
sin 
where  is the half point angle (Fig. b)

The normal rake angle  can be approximately expressed as

  2r / D  tan  
  tan1  
 sin  
r being the radius of the point on the cutting edge where the normal rake is being
evaluated, D is the nominal diameter of the drill, and  the helix angle.

The total thrust force F can be expressed as

F = 2FT sin   Fch  Ffriction

where Fch is the force from the chisel edge and Ffriction is the friction force
From experimental results, it has been found that Fch is almost 60% of the total thrust
force and Ffriction is very small (about 3%). Similarly the total moment M can be
written as:
M = FC z  Mch  Mfriction

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.53
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

where Mch is the moment from the chisel edge and Mfriction is the moment due to
friction. About 80% of M comes from the cutting action of the lips, whereas Mch and
Mfriction are about 8 % and 12% of M, respectively. Thus, the final approximate
expressions for M and F can be written as :
M  0.6FcD
F  5FT sin 
 Milling:
Expression for maximum uncut thickness is:
f
t1max  sin 
NZ

where  is the angle included by the contact arc at the cutter centre O in radians.
d
Now sin   2
D
2f d
hence t1max 
NZ D
The average uncut thickness can be taken as half of the maximum value
f d
t1ab 
NZ D
d
The torque M due to one cutting tooth is Fc  
2
 Abrasive Jet Machining:
The material removal rate in abrasive jet machinery
3/ 4
  
= kNd3 v 3 / 2  
 12H 
where k = constant
N = number of abrasive particles impacting per unit time.
d = mean diameter of abrasive particles
v = velocity of abrasive particles
 = density of abrasive particles
H = hardness of work material
 Ultrasonic Machining:
The metal removal rate for this process according to Prof. Shaw is given by the
relation.

M.R.R. = 5.97 (Ryo)1/2 mm / sec
H
where f = frequency of the active grits striking work surface in c.p.s.
R = radius of grit in mm
yo = Amplitude of vibration in mm
 = Stress developed in tools in kg/mm2
H = Surface hardness of the workpiece in kg/mm2
=   compression fracture strength of abrasive particles

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.54
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

 Electrochemical Machining:
IA t
M.R.R. = cm3 /min
Fv
where I = Current flowing through the electrolytic cell in amp.
At = Machined area in cm2
F = Faraday’s constant = 96500 columbs = 26.8 amp hours
v = Valency of Metal dissolved
 = density of workpiece, gm/cm3
Vk f
Current density = 
y z
where y = gap between tool and workpiece,
V = applied voltage
k = conductivity of electrolyte (mho/mm)
 = density of work material (kg/mm3)
f = tool feed rate (mm/sec)

 Electric Discharge Machining:

The material removed rate in EDM is given by:
M.M.R = 1.42 tc U2 mm2/sec
1
tc = RC loge
 U
1 E 
 
where tc = charging time.
U = voltage across the capacitor
C = capacitor of condenser in farads
E = e.m.f applied across the circuit for charging the condenser.
R = charging resistance, ohms
k
1 
2

Surface roughness = k1  CU2  tpk3

2 
where k1 ,k2 and k3 are constants for a particular electrode and dielectric.
tp = pulse duration in  sec

 Electron Beam Machining:

The velocity required by the electrons of the work material is given by the relation
2k
V=
Mw
where k = Boltzmann’s constant
= 1.38 1023J/  k/atom
Mw = mass of one atom of the workpiece in gm
 = temperature raised thorough election bombardment,  K

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.55
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

LMR (LAST MINUTE REVISION)

 The process in which the desired shape, size, and finish are obtained through the
removal of the material from the workpiece is termed as machining.
 a) The line generated by cutting motion is called generatrix.
b) The line generated by feeding motion is called directrix.
 If the generatrix and directrix are rectilinear & are in the same plane the plain surface
will be obtained.
 If the directrix is perpendicular to generatrix then the cylindrical surface will be
produced
 The inclination of the chip tool interface with respect to the cutting velocity is known
as rake angle.
 Basically the machining operations are:
1. Orthogonal machining
2. Oblique machining
 For orthogonal machining operation the relative velocity of work and the tool are
perpendicular to each other.
 For oblique machining the relative velocity of work and the tool is not perpendicular to
the cutting edge.
 Designation of cutting tool :
Designation is nothing but nomenclature of cutting tool. Two systems to designate
the tool shape are:
1. American Standards Association System (ASA) or American National Standards
Institute (ANSI).
2. Orthogonal rake system (ORS).
 Rake angle :
It is the most important angle of the tool.
Two types of rake angle are there, ‘back rake angle’ and ‘side rake angle’.
Rake angle is the only angle on which the strength of the tool depends.
 In brittle materials like brass, zero rake angle is provided, but in tougher materials like
copper, ceramics negative rake angles are also used.
 Clearance Angle :
The purpose of this angle is to avoid any frictional drag of the tool on the job and
prevent the tool from rubbing on the surface already cut.
 Cutting Angle :
The true cutting angle is the angle between the face of tool, and the line tangent to
the machined surface of the cutting point. Side cutting edge angle, Cs, is the angle
which prevents interference as the tool enters the work material.

 End cutting edge angle, Cs, provides a clearance or relief to the trailing end of the
cutting edge to prevent rubbing or drag between the machined surface and the
trailing (non cutting) part of the cutting edge.

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.56
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

 Lip Angle :
It is the angle between the tool face and the ground end surface of flank. It is usually
between 60 to 80.
 Provision of nose radius improves tool life, surface finish and reduces cutting forces.
 Types of chips :
1. Discontinuous chips
2. Continuous chips
3. Continuous chips with build up edge (BUE)
 Discontinuous chips :
These are produced when cutting more brittle materials like grey cost iron, bronze
and hard brass.
 Continuous chips :
Machining of more ductile materials produce these types of chips.
 Continuous chips with built up edge (BUE) :
Builtup edge is formed when work materials are ductile material and adhere or weld
to the cutting edge of the tool due to high temperature and pressure in cutting zone.
 The cutting ratio or chip thickness ratio is always less than unity and can be
evaluated by measuring chip thickness and depth of cut. But actually it is very difficult
to measure chip thickness precisely due to the roughness of the back surface of chip.
Hence chip thickness ratio may also be expressed in terms of lengths since it is
easier to measure the length of chip than thickness.
 Cutting tool materials :
Basically the cutting tool must be harder than the work material. Usually it must be
atleast 35% to 50% harder than the work material.
 The commonly used cutting tool materials are :
a) High Speed Steel (HSS)
b) High Carbon Steel
c) Cemented Carbides
d) Ceramics
 Thermal Aspects in Metal machining ;
Considerable heat is generated at the cutting edge of the tool due to friction between
tool and work, when the tool is machining metal on a machine tool. The heat is
evolved at three zones,
shear zone, friction zone, work tool contact zone.
 Tool Life :
The total cutting time that can be utilized for cutting before tool failure occurs is
termed as ‘tool life’.
 The tool life is greatly affected with the cutting speed and tool temperature which is
closely related to cutting speed.
 Basically the tool wear and tool failure may be classified as :
a) Flank wear
b) Crater wear on tool face.
c) Localized wear such as the rounding of the cutting edge and
d) Chipping off of the cutting edge.

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.57
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

 Use of cutting fluid becomes essential for one or many reasons, which are :
a) There is a cooling down of the chiptoolwork zone by carrying away some of
the generated heat.
b) It (cutting fluid) reduces the coefficient of friction at the chip tool interface due to
formation of a weaker compound at the interface.
c) Washing away the chips and clearing the machining zone.
d) Protecting the finished surface from corrosion.
e) Reducing the thermal distortion caused by temperature gradients generated
during machining.
 Important points :
1. A cutting fluid prevents the formation of Builtup Edge.
2. At high cutting speed the effectiveness of the cutting fluid decreases.
3. A large amount of heat generated is carried away by the chip.
 Basically there are two types of cutting fluid :
a) Water based fluids
b) Mineral oil based fluids
 The different cutting fluids used are :
 Lard oil, sperm or whale oil, olive, cotton seed and linseed oil.
 Turpentine oil distilled from vegetables oils is also used.
 Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), chloroform (CHCl3), trichloroethane.
 Machineability :
Machineability is defined as the ease with which it could be machined or life of tool
before tool failure or resharpening or the quality of the machined surface or the power
consumption per unit volume of material removed.
 Shaping and Planing : The major difference between the two is that, in shaping, the
primary (cutting) motion is provided to the tool and the feed is given to the workpiece,
where as in planing, it is just the opposite.
 The various types of nontraditional machining processes are:

 Abrasive  Jet  Machining (AJM) :

In this the material removal occurs due to impingement of the fine abrasive particles,
abrasive particles move with high speed air (or gas) stream.
 Ultrasonic Machining (USM) :
Basically the USM process involves a tool (made of a ductile and tough material)
vibrating with very high frequency and a continuous flow of an abrasive slurry in the
small gap between tool and the work surface.
In USM the abrasive slurry carries away the small wear particles produced by impact
of the hard abrasive grains.
 Electrochemical Machining (ECM) :
It is based on the principle of Electrolysis.
 Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) :
It is the process of material removal by a controlled erosion through a series of
electric sparks.

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.58
 Notes on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

 Electron Beam Machining (EBM) :

In this process as the name suggests a stream of high speed electrons impinges on
the work material produces intense heating, now this heat melts or vaporizes the
workpiece.

 Laser Beam Machining (LBM) :

Here the emitted laser beam is focused by a lens system and the focused beam
melts the work surface, removing a small portion of the material by vaporization and
high speed ablation.

 Plasma Arc Machining:

A plasma is a high temperature ionized gas. Due to the impingement of plasma jet
the workpiece is heated up and quick melting occurs.



GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Notes /Pg.59
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

ASSIGNMENT  1
Duration : 45 Min. Max. Marks : 30
Q1 to Q6 carry one mark each

1. The number of elements in tool signature are

(A) 6 (B) 7
(C) 8 (D) 9

2. In machining operation, the metal is removed by

(A) tearing chips
(B) distortion of metals
(C) cutting the metal across zone
(D) shearing the metal across zone

3. The velocity of tool along the tool face is known as

(A) Cutting speed (B) Chip velocity
(C) Shear velocity (D) Average velocity

4. Flank wear occurs mainly on

(A) nose part, from relief face and side relief face
(B) nose part and top face
(C) cutting edges
(D) all of the above

5. Abrasive slurry is used in

(A) water jet machining (B) abrasive jet machining
(C) plasma arc machining (D) ultrasonic machining

6. Broken chips are formed when

(A) cutting speed is too high (B) material is brittle
(C) rake angle is too large (D) material is ductile

Q7 to Q18 carry two marks each

7. The references from which the tool angles are specified are:
(A) cutting plane (B) basic plane
(C) the principal plane (D) all of the above
8. The metal in machining operation is removed by
(A) Shearing the metal across a zone
(B) Tearing chips
(C) Distortion of metal
(D) None of these

9. Crater wear is predominant in

(A) Carbon steel tools (B) Tungsten carbide tools
(C) High speed steel tools (D) Ceramic tools

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Assign /Pg.60
 Assignment on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

10. Tool life is most affected by:

(A) Cutting speed
(B) Tool geometry
(C) Feed and depth
(D) Microstructure of material being cut

11. Which of the following gives the correct order of increasing hot hardness of
cutting tool materials?
(A) Diamond, Carbide, HSS (B) Carbide, Diamond, HSS
(C) HSS, Carbide, Diamond (D) HSS, Diamond, Carbide

12. The main function of the cutting fluid is

(A) providing lubrication (B) cool the tool and workpiece
(C) wash away the chips (D) all of the above

13. The tool motion for ultrasonic drilling process is:

(A) rotary motion
(B) reciprocating motion
(C) linear motion
(D) both rotary and reciprocating motion.

14. According to Bridgeman, s = o + k. The relation between k and machining

constant C is
(A) C = cot k (B) C = tan k
(C) C = tan1 k (D) C = cot1 k

15. Taylor’s equation for HSS cutting tool at a feed of 0.2 mm/min and a depth of cut
of 2 mm is given by VTn = C , where n and C are constants. The following V and
T observations have been noted: V, m/min 25 35
T, min 90 20
The value of ‘n’ and C is
(A) 0.225, 68.8 (B) 68.8, 0.225
(C) 0.125, 34.4 (D) 0.125, 68.4
16. For the above given data of question 15 recommended, the cutting speed for a
desired tool life of 60 minutes is :
(A) 27 m/min (B) 2.7 m/min
(C) 0.27 m/min (D) 20.99 m/min
17. In orthogonal cutting, the depth of cut is 0.5 mm at a cutting speed of 2m/s. If the
chip thickness is 0.75 mm, the velocity is
(A) 1.33m/s (B) 2 m/s
(C) 2.5 m/s (D) 3m/s
18. The process in which the metal of a workpiece is dissolved in the electrolyte
solution is?
(A) Electrodischarge machining (B) Electrochemical machining
(C) Ultrasonic machining (D) Abrasive jet machining



GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Assign /Pg.61
 Test on Machining and Machine Tool Operations

TEST PAPER  1
Duration : 30 Min. Max. Marks : 25
Q1 to Q5 carry one mark each

1. The most machinable metals:

(A) produce discontinuous chips
(B) result in maximum length of shear plane
(C) result in minimum length of shear plane
(D) permit maximum metal removal per tool grind
2. The best coolant for carbide tools is
(A) distilled water (B) kerosene
(C) soluble oil (D) ice water
3. The following produces the cylindrical surface:
(A) directrix (B) generatrix
(C) both of the above (D) none of the above
4. When cutting ductile material, the type of chip produced is
(A) discontinuous (B) continuous
(C) inhomogeneous (D) None of the above
5. The strength of the tool depends upon
(A) lip angle (B) clearance
(C) cutting angle (D) rake angle

Q6 to Q13 carry two marks each

6. The tool life of a single point cutting tool has been found to be 1000 sec. at a
cutting speed of 0.5 m/s. How many pieces can be produced within one tool life,
if each piece is 50 mm dia and requires to be turned over a length of 80 mm
using a feed of 0.1 mm/rev and cutting speed of 0.5 m/s
(A) 2 (B) 3
(C) 4 (D) 6
7. The tool change time, machining running cost, tool depreciation per regrind are 8
min, 5sec, Rs. 5 per hour, 30p, n = 0.25, c = 150. What is the optimum cutting
speed in m/min?
(A) 56.5 (B) 5065
(C) 565 (D) 5650
8. The shear angle of an orthogonal cutting operation on a workpiece of width
1.25 mm with uncut chip thickness of 0.25mm and tool rake angle 0 is:
(A) 0.113 (B) 1.113
(C) 11.30 (D) 113.0
9. The machining constant for the above given data of question 8 with coefficient of
friction between chip & tool as 0.5 is:
(A) 49.185 (B) 4.9185
(C) 491.85 (D) 4911.85

GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Test /Pg.65
Vidyalankar : GATE – ME

10. The shear strength of workpiece material for the above problem of question 8
and 9 having cutting force of 900N and thrust force of 810N is
(A) 22.7076 N/mm2 (B) 2.27076 N/mm2
2
(C) 227.076 N/mm (D) 2270.76N/mm2

11. The useful tool life of H.S.S. tool machining mild steel at 18m/min is 3 hrs. What
will be the tool life for the tool life operating at 24 m/min? (Take n = 0.125)
(A) 16 min (B) 18 min
(C) 17 min (D) 20 min

12. The percentage change in cutting speed required to give around 84% reduction
in tool life (n = 0.2) is
(A) 30% (B) 42.4%
(C) 40% (D) 35%

13. In a single  point turning operation of steel with a cemented carbide tool,
Taylor’s tool life exponent is 0.25. If the cutting speed is halved, the tool life will
increase by:
(A) Two times (B) Four times
(C) Eight times (D) Sixteen times

Q14(a) and (b) carry two marks each

Linked Answer Question

14(a). If ‘’ is the rake angle of the cutting tool,  is the shear angle and ‘V’ is the cutting
velocity, then the velocity of chip sliding along the shear plane is given by
V cos  V sin 
(A) (B)
cos(  ) sin(  )
V cos  V sin 
(C) (D)
sin(  ) sin(  )

14(b). In the above problem, if width of the workpiece is 1.25 mm & chip thickness is
0.25 &  = 0 If cutting velocity is 10 m/s, then the velocity of the chip sliding
along the shear plane is given by
(A) 45 m/s (B) 35 m/s
(C) 51 m/s (D) 90 m/s



GATE/ME/SLP/Module_7/Ch.1_Test /Pg.66