HYDROLOGICAL PROCESSES

INTRODUCTION

Hydrology deals with some aspects of water as resources. Specifically it can be defined as the

science that deals with space-time characteristics of the quantity and quality of the waters of

the earth which comprises of the occurrence; movement, distribution, circulation, storage,

exploration, development and management which are determined by the relation of water to

earth. Hydrology encompasses some aspect of multitude of discipline involving agriculture,

biology, chemistry, geography, meteorology, physics and many other disciplines. This is

because of the close association of water with the atmosphere.

COURSE OBJECTIVES

This course is an introduction to the science of hydrology and emphasizes the physical

processes and their measurement. It encompasses major hydrological processes, which

include precipitation, evapotranspiration (evaporation and transpiration), rainfall interception,

soil water, ground water and runoff. At the end of the course, students are expected to

understand the physical processes involved in the movement of water between atmosphere,

plants, soils and the unsaturated zone which form the basis of the hydrological cycle at

global, regional and watershed scale.

COURSE STRUCTURE

1. Hydrological cycle, hydrologic budget, hydrologic data

2. Precipitation processes, measurement and analysis

3. Evaporation processes, measurement and estimation

4. Transpiration and evapo-transpiration processes

5. Interception processes and estimation

 6. Soil and soil water: properties, processes and measurements

7. Ground water: movement and storage

8. Riverflow: sources and processes; methods of measuring discharge of water within

streams nd rivers

9. The influence of man on hydrological processes: e.g. impact of rainforest logging on

evapo-transpiration losses and riverflow, ground water contamination etc.

10. Revision: Review of the physical processes and measurements techniques with the aid

of questions(tutorial session)

RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOKS

1. Principle of hydrology, by R.C. Ward and M. Robinson

2. Hydrology in practice, by Elizabeth M. Shaw

3. Elementary hydrology, by V.P. Singh

4. Rainfall-Runoff modelling, The Primer, by Keith J. Beven

5. Applied Hydrology by K.N. Mutreja

6. Hydrology for Engineers, by R.K. Linsley, M.A. Kohler and J.L.H. Paulhus
Definition of hydrology

Hydrology is perceived as the entire reaction of water with the environment.

Then Global perspective hydrologic cycle can be considered as three major
systems. These are:

1. The oceans(the major source of water)

2. The Atmosphere(the deliverer of water)
3. The land(the user of water)

COMPONENT OF HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Precipitation :( rainfall, snowfall, hail, sleet, dew, drizzle, fog etc.)

Runoff :( surface runoff, subsurface runoff or inter flow and ground water
runoff or baseflow)

Evaporation :( transpiration, infiltration, percolation, seepage, interception,

depression, storage, and moisture storage over and below the land surface)

Evaporation of water forms the oceans, lakes and other free water surfaces
throughout the world occurs due to the energy from the sun, supplying energy to
vaporize water to the atmosphere.

Transpiration from plants in forest, crop land and other vegetation also
supplies water to the atmosphere. Even man and animals supply water vapour to
the atmosphere through perspiration. Precipitation occurs through
condensation of the vapour principally as rain. The rain infiltrates the ground to
replenish soil moisture and recharge ground water; a portion is intercepted and
adheres to vegetation or other objects where it is eventually evaporated; a
portion fills surficial depressions, forming small ponds where some water
infiltrates and evaporates and a portion runs off over the surface of the earth to
join streams and finally transported to the ocean. Some of the ground water get
back as spring flow to streams and eventually get to the oceans. This requires
more time as compared to the runoff. The cycle can be intercepted at any stage
but over along enough time, it repeats itself.

In summary, the hydrologic cycle is a natural machine, running constantly in a

distillation and pumping system. The sun supplies the heat energy which
together with the force of gravity keeps the water moving from the earth to the
atmosphere as evaporation and transpiration from the atmosphere to the earth
as condensation and precipitation and on the ground as streamflow and
ground water movement and then to the oceans

The principal processes within the hydrological cycle are cleanly precipitation,
runoff and evaporation and the components are precipitation (rainfall, dew,
drizzle, fog etc.), runoff (surface runoff, subsurface runoff, or interflow, and
groundwater runoff or baseflow), evaporation, transpiration, infiltration,
percolation, seepage, interception, depression storage and moisture storage
over and below the land surface

HYDROLOGIC BUDGET

The hydrologic budget or water balance of a drainage basin is a mathematical

statement of its hydrologic cycle. Consider a basin as black – box system or a
reservoir as shown in the figure below.

The hydrologic budget is obtained by equating the difference between inflow, I,

and outflow, O, of a drainage basin to the rate of change of storage within the
basin Δs for a specified period of time Δt.

…………..1

2-s1, = ,

Where I =average inflow

O=average outflow

t=t2-t1

1 and 2 = values of variables at the start and end of the time interval t. If I and O
variables continuously with time t then equation 1 can be written as

= I(t)-o(t)………3

By integrating, this budget equation can be expressed as follows in volume

quantities 4

S(t) – S(o) = (t) - …………….5

Where S(o) is initial storage or storage at t=0

S(t) initial storage or storage at t=t

(t) = volume of inflow ( or m)

= volume of outflow ( or m)

Equation 5 or 1 is very important equations because it is the fundamental

governing equation for hydrologic analysis and synthesis. For a drainage basin
the inflow comprises of : rainfall and other forms of precipitation.

OUTFLOW: surface runoff, subsurface runoff, groundwater runoff,

evaporation, transpiration and infiltration.

STORAGE: surface storage which includes storage in channels and reservoir

(over the ground), depression, and detension storage

SUBSURFACE STORAGE: (within the root zone)

GROUNDWATER STORAGE:(within aquifers) and interception

STORAGE: (Over vegetation, building etc.)

NB equation 3 can be written by including all the components

Example 1 the storage in a river reach at a specified time is 3 hectare –meters.

At the same instant, the inflow to the reach is 15 cubic meters per second ( and
the outflow 20. One hour later, the inflow is 20 and the outflow is 20.
Determine the change in storage in the reach that occurred during the hour. Is
the storage at the end of the hour greater or less than the initial value? What is
the storage at the end of the hour?

Solution

= 15/s, = 20/s, = 20/s, = 20.5/s, = 30,000 and Δt = 1h = 3600s

From equation 2, = () - ()

ΔS = () Δt - () Δt, = ( – ( = -9900

Therefore the storage is less than the initial storage at the end of the
hour=30,000=20100

Example 2 the storage in a river reach is 2 hectare – meters at a given time.

Determine the storage I hour later if the average rate of inflow () and outflow
( during the hour are 21 and 18, respectively

Solution
HYDROLOGIC DATA

An accurate hydrologic evaluation cannot be made without accurate data. Many

government agencies, private companies and individuals are engage in the
collection of hydrologic data. This data is usually made available to any one
who is in need of it. In Ghana, hydrologic data is principally collected by
hydrological services Department (MSD)

TYPES OF HYDROLOGIC DATA

1. Streamflow records
2. Precipitation and climatological data
3. Topographic map
4. Groundwater data
5. Evaporation and transpiration
6. Soil maps
7. Geological maps

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Some commonly used hydrologic terms and their units

PRECIPITATION PROCESSES

Precipitation is a major factor which controls the hydrology of a region. It is the

main input of water to the earth’s surface and a knowledge of rainfall patterns in
space and time is essential to un understanding of soil moisture, ground water
recharge and river flows.

Precipitation takes place when a body of moist air is cooled sufficiently for it to
become saturated and condensed as water droplets

CLASSIFICATION OF PRECIPITATION

Precipitation is classified by the type of mechanism that produces it. Three

types are distinguished. They are:

1. Convective
2. Cyclonic
3. Orographic

MEASUREMENT OF RAINFALL
Because precipitation is the input to the hydrological budget it is very
important to know how much precipitation has occurred during a specified
period of time.

A raingauge is basically a can to catch vertically falling raindrops. The aim

of a raingauge is to collect rain over a known area bounded by the raingauge
rim to measure the amount of rain so collected. This could be by manually
emptying and recording the amount of water accumulated in storage gauge,
usually at daily intervals or else by using a recording raingauge which
automatically registers the intensity or the rate of accumulation of rainfall.

There are several instruments in use for measuring precipitation. These are
standard non-recording raingauge, tipping budget recording rainguage,
weighing recording raingauge, float recording eetc.

DESIGN OF RAINGAUGE NETWORKS

Rain does not fall uniformly over a drainage basin, therefore it is necessary
to provide a network of gauges that adequately sample rainfall variability
within the storm as well as over the drainage basin. The location and spacing
of gauges depend on the type of precipitation to be measured as well as the
use of precipitation measurements.

If the main purpose of precipitation measurement is for runoff studies, then

one approach to network design would be to locate gauges in those areas that
contribute most to runoff.

WMO has recommended the minimum precipitation-network densities for

general hydro meteorological purposes as follows:

1. One station per 600 to 900k of area in flat regions of temperate,

Mediterranean and tropical zones
2. One station per 100 to 250 k of area in mountainous regions of
temperate, Mediterranean and tropical zones.
3. One station per 25kof area in small mountainous lands with irregular
precipitation.
4. One station per 1500 to 10,000k of area in arid and polar zones.

LOCATION OF GAUGES
 The location of a rain gauge is very important to the accuracy of its
measurement. A gauge should not be located on a windswept area, but
should be fairly well protected from wind current from all directions.
The best site is on a level ground with trees or bushes providing the
protection.

ERRORS IN RAINFALL MEASUREMENT

Errors in rainfall measurements result from the following:

1. Instrumental defects: inherent errors caused by mechanical parts

of the instrument.
2. Improper siting or location of the gauge: improper location of
rainguage can tend to either overcatch or undercatch rainfall.
3. Human errors: observer must attend to the raingauge regularly to
ensure that it works properly
4. Evaporation in non-recording gauge which is real once in 24
hours, could cause a small loss of measurable water over a year
5. Effect of wind on the entrance of rain into the instrument: wind
divert falling precipitation so that it is not possible to be sure that
an accurate sample has been collected.

PRECIPITATION ANALYSIS

 Temporal variation
 Spatial variation
 Mean Areal precipitation : Arithmetic method, thiessen polygon

Example: consider a rectangular area whose (x,y)coordinates are (0,0), (4,0),

(0,4) and (4,4). The area is 4km wide and 4km long (1 unit coordinates
represents 1km). this area has four rain gauges. The location of the gauges and
the rainfall amounts measured by them are as follows:

Rain Gauge Gauge coordinates Rainfall Amount

A (1,1) 10

B (1,3) 10

C (3,3) 8

D (3,3) 12
Determine the mean rainfall for this area by the thiessen polygon method and
compare it with that obtained by the arithmetic method and compare it with that
obtained by the arithmetic method

Exercise 1: the figure below shows a 1k basin having three rain gauges.
Estimate the mean areal rainfall by the thiessen polygon method for the storm
whose rainfall depths are given on the map. The area of the polygon around
gauges A, B and C respectively are 0.2, 0.4 and 0.4k. compare it with the
arithmetic mean

Fig. A water shed showing rainguage location.

Exercise 2: thissen polygon and Arithmetic mean are some of the methods for
determining average precipitation over an area. Describe the mean of each
method.

MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION

Water is lost from the earth’s surface in a variety of ways

1. Evaporation of liquid water into water vapour

2. Sublimation of ice into water vapour
3. Transpiration from plants

Evaporation takes place from water surface and from moisture absorbed in solid
surface, such as soil. Sublimation occurs when ice and snow change directly
into water vapour. Vegetation withdraws water from the root zone of the soil.
This moisture is carried through the plants to their leaves, where most of it
changes to vapour and escapes to the atmosphere through leaves openings. This
process is known as transpiration.

Sometimes the word evaporation is used to describe all the various physical
processes by which liquid water becomes water vapour. In such case, the term
includes transpiration from plant, as well as evaporation from free water
surfaces and from soil. However a more accurate way to describe these
processes is to use the word evapotranspiration

Measurement of the rates of evaporation and transpiration are necessary, if we

are to determine the amount of water available for use by people living in cities
and towns and by animal and plant life in country areas
Attempts are made to duplicate natural conditions, by measuring the water loss
from various types of surfaces. In some cases, soil and plants, similar to the area
been studied, are placed in tanks and pans. The amount of water added to these
tanks can be measured, and this gives an idea of the amount of water needed to
grow plants in that area. In other cases, the evaporation from soil, water and
porous surfaces is measured

In this chapter, we shall be mainly concerned with the measurement of the rate
of evaporation. We shall first discuss the problems associated with these
investigations, and then consider some of the methods used to measure the rate
of evaporation

FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

The measurement of evaporation is much more difficult than that of

precipitation. Reliable absolute values of the loss of water from the surface of
the earth, over areas of appreciable size have not yet been obtained

The following factors affect the rate of evaporation from any body or surface

1. Total radiation, solar and terrestrial

2. Temperature, both of the air and evaporating surfaces
3. Wind speed at the surface
4. Relative humidity of the air at the surface
5. Atmospheric pressure
6. Nature of the surface
7. Amount of moisture in the surface available for evaporation

In addition to the surface values of temperature, wind speed and humidity, their
variation with height in the lowest layers is also important. The rate of
evaporation therefore varies greatly over comparatively small areas.

Evaporation from free water surfaces is further affected by the state of the
surroundings and by the shape of the water surface. Impurities and vegetation in
the water also affect the evaporation.

Evaporation from soil depends on factors other than the meteorological

conditions. These include the moisture content, physical properties and the
chemical composition of the soil as well as the depth of the water table.
Evaporation is affected by plants characteristics in addition to meteorological
and soil factors. These include the number of pores in the leaves through which
water vapour and gases escape. In addition, the depth and nature of the root
system are important factors.

UNITS

The rate of evaporation from a surface can be expressed as the volume of the
liquid water evaporated from unit area in unit time.

This is equivalent to a certain depth of liquid water lost in unit time from the
whole area and evaporation is usually expressed in this way. The unit of time
may hence, a typical unit would be millimeter per day.

TYPES OF MEASUREMENT

WHO has recommended that agricultural meteorological stations should be as

far as possible, obtain continuous records of evaporation. This should be done in
such a way that the measurement are representative of evaporation from soil
surfaces and transpiration from plants.

The measurement of evaporation from soil surfaces and also from water
surfaces is of importance to water engineers. Unfortunately, it is difficult to
obtain measurements which are truly representative of natural conditions. Some
of these problems will be considered when we discuss the nature of the
instruments used to measure evaporation.

The term evaporimeter is applied to devices used for measuring the water loss
from a saturated surface. They do not measure directly either evaporation from
natural water surface, actual evapotranspiration or potential evapotranspiration.

The values obtained cannot therefore be used, without adjustment, to survive at

reliable estimates of lake evaporation. Similarly, adjustment must be made,
before the measurement are used to study actual and potential
evapotranspiration from natural surface.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

There are broadly three direct methods by which evaporation is measured

1. By measuring the change in weight of a sample of soil

2. By observing the loss of water from a wetted porous surface
 3. By observing the change in level of a free water surface in a large tanks

Comparable results cannot be obtained by using different methods. Hence, we

must use identical instruments and similar exposure when comparing the
evaporation at different places. Even then, the result are purely relative, except
perhaps in the case of method 1.

EVAPORATION FROM THE GROUND

Method 1 is the only method that can provide information, which is fairly
representative of the natural processes of evaporation from the ground. Suitable
precautions must, however, be taken in making the measurement

A cylindrical sample of soil is separated from the surrounding earth, by being

placed in a container. the container fits closely into a whole from which the
sample is taken. It should have a low heat conductivity

The size of the soil sample should be such that it is convenient for weighing. It
should be placed in a container with as little disturbance as possible.

This method is not very convenient for routine observation. It involves taking
the sample of earth indoors every time it is weighed. Careful handling is also
necessary.

Sometimes the method is simplified by putting a shallow sample in a pan of a

direct-reading balance. The whole instrument is put in a screen, so that it is
sheltered from the sun sand rain. At the same time, it is exposed to some natural
ventilation. However, the evaporation from this soil is not really representative
of that from a sample under natural conditions.

EVAPORATION FROM A WETTED POROUS SURFACE

An atmometer is an instrument which measures the loss of water from a wetted

porous surface. It is sometimes suggested that this type of instrument gives a
relative measure of the evaporation from plant surfaces. The piche evaporimeter
is an instrument of this type.

It consists of a graduated glass tube open at one end and closed at the other. The
tube is filled with water and a porous disc is placed over the open end. The tube
is then inverted.
The porous disc is wet, as long as water is in the tube. Evaporation is measured
by nothing the fall in the water level in the graduated tube.

The whole apparatus is placed inside a Stevenson screen. For this reason, it
responds to the relative humidity and variations in wind speed of the air passing
through the screen. However, it does not respond directly to variations in the
amount of solar radiation, being received by the surrounding surface of the eath.

In dry regions, the porous disc may dry around the edges, and so the
evaporating surface is not always of the same area. Another difficulty is that the
tube barely holds enough water for one day’s evaporation. In very dry hot
weather, the reserve water may be used up in less than a day.

It is difficult to standardize the size and effectiveness of the evaporating surface.

This is due to the shape of the disc and the manner of mounting it in contact
with the open end of the glass tube.

Although the instrument is easy to use and simple in design, its indication does
not bear any close relation with evaporation from natural surfaces. This is
mainly due to the exposure of the piche evaporimeter. The deposition of dust or
sand on the porous surface can also seriously affect the readings.

EVAPORATION FROM FREE-WATER SURFACES IN PANS AND TANKS

The evaporation tank or pan method is fairly wide use. It also suffers from the
disadvantage that it bears only a small relation to evaporation from a surface
representative of natural conditions.

However, records made in different localities with the same kind of pan,
similarly exposed, give valuable results. These measurements enable
comparisons to be made between stations. They therefore indicate the relative
amount of evaporation in different climatic conditions.

Many different types of evaporation pans and tanks are in use some have a
square section others are secular. Three types of exposure are used

1. Above ground, where the whole of the pan and evaporation surface are at
some small height above the ground.
2. Sunken, where the main body of the tank is below ground level, but the
evaporating surface is at or near the level of the undisturbed ground
surface.
 3. Floating, where the pan is mounted on an anchored platform on a lake or
some other water surface.

In all cases, the tank should be of non-ncorrosive material. All joints should be
made in such a way as to minimize the risks of the tanks developing leaks.

Pans installed above the ground are inexpensive, and are easy to install and
maintain. They stay cleaner than sunken tanks, as dirt does not splash or blow
into the water from surroundings to any large extent. Any leakage is relatively
easy to detect and rectify.

However the amount of water evaporated is greater than from sunken pans,
because of the additional radiant energy intercepted by the sides. Adverse side-
wall effects can be largely eliminated by using an insulated pan, but this adds
materially to the cost.

In the case of sunken pans, objectionable boundary effects, such as radiation on

the side-walls and heat exchange between the pan and the atmosphere are
largely eliminated. However, more trash is collected, the pan is difficult to clean
and leaks cannot be easily detected and rectified. The height of vegetation near
the pan is also important.

In addition, appreciable heat exchanges take place between the sunken pan and
the soil. These effects depend on many factors, including soil type, moisture
content and vegetation cover.

In studying evaporation from a lake, a floating pan generally gives better results
than an on-shore pan exposed above or below the ground. However, its heat
storage properties are different from those of the lake.

A floating pan is influenced by the characteristics of the particular lake on

which it floats. Hence, it is not necessarily a good climatic indicator. Some of
the problems associated with using floating pans are:

1. Difficulties in making observations

2. Splashing frequently renders the data unreliable
3. Costly to install and operate

CLASS A EVAPORATION PAN

The possibility of adopting one particular design of tank as an international

standard has been studied for some years, but a final decision has not yet been
taken. The American class A pan was, however, adopted by WHO as a
reference instrument for the international geographical year. Its performance has
been extensively studied under a range of climatic conditions, within quiet wide
limits of latitude and elevation.

Observations are made by measuring the amount of water evaporated from an

open pan. Measurements by means of class A evaporation pan are carried out,
by adjusting the water level in the pan to a fixed point. This is done by adding
or removing a fixed amount of water.

The rate of evaporation is dependent on a number of factors, including the

temperature of the evaporating surface and the wind flow over the water
surface. At some stations equipment is provided for measuring the temperature
of the water surface and the wind run across the pan.

The pan consist of a cylinder made of galvanized iron, copper or monel metal. It
measures 25.4cm deep and 120.7cm in diameter and is supported by an open
frame wooden platform. The pan is normally unpainted and is filled with water
to 5cm below the rim.

The ground should be filled sufficiently to level the support and keep the
bottom of the pan above the level of surface water in rainy weather. The top of
the earth fill should be 3 to 5cm below the top of the supporting frame. In this
way, the air may circulate under the pan and the base of the pan may be
inspected without difficulty. There are two methods of measuring the water
level

1. By a hook gauge
2. By a fixed point gauge

The hook gauge consist of a movable scale and vernier fixed with a hook. the
point of the hook indicates when the gauge is fixed correctly to touch the water
surface. A stilling well. About 10cm across and about 30cm deep, is situated
within the tank . the purpose is to break any ripples that may be present within
the main part of the tank. It is also serves as a support for the hook guage during
an observation. The pan is refilled, whenever the water level drops by more than
2.5cm.

The use of a fixed point gauge is to be preferred to a hook gauge, both for the
point of view of cost. And of maintenance of a consistent level in the pan. It
consist of a pointed brass rod, fixed vertically at the center of a cylindrical brass
stilling well. The tip of the well is located 6 to 7 cm below the rim of the pan.
Three small holes are located at the bottom of the well, and these permit the
flow of water in and out of the well,and these permit the flow of water in and
out of the well.

At each observation, the water level is returned to the same fixed point i.e. the
tip of the rod. A calibrated container is used to add or remove water, inorder to
bring the water level to the height of the top of the pointed rod. evaporation pan
observation. At some observations, a cup anemometer is used to determine the
run of the wind between the consecutive readings. This is a distance travelled by
the air in the period. The anemometer is mounted on one corner of the pan
supporting platform, at a height of one or two meters above the pan. At each
observation, the anemometer reading is noted and entered in the register.

A combined minimum and maximum thermometer may be used to determine

the maximum and minimum temperature of the water between observations.
These readings should be noted, before the water is disturbed by adding or
subtracting of water. After the measurement have been made, the thermometer
is reset and the temperature of the water is recorded.

The observation procedure is measuring the amount of evaporation varies

according to the type of gauge. Here it will be assumed that a fixed gauge is
used

First note the level of the water surface in a pan, relative to the fixed point in the
stilling well. Although evaporation would have occurred, the water level is not
necessarily below the top of the pointed rod. If rain has fallen since the time of
the previous observations, the water level will be affected. Two possibilities
arise

a. THE LEVEL IS BELOW THE FIXED POINT

1. In this case, fill the measuring tube to the mark indicated 0
2. Pour water from the measuring tube into the pan until the water level
rises to the fixed point.
3. Read from the scale of the measuring tube the amount of water added
to the pan A.
4. Read the rain gauge and determine the amount of rain since the
previous observation
5. Determine the amount of evaporation from the formula E=R+A
 6. In addition to the above readings the current temperature and relative
humidity of the air should be noted.
7. If at the time of observation the surface of the water in the pan is
frozen, break the ice with as little disturbance to the thermometer and
water as possible. The observation can then be taken in the normal
manner.
b. THE LEVEL IS ABOVE THE FIXED POIN
1. Remove water from the pan until the water level in the stilling well
falls to the top of the pointed rod
2. Measure the amount of water taken out with the measuring tube.

EVAPORATION PROCESSES

The loss of water from the earth surface occurs in different ways. These are

a. Evaporation of liquid water into water vapour

b. Sublimation of ice into water vapour
c. Transpiration from plants

Evaporation: from water surface, from moisture absorbed in solid surfaces such
as soil

Sublimation: when ice and snow changes directly into water vapour

Transpiration: the loss of water by plants through their leaves openings

Evapo-transpiration: the loss of water through transpiration from plants and

evaporation from tree water surfaces and from soil.

IMPORTANTS OF EVAPORATION

a. In order to know the amount of water available for use by people living
cities and towns
b. In order to know the amount of water needed by animals and plants in the
country areas

FACTORS AFFECTING EVAPORATION

The following factors affect the rate of evaporation from any body or surface.

a. Total radiation, solar and terrestrial

b. Temperature, both of the air and evaporation surface
c. Wind speed at the surface
 d. Relative humidity of the air at the surface
e. Atmospheric pressure
f. Amount of moisture in the surface available for evaporation.

EVAPORATION FROM FREE WATER SURFACES ADDITIONAL

FACTORSS

a. State of the surroundings

b. Shape of water surface
c. Impurities and vegetation in the water surface

EVAPORATION FROM THE SOIL

Evaporation from soil depend on factors other than the meteorological

conditions. These include

a. Moisture content
b. Physical and chemical composition of the soil
c. Depth of water table

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

This is affected by plant characteristics in addition to meteorological and soil

factors. These are

a. Number of pores in the leaves through which water vapour and gases
escape
b. Depth and nature of the root system.

POTENTIAL EVAPORATION

This is defined as the loss of water which would have occurred if there were
ample supply of water.

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

a. By measuring the change in weight of a sample of soil

b. By observing the loss of water from wetted porous media
c. By observing the change in level of a free water surface in a large tank

Evaporation from the ground

Evaporation from a wetted porous media e.g. . The piche evaporimeter

Evaporation from free water surface in pans and tanks.

PICHE EVAPORIMETER

It consists of graduated glass tube open at one end and closed at the other. The
tube is filled with water and a porous disc is placed over the open end. The tube
is then inverted. The porous disc is wet as long as water is in the tube.
Evaporation is measured by nothing the fall in the water level in the graduated
tube. NB the whole apparatus is placed in Stevenson screen. It therefore
responds to relative humidity and variations in wind speed but does not respond
directly to the amount of solar radiation, being received by the surrounding
surface of the earth.

PICHE EVAPORIMETER IN A DRY REGION

In dry regions, one porous disc may dry around the edges, and so the
evaporating surface is not always of the same area. Another difficulty is that the
tube barely holds enough water for one day’s evaporation.

In every dry hot weather, the reserve water may be used up in less than a day.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF PICHE EVAPORIMETER

Although the instrument is easy to use and simple in design. It’s indication do
not bear any close relation with evaporation from natural surfaces do to it’s
exposure. The deposition of dust or sand on the porous surface can also
seriously affect the reading.

INTERCEPTION

The amount of precipitation actually reaching the ground surface is largely

dependent upon the nature and density of the vegetation cove, if this exist, upon
the existence of an artificial cover of building, roads and pavement. This cover,
whether natural or artificial, intercept part of the precipitation and temporarily
stores it on it’s surfaces, from where the water is either evaporated back into the
atmosphere or falls to the ground. This is described as interception.

COMPONENTS OF INTERCEPTION

1. Interception loss
2. Through fall
3. Stermflow
Interception loss: this is water which is retained by plant surfaces and is later
evaporated away or absorbed by the plant.

Through fall: this is water which either falls through spaces in the vegetation
canopy or which drips from leaves, twigs and stems to the ground surface.

Stemflow: this is water which trickles along twigs and branches and finally
down the main stem or trunk to the ground surface

FACTORS AFFECTING INTERCEPTION LOSS FROM VEGETATION

Interception storage of the vegetation cover, wind speed, evaporation, duration

of rainfall, rainfall frequency.

INTERCEPTION STORAGE OF THE VEGETATION COVER

This is the ability of the vegetation surfaces to collect and retain falling
precipitation. Initially, when all the leaves and twigs or stems are dry, this is at a
maximum and a very large percentage of the precipitation is prevented from
reaching the ground. As the leaves become wetter, the weight of the water on
them eventually overcomes the surface tension by which it is held and there
after further addition from rainfall are almost entirely offset by the water
droplets falling from the cover edges of the leaves.

WIND SPEED

Wind speed is a factor of real significance when rain is actually falling during
prolongs period of rainfall the interception loss is greater in windy than in calm
conditions

EVAPORATION

During rainfall, a considerable amount of water may be lost by evaporationfrom

the leave surfaces, so that even when the initial interception storage capacity has
been filled, there is some further fairly constant retention of falling precipitation
to make good this evaporation loss, which is significantly higher from wetted
than non-wetted vegetation surfaces. During long continued rain, the
interception loss may be closely related to the rate of evaporation, so that
meteorological factors which affect evaporation are also relevant.

DURATION OF RAINFALL
This is secondary factor which influences interception by determining the
balance between the reduced storage of water on the vegetation surface on one
hand and increased and increased evaporative losses on the other hand.
Interception loss increases with the duration of rainfall but only gradually, so
that the relative importance of interception decreases with time.

MASURING INTERCEPTION

The normal method of measuring interception loss is to measure the

precipitation above the vegetation layer(R), ground precipitation below the
vegetation canopy (RG) and in many cases Stemflow (Qs). The total
interception loss may be calculated simply from

EI=R-(Rg+Qs)

INTERCEPTION IN URBAN AREAS

In most urban areas, interception by vegetation is comparatively unimportant. A

significant percentage of precipitation may, however be held and evaporated
from the surfaces of buildings, although reliable experimental data are virtually
non-existent.

SURFACE STORAGE

This comprises the water retained in hollows and depressions in the ground
surface during and after rainfall. This water is then either evaporated directly or
is used by vegetation or else infiltrates into the soil

ANALYTICAL MODELS OF INFILTRATION

Sources of the well-known infiltration models are Overton, Holton, Huggins,

Moake, Green Ampt, soil conservation service, Kostiakov and Philip Two Term
models. But the last two models would be discussed.

KOSTIAKOV MODEL

In general this model is expressed as F=, a>0 and 0<b<1

Time zero and t and a and b are constant by definition f=

This model is frequently used in agricultural studies and the parameters a and b
can be estimated by plotting on a log paper the infiltration rate of accumulated F
against time and fitting a straight line
Log F=log a +b logt

PHILIP TWO TERM MODEL

For a uniform soil with a uniform soil moisture content and excess water supply
rate at the surface; Philip found a solution to the flow equation in the form of an
infinite series are considered sufficient and constitute the Philip Two Term
model

F=+At

f=+A, where s is called sorptivity, a function of initial and surface water

contents of the soil and soil water diffusivity; A parameter depending upon soil
properties.

LIMITATIONS

This occurs when the water flow is not linear

1. When soils are not homogeneous

2. When water infiltrate in more than one direction

The above models are used to extrapolates infiltration results.