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An Introduction to the Humanities

i
 Combined
Volume

Arts and Culture

An Introduction to the Humanities

Janetta Rebold Benton and Robert DiYanni

Taken from:
Arts and Culture:
An Introduction to the Humanities, Combined Volume, Third Edition
by Janetta Rebold Benton and Robert DiYanni

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Taken from:

Arts and Culture: An Introduction to the Humanities, Combined Volume, Third Edition
by Janetta Rebold Benton and Robert DiYanni
Copyright © 2008, 2005, 1998 by Pearson Education
Published by Prentice Hall
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 07458

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CONTENTS OVERVIEW

~ VOLUME I VOLUME II

. Prehistoric, Mesopotamian, and Egyptian 13. The Renaissance and Mannerism in Italy
Civilizations
14. The Renaissance in Northern Europe
. Aegean Culture and Early Greece
ee The Baroque Age
. Classical and Hellenistic Greece
16. The Eighteenth Century
. Roman Civilization
17. Romanticism and Realism
. Judaism, Early Christianity, and Byzantine
Civilizations 18. Impressionism and Post-Impressionism

. Islamic Civilization 19. Chinese Civilization after the Thirteenth

Century
. Indian Civilization
20. Japanese Civilization after the Fifteenth
. Early Chinese Civilization Century

. Early Japanese Civilization 21. Early Twentieth Century

10. Early Civilizations of the Americas and Africa pipe Modern Africa and Latin America

11. Early Middle Ages and the Romanesque FaeNs Mid-Twentieth Century and Later

12. Gothic and Late Middle Ages 24. Diversity in Contemporary Life

13. The Renaissance and Mannerism in Italy

oem
<a

iii
CONTENTS

PREFACE xvii MESOPOTAMIA: THE CRADLE OF CIVILIZATION 8

SUMER 8
INTRODUCTION xxi
Architecture 9 Sculpture 9 Literature 10
‘THE HUMANITIES AND THE ARTS xxi
@ Cross Currents / Sumerian Myth and the Bible 11
RECORDS OF CULTURE = xxi
THE ROLE OF THE ARTIST xxi @ Then & Now / Expressions of Love 12
CONTEXTS AND AESTHETICS xxii AKKAD 12

FORM AND CONTENT xxii BABYLON 12

CRITICAL THINKING xxii

Sculpture 12
ASSYRIA 13
STARTER KIT xxiv
Sculpture 13
THE HUMANITIES xxiv NEBUCHADNEZZAR’S BABYLON | 14
COMMONALITIES xxiv
Connections / The Fundamentals of Civilization 15
STYLE xxiv
PERSIA 16
FUNCTIONS AND GENRES xxiv
Religion 16
THE VISUAL ARTS xxiv
FORMAL ANALYSIS xxv @ Then & Now/ Beer 17
COMPONENTS OF THE VISUAL ARTS © xxvi Architecture 17 Sculpture 17
SCULPTURE = xxvii
Critical Thinking / The Concept of Civilization 18
ARCHITECTURE xxvii
Relief Sculpture 18
LITERATURE = xxviii
THE CIVILIZATION OF THE NILE = 18
SPEECH, WRITING, AND LITERATURE = xxviii
HIEROGLYPHICS 19
LITERACY AND LITERATURE xxviii
RELIGIOUS BELIEFS 19
FORMS OF LITERATURE xxviii
The Afterlife 21
MUSIC xxx
@& Then & Now/ The Nile 22
SOCIAL AND RITUAL ROLES xxxi
INSTRUMENTS — xxxi THE OLD KINGDOM 22
MUSICAL QUALITIES AND STRUCTURE — xxxi ARCHITECTURE 22

NON-WESTERN MUSIC xxxii Mastabas 22 The Stepped Pyramid of Zoser 23

The Great Pyramids 23
HIsTorY, RELIGION, AND PHILOSOPHY = xxxii
THE BOOK OF THE DEAD 24
HISTORY xxxiii
SCULPTURE 25
RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY _ xxxiii
The Great Sphinx 25 Mycerinus
and Khamerernebty 25
CHAPTER 1
RELIEF SCULPTURE AND PAINTING = 25
Prehistoric, Mesopotamian, Ti Watching a Hippopotamus Hunt 26
and Egyptian THE MIDDLE KINGDOM 27
Civilizations 3 ARCHITECTURE 27
THE EARLIEST CULTURES 5 THE NEW KINGDOM 27
THE PALEOLITHIC PERIOD 5 ARCHITECTURE 27
Wall Paintings 5 Ritual and Religion 5 Temple of Queen Hatshepsut 27 Temple
Sculpture 5 ofAmen-Mut-Khonsu 28 Family Homes 29
THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD 6 SCULPTURE 30
Wall Paintings 6 Architecture 6 Temple ofRamesses II 30
iv
 CONTENTS v

RELIEF SCULPTURE AND PAINTING 30 Mi Connections / Landscape and Architecture 59

Nobleman Huntingin the Marshes 30
Sculpture 59 Philosophy 60
AKHENATEN AND TUTANKHAMEN _ 31
@ Cultural Impact 62
Mi Connections / Dance and Music in Ancient Egypt 32
Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Their Children
Worshiping the Sun 33 Queen Nefertiti 33
Tomb of Tutankhamen 35
Cross Currents / Nubia 35 CHAPTER 3
EGYPTIAN MUSIC 35 Classical and Hellenistic
& Cross Currents / Ancient Egypt in the European Greece 65
Imagination 36
CLASSICAL GREECE 67
LITERATURE: LYRIC POETRY 37 FROM ARCHAIC TO
@ Cultural Impact 37 CLASSICAL 67 oe
Political Reform 67 The Persian Threat 67
THE GOLDEN AGE OF ATHENS 68
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL
CHAPTER 2 SCULPTURE ON THE ACROPOLIS 69
Aegean Culture and Early The Greek Orders 69 The Parthenon 69
Parthenon Sculpture 71 The Propylaia 72
Greece 41 The Erechtheion 72 The Temple ofAthena Nike 73
AEGEAN CULTURES 42 SCULPTURE 73
CYCLADIC CULTURE 43 The Kritios Boy 73 Polykleitos 74 Praxiteles 74
MINOAN CULTURE 44 Lysippos 75.
The Palace ofMinos 44 The Toreador
@ Then & Now/ The Olympiad 76
Fresco 47 Ceramic Ware 47 The Snake
Goddess 47 VASE PAINTING 76

MYCENAEAN CULTURE 48 White-Ground Ceramics 76

The Palace at Mycenae 48 THE EMERGENCE OF DRAMA 77
Aeschylus 77 Sophocles 79 Euripides 79
@ Then & Now / The Snake Goddess 49
Aristophanes 80
@ Then & Now / Heinrich Schliemann and the Modern PHILOSOPHY 80
Discovery of Troy 51
Socrates 80 Plato 81
The Warrior Vase 51
Connections / Literary Elements of Plato’s
THE RISE OF ANCIENT GREECE 51 Dialogues 82
THE PANTHEON OF GREEK GODS — 52
Aristotle 82
Mystery Cults 52 Oracles 52
i Connections / Music and Mathematics
& Cross Currents / Hesiod’s Theogony and Mesopotamian in Ancient Greece 84
Creation Myths 53
MUSIC AND GREEK SOCIETY 84
THE GEOMETRIC PERIOD 53
The Musical Modes 84
Ceramics 53 Sculpture 53 Homer's
Iliad and Odyssey 54 Sappho and the Lyric HELLENISTIC GREECE 85
Poem 55 ARCHITECTURE — 86
The Temple of the Olympian Zeus 86 Pergamon’s
B Critical Thinking / The Odyssey on Film 56 Altar of Zeus 86
THE ORIENTALIZING PERIOD _ 56
SCULPTURE 88
Ceramics 56 The Battle of the Gods and the Giants 88
THE ARCHAIC PERIOD 57
Mi Cross Currents / The Hellenization of India 89
Black-Figure Vases 57 Red-Figure Vases 58
The Greek Temple 58 The Temple ofHera I The Nike of Samothrace 89 Laocoon
at Paestum 58 and His Sons 89
vi CONTENTS

PHILOSOPHY 9839 Roman Satire 119 Horace 119

Stoicism 90 Epicureanism 91 Skepticism 91 @ Cultural Impact 120

Cynicism 91
Ovid 120 Catullus 120 Seneca 120
i Critical Thinking/Black Athena 92
& Critical Thinking / Ancient Rome in the Movies:
@ Cultural Impact 92 Gladiator 121
Petronius 121

CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 5
Roman Civilization 95
THE GREEK LEGACY AND
Judaism, Early Christianity,
THE ROMAN IDEAL 97 and Byzantine
ETRUSCAN CIVILIZATION 97 Civilization 123
ARCHITECTURE 97
JupaismM = 125
Temples 97 Tombs 97 HISTORY AND RELIGION — 125
SCULPTURE 98 Creation 125 Patriarchs 125 Prophets 126
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC 100
Mi Then & Now/ The Bible 127
ART OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC 100
Kings 127
@ Cross Currents / The Roman Pantheon 101
Architecture 101 Aqueducts 102 Sculpture 102 & Cross Currents / The Bible and Asian Religions 128

LITERATURE 103 Ferusalem in the Time of David and Solomon 128

Return from Exile 128
Catullus 103 Roman Drama: Plautus
and Terence 103 THE BIBLE AS LITERATURE 129
THE EMPIRE 104 History and Fiction 129 Biblical Poetry 130

i Then & Now / Plautus and the Contemporary EARLY CHRISTIANITY 130
Broadway Theater 105 JESUS AND HIS MESSAGE = 130
MUSIC 105 CHRISTIAN ANTECEDENTS — 130
ARCHITECTURE = 105 Cult Antecedents 130 Philosophical Antecedents 131
Jewish Influences 131
The Roman Forum 105 The Colosseum 106
The Pantheon 108 EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY = 131
SCULPTURE 109 EARLY CHRISTIAN ART 132
Augustus ofPrimaporta 109 The Ara Pacis 109 Architecture 132 Sculpture 134 Painting 134
The Column of Trajan 110 The Equestrian Statue THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE — 136
ofMarcus Aurelius 110 Gospels 136 Epistles 137 Revelation 138
@ Connections / The Ara Pacis and the Politics
@ Cross Currents / Christian and Pagan Gods 139
of Family Life 111
EARLY CHRISTIAN MUSIC 139
Portrait Head of Caracalla 112 Head
of Constantine 112 The Arch of PHILOSOPHY: AUGUSTINE
Constantine 112 AND THE NEOPLATONIC INHERITANCE = 139

PAINTING 114 Mi Connections / Greek and Roman Influences

on Christianity 140
First Style 114 Second Style 115
Third Style 115 Fourth Style 116 @ Critical Thinking/ Christianity’s Influence 140
PHILOSOPHY 117
i Connections / Gnosticism and Christianity 141
Stoicism 117
BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION 141
ROMAN HISTORIANS — 118
BYZANTINE ART 143
LITERATURE 118
San Vitale, Ravenna 143
Virgil 118
THE GOLDEN AGE OF
® Then & Now / Graffiti 119 CONSTANTINOPLE 144
 CONTENTS vii

Hagia Sophia 146 St. Mark’s, Venice 146 THE MauryA PERIOD 179
Madonna and Child Enthroned 148
BUDDHISM __ 179
& Cultural Impact 152 Buddhism versus Hinduism 180 The Four Noble
Truths and the Eightfold Path 180
CHAPTER 6 MAURYA ART _ 180
The Sarnath Capital 180
Islamic Civilization 155
The Great Stupa at Sanchi 181
ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION 156 MAURYAN TO BACTRIAN TO KusHAN 181
RELIGION — 157 THE Gupta Era =: 1183
Muhammad 157 GUPTA ART = 183
ISLAM, THE OTTOMAN THE JATAKA AND THE PANCATANTRA 185
EMPIRE, AND EUROPE 157 THE HINDU DynasTIEs_ 185
The Quran 157 THE HINDU TEMPLE — 185
@ Cross Currents / The Silk Trade 158 SCULPTURE 186

Basic Tenets and the Five Pillars ofIslam 158 HINDU LYRIC POETRY 186
Islamic Mysticism: The Sufis 159 @ Then & Now/ Muslim India 187
PHILOSOPHY 160 INDIAN DRAMA: KALIDASA’S SAKUNTALA 188
Avicenna and Averroes 160 MUSIC 188
MATH, SCIENCE, AND SCHOLARSHIP _ 160 H Cross Currents / Ravi Shankar and Philip Glass 189
& Critical Thinking/Scholarly Cross
B Critical Thinking/Sacred Cows 189
Fertilization 161
ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE _ 161 @ Cultural Impact 190
The Mosque 161

@ Then & Now/Jerusalem 163 CHAPTER 8

The Alhambra Palace 164 Ceramics and Miniature
Painting 166 Early Chinese
Civilization 193
Cross Currents / Paper: Islam’s Gift to the West 167
THE EARLY DyNASTIES 194
LITERATURE 167
THE SHANG AND ZHOU
Arabic and Persian Poetry 167 DYNASTIES 194
Mi Connections / Sufism, Dancing, and Music 169 Shang and Zhou Bronzes 195
Arabic Prose: The Thousand and One Nights 169 CHINESE PHILOSOPHY 195
MUSIC 169 CONFUCIANISM — 195
TAOISM 197
@ Cultural Impact 170
Yin and Yang 198
Lyric Poetry 198
CHAPTER 7 Music 198
Indian Civilization 173 EMPIRE: THE QIN AND HAN DYNASTIES — 198
THE SIX DYNASTIES 199
THE VEDIC PERIOD’ 175
HINDUISM | 175 @ Then & Now / East / West Trade 200
Hindu Gods 176 THE TANG DYNASTY 200
Samsara 177 Karma 177 Li Bai and Du Fu 200
Hindu Class Structure 177
THE SONG DYNASTY 200
LITERATURE: THE HINDU CLASSICS — 177
Painting 200
The Vedas 177 The Upanishads 177
The Ramayana 177 Mi Connections / The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove 202
i Connections / The Logic of Jainism 178 Critical Thinking/Marco Polo 202
The Mahabbarata 178 Ceramics 204
Viil CONTENTS

§& Cross Currents / Marco Polo’s Hangzhou 205 @ Then & Now/ The Maya 229
Calligraphy and Writing 205 Aztec Gods 229 The Aztec Language 230

@ Cultural Impact 206 @ Then & Now / Mesoamerican Ball Games 230
THE CULTURES OF PERU 231
THE MOCHE 231
CHAPTER 9
THE INCA?” 733
Early Japanese Inca Society & Religion 233
Civilization 209 ™ Connections / The Mystery of the Nazca Lines 234
JAPAN BEFORE THE TWELFTH NORTH AMERICA 235
CENTURY 210
THE NORTHWEST COAST 235
PREHISTORIC JAPAN 210
THE SOUTHWEST 235
RELIGION 211
™@ Cross Currents / Conquest and Disease 236
Buddhism and Shinto 211
THE MOUNDBUILDERS 236
COURTLY JAPAN: ASUKA AND NARA
PERIODS 212 THE BUFFALO HUNTERS 237
Art and Architecture 212 Kojiki and Nihbongi 213 AFRICA 237

COURTLY JAPAN: THE HEIAN PERIOD 213

THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 237
Heian Hand Scrolls 214 Noh Theatre 214
EARLY AFRICAN CULTURES
AND INNOVATIONS = 239
B Connections /Courts, Culture, and Women 216 EARLY AFRICAN POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS
WARRIOR JAPAN: THE KAMAKURA PERIOD — 216 CULTURE 240
Zen Buddhism 216 REGIONAL DEVELOPMENTS IN AFRICA
BEFORE 1800 240
M Cross Currents / Japan and China 217 North and Northeastern Africa 240 Savannahs
LATER WARRIOR JAPAN: THE ASHIKAGA and Forests of Western and Central Africa 241
PERIOD 217 East and South Africa 242
@ Then & Now / Sumo Wrestling 218 AFRICA AND THE TRANSATLANTIC SLAVE
TRADE 243
Tea Ceremony 218
@ Cultural Impact 244
@ Cultural Impact 218
B Critical Thinking /Zen and Everyday Life 219 CHAPTER 11
Early Middle Ages and
CHAPTER 10 the Romanesque 247
Early Civilizations of the EARLY MEDIEVAL CULTURE 248
Americas and Africa 221 THE MERGING OF CHRISTIAN #2
AND CELTO-GERMANIC
MESOAMERICA 223 TRADITIONS 249
THE OLMECS 223 Animal Style 249 Christian Gospel Books 249
TEOTIHUACAN 223 The Beowulf Epic and the Christian Poem 250

@ Critical Thinking /What Is a City? 224 CHARLEMAGNE AND THE CAROLINGIAN ERA 250
Feudal Society 251 Architecture 251
@ Then & Now/ Chocolate 225 Literature: The Song of Roland 251
M Connections / Mayan Writing and Wall MONASTICISM 251
Painting 226 The Monastery 252
MAYAN CULTURE 226
™ Cross Currents/The Vikings 253
The Mayan Universe 226 Mayan Literature
and Myth 226 Tikal 227 The Jaguar M@ Connections/The Mystery Plays and the Guilds 253
Kings ofPalenque 227
Manuscript Wumination 254 Music: Gregorian
THE TOLTECS AND AZTECS 228 Chant 254
 CONTENTS ix

ROMANESQUE CULTURE 255 Manuscript Illumination 285 Stained Glass 286

THE FEUDAL MONARCHS 255 Tapestry 286
The Capetians 255 The Norman Conquest 255 Cross Currents/Muslim Spain 288
Magna Carta 253 The Crusades 256
SCHOLASTICISM 288
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE 256
The Growth of the University 288
Pilgrimages and the Church 256 Saint-Sernin,
Toulouse 257 Sainte-Madeleine, Vézelay 259 Connections / Scholasticism and Gothic Architecture 289
Cathedral Group, Pisa 259 Peter Abelard 289 The Synthesis of St. Thomas
Hi Cross Currents/The Pisa Griffin 260 Aquinas 289 Duns Scotus and William
of Ockham 290 Francis ofAssisi 290
SCULPTURE 260
LITERATURE 290
Mission of the Apostles, Vézelay 260
Last Judgment, Autun 261 Dante’s Divine Comedy 290

DECORATIVE ARTS 261 Critical Thinking/Sin & Error 292

Reliquaries and Enamels 261 MUSIC 293
‘THE CHIVALRIC TRADITION The Notre-Dame School 293
IN LITERATURE 262 MEDIEVAL CALAMITIES 294
The Troubadours 262 ‘THE BLACK DEATH =.294
Critical Thinking/The Art of Love 264 THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR 294
TOWARD THE RENAISSANCE 294
@ Then & Now/Chant 265
NATURALISM IN ART 295
Chrétien de Troyes 265
The Pisanos 295 Cimabue, Duccio, and Giotto 295
MUSIC 265
REALISM IN LITERATURE = 295
Hildegard of Bingen 265
Boccaccio’s Decameron 295 Chaucer's Canterbury
@ Cultural Impact 266 Tales 298 Christine de Pizan 300

@ Cultural Impact 302

SECULAR SONG 302
CHAPTER 12
Guillaume de Machaut 302 English Song 302
Gothic and Late Middle
Ages 269 CHAPTER 13
THE GOTHIC ERA 270 The Renaissance and
PARIS IN THE LATER MIDDLE Mannerism in Italy 305
AGES 270
THE EARLY RENAISSANCE 307
@ Then & Now/The Louvre 271
THE MEDICIS’
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE 271 FLORENCE = 308
Royal Abbey, Saint-Denis 271 Notre-Dame, Cosimo de’ Medici 308 Lorenzo the Magnificent 308
Paris 273 Notre-Dame, Chartres 273
& Cross Currents /Montezuma’s Tenochtitlan 309
i Connections/Numerology at Chartres 275
THE HUMANIST SPIRIT 309
Notre-Dame, Amiens 276 Sainte-Chapelle, THE PLATONIC ACADEMY OF PHILOSOPHY 310
Paris 276 Saint-Maclou, Rouen 278
Marsilio Ficino 310 Pico della Mirandola 310
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE OUTSIDE
ARCHITECTURE 311
FRANCE 278
Salisbury Cathedral 278 Westminster Abbey, Filippo Brunelleschi 311 Leon Battista Alberti 312
London 278 Florence Cathedral. 279 Michelozzo di Bartolommeo 312
Milan Cathedral 282 SCULPTURE 313
SCULPTURE 282 Lorenzo Ghiberti 313 Donatello 314
Notre-Dame, Chartres 282 Notre-Dame, Reims 283 PAINTING 315
Notre-Dame-de-Paris 283 Gargoyles 284 Masaccio 315 Piero della Francesca 316
PAINTING AND DECORATIVE ARTS — 285 Fra Angelico 317 Sandro Botticelli 318
x CONTENTS

EARLY RENAISSANCE MUSIC 319 GHENT AND BRUGES | 351

Guillaume Dufay 319 Motets 320 FLEMISH OIL PAINTING | 351
Word Painting 320 Robert Campin 351 Fan van Eyck 352
Hieronymus Bosch 354
Hi Connections / Mathematical Proportions: Brunelleschi
and Dufay 322 THE HIGH RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE 357
LITERATURE 322 THE HABSBURG PATRONAGE 357
Petrarch 322 The Petrarchan Sonnet 323 @ Then & Now / Iconoclasm and the Attack
THE HIGH RENAISSANCE 323 on the Arts 358

PAINTING 324 ERASMUS AND NORTHERN HUMANISM — 358

Leonardo da Vinci 324 THOMAS MORE — 359

MARTIN LUTHER AND THE REFORMATION — 359
THE REINVENTION OF ROME = 325
The New Vatican 326 JOHN CALVIN AND THE INSTITUTES
OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION 361
PAINTING AND SCULPTURE 327 ICONOCLASM _— 361
Raphael 327 Michelangelo 328
Properzia de’ Rossi 331 @ Cross Currents / Diirer Describes Mexican
Treasures 362
i Critical Thinking/The Question ofArt Restoration 333 THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 362
ARCHITECTURE 334 Renaissance Explorers 363 Nicolas Copernicus 363
Donato Bramante 334 New Scientists 363
THE NEW ST. PETER’S BASILICA 334 PAINTING AND PRINTMAKING — 363
Michelangelo’s St. Peter’s 335 Albrecht Diirer 363 Hans Holbein the Younger 365
VENICE 335 Caterina van Hemessen 365 Pieter Bruegel
the Elder 366
Venetian Oil Painting 336 Titian 336
ARCHITECTURE 366
MUSIC 337
Chateau of Chambord 366 Hardwick Hall 367
Fosquin des Pres 337 Palestrina 337
SECULAR MUSIC 369
LITERATURE 337
Thomas Weelkes 369 Thomas Morley 370
Baldassare Castiglione 337 Niccolo Machiavelli 338
LITERATURE 370
MANNERISM 339
Michel de Montaigne 370 William Shakespeare 371
PAINTING 339
Parmigianino 339 Bronzino 340 Tintoretto 340 @ Connections / Shakespeare and Music 372
El Greco 341 Sofonisba Anguissola 342
@ Critical Thinking /Who Wrote Shakespeare's
Lavinia Fontana 342
Plays? 373
SCULPTURE 343
@ Cultural Impact 374
@ Then & Now / The Venice Ghetto 344
Benvenuto Cellini 344 The Autobiography
of Benvenuto Cellini 344
ARCHITECTURE 344 CHAPTER 15
@ Cultural Impact 346 The Baroque Age 377
THE BAROQUE IN ITALY 378
THE COUNTER-
CHAPTER 14 REFORMATION
IN ROME 379
The Renaissance in Northern The Oratorians 379
Europe 349 The Jesuits 379
THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN THIRTY YEAR’S WAR 379
NORTHERN EurROPE 351 ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE IN ROME 380
THE COLUMBIAN St. Peter’s Basilica 380 Guianlorenzo Bernini 381
EXCHANGE 351 Francesco Borromini 381
 CONTENTS xi

PAINTING INITALY 383

CHAPTER 16
Caravaggio 383 Artemisia Gentileschi 383
Elisabetta Sirani 385 Giovanna Garzoni 385 The Eighteenth
Fra Andrea Pozzo 386 Century 417
MUSIC INITALY 386
ENLIGHTENMENT 419
Claudio Monteverdi and Early Opera 386
THE ENLIGHTENMENT 419
Antonio Vivaldi and the Concerto Grosso 388
The Philosophes 419
THE BAROQUE OUTSIDE ITALY 388 Rational Humanism 419
PAINTING IN HOLLAND 388 REVOLUTIONS 419
Frans Hals 389 Judith Leyster 389 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 419
Rembrandt van Rijn 389 Pieter de Hooch 392
fan Vermeer 392 Rachel Ruysch 392
Paine, Washington, fefferson, and Franklin 420
Enlightenment Thought and Women 420
PAINTING IN FLANDERS — 393
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION § 421
Peter Paul Rubens 393
THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY = 421
‘THE DEMISE OF THE MONARCHY = 421
H Connections / Vermeer and the Origins
of Photography 394 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE = 422

Anthony van Dyck 395 Clara Peeters 395 @ Then & Now/ The Rights of Women 423
PAINTING IN ENGLAND 395 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION = 423
Mary Beale 395 The Birth of the Factory 423 Adam Smith 423
PAINTING IN SPAIN 396 THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION 424
Diego Velazquez 396 Isaac Newton 424 Denis Diderot and Carolus
Linnaeus 424
PAINTING IN FRANCE 397
Rococo 424
Nicolas Poussin 397
Louise Moillon 398 FRENCH MUSIC 425
The French Academy 400 Couperin and Rameau 425
ARCHITECTURE 401 FRENCH PAINTING = 425
Louvre 401 Palace of Versailles 401 Jean-Antoine Watteau 425 Francois Boucher 426
Jean-Honoré Fragonard 426 Marie-Louise-
Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun 427 Adeélaide Labille-
MH Critical Thinking / Art Forgeries 402
Guiard 427 The New Hotels 428
St. Paul’s Cathedral 403
ENGLISH PAINTING 428
BAROQUE MUSIC OUTSIDEITALY 404 William Hogarth 428 Sir foshua Reynolds 428
Handel and the Oratorio 404 Thomas Gainsborough 430
Johann Sebastian Bach 405
H@ Connections / Diderot as Art Critic 431
MH Cross Currents / The Baroque in Mexico 406 LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM = 432
THE SCIENCE OF OBSERVATION 407 Samuel Fobnson’s “Club” 432 Alexander Pope 433
Jonathan Swift 433
Anton van Leeuwenhoek 407 Johannes Kepler 407
Galileo Galilei 408 VOLTAIRE’S PHILOSOPHY OF CYNICISM 434
NEOCLASSICISM 434
PHILOSOPHY 408
René Descartes 408 Thomas Hobbes 409
PAINTING 434
Jacques-Louis David 434 Angelica Kauffmann 435
John Singleton Copley 436
M@ Then & Now/ The Telescope 410
SCULPTURE 437
John Locke 410
Jean-Antoine Houdon 437
LITERATURE 410
ARCHITECTURE 438
Moliére and the Baroque Stage 411
Chiswick House 438 La Madeleine 438
John Donne 411 Anne Bradstreet 412
Monticello 439
John Milton 412 Miguel de Cervantes 413
LITERATURE 439
@ Cultural Impact 414 The Rise of the Novel 439
xii CONTENTS

@ Critical Thinking / The Popularity of the Novel 441 Hl Connections / Goethe and Schubert: Poetry
and Song 466
Jane Austen 441
Richard Wagner 467
CLASSICAL MUSIC 441
The Symphony 441 Franz Foseph Haydn 442 MUSICIN RUSSIA 467
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 442 Modest Mussorgsky 467 Peter Tchaikovsky 467
TOWARD ROMANTICISM 443 REALISM 468
BEETHOVEN: FROM CLASSICAL Honoré Daumier 469
TO ROMANTIC 443
KARL MARX AND FRIEDRICH ENGELS 469
The Three Periods ofBeethoven’s Music 443
FRENCH PAINTING — 470
™ Cross Currents / Turkish Military Music and Viennese Rosa Bonheur 470 Gustave Courbet 471
Composers 444 Manet 471
Symphony no. 5 in C minor, op. 67 444 AMERICAN PAINTING = 472
Cultural Impact 445 Winslow Homer 472

Critical Thinking / Realism and Feminism 473

CHAPTER 17 Thomas Eakins 473 Fennie Augusta

Brownscombe 473
Romanticism THE RISE OF PHOTOGRAPHY 475
and Realism 447 Daguerreotypes 475 Mathew B. Brady 475
Eadweard Muybridge 475 Alfred Stieglitz 476
ROMANTICISM 449
Gertrude Stanton Kasebier 476
PAINTING 450
SCULPTURE 4/7
Francisco Goya 450
Théodore Géricault 451 Statue of Liberty 477 Edmonia Lewis 477
Anne Whitney 478
THE JULY MONARCHY = 452
LITERATURE 478
Fean-Auguste-Dominque Ingres 452
John Constable 452 F.M.W. Turner 452 Honoré de Balzac 478 Gustave Flaubert 479
Thomas Cole 455 Emile Zola 479 Realist Writing 479
RUSSIAN LITERATURE 479
@ Then & Now / America’s National Parks 456
Fyodor Dostoyevsky 479
SCULPTURE 456
ARCHITECTURE 457 @ Then & Now / Emerson, Thoreau, and the American
Environment 480
Crystal Palace, London 457
Leo Tolstoy 480
PHILOSOPHY 459
Fean-fFacques Rousseau and the Concept of Self 459 M Critical Thinking /Memoir, Fact, and Truth 481
Hegel and Historical Change 459 Ralph Waldo Anton Chekhov 481
Emerson and Transcendentalism 459 Henry David The New Sciences: Pasteur
Thoreau 459 and Darwin 481
THE ANTISLAVERY MOVEMENT 460
@ Cultural Impact 482
THE CIVIL WAR 460
THE CRIMEAN WAR 460
LITERATURE 460
Willham Blake 461 William Wordsworth
and Samuel Taylor Coleridge 461 John Keats 462 CHAPTER 18
Lord Byron 462 Emily Bronté 462 Johann
Wolfgang von Goethe 463 Walt Whitman 463 Impressionism and Post-
Emily Dickinson 463
Impressionism 485
MUSIC 464
IMPRESSIONISM 486
Program Music 464 Hector Berlioz 464 Franz
Schubert and fohannes Brahms 464 Clarca PAINTING 487
Schumann and Fanny Mendelssohn 465 Chopin Claude Monet 487 Pierre-
and the Piano 465 Giuseppe Verdi and Grand Auguste Renoir 488 Berthe
Opera 465 Morisot 489 Edgar Degas 490
 CONTENTS xiii

Mary Cassatt 490 Fames Abbott McNeill @ Then & Now/ Hong Kong 515
Whistler 491
Mi Critical Thinking / Feng Shui 516
LITERATURE 491
The Symbolists 491 LITERATURE 516
Traditional Poetry 516 Yuan Hong-dao 516
Connections / Debussy and Mallarmé: Impressionist Cao Xuequin’s Dream of the Red Chamber 517
and Symbolist 492 Modern Chinese Poetry 517
Naturalism 492 VOUSTC Set)
MUSIC 493 Chinese Theater Music 517 Beijing Opera 517
Debussy’s Musical Impressionism . 493
M Connections / Kangxi and Qianlong: Chinese Rulers,
PostT-IMPRESSIONISM 493 Writers, and Scholars 518
AMERICAN EXPANSION — 494
Cross Currents / The Pipa and the Guitar 519
THE BOER WAR 494
NEW SCIENCE AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES — 495 @ Cultural Impact 520
The Theory ofRelativity 495 The Atom 495
PHILOSOPHY AT THE TURN
OF THE CENTURY 495 CHAPTER 20
Friedrich Nietzsche 495 Sigmund Freud 495 Japanese Culture after the
POST-IMPRESSIONIST PAINTING 495 Fifteenth Century 523
Paul Cézanne 496 Georges Seurat 496
LATER JAPANESE CULTURE 525
Then & Now/ Pointillism and Television 497 THE SHINTO REVIVAL 525
BM Cross Currents / Japanese Prints and Western LANDSCAPE PAINTING = 525
Painters 498 Sesshu 525 . Hakuin Ekaku
and Zen 526
Vincent van Gogh 498
WOODBLOCK PRINTS 527
M Critical Thinking / Artists’ Lives 499
Utamaro Kitagawa 527 Hokusai Katsushika 527
Paul Gauguin 499 Ando Hiroshige 527
NEW DIRECTIONS IN SCULPTURE AND ARCHITECTURE = 528
ARCHITECTURE — 500 The Temple of the Golden Pavilion (Kinkakuji) 528
Auguste Rodin 500 Camille Claudel 501 Himeji Castle 529
American Architecture 501 Art Nouveau 502
2 Cross Currents / East Meets West: Takemitsu
@ Cultural Impact 504 Toru 530
‘THE JAPANESE GARDEN — 530
LITERATURE — 530
Saikaku Ihara 530
CHAPTER 19 M@ Then & Now/ The Samurai Code 531
Chinese Civilization after Haiku 532 Basho Matsuo 532 Yosa Buson
the Thirteenth and Kobayashi Issa 532 Modern Fiction 532

Century 507 M Connections / Bunraku: Japanese Puppet

Theater 533
LATER CHINESE CULTURE 508
THEATER 533
MING AND OING
DYNASTIES 509 Noh 533
Ming Furniture 510 Cross Currents / East Meets West: The Films
LITERATI PAINTING _ 510 ofAkira Kurosawa 534
Shen Zhou 510 Shitao S11 ZhuDa 512 Kabuki 534 Cinema/ Anime 534
CALLIGRAPHY 512 & Critical Thinking / The Economic Future
Chinese Scholars’ Rocks 513 ofJapan 535
ARCHITECTURE: CITY PLANNING = 514 The World of the Geisha 535
Xiv CONTENTS

CONTEMPORARY MUSIC 535 Connections / Graham and Noguchi: The Sculpture

Oe Hikari 535 Koto Music 535 of Dance 557
Ezra Pound and T: S. Eliot 558 fames Foyce 559
@ Cultural Impact 537
Virginia Woolf 559 Ernest Hemingway 560
Franz Kafka 560
RUSSIAN FILM = 560

@ Then & Now / Robin Hood at the Movies 561

CHAPTER 21
MODERN MUSIC _ 561
Early Twentieth Arnold Schoenberg 561
Century 539 REPRESSION AND DEPRESSION: THE THIRTIES 562
NEW DIRECTIONS FASCISM IN EUROPE = 562
INTHE ARTS 541 Benito Mussolini 562 Adolf Hitler 563
PICASSO AND CUBISM Francisco Franco 564
IMPACT THE ARTS 541
FRANKLIN DELANO ROOSEVELT
FAUVISM 541 AND THE NEW DEAL 564
Henri Matisse 541 PHOTOGRAPHY AND THE FSA = 565
CUBISM 542 Dorothea Lange 565 Walker Evans 565
Pablo Picasso 543 Georges Braque 543 Margaret Bourke-White 566 Louise Dabl-
Sonia Terk Delaunay 543 Wolfe 566 Lola Alvarez Bravo 567
FUTURISM 543
Critical Thinking / Photography and Truth 568
Gino Severini 543
REGIONALISM IN AMERICAN PAINTING — 568
GERMAN EXPRESSIONISM = 545
Edward Hopper 568 Thomas Hart Benton 568
Emil Nolde 545 Vassily Kandinsky 545 Jacob Lawrence 568
MUSIC 546
SOUTHERN REGIONALIST WRITING 569
Igor Stravinsky 546 The Rite of Spring 546
William Faulkner 569 Flannery O’Connor 570
THE GREAT WAR AND AFTER 548 THE AMERICAN SOUND __ 570
WORLD WARI = 548
Charles Ives 5371 Aaron Copland 571
THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION AND AFTER 548 George Gershwin 571
DADA 549
MH Connections / Art as Politics 572
Marcel Duchamp 550
THE JAZZ AGE 572
SURREALISM 551
@ Cross Currents / Diego Rivera and the Detroit
Joan Miro 551 Salvador Dali 552
Murals 573
Meret Oppenheim 552
Scott foplin 573 Louis Armstrong 573
DESTYL 553
Duke Ellington 574
Piet Mondrian 553
@ Cultural Impact 575
ABSTRACTION IN SCULPTURE = 553
Constantin Brancusi 553 Barbara Hepworth 553
Henry Moore 553
CHAPTER 22
ARCHITECTURE 554
Walter Gropius 5534 Le Corbusier S55 Modern Africa and Latin
Frank Lloyd Wright 555 America 577
AMERICAN MODERNISM — 555
MODERN AFRICA 579
Georgia O’Keeffe 555
THE SCRAMBLE FOR
AFRICA AND COLONIAL
™@ Cross Currents / Russia & The West: The Ballets RULE 579
Russes 556
VARIETIES OF COLONIAL RULE 580
Charles Demuth 556
COLONIALISM AND CULTURE 581
MODERNIST LITERATURE 556 Religion 581 Nationalism 581
 CONTENTS xv

INDEPENDENT AFRICA 582 SCULPTURE 608

SCULPTURE 582 ~ Alexander Calder 608 Isamu Noguchi 608
MUSIC 583 Pop CULTURE 608
M Connections / The Mask as Dance 584 @ Then & Now / Coffee: The Bean That Wakes
The Lion King: The Saga of a Song 584 Up the World 609
@ Then & Now/ Timbuktu 585 ARTISTS OF THE EVERYDAY 610
LITERATURE 585 Robert Rauschenberg 610 Louise Nevelson 612
Andy Warhol 612 Roy Lichtenstein 612 Claes
‘Chinua Achebe 585 Wole Soyinka 585 Oldenburg 613 Marisol 613 Happenings 614
M Then & Now/ Twins 586 MINIMAL AND CONCEPTUAL ART 614
John Maxwell Coetzee 586 Donald Fudd 614 Sol LeWitt 614 Bridget
Riley 615 Christo and feanne-Claude 615
MODERN LATIN AMERICA 586
PAINTING — 587 HM Connections / Rauschenberg, Cage,
Colonial Art 587 The Mexican Mural and Cunnigham 616
Movement 587 Frida Kahlo 588 Wilfredo ARCHITECTURE 616
Lam 588 Fernando Botero 588
Richard Rogors and Renzo Piano 616
MUSIC 588 Frank Gehry 617

M Cross Currents / Bach in Brazil 592 LITERATURE: THE BEATS 617

LITERATURE 592 Jack Kerouac 617 Allen Ginsberg 618

Jorge Luis Borges 592 @ Then & Now / The Movies Past and Present 619
@ Critical Thinking / Magic Realism 593 THE POPULARIZATION OF CLASSICAL
MUSIC 619
Gabriel Garcia Marquez 593 Isabel Allende 593
The Boston Pops 619 Musical Theater 620
@ Cultural Impact 594 Leonard Bernstein 620 Andrew Lloyd Weber 620
LATE MODERN MUSIC 620
Critical Thinking / The Popularity of the Beatles 620
ROCK AND ROLL 621
CHAPTER 23
@ Cultural Impact 621
Mid-Twentieth Century
and Later 597
MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY
AND LATER 599 CHAPTER 24
MB Critical Thinking / Diversity in Contemporary
The Weekend 600 Life 623
COLD WAR AND ECONOMIC RECOVERY — 600
DIVERSITY IN THE UNITED
THE VIETNAM WARS — 600 STATES 624
THE PHILOSOPHY OF EXISTENTIALISM — 601 POSTMODERNISM 624
Jean-Paul Sartre 602 Simone de Beauvoir 602 PAINTING AND SCULPTURE 625
ABSTRACTION IN AMERICAN ART 602 Judy Chicago 625 Guerrilla Girls 626 Eleanor
Jackson Pollock 602 Lee Krasner 602 Willem Antin 627 Susan Rothenberg 627 Betye
de Kooning 603 Mark Rothko 603 Helen Saar 627 Jean-Michel Basquiat 627 Fudith
Frankenthaler 604 Lois Mailov Jones 604 F Baca 628 Lisa Fifield 629 Maya Lin
and the Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial 629
ARCHITECTURE 605 Mariko Mori 631
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 605 Le Corbusier 605
STRUCTURALISM
Frank Lloyd Wright 605 AND DECONSTRUCTION 631
MODERN DRAMA _ 606 THE DIVERSITY OF AMERICAN VOICES — 632
© Cross Currents / Abstract Expressionism Adrienne Rich 632 Maxine Hong Kingston 632
in Japan 607 Toni Morrison 632 Judith Ortiz Cofer 632
xvi CONTENTS

&@ Cross Currents / The Sculpture of Wen-Ying Tsai 633 Mi Critical Thinking/ The Pros and Cons
of Globalization 636
Oscar Hijuelos 633
N. Scott Momaday 633 THE EXAMPLE OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL
PAINTING 636
Mi Connections / Vaclav Havel, Playwright
and Politician 634 @ Cultural Impact 638
Leslie Marmon Silko 634
THE GLOBAL VILLAGE 634 GLOSSARY 640
GLOBALIZATION 634 PICTURE CREDITS AND FURTHER
@ Then & Now/ Navigating the Web 635 INFORMATION 655
MAGICIANS OF THE EARTH _ 635 INDEX 659
PREFACE

As in our first two editions of Arts and Culture, we provide versal in all of us, no matter where or when we may live.
in this Third Edition an introduction to the world’s major These are the aesthetic principles and predilections that
civilizations—to their artistic achievements, their history, link all of us together.
and their cultures. Through an integrated approach to the
humanities, Arts and Culture offers an opportunity to view
works of art, read literature, and listen to music in histor- MAKING CONNECTIONS
ical and cultural contexts.
Works of art from different cultures reveal common We believe that a study of the humanities involves more
human experiences of birth and death, love and loss, pleas- than an examination of the artistic monuments of civiliza-
ure and pain, hope and frustration, elation and despair. tions past and present. In our view, it also involves a con-
Study of the humanities—literature, philosophy, history, sideration of how forms of human achievement in many
religion, and the arts—reveals what others value and be- times and places echo and reinforce, as well as alter and
lieve, inviting each of us to consider our personal, social, modify each other. An important aspect of humanities study
and cultural values in relation to those of others. involves seeing connections among the arts and ideas of a
In studying the humanities, we focus our attention on given culture and discovering relationships between the
works of art that reflect and embody the central values and arts and ideas of different cultures. We have highlighted
beliefs of particular cultures and specific historical moments. three forms of connections that are especially important:
In our approach we consider the following questions:
1. Interdisciplinary connections among artworks of an in-
1. What kind ofartwork is it? To what artistic category does it be- dividual culture
long? These questions lead us to consider a work’s type. 2. Cross currents among artworks of different cultures
2. Why was the artwork made? What was its function, purpose, 3. Transhistorical links between past and present, then
or use? Who was responsible for producing it? Who paid for and now
or commissioned it? These questions lead us to consid- 4. The cultural impact or influence of one culture on later
er the context of a work. cultures
3. What does the work express or convey? What does it reveal
These forms of connection invite our readers to locate re-
about its creator? What does it reveal about its historical and
lationships among various humanities disciplines and to
social context? These questions lead us to considera-
identify links between the achievements of diverse cul-
tions of a work’s meaning.
tures. Discovering such connections can be intellectually
4. How was the artwork made or constructed? This question stimulating and emotionally stirring since the forms of
leads us to consider materials and techniques. human experience reflected in the works of art of many
5. What are the parts or elements ofa work ofart? How are these cultures resonate with common human concerns. These
parts related to create a unified artwork? ‘These questions artworks address social questions about who we are, philo-
lead us to considerations of formal analysis, under- sophical questions about why we exist at all, and religious
standing the ways the artwork satisfies aesthetically. questions concerning what awaits us after death. These
6. What social, cultural, and moral values does the work express, and other perennial questions and the varying perspec-
reflect, or embody? This question leads us to consider tives taken on them have been central to many cultures,
the social, cultural, and moral values of an artwork. and find expression in their arts. To highlight these ques-
tions, we have included the following features throughout
In Arts and Culture, we highlight the individual artistic the text.
qualities of numerous works, always in view of the cultural
worlds in which they were created. We discuss each work’s INTERDISCIPLINARY CONNECTIONS
significance in conjunction with the social attitudes and
cultural values it embodies, without losing sight of its in- For example, one type of interdisciplinary connection ap-
dividual expression and artistic achievement. pears in the ways the music and architecture of Renais-
Two important questions underlie our choice of works sance Florence were influenced by mathematical
in Arts and Culture: (1) What makes a work a masterpiece proportion and ancient notions of “harmony.” Mathe-
of its type? (2) What qualities of a work of art enable it to matics played a crucial role in all the arts of the Renais-
be appreciated over time? These questions imply that cer- sance. Architects were guided in the design of their
tain qualities appeal to something fundamental and uni- buildings by mathematical ratios and proportions; com-
Xvi
XViil PREFACE

posers likewise wrote music that reflected mathematical Smith, Latina/Latino writers such as Sandra Cisneros and
ratios in both its melody and harmony. Oscar Hijuelos, and Australian Aborigine artists.
Throughout the book, we have tried to present the arts
and cultures of the world to suggest their richness, variety,
CULTURAL CROSS CURRENTS and humanity. As a reader of Arts and Culture you can find
These reflect the ways artistic ideals, literary movements,
in these pages the background necessary to understand not
and historical events influence the arts of other cultures. only the artistic achievements of many civilizations but
For example, Turkish military music found its way into also the representation of human experience in all its com-
the symphonies and piano compositions of Viennese com- plexity. In a time of rapid social change when the world’s
posers, such as Mozart and Beethoven. Japanese wood- cultures are becoming increasingly globalized, it has be-
block prints influenced the art of the Impressionist painter come necessary to understand the values of human beings
Claude Monet and the Post-Impressionist painter Vincent around the world. The common humanity we share has
van Gogh. And the dynamic cybernetic sculpture of con- been recorded, inscribed, and celebrated in arts and
temporary artist Wen-Ying Tsai weds Western technol- achievements of all cultures.
ogy with ancient Chinese aesthetic principles.

LEARNING TOOLS
THEN & NOW FOR STUDENTS
Also considered are connections between the past and
Arts and Culture offers a number of learning tools for stu-
present. Then & Now offers discussions of a wide range of
dents. A helpful starter kit appears at the beginning of the
subjects that form various types of historical bridges.
book, giving readers a brief introduction to the study of
the visual arts, literature, music, history, and philosophy.
CULTURAL IMPACT Each chapter begins with a full-page timeline and Chap-
ter Overview to introduce the chapter’s content. Maps
This feature appears at the end of the end of each chapter. and tables appear within each chapter to further illustrate
It explains the influence of one culture or civilization on and organize important information. Each chapter ends
later ones, showing how the essential, broad themes ex- with a list of key terms as well as suggested websites for
plored in the chapter continue to impact today’s world. further study. A glossary appears at the end of the book;
terms in the glossary are highlighted in boldface in the
text.
GLOBAL COVERAGE
Arts and Culture includes a wide-ranging overview of the
world’s civilizations. In addition to Western culture, we
BOOK FORMAT
examine the civilizations of Africa, China, India, Japan, For flexibility in teaching, Arts and Culture is available in
Latin America, and Mesoamerica. We emphasize the con- three volumes: Volume I contains chapters 1-13, Volume
tributions of women, from the eleventh-century writings II contains chapters 13-24, and the Combined Volume
of the Japanese Murasaki Shikibu, the twelfth-century contains chapters 1-24. Chapter 13 on The Renaissance
music of the German Hildegard of Bingen, and the four- and Mannerism in Italy appears in both Volumes I and II,
teenth-century writings of the Italian Christine de Pizan, so instructors have the flexibility to cover the Renaissance
to the Renaissance painting of the Italian Properzia while using either volume. Additionally, reading selections
de’Rossi, or the Baroque still lives by the Flemish Clara appear at the end of each chapter in Volumes I and II, but
Peeters, to the Rococo art of the French painter Marie- not in the Combined Volume; instructors preferring a sin-
Louise-Elisabeth Vigée-Le Brun and the numerous gle volume text without readings may select the Combined
women writers, painters, sculptors, architects, and pho- Volume.
tographers of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries from
many parts of our world. In the final chapter of Arts and
Culture we bring together a broad spectrum of styles,
voices, and perspectives, which, although focusing on con-
NEW IN THE THIRD EDITION
temporary multicultural America, reflects trends and in- In this Third Edition of Arts and Culture, we have pre-
fluences from around the globe. We highlight a number of served the book’s key features but have made important
current issues in the arts including how technology has adjustments and necessary corrections of fact and per-
globalized the arts. The numerous and varied contribu- spective throughout. We have also expanded and con-
tions of artists and writers include works by Native Amer- tracted various discussions to create a better balance among
ican painters such as Lisa Fifield and Jaune Quick-to-See the arts and humanities and to improve the historical
 PREFACE xix

contexts. In doing so, we have added many new photo- NEW ORGANIZATION OF INFORMATION
graphs to accompany néw discussions, in addition to re-
placing numerous photographs from the previous edition Highlights of our new content include a new organiza-
with images that better reflect the original artwork. tion of the chapters, combining Prehistoric, Mesopotami-
an, and Egyptian Civilizations, a separate chapter for
Early Chinese and for Early Japanese Civilizations, and
EXPANDED COVERAGE OF HUMANITIES major restructuring of the chapters on the twentieth
FROM AROUND THE GLOBE century.
We have responded to requests to expand coverage of hu-
manities from around the globe. Chapter 7 on Indian Civ-
ilization has been revised and expanded with new material.
Former chapter 9 on Early Chinese and Japanese Civi- FACULTY AND STUDENT
lizations has been expanded into two new chapters, Chap-
ter 8 on Early Chinese Civilization and Chapter 9 on Early
RESOURCES TO ACCOMPANY
Japanese Civilization, each with extensive new material. ARTS AND CULTURE
Chapter 10 has been augmented with new material on Music for the Humanities CD—This music CD is in-
early African civilization, along with coverage of the early cluded with each new copy of the text. Musical selec-
Americas. In the second half of the book, we have revised tions represent important works from a broad variety of
our coverage of China and Japan, expanding the material time periods and styles.
in chapter 19 on Chinese Civilization and in chapter 20
on Japanese Civilization. Chapter 22 on Modern Africa Humanities Notes—This tool is designed to help stu-
and Latin America has also been revised and expanded dents organize their course notes. For each chapter of
with new material. the book, it includes key illustrations and short extracts
from the text with a space next to each where students
may take notes. Humanities Notes can be packaged at a
INCREASED FOCUS ON WOMEN ARTISTS substantial discount with the book upon request.
‘Twenty-four women painters, sculptors, and photogra- OneKey—OneKey is Prentice Hall’s exclusive course
phers, from the sixteenth to the twentieth century, active management system that delivers all student and in-
in various parts of the globe, have been added. The Third structor resources in one place. Powered by Blackboard
Edition of Arts and Culture places greater emphasis on the and WebCT, OneKey offers an abundance of online
accomplishments of women than is found in any other study and research tools for students and a variety of
book on global humanities. teaching and presentation resources for instructors, in-
cluding an easy-to-use gradebook and access to an image
library. For more information, go to www.prenhall
CRITICAL THINKING .com/onekey
In addition to retaining the popular boxed features from
Companion Website [M—With the Arts and Culture
the first two editions, we have added a new feature in each
Companion Website, students have access to this ex-
chapter. This Critical Thinking boxed feature invites stu-
tensive online study resource, which includes quizzes,
dents to do just that—think critically about an aspect of
web links, chapter objectives, and more. Please visit the
culture relevant to each chapter. Companion Website at www.prenhall.com/benton.
Instructor’s Manual with Tests—An invaluable profes-
NEw Topics FOR CONNECTIONS, sional resource and reference for new and experienced
CROSS CURRENTS, anp THEN instructors, providing chapter summaries, further topics
for discussion, activities, and hundreds of sample test ques-
& NOW Boxes
tions, these resources are carefully organized to make
We have updated several of the boxed features. New top- preparation, classroom instruction, and student testing
ics have been provided for all of the special boxed features: smoother and more effective. ISBN: 978-0-13-228392-2.
Then & Now, Connections, and Cross Currents.
TestGen—This computerized test management program
allows instructors to select items from the test bank and
NEw READINGS design their own exams. ISBN: 978-0-13-228393-9.

Many of the reading selections at the end of each chapter Fine Art Slides and Videos—For qualified adopters,
in Volumes J and II are new. Some longer works have been slides and videos are available. Contact your local Pren-
scaled back to make space for a greater variety of selections. tice Hall representative for more information.
xx PREFACE

The Prentice Hall Atlas of the Humanities—Prentice We would like to thank the following reviewers, who of-
Hall collaborates with Dorling Kindersley, the world’s fered us wise counsel: Jane Anderson Jones, Manatee
most innovative producer of maps and atlases. This atlas Community College; Richard Mahon, Riverside Com-
features mulit-dimensional maps that include global, munity College; Brian A. Pavlac, King’s College; Danney
thematic, regional, and chronological perspectives show- Ursery, St. Edward’s University; Richard A. Voeltz,
ing political, economic, and cultural changes over time. Cameron University; and Katherine Wyly, Hillsborough
It is available at a significant discount when packaged Community College.
with the text. ISBN: 978-0-13-238628-9. We want to thank Margaret Manos for her excellent
work on early versions of the manuscript, and for her wise
and extremely helpful advice in making decisions on what
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS to cut and what to add for the previous edition. In addition,
Arts and Culture represents the cooperative efforts of many we would like to extend our appreciation to A. Daniel
people. The book originated with a suggestion fifteen years Frankforter of Pennsylvania State University, for his many
ago by Tony English, then of Macmillan Publishing. Work helpful corrections and suggestions on the history portions;
on the project began with Tony and his Macmillan col- to Jane Pyle of Miami Dade College for expanding our
leagues and continued with Prentice Hall when Simon & music coverage; to Stephen Addiss of the University of
Schuster acquired Macmillan in 1993. At Prentice Hall we Richmond for his work revising and expanding our Asian
had the good fortune to work with Bud Therien, Pub- chapters; to Jonathan T: Reynolds of Northern Kentucky
lisher, who oversaw the book’s development in every re- University for his expansion of the African chapters; and,
spect, and Clare Payton, Development Editor, who helped finally, to Bill Christy of Ohio University for his work on
shape the first edition. the timelines, key terms, and web links.
Also deserving of particular mention for their work on We also wish to thank our reviewers for this third edi-
the first edition are Sylvia Moore for her contribution to the tion. Their comments and suggestions helped us in many
introductory materials, Jenny Moss for her work on the ways. Thanks to: Lynn Spencer, Brevard Community Col-
timelines and glossary, and Ailsa Heritage and Andrea Fair- lege; Richard A. Voeltz, Cameron University; Scott H.
brass for their imaginative work on the maps. Boyd, College of DuPage; Richard Mahon, Riverside
We owe thanks to Henry Sayre, without whom we Community College; and Jane Anderson Jones, Manatee
could not have completed the first edition of Arts and Cul- Community College.
ture on schedule. Professor Sayre helped us shape the drafts We would also like to thank each other for offering
of our chapters, melding our styles and recommending or- mutual support, encouragement, advice, and help
ganizational changes that have resulted, we believe, in an throughout a long and sometimes arduous process of
integrated and compelling overview of the humanities. writing, revising, and editing. Our families, too, deserve
For the Third Edition, we owe a special debt of grati- our thanks, for without their patience and understand-
tude to Amber Mackey, Acquisitions Editor, who ably ing we could not have completed our work with equa-
shepherded Arts and Culture through the revision process. nimity and good humor. In particular, the encouragement
Our thanks also go to Sarah Touborg, Editor-in-Chief, and loving support of our spouses, Elliot Benton and
Melissa Feliberty, Executive Marketing Manager; Leslie Mary DiYanni, enabled us to do our work on Arts and
Osher, Creative Director; Bruce Hobart, Production Ed- Culture with a minimum of anxiety and a maximum of
itor; and Carla Worner, Editorial Assistant. pleasure.
INTRODUCTION

Arts and Culture is an introduction to the humanities, from sounds, the ephemeral arts such as music and dance could
the earliest times to the present day. The goal of the book be described but not reexperienced. Therefore, some of
is to familiarize readers with a fundamental body of art, the oldest arts—music and dance of the ancient world, for
history, and ideas as a basis for understanding Western example—are lost. With the development of writing, hu-
and non-Western cultures. In demonstrating the interre- mans began the long process of liberating themselves from
lationships between the creators of art and the historical the tyranny of time. They began to communicate across
and social forces at work in various cultures, the text fos- space and time, leaving a record of their lives. In our own
ters an understanding of the creative process and the uses century, we have seen our recording abilities explode from
of the arts. sound recording and silent movies at the turn of the cen-
tury into the digitized world of the CD-ROM and the In-
ternet today. The result has been an unprecedented
THE HUMANITIES expansion in the humanities.
AND THE ARTS
The humanities are those areas of thought and creation THE ROLE OF THE ARTIST
whose subject is human experience. They include history,
philosophy, religion, and the arts. Broadly speaking, the The functions of the artist and the artwork have varied
arts are objects or experiences created by human beings. widely during the past five thousand years. In our time,
The role of the human creator, therefore, is central to any the artist is seen as an independent worker, dedicated to the
study of the arts since, ultimately, the arts and humanities expression of a unique subjective experience. Often the
are a record of human experience and concerns. The arts artist’s role is that of the outsider, a critical or rebellious fig-
convey information—a lyric poem or a water-color can ure. He or she is a specialist who has usually undergone ad-
describe or portray a summer’s day, for example—yet this vanced training in a university department of art or theater,
is not their primary function. More importantly, the arts or a school with a particular focus, such as a music con-
give form to what is imagined, express human beliefs and servatory. In our societies, works of art are presented in
emotions, create beauty, move, persuade, and entertain specialized settings: theaters, concert halls, performance
their audiences. spaces, galleries, and museums. There is usually a sharp
The arts include visual art and architecture, drama, division between the artist and her or his audience of non-
music, and literature, and photography and film. Seeing artists. We also associate works of art with money: art auc-
the arts within their historical and social context is neces- tions in which paintings sell for millions of dollars, ticket
sary for understanding their development. For example, sales to the ballet, or fundraising for the local symphony.
the figure of the biblical giant-killer, David, was popular In other societies and in parts of our own society, now
during the Renaissance in the Italian city-state of Florence. and in the past, the arts are closer to the lives of ordinary
Michelangelo’s David was commissioned by the Floren- people. For the majority of their history, artists have ex-
tine city officials (see fig. 13.27). Florence had recently pressed the dominant beliefs of a culture, rather than re-
fought off an attempt at annexation by the much larger belling against them. In place of our emphasis on the
city-state of Milan. Thus, the biblical David slaying the development of a personal or original style, artists were
giant, Goliath, became a symbol of Florentine cleverness trained to conform to the conventions of their art form.
and courage in defense of independence. It is a theme par- Nor have artists always been specialists; in some societies
ticular to its time and place, yet one that has been used and periods, all members of a society participated in art.
throughout history to express the success of the “little” The modern Western economic mode, which treats art as
a commodity for sale, is not universal. In societies such as
person against powerful exploiters.
that of the Navajo, the concept of selling or creating a sal-
able version of a sand painting would be completely in-
comprehensible. Selling Navajo sand paintings created as
RECORDS OF CULTURE part of a ritual would profane a sacred experience.
We study what survives, which is not necessarily all that Artists’ identities are rarely known before the Renais-
once existed. Not all arts survive the passage of time. Art sance, with the exception of the period of Classical Greece,
can be divided into the durable and the ephemeral, or when artists were highly regarded for their individual tal-
short-lived. Surviving objects tend to be large (the Pyra- ents and styles. Among artists who were known, there were
mids) or hidden (the contents of tombs). Until human be- fewer women than men. In the twentieth century, many fe-
ings created the means of capturing moving images and male artists in all the disciplines have been recognized.
xxi
XX INTRODUCTION

Their absence in prior centuries does not indicate lack of ans of the arts conduct research aimed at recreating the
talent, but reflects lack of opportunity. The necessary so- context of a given work. Armed with this information, the
cial, educational, and economic conditions to create art historian interprets the work in light of that context.
rarely existed for women in the past. Knowing, for example, that Guernica (see fig. 21.20), Pablo
Artists of color have also been recognized in the West Picasso’s anti-war painting, depicts an aerial bombing of a
only recently. The reasons for this absence range from the small village of unarmed civilians in the Spanish Civil War,
simple—there were few Asians in America and Europe drives its brutal images of pain and death home to viewers.
prior to the middle of the nineteenth century—to the com- Picasso chose black, white, and grey for this painting be-
plexities surrounding the African diaspora. The art of in- cause he learned of the attack through the black and white
digenous peoples, while far older than that of the West, photojournalism of the newspapers. Knowing the reason
did not share the same expressive methods or aims as for this choice, which may otherwise have seemed arbi-
Western art. Until recently, such art was ignored or dis- trary to modern viewers of the work, adds to the meaning
missed in Western society by the dominant cultural gate- of the image. Picasso’s choice of black and white also in-
keepers. tensifies the horrors he depicts.

CONTEXTS AND AESTHETICS

CRITICAL THINKING
Our understanding of the arts depends in part on our
knowledge of the historical and social context surrounding Among the most important purposes of any study of the
a work. For instance, for whom was a particular work in- arts and humanities is to develop habits of mind, includ-
tended—a private or a public audience? What was or is its ing critical thinking. By critical thinking, we do not mean
setting—public, private, accessible, or hidden? How is the “being critical” of something in the ordinary sense. Rather,
work related to the economic workings of its time: for ex- we mean developing a capacity to analyze and synthesize,
ample, was it commissioned by a ruler, a religious organ- compare and contrast, understand causes and effects, un-
ization, a group of guildspeople, a corporation? Was it derstand, appreciate, and evaluate the cultural produc-
created by nuns or monks, by peasants, or by specially- tions—the architecture, sculpture, painting, photography,
trained craftspersons? Each of these considerations ex- film, literature, music, philosophy, and other arts of all civ-
pands our understanding of a given work, even when we ilizations, whether ancient or modern, and whether simi-
cannot know all the answers. lar to or radically different from our own.
The branch of philosophy devoted to thinking about Critical Thinking in this sense involves asking ques-
the arts is called “aesthetics.” Aesthetic knowledge is both tions, making observations and connections, drawing in-
intuitive and intellectual; that is, we can grasp a work of art ferences and provisional interpretive conclusions about
on an emotional level while at the same time analyzing it. the meaning of artworks and considering their importance
There is no single, unquestionable body of aesthetic to the civilizations in which they were created. It also in-
knowledge, although philosophers have tried to create uni- volves considering basic issues, such as: what does it mean
versal systems. Each culture has its own aesthetic prefer- to live in a society as an individual human being? To what
ences. In addition, different disciplines and different styles extent does living in one kind of society, in a particular
within a culture reflect different aesthetic values. civilization at a particular historical moment, affect one’s
thoughts, perceptions, attitudes, and feelings? How does
the world view of ancient Africans, Babylonians, Chinese,
FORM AND CONTENT Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Sumerians, and others com-
pare and contrast with one another and with those of peo-
When discussing works of art, it is useful to distinguish ple living in different cultures around the world today?
between the form of the artwork and its content. The form Each chapter of Arts and Culture contains much infor-
of a work of art is its structural or organizing principle— mation and analysis that invites such considerations. And, al-
the shape of its content. A work’s content is what it is though the book does not contain study questions or review
about—its subject matter. At its most basic, formal analy- assignments (those can be found in supplements to Arts and
sis provides a description of the apparent properties of an Culture), it does contain, in each chapter, a highlighted brief
artwork. Artists use these properties to engineer our per- discussion labeled “Critical Thinking.” You are invited to
ception and response. In music, for example, a formal think about the issues raised in each of those discussions, as
analysis would discuss the melody, the harmony, and the for example, why cows are considered sacred in India, a
structure. In visual art, comparable elements would be line, Hindu civilization, along with the effects of treating cows as
color, and composition. The goal of formal analysis is to sacred animals, as well as considering what “sacred cows,”
understand how an artwork’s form expresses its content. in a metaphorical sense, exist in your own culture.
Contextual approaches to the arts seek to situate art- An additional thought about such critical thinking ques-
works within the circumstances of their creation. Histori- tions is that when we study civilizations of the past, we are
 INTRODUCTION xxiii

not just studying cultural artifacts and learning about his- critical to understanding ourselves in today’s world. We
torical events. Additionally, we are learning about people, put before you for critical consideration the notion that
human beings, who, like us, experience joy and sorrow, studying the humanities not only adds to your stock of
frustration and elation, pleasure and pain. And, finally, here knowledge, while enriching your own life and imagina-
we will use the word “critical” in still another sense, for tively extending its possibilities but also deepens your ap-
the study of the humanities disciplines through history is preciation of other peoples and their values.
STARTER KIT

THE HUMANITIES FUNCTIONS AND GENRES

This Starter Kit provides you with a brief reference guide In the most general terms, the functions of the arts can be
to key terms and concepts for studying the humanities. divided into religious and secular art. Religious or litur-
The following section will give you a basis for analyzing, gical art, music, or drama is used as part of the ritual of a
understanding, and describing art forms. given religion. Art that is not religious art is termed
secular art. Secular art is primarily used to provide plea-
sure and entertainment, but among other functions has
been its use in the service of political or propaganda ends.
COMMONALITIES Each discipline has subsets, called genres. In music, for
We refer to the different branches of humanities—art and example, we have the symphony, a large, complex work
architecture, music, literature, philosophy, history—as for orchestra, in contrast to a quartet, written for only four
disciplines. The various humanistic disciplines have many instruments. In literature we might contrast the novel,
key terms in common. However, each discipline has defin- with its extended narrative and complexities of character,
ing characteristics, a distinct vocabulary, and its own con- with the compression of a short story. From the seven-
ventions, so that the same word may mean different things teenth to the nineteenth centuries, certain subjects were as-
in different disciplines. signed higher or lower rank by the academies that
Every work of art has two core components: form and controlled the arts in most European countries. Portrait
content. Form refers to the arrangement, pattern, or painting, for example, was considered lower than history
structure of a work, how a work is presented to our sens- painting. That practice has been abandoned; today the
es. Content is what a work is about its meaning or sub- genres are usually accorded equal respect and valued for
stance. The form might be a Tang Dynasty painting; the their distinctive qualities.
content might be the beauty of nature in a particular place.
To comprehend how the form expresses the content is
one of the keys to understanding a work of art, music or
literature. THE VISUAL ARTS
The term artist is used for the producer of artworks in
any discipline. All artworks have a composition, the The visual arts are first experienced by sight, yet they often
arrangement of its constituent parts. Technique refers to evoke other senses such as touch or smell. Because human
the process or method that produced the art. The medium beings are such visual creatures, our world is saturated with
is the physical material that makes up the work, such as visual art, in advertising, on objects from CD covers to
oil paint on canvas. billboards, on TV and the Internet. The visual arts occur
in many varieties of two-dimensional and three-dimen-
sional forms, from painting, printmaking, and photogra-
phy, to sculpture and architecture.
STYLE
As is the case with other arts, the origins of the visual
We use the term style to mean several different things. arts are now lost. However, their development represents
Most simply, style refers to the manner in which some- a milestone in human civilization. Drawing, the represen-
thing is done. Many elements form a style. Artists work- tation of three-dimensional forms (real or imagined) on a
ing at the same time and place are often trained in the two-dimensional surface, is an inherent human ability, and
same style. When mentioned in a text, historical styles are failure to draw by a certain stage in a child’s growth is a sign
usually capitalized, as in Classical Greek art, referring to the of serious trouble. The creation and manipulation of im-
arts of that particular time and place, which shared dis- ages was and is a first step toward mastery of the physical
tinct characteristics. If used with lowercase letters, such as world itself.
classical style, the term refers to works which, although not The visual arts use different methods. Representation
from Classical Greece, are similar in character to Classi- is an ancient function of visual art, in which a likeness of
cal Greek art, or to Roman art, which was largely derived an object or life form is produced. Artists use different
from Greek forms. methods to represent a subject (what is actually depicted,
Conventions are accepted practices, such as the use of such as a portrait of a person, a still life, a landscape, a his-
a frontal eye in a profile face, found in the art of the ancient torical event, etc.). If the work is realistic, the subject is
Egyptians, or the use of the sonnet form by Shakespeare accurately depicted and readily recognizable. If the work
and his contemporaries. is abstracted, the subject, although not photographically
Xxiv
 STARTER KIT xxv

Visual Arts
Line: A mark ona surface. Lines may be continuous or bro- horizon line

ken. They are used to create patterns and textures, to imply

three dimensions, and to direct visual movement.

Shape: An area with identifiable boundaries. Shapes may

be organic, based on natural forms and thus rounded or
irregular, or they may be geometric, based on measured
forms.

Mass: ‘The solid parts of a three-dimensional object. An

area of space devoid of mass is called negative space; while One-point perspective
positive space is an area occupied by mass.

Form: ‘The shape and structure of something. In discus- ed

horizon line

sion of art, form refers to visual aspects such as line, shape, my Sane say

color, texture, and composition.

Color: The sensation produced by various wavelengths of

light. Also called hue. Red, blue, and yellow are the
primary colors, which cannot be made‘from mixing other
colors. Secondary colors (orange, green, and purple) are
hues produced by mixing two primary colors.
Two-point perspective

Value: ‘The lightness or darkness of an area of color, or as

measured between black and white. The lighter, the high-
er in value it is; the darker, the lower in value.

Texture: The appearance or feel of a surface, basically Perspective: A system of portraying three-dimensional
smooth or rough. Texture may be actual, as the surface of space on a two-dimensional surface. In one-point linear
a polished steel sculpture, or implied, as in a painting of perspective, lines recede toward a single vanishing point
human flesh or the fur of an animal. on the horizon line. In two-point perspective there are
two vanishing points. Atmospheric or aerial perspective
Composition: ‘The arrangement of the formal components uses properties of light and air, in which objects become
of a work, most frequently used to describe the organiza- less distinct and cooler in color as they recede into dis-
tion of elements in a drawing or painting. tance.

recorded, is nevertheless identifiable. If the work is nonob- tieth century, are more concerned with the elements on
jective there is no longer a recognizable subject. the picture plane (the surface of the paper or canvas) rather
Realistic paintings, drawings, and prints often create an than in creating an illusion of depth.
illusion of pictorial space (an illusion of three dimensions
on a two-dimensional surface) by using perspective. There
FORMAL ANALYSIS
are two types: 1) atmospheric perspective, and 2) linear
perspective, both defined in the box above. ‘These are char- To analyze a work of visual art formally, its visual elements
acteristic of Western art, whereas Eastern art tends to Em- are considered without reference to the content, whereas
phasize the picture plane. Landscapes, as Zho Jan’s Seeking moving to more sophisticated levels involves the content as
the Tao in the Autumn Mountains (Figure 8.8), does not em- well. At its simplest, the content is what is represented, the
ploy Western methods of creating illusions of space. In- subject matter, whether a person, an orange, or a flag. How-
scriptions, as in Shitao’s Searching for the Past (Figure 19.5), ever, the image may not stop with the representation; there
by stressing the picture plane, further compress the sense may be a symbolic element. It is useful to distinguish be-
of space. Abstract and nonobjective art, arising in the twen- tween signs and symbols. Signs convey visual information
xxvi STARTER KIT

strokes. The composition is dynamic; the artist has used

exaggerated diagonals to suggest a dramatic perspective
for the bridge. The figure at the front is the focal point.
The craft is secondary to the expressive purpose of the
work. .
It should be obvious that in The Scream more is going
on than the preceding analysis indicates. Three people are
on a bridge at sunset. Two are walking away; one stands
transfixed with his hands over his ears. The expression on
his face functions as a sign to convey shock or horror. ‘Io
understand the significance of his expression, we turn to
the historical context and the artist’s life. Munch, a Nor-
wegian artist who worked in the late-nineteenth and early-
twentieth centuries, was one of the artists who rejected
conventions and created personal symbolic systems, based
largely on his experience. The Scream is usually interpreted
as representing a screaming person. This is not correct.
As we know from the artist’s diary, the work refers to the
“scream of nature.” The image captured is a powerful evo-
cation of a sensitive man overwhelmed by nature’s power,
which his companions cannot sense. The swirling lines
suggest the impact of screaming nature on this person.
The blood-red sky resonates as a symbol of savage nature
oblivious to the puny humans below.

FIGURE 0.1 Edvard Munch, The Scream, 1893, tempera and

COMPONENTS OF THE VISUAL ARTS
casein on cardboard, 36 X 29” (91.3 X 73.7 cm), Nasjonal- The basic elements used to construct a work of visual art
galleriet, Oslo. © 2003 The Munch Museum/The Munch- are line, shape, mass, form, color, value, texture, and com-
Ellingson Group/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New position. While many drawings are executed in black medi-
York/ADAGBP, Paris. J. Lathion/© Nasjionalgalleriet 02.
ums, such as pencil and charcoal, on a white ground, color
is a vital ingredient of art, especially important in convey-
ing information as well as emotion to the viewer. Color
economically by means of images or words. Symbols are affects us both physically and psychologically and has sig-
images that have resonance, or additional meaning. Works nificance to us both in our personal lives and in our cultural
of visual art may use both signs and symbols. Artists use traditions.
symbolic systems, part of the visual language of their time. There can be no color without light. In the seventeenth
Like all languages, these must be learned. Sometimes artists century, Sir Isaac Newton observed that when sunlight
create their own symbols. passed through a glass prism it was broken up, or
Iconography is the language of symbols. The refracted, into rainbow colors. Our perception of color
iconography of a work of art is often religious in nature. depends upon reflected light rays of various wavelengths.
For example, different representations ofJesus derive from Theorists have arranged colors on a color wheel (fig 0.2)
incidents in his life. To understand the deeper levels of the that is well-known to students of painting and even young
work, it is necessary to understand the iconography. The schoolchildren. On it are the primary colors—red, yellow,
use of personal iconography by an artist is a relatively re- and blue—and secondary colors—orange, green, and
cent development of the past few centuries. purple. Some wheels show tertiary colors such as yellow-
The following analysis of The Scream by Edvard Munch green and red-purple. The primary colors cannot be cre-
(fig. 0.1) will serve as an example of this process. Viewed ated by mixing other colors, but secondary and tertiary
formally, the major visual elements used by Munch in this colors are made, respectively, by mixing two primaries, or
painting are line and color. There are two kinds of lines: primaries and secondaries, together. Complementary col-
the geometric lines that form the sharply receding bridge ors are those opposite each other on the wheel, so that red
contrast with the swirling organic lines of the main figure is opposite from green, orange from blue, and yellow from
and the landscape, sea, and sky. There is little or no mod- purple. Many artists have studied and worked with the
elling or shading. The colors contrast bright red and yel- optical effects of color, especially the French Impres-
low with rich blue, offset by neutral tones. The Scream is a sionist Claude Monet and the Post-Impressionist Georges
painting executed on cardboard with rapid, loose brush- Seurat.
 STARTER KIT xxvii

YELLOW
YEUy the sculptor gradually builds up the desired form by mod-
On,“Op eling it. The scale of the sculpture is not limited, as it
Sy
would be by the size of a block of stone or piece of wood.
Because the material is soft, an armature (a rigid struc-
@)
ture, usually of metal) may be needed for support. The
? L
artist can continually revise the form while working, and
can easily make changes. For this reason, wax and clay are
2
often used to make small studies for sculpture to be carved
on a larger scale in stone.
foe) Ww Alternatively, a work modeled in clay or wax, which are
Naq4y9-4M18 rather impermanent materials, may be cast in metal—tra-
RED-ORANGE
ae
ditionally, bronze is used. A small statuette can be cast
solid, as the tiny bronze horse shown in Figure 2.15, but
S J a large piece, as the huge statue of Marcus Aurelius shown
in Figure 4.19, must be hollow. This is not only because of
the expense and weight, but because, were it solid, the
R, AN bronze, which must be heated to make it molten for the
“© ky
lL :
Ney \2
(Cus casting process, would crack as it gradually cooled.
aw The material selected by the sculptor affects the form
VIOLET
of the finished work, or, conversely, the sculptor selects
the material according to the form he or she wishes to cre-
FIGURE 0.2. Color wheel.
ate. For example, bronze is very strong—a figure made of
bronze could be posed as if balancing on one toe, where-
as the same figure, if carved of stone, would be likely to
break.
SCULPTURE
Assembled Sculpture. A modern type of sculpture is the
A sculpture is a three-dimensional form made by carving,
mobile, invented by the American Alexander Calder. As
modeling, or assembling. Unlike paintings, drawings, and
the name suggests, the sculpture, which is usually sus-
prints, which have two dimensions (height and width), sculp-
pended from the ceiling, actually moves with every breeze.
tures have three dimensions (height, width, and depth).
As Figure 23.11 shows, the colored shapes are linked to-
gether, and a delicate balance carefully achieved. Calder
Subtractive Sculpture. Using materials that have natu-
also created stabiles, which used the same brightly col-
ral solid mass, such as stone, wood, or ivory, the sculptor
ored metal shapes, but rest on the ground and do not
shapes the work of art by removing material, cutting it
move.
away, usually with a hammer and chisel. The finished work
Another modern form of sculpture is the assemblage
must fit within the dimensions of, for example, the block
made of found objects, sometimes called ready-mades.
of marble. Obviously, the work must be planned carefully
As the term “assemblage” suggests, the mixed-media sculp-
in advance, for if a major error is made in carving, such as
ture is created by assembling or compiling various bits,
breaking off an extremity of a figure, correction is virtu- pieces, and objects, as was done by Robert Rauschen-
ally impossible. berg in Figure 23.13.
Physical strength may be required to carve in stone, as
the Seated Buddha (Figure 7.6) of schist. However, greater
control is required to carve in wood, as the Yoruba mask
ARCHITECTURE
from the Republic of Benin (Figure 22.1), due to the vary-
ing resistance offered by the wood, depending upon Architecture is a branch of the visual arts that combines
whether the sculptor cuts with or against the grain. practical function and artistic expression; it is art to in-
Marble is the traditional medium for sculpture. Mar- habit. The function served by a building usually deter-
ble, limestone, and sandstone are all essentially calcium mines its form. In addition to the purely useful purpose of
carbonate, the difference being the size and density of the providing shelter, architecture answers prevailing social
crystalline structure of the stone. Limestone and sandstone needs. The use of architects to design and erect public and
are grainier, softer, and more easily worked than marble. religious structures has given rise to many innovative forms
They have a mat surface, whereas marble can be polished throughout history. Architecture reflects the society in
to a shine. which it is built. Structural systems depend upon the avail-
able building materials, technological advancements, the
Additive Sculpture. Using materials that have no natu- intended function of the building, and aesthetics of the
ral mass, shape, or dimensions, such as plaster, clay, or wax, culture. The relationship between a building and its site,
XxVill STARTER KIT

or location, is integral to architecture. The Greek Literature, in the broadest sense, is widely apparent in
Parthenon (fig. 0.3), for example, crowns a hill overlook- everyday life. Popular songs, magazine essays, greeting
ing Athens. The elevated location indicates its importance, card verse, hymns and prayers are all forms of literature.
and the pathway one must ascend to reach the Parthenon One meaning of the word Jiterature, in fact, is what is
is part of the experience. A striking example of the adap- written. Generally, however, the term “literature” is re-
tation of architecture to the natural environment is seen in served for those works that exhibit “the best that has been
homes of the Anasazi culture at Mesa Verde, Colorado, thought and said,” works that represent a culture’s highest
built into the cliff (Fig. 10.14). literary achievements.

LITERATURE LITERACY AND LITERATURE

SPEECH, WRITING, AND LITERATURE The Development of Literature. Literature predates lit-
eracy. Ancient literature was oral—spoken—rather than
Literature differs from the visual arts since it is not built written. To make it easier to remember and recite, much
from physical elements, such as paint and stone; nor is it of this was in the form of song or poetry. The invention of
composed of sound as is music, but from words, the basic writing enabled people to communicate across space and
elements of language. Paint and sound have no intrinsic time. It was with this invention that recorded history was
meaning; words do. Speech depends on meaningful units born. The earliest writings of the ancient world are busi-
of sound—words, which are the building blocks of com- nesslike records of laws, prayers, and commerce—in-
munication in language. Literature presupposes language, formative but not expressive. When mechanical methods
with its multitudes of meaning (content), its grammar (rules of printing were developed, literacy spread. Today, uni-
for construction), and its syntax, the arrangement of words. versal literacy is a goal in all civilized countries.
Language, essentially communicative, has many func-
tions. We use language to make emotional contact with The Functions of Literature. Literature serves a variety
others: for example, a parent using baby talk to a child too of social functions. One of its most ancient functions is as
young to understand the meaning of words. Through lan- religious literature, the prayers and mythology of a given
guage we convey information to each other, as in the class- culture. The myths of the Greeks and Romans have ex-
room, where a dialogue between teacher and student is erted a powerful influence on Western culture; their origins
part of the educational process. All literature is language, lie deep in the history of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Epic
but not all language is literature. Distinguishing between literature, such as the African Epic of Son Jara, or the sagas
literature and other forms of language is sometimes diffi- from Norway and Iceland, were passed down by oral tra-
cult, but refinement in language and careful structure or dition. Literature distinct from liturgical or epic forms was
form typically characterize literature. invented by the ancient Greeks, and, broadly speaking in-
cluded history, philosophy, drama, and poetry. Novels and
short stories as we know them today were a much later de-
velopment. The novel in its modern form was named for
tales popular in Italy in the late-thirteenth century, though
FiGurE 0.3 Ictinus and Callicrates, Parthenon, Acropolis, the novel is generally identified with prose narratives that
Athens, 448-432 B.C.E. developed in the eighteenth century in Europe.
Since literature is a communicative act, it is important
to consider the audience and setting. Silent reading is a
recent development, alien to the oral roots of literature.
Most literature through the ages was meant to be recited,
sung, or read aloud in groups ranging from general pub-
lic gatherings to the intimate setting of the private home.
Authors today may give readings from their work in li-
braries, bookstores, and educational institutions.

FORMS OF LITERATURE
Literature can be divided into fiction and nonfiction, po-
etry and prose.
Poetry is distinguished by its concentrated and precise
language, “the best words in the best order,” as one poet
defined it. Diction is the poet’s selection of words, and
 STARTER KIT xxix

NEL 5 .
RR weet a shite, Sow: Same Se es
eat a ar oR RT ere
rer

Architecture
Architect: One who designs and supervises the construction Column: A supporting pillar consisting of a base, a cylin-
of buildings. Ideally, the architect is part builder with a drical shaft, and a decorative capital at the top. Three Clas-
sound knowledge of engineering principles, materials, sical orders, established in ancient Greece, are the Doric,
structural systems, and other such practical necessities, as Ionic, or Corinthian, identified by the capital.
well as part artist who works with form, space, scale, light,
and other aesthetic properties. Post and Lintel: A basic structural system dating from an-
cient times that uses paired vertical elements (posts) to
Scale: The relative size of one thing compared to another. support a horizontal element (lintel).
The relationship of a building to another element, often
the height of a human being. Arch, Dome, and Vault: An arch consists of a series of
wedged-shaped stones, called voussoirs, locked in place by
Site: The location of an object or building. Care must be a keystone at the top center. In principle, an arch rotated 180
taken to choose a solid, attractive, and appropriate build- degrees creates a dome. A series of arches forms a barrel or
ing site. tunnel vault. When two such vaults are constructed so that
they intersect at right angles, a cross or groin vault is cre-
Structural System: ‘The engineering principles used to cre- ated. Roman and Romanesque masons used semi-circular
ate a structure. Iwo basic kinds of structural system are arches, whereas Gothic masons built with pointed arches to
the shell system, where one or more building materials create vaults that were reinforced with ribs, permitting large
such as stone or brick provide both support and covering, openings in the walls. The true arch, dome, and vault are
and the skeleton and skin system, as-in modern sky- dynamic systems—the lateral thrust that they exert must be
scrapers with steel skeletons and glass skin. buttressed externally to prevent collapse.

Keystone

Keystone

Romanesque Gothic Barrel (tunnel) vault Cross (groin) vaults

syntax the ordering of those words in sentences. Other in a novel or play, or short and concise, as in a novella or
poetic elements include images—details that evoke sense short story. Nonfiction, which deals with actual events or
perception—along with metaphor and other forms of com- persons, includes expressions of opinion, such as political
parison. With its roots in song, poetry of many eras and essays. Functions of nonfiction include explanation, per-
places exhibits rhyme and other types of sound play as well suasion, commentary, exposition, or any blend of these.
as rhythm and meter, the measured pattern of accent in Sometimes philosophic essays and works of history are in-
poetic lines. Drama, plays intended for performance, are cluded in the category of literature.
sometimes written in verse, rhymed or unrhymed, as, for Fiction and drama, and much nonfiction as well, create
example, in blank verse. their effects through elements such as the plot, or story
Language that is not poetry is prose. Not all prose is lit- line, characters, description of the setting, dialogue be-
erature; some, such as journalism or technical writing, is tween the characters, and exposition, or explanation. The
purely descriptive or informative, as some visual art is pure- latter is presented in the voice of a narrator, who may rep-
ly representational. Literature can be fiction or non- resent the author using the third-person perspective, or
fiction, or a combination of both. Fiction is a work of the may instead be a character expressing a first-person point
imagination. Fictional forms can be long and complex, as of view.
xxx STARTER KIT

Literature
Fiction: Literature that is imaginative, rather than de- complicate the plot and move it forward to a climax, the
scriptive of actual events. Typical fictional forms are the moment of greatest intensity. This is followed by the den-
short story and the novel, which has greater length and ouement, the resolution of the plot.
complexity.
Characters: The people in a literary work. The leading
Nonfiction: An account of actual events and people. Forms character is known as the protagonist, a word stemming
of nonfiction include essays, biography and autobiogra- from ancient Greek drama in which the protagonist was
phy, and journalistic writing, as for newspapers and mag- opposed by an antagonist.
azines.
Dialogue: Conversation between two or more characters.
Narrative: The telling of a story; a structured account of Drama is mainly rendered through dialogue; it is used in
events. fiction to a lesser extent.

Narrator: ‘The storyteller from whose point of view the Setting: Where the events take place; includes location,
story is told. The point of view can be first-person or time, and situation. In theatrical productions, a set is the
third-person, and may shift within the work. The narra- scenery, sometimes very elaborate, constructed for a stage
tor can be omniscient, knowing everything, or limited to performance. In films the set is the sound stage or the en-
what she or he can know personally or be told by others. closure where a scene is filmed.

Plot: ‘The plan or story line. To plot a story is to conceive Exposition: Explanatory material, which, especially in
and arrange the action of the characters and the sequence drama, often lays out the current situation as it arises from
of events. Plots typically involve rising action, events that the past.

In common with visual art and music, literature has History is a powerful force that shapes the humanities
themes, or overarching ideas that are expressed by all the as a whole. The writing of history varies across cultures,
elements working together. The structure of a work of lit- and as cultures change, history itself is continuously under
erature is analogous to the composition of a symphony or revision. The leaders of some societies would never allow
a painting. Writers use symbolism, much as visual artists the publication of versions of history that vary from their
do. A successful work of literature will likely establish a orthodox beliefs, no matter what the facts might be. Be-
mood, hold the reader’s interest through a variety of inci- cause history is an interpretative discipline, several ver-
dents or ideas with evident focus, yet possess an-overall sions of events may coexist, with scholars arguing and
sense of unity. defending the merits of each. This is particularly true in
Autobiography, as a separate literary and historical en- our multicultural and pluralist era.
deavor, began with the Confessions of St. Augustine
(354-430 C.E.), in which he told the story of his life and the
progress of his religious convictions. Autobiography is his-
tory written from a subjective point of view. The memoir,
MUSIC
so popular in recent years, is descended from this first, We are surrounded by sounds at all times. The art that de-
spiritual autobiography. rives from our sense of hearing is music, order given to
Biography is a branch of both literature and history. sounds by human intent. A temporal art, one that exists in
The author’s role is complicated because a biographer must time, music is the least material of the arts, its basic ele-
check the facts of the subject’s life, usually by interviewing ments being sound and silence. Silence in music is analo-
both the subject and many other people. Deciding the gous to a painter’s, sculptor’s, or architect’s use of negative
major theme of a person’s life, the relationship between space: unoccupied but important, so that the intervals be-
that person and his or her time, and considering what is tween the notes are necessary parts of a musical piece.
true as well as what is germane are the biographer’s re- Music permeates our daily lives—in the movies, on radio
sponsibility. Different biographers may offer quite differ- and television, in elevators and stores. The success of the
ent interpretations of a subject's life. Sony Walkman and the recently developed MP3 players
 STARTER KIT xxxi

reflects our human desire to surround ourselves with ments, deriving from the hunting bow, have strings
music. stretched between two points; sounds are produced when
Until the development of sound recording, music was they are plucked, strummed, bowed, or struck.
one of the ephemeral arts, like dance and live theater, Woodwinds are hollow instruments that were originally
which exist only for the duration of their performances. made of wood, such as the flute, recorder, and panpipes.
Until the late Middle Ages, music in the West was not Reed instruments, such as the oboe, are woodwinds that
written down, or notated. It was taught by ear, passed on use a mouthpiece created from a compressed reed. Brasses
from one generation to the next. are metal horns like the tuba, trumpet, and cornet. In ad-
dition to their musical function, brasses were long used by
the military to communicate over distances in battle or in
SOCIAL AND RITUAL ROLES camp. Using a prearranged trumpet call, the commander
Music has many different functions. It has been and re- could sound “retreat” or “charge.”
mains a major element in religious ritual. It is also used
frequently in collective labor; the regular rhythm that char-
acterizes work songs keeps the pace steady and makes the MUSICAL QUALITIES AND STRUCTURE
work more fun. For example, aerobics classes and workout
Musical structure ranges from a simple tune or rhythm to
tapes depend on music to motivate exercisers and help
the intricacy of a symphony or an opera. The tone, or
them keep the pace. On the other hand, parents use lul-
sound of a specific quality, is the basis of all music, using
labies to lull their babies to sleep.
varieties of high or low pitches and timbres with varying
Since the late Middle Ages, Western music has devel-
intensity and tempos. Music appeals to our emotions
oped many conventional types. These genres vary with the
through tempo, musical color or timbre, and harmonic
audience, the instruments, and the musical structures.
structure. We associate different emotions with different
Liturgical music was designed for churches, used sacred
timbres. The harp, for example, evokes gentleness or calm,
texts, and took advantage of church acoustics. The soaring whereas brasses evoke more stirring emotions.
vaults of Gothic cathedrals were perfect for the music of Musical structure can be simple, such as Ravel’s Bolero,
the Middle Ages. Music known as chant or plainsong is which uses the repetition of a single melody with increased
simply the human voice singing a religious text without tempo and volume to build to a climax. Increases in tempo
instrumental accompaniment. When the voice is unac- generate excitement, literally increasing the listener’s heart
companied, it is known as a cappella. When the sound is rate and breathing speed. These qualities were used to
made by specialized devices, called instruments, the music good advantage in Blake Edwards’s film 10. Composers of
is termed instrumental. movie music manipulate our emotions expertly, heighten-
Secular, that is nonreligious, music brought about other ing the appeal of the action.
forms. Chamber music, instrumental music that was orig- The comparatively uncomplicated pop songs we sing
inally played in palaces for royalty and nobility, calls for are based on melodies, a succession of notes, with accom-
more intimate spaces, a small ensemble of players, and panying words. We are also familiar with the 32-bar struc-
small audiences. Orchestral music is the most public and ture of most pop and rock music, in which verses alternate
complex form, involving a full orchestra and a concert hall, with repeated choruses. To appreciate and enjoy more
where the acoustics, or quality of sound, is very impor- complex music, some understanding of structure is im-
tant. Popular music, often shortened to pop, appeals to portant. The simple song “Row, Row, Row Your Boat,”
a wide audience. It includes rock, folk, country, rap, and familiar to many of us from childhood, is a round or
other types of music. Jazz is an improvisational form that canon; the same melody is sung by each voice, but voices
arose in the United States from blues and ragtime. enter one after the other, creating overlapping notes, or
Musical theater, as the name implies, is a combination of chords. More elaborate forms stemming from such sim-
drama and music. Its songs often enter the pop repertoire ple structures are found in classical music, beginning with
as show tunes. Opera, a narrative in which both dialogue European music of the eighteenth and nineteenth cen-
and exposition is sung, combines music with literature and turies.
drama. Harmonic structure is a complex topic. Western music
is written in keys, a system of notes based on one central
note, such as the key of C Major. The different keys have
INSTRUMENTS their own emotional connotations. A minor key is often
Musical instruments, which vary widely across cultures, associated with sadness; a major key seems happier or
can nevertheless be grouped in families. Probably most more forceful. Notes that seem to fit together are conso-
ancient are the percussion instruments, which make noise nant, while clashing notes are dissonant. Generally, con-
as they are struck. Drums, blocks, cymbals, and tam- sonance seems peaceful or happy to most people, while
bourines are percussion instruments. Stringed instru- dissonance may be unsettling.
Xxxil STARTER KIT

Acoustics: ‘The qualities of sound, often used to describe Tone: A sound of specific pitch and quality, the basic build-
the relationship between sound and architecture, as in a ing material of music. Its properties are pitch, timbre, du-
concert hall. ration, and intensity.

Vibrations: ‘Trembling or oscillating motions that produce Note: The written symbol for a tone, shown as whole
sound. When singers or stringed instruments produce a notes, half notes, etc. These indicate the time a note is
wavering sound, causing a fluctuation in pitch, it is termed held, with a corresponding rest sign. Notation is the use
vibrato. of a set of symbols to record music in written form.

Pitch: ‘The sound produced by vibrations. ‘The speed of vi- Melody: ‘The succession of notes or pitches played or sung.
brations controls the pitch: slow vibrations produce low Music with a single melodic line is called monophony, while
pitches; fast vibrations produce high pitches. music with more than one melodic line is polyphony.

Tempo: The speed at which music is played or sung. This Texture: In music, this refers to the number of diffent melod-
is shown on sheet music, usually in Italian terms, by tempo ic lines; the greater the number, the thicker the texture.
marks that indicate the desired speed. A device called a
metronome can indicate tempo with precision. Harmony: The combination of notes sung or played at one
time, or chords; applies to homophonic music.
Timbre: The characteristic sound or tonal quality of an in- Consonance refers to the sound of notes that are agree-
strument or voice. Also termed color, it can refer to the able together; dissonance to the sound of notes that are
combination produced by more than one instrument's tim- discordant.
bres, as orchestral color.

NON-WESTERN MUSIC The best way to learn about and listen to music from
other times, places, and traditions, is to understand it
Music of the non-Western world shares with Western within its cultural context and to approach differences
music a tradition of early oral transmission and an affilia- with an open mind and an attentive ear. Whether you are
tion with the values and beliefs of its originating culture. listening to Japanese shakuhachi music, which has a cer-
Like Western music, too, music of non-Western traditions emonial quality, or to Indonesian gamelan music, with
has undergone change and reflects the influence of musi- its uniquely orchestral combination of xylophone, bronze
cal traditions with which it has had contact over the cen- bowls, gongs, flutes, percussive and plucked instruments,
turies. or to African Mbira music, with its repetitive melodies
Nonetheless, there are distinctive differences among and strong dance connections, the route to understand-
the world’s many and varied musical traditions, and a num- ing and enjoyment is to be willing to entertain new
ber of differences between Western and non-Western mu- sounds, new combinations of instruments, and new mu-
sical forms, textures, and harmonic, melodic, and rhythmic sical experiences.
systems. Pentatonic scales, for example (the 5-note scales
illustrated by the black piano keys), are of non-Western
origin. Micro-tones, pitches that exist between the half- HISTORY, RELIGION,
tone steps of traditional Western musical scales, are an-
other non-Western influence. So too are the intricate
AND PHILOSOPHY
rhythmic patterns of Indian music, as performed by tabla History, the recording and explanation of events, and phi-
players as they accompany master musicians performing on losophy, the search for truth, have both influenced the arts.
the sitar, an instrument that produces sounds, pitches, and These subjects have themselves evolved as humanistic dis-
harmonies beyond the scope of those common to Western ciplines. Aesthetics, the branch of philosophy concerned
music. with the functions, practice, and appreciation of the arts,
 STARTER KIT xxxili

along with their role in society, is an important part of this of the nature of the divine, prescribes religious practices,
book and of cultural studies in general. moral beliefs, and rules for social behavior. The dominant
religion in a culture often controls the art, either directly
by training artists and commissioning art, or indirectly.
HISTORY The medieval Catholic belief in the efficacy of relics to
heal or give aid, for example, led to the practice of pil-
Unlike expressive literature, or fiction, history is an inquiry
into and report upon real events and people. Until the
grimage, and from that to the creation of churches and
Greek historian Herodotus, traveling in the Mediterranean
cathedrals. As religious orders acquired holy relics, they
lands of the sixth century B.C.E., turned his questioning and
housed them in shrines within the churches. Problems
arose when the many pilgrims who came to be healed and
skeptical eye on the received beliefs and tales of peoples he
blessed disrupted services. Romanesque architects then
met, history was inseparable from religious faith and folk
developed the ambulatory, or walkway, that allowed pil-
memory. Herodotus began as a kind of cultural anthropol-
grims to see the relics without interrupting worshipers at
ogist, and he deliberately distinguished his historical writ-
a service, thereby altering religious architecture. Differ-
ing from the epic tradition by writing prose. Historians
ent religions hold different aesthetic beliefs. Nudity was ac-
have since developed methods of inquiry, questioning the
ceptable in the temple statues of Classical Greece and
likelihood of stories and delving into the motives of their
Hindu India. Islam prohibits any figurative images in
informants. They learned to consider nonhistorical ac-
places of worship, and some Native Americans believe a
counts and records as checks on the official versions of
permanent house of worship is itself inappropriate.
events. They began to consider the psychological motives
In many cultures, philosophy and religion are inter-
of the people they chronicled. The artistry of their pres-
twined. Confucianism, Taoism, Hinduism, and Buddhism
entation became a part of the discipline.
are all based on intricate philosophical systems that be-
come allied with various social and religious beliefs and
practices. Like religion, philosophy is concerned with the
RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY
basic truths and principles of the universe. Both are also
Religion has played a crucial role in the development of the concerned with human perception and understanding of
arts, which provide images, sounds, and words for use in these truths, and with the development of moral and eth-
worship, prayers, and religious stories. Theology, study ical principles for living.
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ARTS AND CULTURE

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMANITIES
 CHAPTER 1

ca. 35,000—10,000 8.c&. Homo sapiens begins supplanting Neanderthal in Europe

ca. 8000-3000 8.c. Farming replaces hunting
co. 3000 8.C.£. Bronze Age begins in Mesopotamia and Egypt
ca. 2700 B.C. King Gilgamesh reigns in Sumer
ca. 2332-2279 8.c£. “King Sargon |rules Akkad
1792-1750 8.c&. King Hommurabi reigns in Babylon unites Sumer and Akkad
co. 3100 B.C.e. King Narmer unites Upper and Lower Egypt
1674.8.c£. —_Hyksos invade northern Egypt
1478-1458 8.c£. Queen Hatshepsut rules
é 2 1479-1425 B.ce. —King Thutmose III, first pharaoh, rules
1352-13368. ‘King Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) rules
‘ ca. 1336-1327 B.c£. King Tutankhamen rules
ja} @ 689 B.c£., 648 8.c£ Assyrians sack Babylon
669-627 8.6. — Ashurbanipal reigns in Assyria
525 B.CE. Persia conquers Egypt

ART AND ARCHITECTURE

ca. 25,000—20,000 8.c.e. Woman of Willendorf
co. 15,000-10,0008.c£. © Wall paintings at Lascaux
ca 8000-3000 8.c. © Wall paintings in the Valtorta Gorge
ca. 2530-2470 8.ce. «=> Great Pyramids at Giza
co. 25008.c£. Great Sphinx
ca. 2500-20508.c£ —Ziggurat of King Urnammu
ca. 2300-2200 8.c.e. Victory Stele of Naram-Sin
ca. 20008. Stonehenge
co. 31008.c£. Palette of Narmer
ca. 2600 8.c£ Stepped Pyramid of Zoser
co. 24708.c£ Statue of Mycernius and Khamerernebty
ca. 1478-1458 8.c£. ‘Temple of Queen Hatshepsut Nobleman Hunting in the Marshes
1352-1336 B.cE. Queen Nefertiti sculpture
12608.c£. Temple of Amen-Mut-Khonsu
Temple of Ramesses II
ca.6508.c& Limestone relief of Sack of the City of Hamanu by Ashurbanipal

LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

ca. 100,0008.c£. Evidence of religious practice

ca. 33008.c£ —_ Earliest preserved tablets with pictographs
co. 3000 B.C. Writing begins in Mesopotamia
ca. 2500 B.C.E. Papyrus in use in Egypt
2040-1786 8.c£. —_Hieratic (cursive) writing develops during the Middle Kingdom
be ca. 1900-1600 a.c.e. The Epic of Gilgamesh, first written down by Akkadians
ca. 17608.c£. Stele inscribed with the Law Code of Hammurabi
196 B.CE. Rosetta Stone
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Map 1.1 The Ancient Near East and the Fertile Crescent.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

THE EARLIEST CULTURES THE OLD KINGDOM

Prehistoric society and the birth of the visual arts Dynasties 3-6: The rise of the pyramids,
sculpture, and relief painting
MESOPOTAMIA: THE CRADLE
OF CIVILIZATION THE MIDDLE KINGDOM
The expansion of agrarian peoples’ borders and Dynasties 11-14: Egypt prospers
ideas in the ancient Near East
THE NEW KINGDOM
THE CIVILIZATION OF THE NILE Dynasties 18-20: A mature and powerful Egypt
A divided Egypt comes together through a shared rules in art and world politics
culture and religion
 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS 5

THE EARLIEST CULTURES wild horses were abundant), on which they depended for
food.
CULTURE IS A WAY OF THINKING AND living estab-
Wall Paintings. What is known of Paleolithic life de-
lished by a group of people and transmitted from
rives largely from paintings found in caves, particularly in
ne generation to the next. It is, in other words,
the Franco-Cantabrian area of southern France and north-
the basis of communal life. A culture’s collective values are
ern Spain. The most famous prehistoric wall paintings are
expressed in its arts, writings, customs, and intellectual
those in the cave at Lascaux, France (fig. 1.1), which were
pursuits. The ability of a culture to express itself well, es-
created between ca. 15,000 and 10,000 B.c.£. The Lascaux
pecially in writing, and to organize itself thoroughly, as a
paintings are quite naturalistic. Many of the animals—
social, economic, and political entity, distinguishes it as a
bison, mammoths, reindeer, boars, wolves, and horses—
civilization. It is important to note, however, that some as-
gracefully jump, run, and romp, conveying a remarkable
pects of civilizations predate writing—monumental archi-
sense of animation. Painting is done in blacks, browns,
tecture and urban organization, for example. Further, an
reds, and yellows, with most of the pigments used of min-
occasional civilization, such as that of the Inca, never de-
eral oxides, with deeper black from burned bones.
veloped writing.
How and why were these paintings created? The paint-
Just when the earliest cultures took form, and then sub-
ings at Lascaux and at Vallon-Pont-d’Arc, in the Ardéche
sequently transformed themselves into civilizations, is a
region of southern France, are located deep within the
matter of some conjecture among anthropologists, scien-
caves and are often very hard to reach. There is no evi-
tists who study humankind’s institutions and beliefs from
dence of human habitation where the paintings are lo-
the earliest times. The first historical evidence of a cul-
cated—instead, people seem to have lived at or near the
ture coming into being can be found in the artifacts of the
entrances to the caves, where natural light was available. It
earliest homo sapiens, or “the one who knows.” About
is thought that the artists worked by the light of oil lamps.
35,000 years ago, the hominid species homo sapiens, which
One theory holds that by creating these animals in paint,
had come into being about 200,000 B.c.E., probably in
deep within the caves, the artists may have hoped that
Africa, began to assert itself in the forests and plains of
more animals would actually be born. Associated with this
Europe, gradually supplanting the Neanderthal homo erec-
theory is the possibility that the superimposing, or layer-
tus who had roamed the same areas for the previous hun-
ing, of animals was intended to show them mating.
dred thousand years.
Both homo sapiens and homo erectus were tool makers, as Ritual and Religion. Unlike much of the art created in
even our earliest ancestors seem to have been. Kenya pithe- later eras, prehistoric art is thought to be related to ritual,
cus (the “Kenya ape”), for instance, which lived in the linked with prayer to placate the powers of nature. In a
Olduvai Gorge in east-central Africa between nineteen form of sympathetic magic, power could be gained over
and fourteen million years ago, made crude stone weapons elements of nature. For example, the theory that hunting
or tools. Homo sapiens and the Neanderthals both cooked rituals were performed in the caves to gain control over
with fire, wore skins as clothing, and used tools. They ev- the animals depicted there is strongly supported not only
idently buried their dead in ritual ceremonies, which pro- by the painting of spears on the animals, but also by actual
vide the earliest indications of religious beliefs and spearheads found driven into some of the painted animals,
practices. These activities suggest the transmission of which are shown to bleed as a result of their injuries. Thus,
knowledge and patterns of social behavior from one gen- in order to ensure a successful hunt, the animal may have
eration to the next. But between 35,000 and 10,000 been killed in effigy before the hunt.
B.C.E.—the last part of the period known as the Paleo- Art, religion, and ritual were bound together as images,
lithic, or Old Stone Age, when homo sapiens became more words, and physical movement were combined to achieve
and more dominant and the Neanderthal line died out— success in the hunt. Religion and ritual were critically im-
the first objects that can be considered works of art began portant for prehistoric cultures in which some measure of
to appear, objects that seem to express the values and be- control over nature was necessary for survival.
liefs of the Paleolithic people. The Paleolithic period thus Sculpture. Only a fraction of the sculpture made in pre-
represents the very earliest cultural era. historic times of durable materials such as ivory, bone,
horn, stone, and clay is known today, and still fewer sculp-
tures made of a perishable material, such as wood, remain.
THE PALEOLITHIC PERIOD Depictions of the human figure are rare in Paleolithic
The Paleolithic period corresponds to the geological Pleis- sculpture, and the few known are mostly female figures.
tocene era, or Ice Age. Periodically, glaciers moved south The most famous example of prehistoric sculpture is the
over the European and Asian continents, forcing the in- so-called Woman (or Venus) of Willendorf (fig. 1.2), a stone
habitants of the areas to move south, around the Mediter- figure small enough to be held in a hand, dated to about
ranean and into Africa. These people lived nomadic lives, 25,000-20,000 B.c.E., and named for the place where it
following animal herds (bison, mammoths, reindeer, and was found in western Austria near the Danube River.
6 CHAPTER 1

SP

FIGURE 1.1 Overview of the Hall of the Bulls, Lascaux, Dordogne, France, ca. 15,000-
10,000 B.C.E., cave painting. Prehistoric artists depicted with notable realism the animals on
which they depended for food. With very few exceptions, the animals represented in such
paintings are identifiable.

The Woman of Willendorf is highly stylized. The greatly Wall Paintings. In the Valtorta Gorge (fig. 1.3) on the
enlarged breasts and abdomen—which suggest preg- southeast coast of Spain, paintings that date from some-
nancy—indicate the work’s possible connection to human time after 8000 B.c.E. and possibly as late as 3000 B.C.E.
fertility. In fact, prior to the Neolithic period, almost no suggest that hunting remained the chief preoccupation of
other human types are known. Perhaps such figures were these peoples. But changes and advances are evident. Un-
a type of idol and were intended to promote human fer- like the paintings of the Franco-Cantabrian area that are
tility, much as the cave paintings of animals might have located deep in caves, the Valtorta Gorge paintings are on
been intended to “create” animals for the hunters. the smooth limestone walls in rock shelters and beneath
cliff overhangs. The subjects portrayed differ significantly
also, for here the human figure is given prominence, with
THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD
people shown hunting animals, fighting, and dancing to-
By 8000 B.C.E., possibly the most important transformation gether, as a group or community.
in the history of human civilization took place: Around A degree of narrative is evident in the Valtorta wall
the world, in the Near East, in South and Central Amer- paintings as the hunters, running from the left, attack the
ica, and in Southeast Asia, human beings ceased to hunt herd crossing a stream from the right. The composition is
and began instead to farm, plowing and planting seeds, organized with a definite flow to the chase, a sense of ac-
growing crops, and domesticating animals, using them not tion and movement conveyed by the lively postures of the
only as a reliable source of food and clothing but also as figures—indeed, this appears to be a record of an actual
beasts of burden, inaugurating what is known as the Neo- event. A superb document of early hunting techniques, the
lithic period, or New Stone Age. Hunters and gatherers scene shows hunters using the bow and arrow, a weapon
became herders and farmers, and more permanent soci- not seen in Franco-Cantabrian art.
eties began to develop.
This transformation from a nomadic life of hunting to Architecture. Prehistoric architecture survives only from
a more settled life of herding and agriculture revolution- the Neolithic period, and very little survives at all. Struc-
ized life for prehistoric peoples. One historian has char- tures made of wood, other plant material, or mud brick
acterized the Neolithic era as the matrix from which decayed and disappeared long ago.
civilization appears and provides the preconditions on The most famous example of prehistoric architecture is
which it rests. These preconditions include the ability to surely the cromlech, or circle of stones having a religious
grow wheat, maize, rice, and barley, along with the capa- purpose, known as Stonehenge (fig. 1.4), located on the
bility of domesticating formerly wild pigs, goats, sheep, Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England, and completed ca.
and cattle. These developments radically altered the con- 2000 B.c.E. A henge is a circle of stones or posts. Stone-
ditions of human existence. henge is not the only prehistoric cromlech to have sur-
 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS A

FiGurE 1.3. Herd crossing river, hunters with bows and

arrows, Valtorta Gorge, Levant, Spain, ca. 8000-3000 B.C.E.,
rock painting. Because humans are prominently depicted, are
shown using weapons, and because this scene has a definite
composition, the Valtorta Gorge paintings are believed to date
later than those at Lascaux.

nected with several “correspondences.” If you stand in the

center of Stonehenge and look to the so-called heelstone,
you see that the top aligns with the horizon. The sun rises
directly over the heelstone at the summer solstice, the
longest day of the year. On each of the four mounds were
other stones at horizon level—the one to the southwest is

FIGURE 1.2 Woman of Willendorf, found at Willendorf, Aus-

Figure 1.4 Stonehenge, Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, Eng-
tria, ca. 25,000-20,000 B.c.E., limestone, height 4" (11 cm),
land, completed ca. 2000 B.C.E., bluestone and sarsen, height
Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna. The so-called Venus of
of stones of outer circle 20’ (6.09 m). This enigmatic remnant
Willendorf is the most famous (but not the most physically dis-
of prehistoric architecture is believed to have been a monu-
torted) of several extant female figurines thought to be associ-
mental clock, laid out so the stones relate to the position of
ated with prehistoric beliefs about human fertility, or,
the sun at the summer and winter solstices.
alternatively, fat as a sign of physical beauty in an era when
food was scarce.

vived, but it is the most impressive and best preserved.

The outer trench is approximately 150 feet in diameter,
and the individual stones approximately 20 feet high.
There is a definite entranceway, as well as four mounds
evenly placed on the outer trench, and a central stone re-
ferred to as the altar stone. The huge upright stones form
an outer circle and two inner circles or U shapes. Some of
the stones are shaped into rectangles, and some also have
patterns cut into them. Stonehenge is constructed using
the post and lintel system—in its simplest form, two ver-
tical posts support a horizontal lintel. At Stonehenge, the
vertical posts have dowel pins carved into their uppermost
end, which fit into circular depressions carved on the un-
derside of the lintels at both ends, thereby locking the posts
and lintels together.
What can the purpose or function of so monumental
an undertaking have been? The answer seems to be con-
8 CHAPTER 1

at the point of the setting sun at the winter solstice, the to draw a curve with a reed stylus in wet clay. Between
shortest day of the year. Stonehenge, therefore, seems to 2500 and 1800 B.C.£., the sign for “cow” was first turned
be an enormous sun clock or calendar, based on the rising ninety degrees sideways and then converted into a series
and setting sun at the summer and winter solstices. of quickly imprinted wedges:

MESOPOTAMIA: THE CRADLE

OF CIVILIZATION
VPCOCE
By combining pictograms, more complex ideas—or
Even before Stonehenge was built in England, two far
ideograms—and even abstract ideas could be represented.
more advanced civilizations were developing in the Near
A bird next to an egg meant “fertility.” Two crossed lines
East: that of Mesopotamia and that of Egypt.
meant “hatred” or “enmity,” and parallel lines signified
Mesopotamian civilization developed in the valley between
“friendship”:
the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers: Mesopotamia is a Greek
word meaning literally “the land between two rivers.”
Consisting of the eastern part of what is known as the Fer-
tile Crescent, which extends northward along the eastern
coast of the Mediterranean through what is today Israel
Ze =a
and Lebanon, eastward into present-day Syria and Iraq, Sometime around 2000 B.C.E., another important devel-
and south down the Tigris and Euphrates valleys to the opment occurred, when pictograms began to represent
Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia was the most fertile and arable not only objects but sounds—the birth of phonetic writ-
land in the Near East, and perhaps, at the dawn of the Ne- ing.
olithic Age, the most fertile in the world. It was here, at any Assisted by these technical advances, three successive
rate, that around 9000 B.C.E. agriculture—literally, from civilizations—those of Sumer, Akkad, and Babylon—blos-
the Latin cw/tura, or cultivation, of the ager, land—was first somed in Mesopotamia over the following 1500 years.
fully developed.
By about 3000 B.c.E., two further developments had
Table 1-1 =DEVELOPMENTOF WRITING
re. + TI 4 7) RhEeV IAD LAE TAC IDITIKN IZA
taken place that had a decisive influence on the course of
civilization. Sometime after 6000 B.C.E. people learned to Cuneiform (Mesopotamian): wedge-shaped images incised in
mine and use copper; by 3000 B.c.E., they had discovered clay
that by combining tin with copper they could produce a Pictographic: pictures of objects as “words”—cow= 4/
much stronger alloy, bronze, which allowed tremendous
Ideographic: combinations of pictures as ideograms—
innovations in the production of weapons, tools, and jew- hatred = ><
elry. This marked the beginning of the Bronze Age.
The second development marks the move from pre- Hieroglyphic (Egyptian): pictures and sounds together
history into the first historical period—that is, a period for Phonetic (Phoenician): sounds as syllables
which written records exist. By about 3000 B.c.E., the peo- Alphabetic (Greek): letters as sounds
ple of ancient Mesopotamia were using written language,
known today largely from clay tablets that were first un-
earthed in the mid-nineteenth century. Chiefly the SUMER
province of the upper class and priests, this writing was The Sumerians, who lived at the southern end of the Tigris
accomplished in wedge-shaped cuneiform characters and Euphrates Rivers, founded the Mesopotamian cvi-
(from the Latin cuneus, meaning “wedge”) made with a lization between 3500 and 3000 B.C.E., contemporary with
stylus that was itself wedge shaped and that was pressed the beginning of Egyptian civilization. Sumerian culture
into wet clay tablets. The original purpose of this writing reached its zenith by approximately 2800-2700 B.c.k. It
seems to have been to keep agricultural records. Among was at this time that Sumer’s most famous king, GIL-
the oldest examples of cuneiform writing, for instance, is GAMESH [GIL-gah-mesh] (ca. 2700 B.c.E.), ruled Uruk,
a tablet from a temple complex at Uruk that lists sacks of one of the many independent city-states that grew up in
grains and heads of cattle. Cuneiform writing began as a Mesopotamia.
pictographic system. In its earliest form, the symbol for Each Sumerian city-state had its own local god and its
“cow” was an abstract “picture” of a cow’s head: own local ruler. The kings were not thought of as gods—

wa
rather, the god was considered the owner of the city-state,
with the king as an intermediary between the god and the
people. In each city-state, the buildings were clustered
But the pictographs were quickly abstracted even fur- around the temple of the city’s god. Religion focused on
ther, presumably in no small part because it was difficult seasonal fertility. Agricultural mythology included the Bull
 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS 9

of Heaven, whose fiery breath could burn crops, and Im- regularly placed openings. The ziggurat at Ur demon-
dugud, a lion-headed eagle whose wings covered the heav- strates the use of specific orientation in architecture, for the
ens in dark clouds, a good creature who brought rain and corners point north, south, east, and west.
ended droughts brought on by the Bull of Heaven. The actual temple was atop the ziggurat. Within the
Like most early religions, Sumerian and _ later temple, a statue of the god stood in the sanctuary, a long
Mesopotamian religions were polytheistic—that is, there room running the entire length of the temple. The lower
were many gods and goddesses, who often competed with levels of the ziggurat were covered with dirt and planted
one another for the attention of the worshipers. The gods with trees, thus creating the effect of a mountain with a
were human in form, and possessed human personalities and temple on top. This practice is explained by the belief that
foibles—that is, they were anthropomorphic. The four chief the gods lived on the mountain tops, so ziggurats brought
gods were Anu, the heaven god; Ninhursag, the mother god- worshippers closer to heaven.
dess; Enlil, the god of air; and Enki, the god of water. As
Sculpture. Although Sumerian sculpture includes occa-
human as the behavior of these gods might be, they were
sional secular subjects, most examples appear to be reli-
nonetheless clearly superior to humans, particularly by their
gious or commemorative in purpose, and to have been
immortality. The cuneiform sign for god is a star, which also
made for temples. The human figure is represented in a
means “on high,” or “elevated,” as well as “in the heavens.”
distinctive manner unique to Sumerian sculpture. The
Architecture. Sumerian domestic architecture seems to style is one of formal simplification, geometric and sym-
have consisted largely of houses that were square or rec- metrical. The figure type is squat in proportions, with
tangular in plan and built of mud brick. Archaeologists broad hips and heavy legs.
have not been able to work out the precise layouts of A statue formerly thought to represent Abu (Abu means
Mesopotamian cities, but it seems certain that at the heart “father” in Arabic languages), the god of vegetation (fig.
of the settlement would have been the temple. Sumerian 1.6), comes from a group of similar statues dated ca. 2600
temples were built on raised platforms known as ziggurats, B.C.E., carved of white gypsum, with black limestone and
an example of which is the Ziggurat of King Urnammu at white shell insets, found in the Abu temple at Tell Asmar.
Ur, in Iraq (fig. 1.5), constructed ca. 2500-2050 B.C.E. of Some of these statues may represent gods. Others may
sun-baked mud brick and, consequently, now greatly dis- represent worshippers. Curiously, it appears that Sumer-
integrated. The lowest level is fifty feet high. The walls ian people might have a statue carved to represent them-
are battered, that is, sloping, making them stronger than selves and do their worshipping for them—in their place,
vertical walls because they are self-buttressing. The walls as a stand-in. An inscription on one such statue translates,
are constructed with weeper holes to allow water that “Tt offers prayers.” Another inscription says, “Statue, say
collects in the masonry to run out through these small, unto my king (god) .. .”

FiGur—E 1.5 Ziggurat of King Urnammu (Nanna), Ur (El Mugetyar), Iraq, ca. 2500-2050
B.C.E., sun-baked mud brick. The Sumerians built their temples atop ziggurats—rectangular
mountains constructed of mud brick, with battered (sloping) walls.
10 CHAPTER 1

The king is, again, largest. On the two lower rows, booty
taken in battle is paraded in front of them, including cows
and animals of unidentifiable species.

Literature. The oldest known major literary work in the

world is The Epic of Gilgamesh, the earliest elements of
which date from about 1900 B.c.E., when Gilgamesh
reigned in the Euphrates city-state of Uruk. Legends about
Gilgamesh were told but not recorded until hundreds of
years after his death. Before about 2000 B.C.E., these sto-
ries were recorded on cuneiform tablets. From around
1900-1600 B.C.E. onward, the Gilgamesh stories were writ-
ten down by the Akkadians, a people who spoke an early
Semitic language related to both Hebrew and Arabic. The
earliest known version of the epic was discovered in the
seventh century B.C.E. in the library of the Assyrian king
Ashurbanipal (669-627 B.C.E.).
Like other ancient epics such as those of Homer (see
Chapter 2), The Epic of Gilgamesh includes elements of folk-
lore, legend, and myth that accrued over time. The work
is compiled of originally separate stories concerning Gil-
gamesh; Enkidu, a primeval human figure; Utnapishtim
[OOT-nah-PISH-tim], a Babylonian counterpart of Noah;
and a number of other figures.
The epic begins with a kind of prologue that emphasizes
Gilgamesh’s wisdom as a ruler and his importance to
recorded history. The prologue also characterizes him as
a semidivine figure, who, though not immortal, is coura-
geous, strong, and beautiful. He is also described as an ar-
rogant and oppressive ruler. When his people cry out for
help to their gods for assistance, the god Anu creates
FiGurE 1.6 Standing man, formerly thought to represent Enkidu, a primitive combination of man and wild animal,
Abu, the god of vegetation. From Tell Asmar, ca. 2600 B.C.E. a figure related to those depicted on the lyre from the tomb
White gypsum, insets of black limestone and white shell, height of Queen Puabi in Ur.
ca. 113” (29.8 cm), Fletcher Fund, 1940, Metropolitan Mu- The story of the mutually positive influences Gilgamesh
seum of Modern Art, New York. Sumerian statues are easily and Enkidu exert upon each other, of their developing
recognized by their large eyes, single eyebrow, and seemingly friendship, and their heroic adventures occupies the bulk
astonished facial expression. of the epic. An additional segment concerning Gilgamesh
in the Underworld forms a kind of epilogue. In their first
adventure, Gilgamesh and Enkidu confront and kill the
Although little Sumerian painting remains, decorative giant Humbaba. When the goddess Ishtar proposes that
objects have survived. A noteworthy example is an inlaid Gilgamesh become her lover, he refuses, which precipi-
standard (fig. 1.7), from Ur, dated ca. 2700-2600 B.C.E. tates the goddess sending the Bull of Heaven to destroy
The figures on this double-sided panel are made of shell the city of Uruk by famine.
or mother-of-pearl inlaid in bitumen, with the background The second adventure of Gilgamesh and Enkidu in-
formed from pieces of the blue stone, lapis lazuli, and ad- volves the slaying of the destructive Bull, the punishment
ditional bits of red limestone. The standard, on which for which is Enkidu’s death through illness. After losing
scenes of war are portrayed, is commemorative with events his companion, Gilgamesh journeys to visit Utnapishtim,
arranged in horizontal rows. On one side, on the top row, the only human ever granted immortality, but fails to learn
the king steps out of his chariot to inspect his captives. the secret of everlasting life, though he does return home
The king is shown to be taller than anyone else—his head having gleaned much else from the wisdom of Utnapish-
breaks through the border. On the two lower rows are tim. With this knowledge he rules as a wise king. Gil-
scenes of battle, with fighters wearing metal helmets, gamesh’s adventures are occasions for writers to explore
cloaks, fleece kilts, and riding in four-wheeled chariots. questions that will be raised again in later epics. What is
On the other side, on the top row, the victory feast is the relationship between human beings and their deities?
shown. The king and his officers sit in chairs and drink. How are human beings linked with the world of nature
 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS 11

Cross Current's
atSadi STs SR Ra La Seat a Ona

SUMERIAN MYTH AND THE BIBLE the mother-goddess of the Sumerians, 1700 B.c.£. Like most Akkadian texts, it
causes eight plants to sprout in this is probably based on Sumerian legend.
“YT “here are strong parallels between proto-Garden of Eden, and Enki, want- The story begins in a divine society
4. Sumerian mythology and the sto- ing to taste the plants, has another lesser where the gods, in order to satisfy their
ries in the biblical book of Genesis. For god pick them. Ninhursag is furious and material needs, had to work. Some gods,
instance, surviving Sumerian texts par- pronounces the curse of death upon the leaders, called Anunnaki, were pure
allel the story of Noah and the flood, in- Enki. This is a moment in the story that consumers, but the rest were laborers.
cluding an episode in The Epic of anticipates the biblical God’s fury at These last, called Igigu, finally revolted,
Gilgamesh—a huge flood did indeed in- Adam and Eve for eating the apple that creating the prospect of famine among
undate Mesopotamia about 2900 B.C.E. Satan has tempted them with and their the Anunnaki. It was Enki who resolved
In another Sumerian myth, the story of expulsion from the garden into a fallen the crisis by proposing that the gods cre-
Enki and Ninhursag, which is some world in which they must confront their ate a substitute labor force out of the clay
three hundred verses long, Enki, the mortality. Unlike Adam and Eve, how- of the earth, whose destiny it would be to
great Sumerian god of water, creates a ever, Enki is eventually restored to im- work and whose life would have a lim-
garden paradise in Dilmun by bringing mortality by Ninhursag, but the parallels ited duration. Thus, as in Genesis, hu-
water up from the earth. In Genesis 2:6, between the two stories are striking. mankind is created out of clay, must
a similar event occurs: “But there went Also close in spirit to the biblical Cre- labor, and is mortal.
up a mist from the earth, and watered the ation story is the Poem of the Supersage,
whole face of the ground.” Ninhursag, an Akkadian text written down about

A Nl a eR A el ARERR MS eA DET HONere

and animals? What are the obligations of friendship, fam- Daughter of the Akkadian kiing Sargon, Enheduanna wrote
ily, and public duty? How should we live in the face of works that in part assisted her father in his attempt to unite
mortality? Akkadia and Sumeria. Her best known poems are hymns to
The earliest known poet, from Mesopotamia, is the poet- Akkadian and Sumerian gods.and goddesses, most notably
priestess Enheduanna, who wrote in the Sumerian language. to Inanna, the Sumerian goddess of love.

Figure 1.7 Inlaid standard, from the “royal cemetery” at Ur, ca. 2700-2600 B.c.E., double-
sided panel, shell or mother-of-pearl, lapis lazuli, and red limestone, inlaid in bitumen, ca. 8” X
19” (20.3 X 48.3 cm), British Museum, London. Much like today’s comic strips, a series of
scenes are arranged in chronological sequence to tell a tale—in this case, that of a successful
battle, the victory feast, and the taking of war spoils.

TF TTS YT VUTC
[y Vy cyt)
SO ET I TK A SS

0O9OOOO
SO 80EO 6 D9 OFOO TOES OU GSOSS
— SSS ess SS
TOFS NH OPS GH OHD9S:
sewer © eS
SYED OT SR Kec em

1S en Oe =e
Tee Cet
e ESV I GWU VIE IVI TF \
A mepasn sabe Bat RECO 2A Be Bi Oe Oe ee ESS OB Eee SERRE RAOAOD

Te be,
CO FLD V2GSHS OG 49H OSGSEE SOF SOLE
ae eee ees eee ale eee
12 CHAPTER 1

Then & Now

EXPRESSIONS OF LOVE your beauty, honeysweet. You have cap- well being. Today, such expressions of
tivated me, let me stand trembling be- love and sexual desire lack any relation-
n display at the Istanbul Museum of fore you; Bridegroom, I would be taken ship to the fertility of the earth. What
the Ancient Orient is a 4,000-year- to the bedchamber.” In the Sumerian has remained constant, however, is the
old cuneiform tablet that contains a community, such lovemaking between a lovers’ expressions of desire for one an-
Sumerian love poem, possibly the oldest king and his priestess, which the groom other, with the ancient cuneiform tablet’s
written text that expresses sexual love. and bride represent, was a symbolic act, text as dramatically overt a statement of
An excerpt from the tablet translates as, designed to ensure the fertility of the sexual desire as might be expressed today.
“Bridegroom dear to my heart, goodly is Sumerian land and thus the community’s

AKKAD with the Law Code of Hammurabi (fig. 1.9), carved of

basalt ca. 1760 B.C.E., which stands seven feet high, is both
Under the leadership of King SARGON I, who ruled ca. a work of art and a historic legal document. Hammurabi’s
2332-2279 B.C.E., and his grandson and _ successor law code is the earliest known written body of laws. The
NARAM-SIN [NA-ram-sin], the Semitic people of Akkad code consists of 282 laws arranged in six chapters: 1. Per-
conquered all of the city-states of Sumer. Subsequently, sonal property; 2. Land; 3. Trade and commerce (this
the governors of these cities were ‘slaves” to the king of
Akkad, and he himself was a god to them.
The most celebrated example of Akkadian art is the FiGuRE 1.8 — Victory Stele ofNaram-Sin, ca. 2300-2200 B.C.E.,
Victory Stele ofNaram-Sin (fig. 1.8), ca. 2300-2200 B.c.E. limestone, height 6’ 6” (1.98 m), Musée du Louvre, Paris. This
A stele is a vertical slab of stone that serves as a marker. stone slab carved in relief served as a public monument to
The Victory Stele ofNaram-Sin, which is six and a half feet commemorate the military accomplishments of Naram-Sin.
high, is carved on one side only. At the top of the scene is In this, it deserves comparison to the palette of the Egyptian
a set of stars—the sign for Naram-Sin’s protecting gods— pharaoh Narmer (see fig. 1.17).
and below, Naram-Sin and his army victoriously climb a
mountain, as if to place themselves in closer proximity to
the gods, the defeated lying slaughtered or begging for
mercy at their feet. Naram-Sin himself, taller than the rest,
as is always the case in Akkadian depictions of royalty,
wearing the horned helmet used to identify the gods, and,
standing at the very top of the battle, on the bodies of two
victims, strides confidently to his place as the leader of all
Mesopotamia.

BABYLON
However powerful Sargon I and Naram-Sin might have
been, the Akkad kingdom lasted under two hundred years.
For the next three hundred years, until about 1900 B.c.E.,
Mesopotamia was subject to constant division and conflict
among its various city-states. Then a tribe of nomads, orig-
inally known as the Amorites, invaded the region from the
Arab peninsula and established a royal city in Babylon. In
1792 B.C.E., when HAMMURABI [hamooh-RAH-bee]
(r. 1792-1750 B.C.E.), the first great king of Babylon, took
power, the Sumerian and Akkadian city-states were uni-
fied as a single kingdom under his rule.
Sculpture. One of Hammurabi’s great accomplishments
was to codify the laws of the region. The stele inscribed
 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS 13

ASSYRIA
Babylon fell to the nomadic Kassite people in about 1550
B.C.E. This was followed by a period of relative cultural
decline, before the great ancient Mesopotamian civilization
was developed by the Assyrians. The Assyrian culture
began in the middle of the second millennium B.C.E.,
achieved significant power around 900 B.C.E., and lasted
until 612 B.C.E. when Nineveh and Syria fell. The ideals of
an imperialistic culture mobilized for conquest are re-
flected in the emphasis on fortifications and military sub-
jects in art.

Sculpture. Stone was abundant in the northern region

of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys where the Assyrians
originated, permitting them to produce large scale sculp-
ture. Between the ninth and seventh centuries B.C.E.,
stone guardian monsters were placed at gateways and de-
fined an Assyrian style; several examples survive, includ-
ing those from the palace of ASHURNASIRPAL II
[ash-er-na-SEER-pal] (r. 883-859 B.c.E£.) at Nimrud (fig.
1.10). The headdress is peculiar to Mesopotamian deities
and is similar to that worn by Shamash on the Babylon-
ian stele with the Law Code of Hammurabi. With the
body of a lion, wings of a bird, and head of a human, such
guardian figures were perhaps intended to combine
human intelligence with animal strength. Perhaps they
were intended to be frightening as well or to impress peo-
ple with the king’s power. Alternatively, they have been
said to represent the Assyrian god Nergal, whose em-
blem is a winged lion.
FIGURE 1.9 Stele inscribed with the Law Code of Ham- Seen from the front, only the two front legs of these
murabi, ca. 1760 B.C.E., basalt, height of stele ca. 7’ (2.13 m), creatures are visible. Seen from the side, four legs are
height of relief ca. 28” (71.1 cm), Musée du Louvre, Paris. visible and the creature appears to be walking. To
The significance of this legal document was made clear to the
make this monster appear correct both from the front
Babyionian people by the relief at the top of the stele that
depicts the sun god Shamash giving these laws directly to
and the side, the sculptor has generously given him five
Hammurabi, king of Babylon. legs!
Other than gateway guardians, Assyrian sculpture con-
sists mostly of reliefs—figures cut from a flat, two-di-
chapter seems strikingly modern, for it includes fixing of mensional background. Statues in the round—sculptures
prices, contracts, rates of interest, promissory notes, and that are freestanding and can be seen from all sides—are
credit); 4. Family; 5. Maltreatment; and 6. Labor (includ- extremely rare. Assyrian reliefs were part of the architec-
ing the fixing of wages). The penalties, which included ture; the carved panels were set into the walls of the
death, varied according to the social class of the harmed palaces.
person and were based on an eye-for-an-eye, tooth-for-a- One such relief, the depiction of Ashurnasirpal II Killing
tooth approach to law. Lions (fig. 1.11), carved ca. 850 B.C.E., from Nimrud, por-
The.-relief at the top of the Law Code of Hammurabi trays a militaristic subject commonly used to glorify the
shows Shamash, the sun god who controlled plant life and king. In fact, this event was more a ceremony than an ac-
weather, dispelled evil spirits of disease, and personified tual lion hunt, since soldiers lined up to form a square, and
righteousness and justice—the appropriate god for a law the lion was released from a cage into the square. The
code. (Shamash is also represented in the Stele of Naram- artist has not tried to duplicate observed reality. Three
Sin as one of the stars overlooking the scene.) Hammurabi horses are shown, but each receives only two legs. Al-
appears to converse with Shamash, from whom he receives though figures overlap, there is no sense of space, no set-
the laws. The difference in importance between the two ting, and everything takes place on the same ground line.
figures is made clear, the king standing while Shamash is The result is more a decorative surface than a realistic
shown larger, elevated, and enthroned. three-dimensional depiction.
14 CHAPTER 1

The limestone relief depicting the Sack of the City of

Hamanu by Ashurbanipal (fig. 1.12), from the palace of
ASHURBANIPAL [ash-er-BAN-ee-pul] (r. 669-ca. 627
B.C.E.) at Nineveh, was carved two hundred years after the
Nimrud relief, in approximately 650 B.c.E. The carving
illustrated is one of a series of historical reliefs that records
the defeat of the Elamites by Ashurbanipal. Here, the story
of the Assyrian sack of Hamanu is clearly told. Buildings
are burned; Ashurbanipal’s soldiers tear down buildings
with pickaxes; pieces of the structures fall through the air;
soldiers carry contraband down the hill. This matter-of-
fact record was no doubt intended to glorify Ashurbanipal’s
military achievements and to intimidate enemies wanting
to challenge his authority. It should be added that the As-
syrians had a reputation for ferocity, which they earned,
in part, by their practice of impaling the heads of their en-
emies on spikes.

NEBUCHADNEZZAR’S BABYLON
The description of Rome in the book of Revelation in the
New ‘Testament of the Bible includes the following de-
scription of the great sixth-century B.C.E. Mesopotamian
city of Babylon: “What city is like unto this great city...
that great city that was clothed in fine linen and purple
and scarlet and decked with gold and precious stones and
pearls! .. . Babylon, the Great, the Mother of Harlots and
Figure 1.10 Human-Headed Winged Lion (lamassu), from the
of the Abominations of the Earth.” The biblical prophet
northwest palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Numrud (Calah), ca.
tells us as much about his own Judeo-Christian morality as
883-859 B.C.E., limestone, height 10’ 25” (3.11 m), length 9’ 14”
(2.78 m), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Part human he does about Babylon’s decadence, but of Babylon’s great
and part animal, the five-legged Assyrian gate monsters are wealth and position in the sixth century B.C.E. there can be
among a vast population of early imaginary composite creatures. no doubt.
Later artists, in various cultures, created generations of descen- The Assyrians undertook a major rebuilding of the orig-
dants with a remarkable range of implausible physiognomies. inal city that Hammurabi had built a thousand years ear-

FIGURE 1.11 Ashurnasirpal II Killing Lions, from the palace of Ashurnasirpal II at Nimrud
(Calah), Iraq, ca. 850 B.C.E., limestone relief, 3’ 3” x 8’ 4” (0.99 X 2.54 m), British Museum,
London. This precisely carved relief records a ceremony used to emphasize the power of the
Assyrian king—he is shown overcoming a lion, long regarded as “king of beasts.”
 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS 15

Connections

THE FUNDAMENTALS Chaldea, on the Persian Gulf, in Lower tional in it. When the sun set, the mon-
OF CIVILIZATION Mesopotamia, “lived an irreligious life, ster Oannes plunged back into the sea to
similar to that of animals”: pass the night in the water, because he was
Co requires many different amphibious. Later similar creatures ap-
In the first year an extraordinary monster peared...
components to function. The study appeared .. . on the shore of the Red Sea,
of early cultures indicates what some of and its name was Oannes. Its entire body The story is not meant to be interpreted
these things are: technology, or tools and was that of a fish, and underneath his head literally. Like many of the adventures in
special technical skills that give rise to was a second one, as well as feet similar to The Epic of Gilgamesh, it is a myth, a
trade; laws, for the regulation of society; those of a man—an image that is still re- story involving legendary heroes, gods,
governmental structures; cities, or per- membered and that is still depicted up to and creatures that explains important
manent settlements; and writing, today. This being lived among the people cultural practices or beliefs. However
through which culture is transmitted. without eating anything and taught them “true” or otherwise the story may be, the
One Sumerian text outlines the writing, science, and technology of all lesson is clear: No one thing guarantees
types, the foundation of cities, the build-
knowledge necessary to live as civilized civilization. It is the combination of sci-
ing of temples, jurisprudence, and geom-
people. An extraordinary tale, narrated etry. He also revealed to them [how to
ence, technology, agriculture, mathe-
by Berossos, a Babylonian scholar who, cultivate] grains and how to harvest fruits. matics, law, literature, architecture, and
around 300 B.C.E., recorded in Greek the In short, he revealed to them all that con- the arts that constitutes civilized life.
history and traditions of his country, it stitutes civilized life. He did it so well that
recalls a time when the people of ever since one has found nothing excep-

FIGURE 1.12 Sack of the City ofHamanu by Ashurbanipal,

from the palace of Ashurbanipal Nineveh (Kuyunjik), Iraq, ca. lier, after sacking and destroying it in 689 B.C.E. Only forty
650 B.C.E., limestone relief, 36” < 245” (O27) 02 2c) years later in 648 B.C.E., its population had once again be-
British Museum, London. Assyrian emphasis on narration and come sufficiently irritating to the Assyrian kings to cause
documentation permitted disregard for relative scale and spa- Ashurbanipal to attack it again, killing all those who op-
tial logic. Realistic representation of a military campaign in posed him. “I fed their corpses to the dogs, pigs, z#bu-birds,
stone relief first appears on the Column of Trajan (see figs. vultures, the birds of the sky and the fish of the ocean,”
4.17 and 4.18) in the second century C.E. Ashurbanipal bragged.
After the death of Ashurbanipal, when Assyrian domi-
nance in the region collapsed, the city again rose to promi-
nence. Referred to by scholars as Neo-Babylon, to
distinguish it from the Babylon of Hammurabi, and some-
times called Chaldea as well, it was rebuilt by the architects
of NEBUCHADNEZZAR II [ney-book-ad-NEZ-zahr]
(r. 604-562 B.C.E.) to become the greatest city in the Near
East. It was graced by its famous Hanging Gardens, one of
the so-called Seven Wonders of the World. Rising high
above the flat plain of the valley floor was its Marduk zig-
gurat—sometimes believed to be the biblical Tower of
Babel, since Bab-il was an early form of the city’s name.
The richness of the city is embodied in the most re-
markable of its surviving parts, the Ishtar Gate (fig. 1.13),
built ca. 575 B.C.E. by Nebuchadnezzar himself and today
housed in the Berlin State Museum. Ishtar is the Sumer-
ian goddess of love and war. Her gate is ornamented with
bulls, lions, and dragons—all emblematic of her power—
arranged in tiers, on a blue background, in brown, yellow,
and white. The gate rose over the Processional Way,
known in Babylonian as Aibur-shabu, the place “the enemy
shall never pass.” Leading up to the gate was a broad paved
road lined with high walls that were decorated with the
16 CHAPTER 1

Seeer
— Gn Ei Rina ESas sss
PERSIA
all In 539 B.c.E., the King of Persia, CYRUS II [SI-rus]
(r. 559-530 B.C.E.), entered Babylon without significant
resistance and took over the city, forbidding looting and
appointing a Persian governor. Cyrus offered peace and
friendship to the Babylonians, and he allowed them to con-
tinue worshipping their own gods. In fact, legend quickly
had it that as he advanced on the city, the Babylonian god
Marduk was at his side.
The Persians originated from Elam, in modern-day
western Iran. Although some sites date back to around
5000 B.c.E., the Persians had begun to rise to power by
the sixth century B.C.E. and by 480 B.C.E. their empire ex-
tended from the Indus River in the east to the Danube in
the north. Moreover, in the same period that Cyrus over-
ran Mesopotamia, the other great Near Eastern civiliza-
FicurE 1.13 Ishtar Gate, from Babylon, ca. 575 B.C.E.,
tion, Egypt, lost its independence to the Persians. Persian
glazed brick, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preussischer Kul-
turbesitz, Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin. The appeal of an-
art is found across this large geographical area.
imals as architectural ornaments to the Babylonians is evident Religion. Perhaps the most lasting innovation made by
on this gate to Nebuchadnezzar’s sacred precinct. Persian culture was in religion. The prophet Zoroaster, or
Zarathustra, who lived around 600 B.C.E., rejected the
polytheism of earlier Mesopotamian cultures and instead
developed a dualistic religion, in which the universe is
divided between two forces, one good and one evil. Ac-
figures of 120 lions, symbols of Ishtar. The animals on cording to Zoroaster, Ahuramazda, the god of light, was
both the Ishtar Gate and the wall of the Processional Way caught up in an eternal struggle with Ahriman, the god of
are made in relief of glazed (painted and fired) brick, the darkness. As noted earlier, the Christian Bible may have
technique for making them probably invented in been influenced in some of its stories by The Epic of Gil-
Mesopotamia during Nebuchadnezzar’s reign. The glaze gamesh. Similarly, some ideas in Zoroastrianism may have
made the mud bricks waterproof, which accounts for their influenced later religions, such as the idea of a “Prince of
survival. Darkness” (Satan) and a Last Judgment.

FiGurE 1.14 Palace of Darius and Xerxes, Persepolis, Iran, 518-ca. 460 B.C.E., overview.
Constructed on a raised platform and impressive in its enormous scale, the palace includes
large rooms filled with forests of columns. The plan—axial, formal, and repetitious—appears
to have been laid out on a grid.
 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS 17

Then & Now.

sche

ND hi NS ERS TEARS MSE ci Rach a WE Ae pa ECSSa thr SAO OPUS Sos ARGS vn Nien anal aieia alia ofallarARSE

BEER Literally hundreds of surviving and a happy liver.” But the Law Code of
cuneiform tablets contain recipes for Hammurabi specifically banned the sell-
T “he beer people drink today is an al- beer, including kassi (a black beer), kassag ing of beer for money. It could be
4. coholic beverage made by ferment- (fine black beer), and kassagsaan (the bartered only for barley: “Ifa beer seller
ing grains and usually incorporating finest premium beer). There were wheat do not receive barley as the price for
hops, but the process of making it was beers, white beers, and red beers as well. beer, but if she receive money or make
discovered nearly 8000 years ago, around One surviving tablet, which is rather the beer a measure smaller than the bar-
6000 B.C.E., in Sumeria. The Sumerians reminiscent of modern advertising slo- ley measure received, they shall throw
made beer out of bappir, or half-baked, gans, reads “Drink Ebla—the beer with her into the water.”
crusty loaves of bread, which they crum- the heart of a lion.” Kings were buried ‘Today there are over six hundred
bled into water, fermented, and then fil- with elaborate straws made of gold and breweries making beer in the United
tered through a basket. Surviving records lapis lazuli, designed for sipping beer. States alone, each with its own unique
indicate that as much as fifty per cent of There was even a goddess, Ninkasi— process, producing perhaps ten times
each grain harvest went into the pro- “she who fills the mouth”—who looked that many beers, each with its own
duction of beer and that in Ur, around over the production and distribution of unique flavor and color. The tradition,
3000 B.C.E., needy persons were allotted the drink. “I feel wonderful, drinking clearly, is as long and venerable as civi-
one gallon of beer each day as part of a beer,” wrote one poet, about 3000 B.C.E., lization itself.
general social welfare program. “in a blissful mood with joy in my heart

SO a Ne et ee nO Ne MENTrte eT Siesta lac ea acai sca acai alae SEARS sane PEE RUMSOCPRONE NOREEN eTORENCL
REE RENEE SEN NRE SR OT OEM Ee ACID erat

Architecture. Because the ancient Persian religion cen-

tered on fire altars in the open air, no religious architec-
ture was needed. However, huge palaces with many rooms,
halls, and courts were constructed. The visitor to the
palace at Persepolis (fig. 1.14), built 518-ca. 460 B.C.E. by
DARIUS [DAR-ee-uss] (r. 52 1-486 B.C.E.) and XERXES I
(r. 485-465 B.C.E.) who were the successors of Cyrus, is
met by huge guardian monsters at the entrance towers of
the Porch of Xerxes, reminiscent of the Assyrian guardian
monsters. The palace of Persepolis is also similar to As-
syrian palaces in being set on a raised platform. At Perse-
polis the palace stands on a rock-cut terrace, 545 by 330
yards, approached by a broad stairway of 106 shallow steps.
Beyond were the main courtyards and the Throne Hall of
Xerxes, known as the Hall of One Hundred Columns. This
room was a forest of pillars, filled by ten rows of ten
columns, each column rising forty feet. This was a new
style for Mesopotamia, based on the use of tall columns.
Sculpture. The earliest extant Persian art consists of
portable objects characteristic of nomadic peoples. Ob-
jects buried with the dead have survived—weapons, dec-
orative items including jewelry, containers such as jugs,
bowls, and cups, and other objects. Their style is referred
to as an “animal style” because the objects are character-
ized by the decorative use of animal motifs. Small forms are FIGURE 1.15 Vase handle in the form of a winged ibex, from
used in ornamental jewel-like concentration. Popular mo- Persia, fourth century B.C.E., silver, partly gilded, height ca.
tifs derive from the ibex, serpent, bird, bull, and sheep; the 105” (26.7 cm), Musée du Louvre, Paris. The skill of Persian
human figure plays a minor role. metalsmiths is clearly evident in this exquisitely crafted wild
A later example of this animal style, and a high point in moutain goat. Embellished by the addition of wings, two of
technical accomplishment, is the winged ibex (fig. 1.15), a nature’s creatures have been combined to create a new species.
 18 CHAPTER 1

- . =

THE CONCEPT OF set of behaviors. These words are often _ the extent to which groups characterized
“CIVILIZATION” set off against the words “barbaric,” “bar- as barbarians might exhibit aspects of
barous,” and “barbarian,” which suggest _ civilized behavior. To what extent do
”T “he words “civil,” “civilization,” and the absence of civilized elements. Con- _ these words continue to identify useful
I. “civilized” denote the elements of sider the extent to which civilized soci- _and valid distinctions? To what extent
an organized society with a structured _ eties can exhibit barbaric qualities and _ have they lost that function?

a ati a ce i ta ee ls eh rE a ate bt i bib i a llc An ah pe a, EE i eee sith menss Shi =e sie oe

wild mountain goat made of silver, partly gilded, and in- attendance, as servants, and in processions—may be said to
tended to serve as a handle to a vase, dating from the fourth become monotonous. These figures are stiff, if not frozen;
century B.C.E. This ibex has been magically graced with representations of animals in Persian art have greater life
wings. Striking a lively pose, it seems also to have been and personality than representations of humans.
given life. Despite its supernatural characteristics, the care
with which it has been crafted underscores the Persian fas-
cination with, and love of, animals. In fact, the Persians
built gardens and “paradises”—enclosed sanctuaries where
birds and animals were protected. LIKE ITS MESOPOTAMIAN COUNTERPART, ancient Egyptian
Relief Sculpture. ‘The palace at Persepolis was decorated civilization developed slowly from about 5000 B.C.£. to ap-
with stone reliefs, including that of Tribute Bearers Bring- proximately 3100 B.c.£. with no united or central govern-
ing Offerings (fig. 1.16), flanking the stairway and carved ca. ment. There were in essence two independent Egypts:
490 B.c.E. Such ceremonial sculpture is concentrated al- Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt (“Lower” Egypt actually
most exclusively along the staircases, giving a decorative lies north of “Upper” Egypt). Upper Egypt was a narrow
emphasis to the main approaches. Three to six figures are strip of land on either side of the Nile River, extending
used to represent each of twenty-three different nations seven hundred miles from the first cataract, or waterfall, in
of the empire. The repetition of stylized figures—in the south to the Nile Delta. Lower Egypt was situated in

FIGURE 1.16 Tribute Bearers Bringing Offerings, flanking stairway, Palace of Darius and Xerxes, Persepolis, Iran, ca. 490 B.C.E., limestone
relief, height 8’ 4” (2.54 m). Courtesy of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. The message conveyed by these stiff, formal,
and generous gift-bearing figures, passed by the visitor when entering the palace, is hardly subtle.

Suse
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 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS 19

50 100 Miles mediate” periods of relative instability intervened between

100 Kilometers
® Pyramid each of the “Kingdoms,” and the last, “New” Kingdom
TT Temple | was followed by a Late Period that concludes around 525
MEDITERRANEAN ma Royal tomb || B.C.E. when Egypt finally lost its independence and was
absorbed into the Persian Empire.
Despite times of relative disruption, life was unusually
secure in ancient Egypt. The fertility of the Nile Valley,
which was due to the huge amounts of topsoil swept each
summer into the Nile River delta from far upstream in the
African lake region and the Ethiopian plateau, supported
the establishment of a permanent agricultural society.
Moreover, the surrounding deserts largely eliminated the
fear of invasion. The king, later called “pharaoh,” which
means “great house,” was the absolute ruler and considered
divine. Beneath him was a large class of priests and gov-
ernment bureaucrats. The permanence and stability of life
and the highly centralized organization of ancient Egypt-
ian society is reflected in the monumental and essentially
permanent architecture of the pyramids. In fact, with few
exceptions the art of Egypt remained remarkably consis-
tent in style over three millennia. The unquestioning ac-
ceptance of convention is a major characteristic of ancient
Egyptian culture. As a result, a sense of order and conti-
nuity pervades the history of ancient Egyptian life and art.

HIEROGLYPHICS
The Egyptians had developed a calendar, used irrigation
systems, discovered the use of basic metals, and started
using hieroglyphics, their writing system, all before 3000
B.C.E. For centuries scholars thought that the “glyphs” or
characters used in hieroglyphics all represented complete
ideas rather than individual units of sound. Indeed, until
1822 the actual meaning of the hieroglyphics was un-
(RS ae ee ee
known. In that year, however, a Frenchman, Jean Francois
Map 1.2 Ancient Egypt Champollion, deciphered the Rosetta Stone (fig. 1.18).
This was a large fragment of basalt that had been found
during Napoleon’s military campaign in Egypt near the
town of Rosetta in the Nile Delta. When it became ap-
the northern lands of the fertile Nile Delta where the river parent that the three languages on the Rosetta Stone ex-
branches out and runs into the Mediterranean. Then, pressed almost the same thing—a decree in honor of
around 3100 B.c.E., the two Egypts were united by the Ptolemy V (196 B.C.E.), Champollion was able to estab-
king of Upper Egypt, NARMER, also known as MENES lish that the corresponding Egyptian symbols were meant,
[ME-neez], and it is with this event that Egyptian history as in Sumerian, to be read not just symbolically but pho-
is usually said to begin. The event is celebrated in one of netically as well. Thus, although a pictograph of a fish did
the earliest surviving Egyptian stone sculptures, the so- indeed represent a “fish,” combined with other pictographs
called Palette ofNarmer (fig. 1.17). it represented the sound of the word “fish,” which is pro-
Egyptian history is traditionally divided into about nounced “nar.” For instance, the name of the king of a
thirty dynasties. We know very little of the first two dyn- united Egypt, Narmer, consists of the sign for a fish, “nar,”
asties, but beginning with the third, the Egyptian dynas- and the sign for a chisel, which is pronounced “mer.”
ties are grouped into several major periods distinguished
by their stability and achievement: the Old Kingdom RELIGIOUS BELIEFS
(2686-2181 B.C.E., consisting of dynasties 3-6), the Mid-
dle Kingdom (2040-1786 B.C.E., consisting of dynasties Ancient Egyptian religion was polytheistic, involving be-
11-14), and the New Kingdom, or Empire (1552-1069 lief in a profusion of gods. Among the most important
B.C.E., consisting of dynasties 18-20). So-called “Inter- gods in Egypt were the cosmic forces, including the sun,
20 CHAPTER 1

Mei yoATA
ADfo
ves

Sane
SSmmne

FicurE 1.18 Rosetta Stone, 196 B.C.E., basalt, British Mu-

seum, London. The same information is inscribed in three lan-
guages: (1) Greek; (2) demotic script, a simplified form of
hieroglyphic (the common language of Egypt); and (3) hiero-
glyphic, a pictographic script. By comparing the languages, hi-
eroglyphics were finally translated in the early nineteenth
century.

earth, sky, air, and water. The Nile was also worshipped
as a deity, not surprisingly given its importance to Egypt-
ian life. These forces and aspects of nature were depicted
in various forms, often as animals, humans, or as hybrids.
For example, the sun was sometimes pictured as a falcon,
other times as a falcon-headed man wearing a sun disk as
a crown. The animal attributes of the gods were often a
shorthand for their qualities. For example, Hathor, who
was the goddess of joy and love—attributes which the
Egyptians viewed the cow as possessing—was depicted as
a cow.
Among the most important of the Egyptian gods was
Osiris, originally a local god of Lower Egypt, whose wor-
ship eventually spread throughout the country. The legend
of Osiris’s death at the hands of his brother Set, and the
FiGurE 1.17 Palette ofNarmer, front and back, from Hierakon- search for the corpse by Isis, Osiris’s wife, plays an impor-
polis, ca. 3100 B.c.E., First Dynasty, slate, height 25” (63.5 cm), tant part in Egyptian mythology, and is connected with
Egyptian Museum, Cairo. This celebrated work is simultane- Egyptian belief in the afterlife. According to the myth,
ously a functional palette, an exquisite relief carving, and an his- after Isis discovered her husband’s dead body in Phoenicia,
torical document of the uniting of Lower and Upper Egypt by she brought it back to Egypt and buried it there. Set came
Narmer, the first pharaoh of the first Egyptian dynasty. upon the buried body and, enraged, tore the dead Osiris
 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS 21

Amen/Amon
Anubis god of embalming, of preserving the dead
Apis god of fertility
Aten sun god
Bast a cat goddess; protects cats as well as people who care for cats
Bes helps women in childbirth; protects children
Hapi/Hapy god of the Nile River flood
Hathor goddess of fertility; goddess of the sky; protectress of the dead and of the royal palace; Ra’s mother, wife, and
daughter
Horus originally the god of the sky; associated with the pharaoh; son of Osiris and Isis
Imhotep architect of the stepped pyramid of the pharaoh Zoser; deified as the god of medicine and patron of scribes
Isis the divine mother goddess; guardian of the dead; healed the sick; a skilled magician; sister and wife of Osiris
and mother of Horus
Khons god of the moon
Maat goddess of truth, right, and proper behavior; the ostrich feather in her hair was weighed against the heart of the
dead person to determine whether they had led a pure life
Min god of virility; consort of Qetesh
Mut “mother”; wife/consort of Amon
Neith goddess of war and of wisdom
Nephthys with her sister Isis, a protectress of the dead
Nut goddess of the sky ‘a
Osiris god of the dead, of the afterlife, of the underworld
Ptah patron god of craftsmen; creator of the universe
Qetesh goddess of love and beauty; consort of Min
Ra/Re the sun god
Selket a goddess whose scorpion killed wicked people; aided women in childbirth
Set/Seth god of storms and violence; brother and murderer of Osiris; rival of Horus
Shu god of air and wind
Tefnut goddess of mist and clouds
Thoth god of writing; of wisdom; messenger of the gods
Thoueris goddess of fertility; protected women in childbirth

limb from limb, scattering the pieces throughout the coun- principle of each person, roughly equivalent to the Chris-
try. Again Isis found her dead husband’s body parts and tian concept of a soul, were to live on. This is why the
buried each where it lay. Egyptians embalmed and bound their dead. This process of
The son of Isis and Osiris avenged his father’s death by mummification was a complex procedure that involved
engaging Set in battle and defeating him. However, when emptying the bodily cavities of their organs, refilling them
Set was brought to Isis, instead of killing him, she set him with spices and Arabic gums, and then wrapping the body
free. According to some versions of the myth, Osiris was in layers of bandages. This took seventy days to complete,
restored to life and became king of the underworld. This after which the mummified body was ready for the here-
myth of Osiris’s resurrection later became an important after, where it would rejoin its ka. To be doubly sure of the
element of the cult of Isis, the most important mother god- survival of the ka, a likeness of the dead person was made
dess in Egyptian religion, and a significant influence on in a hard stone, intended to serve as a backup, should any-
Egyptian belief in life after death. thing happen to the mummy. One Egyptian word for sculp-
tor translates literally as “he who keeps alive.” Members of
The Afterlife. Much of Egyptian life appears to have been the noble class were mummified and accompanied by their
oriented toward preparing for the hereafter. The Old King- — personal likeness; common people were merely buried in
dom Egyptians believed that the body of the deceased must holes, though Egyptian religion does appear to have of-
be preserved if the ka, the indestructible essence or vital fered them the hope of life in an afterworld, too. The belief
22 CHAPTER 1

Then & Now

THE NILE levels could be compared with records In the 1950s, President Nasser proposed
kept over the centuries, so those down- another dam, the Aswan High Dam. The
GOT,‘ gypt,” the Greek historian stream might know what to expect each endangered Temples of Isis and Hathor
Herodotus wrote, “is a gift of the August. In fact, annual taxes were levied were removed to higher ground for
Nile.” In ancient Egypt, the Nile flooded according to the height of the river in safety.
every summer, from July to October. The any particular year. Designed to provide Egypt with pre-
floods began when the rain in the central In 1899, in order to gain greater con- dictable and sufficient water resources,
Sudan raised the level of the White Nile, trol over the Nile and help local agricul- as well as providing for the country’s
one of its tributaries, followed by the sum- ture, the British financed a dam project electrical needs, the Aswan High Dam
mer monsoon in the Ethiopian highlands on the Nile at Aswan, 550 miles up- has had foreseeable negative impacts as
raising the level of the Blue Nile, another stream from Cairo. At Aswan, the Nile well as beneficial ones. Even the early
of its tributaries. By August, these waters pours rapidly through steep cliffs and British dam had stopped the natural flow
reached Egypt proper, flooding the entire gorges, and it seemed a perfect spot for of silt down the Nile, forcing farmers to
basin except for the highest ground, where a dam. When the dam was finished in rely on chemical fertilizers instead. But
villages and temples were built, and de- 1902, it regulated the flow of the river worse, perhaps, is the fact that Lake
positing a deep layer of silt over the fields. and allowed for an extra 10 to 15 percent Nasser, behind the Aswan High Dam,
If rainfall came short of expectations, of land to be farmed. has changed rainfall patterns in the re-
the next season’s crops could be dramat- Originally 98 feet high, the dam was gion and significantly raised the level of
ically affected; and, sometimes just as dis- raised to 138 feet in 1933. By then a giant the underground water table far down-
astrous, if rainfall was excessive, villages lake, 140 miles long, stretched behind it, stream, threatening even the temples of
and farms had to be evacuated. ‘Io com- submerging Nubian villages and a large Luxor 133 miles to the north. The Nile
bat this, gauges, or “Nilometers,” were number of monuments for part of the today never floods, but this victory has
placed upstream on the Nile, and river year, most famously the Temple of Isis. had its costs.

in the necessity of housing the dead in a tomb that would Nile cliffs. Harder stones, such as granite, basalt, and
endure forever, for the benefit of the ka of the deceased, quartzite, were obtained from more remote regions.
gave rise to Egypt’s monumental conception of architec- Although Egypt lacked timber, other plant materials
ture, exemplified most spectacularly in the pyramids. could be employed instead. For instance, lotus and pa-
pyrus reeds, bundled together and matted with clay, were
used as building materials. Mud brick, made by mixing
THE OLD KINGDOM mud from the Nile River with straw, shaping the resulting
substance into bricks, and then allowing them to dry in
The Old Kingdom (2686-2181 B.C.E.) was a time of po- the sun, was also used. Mud-brick buildings were cool in
litical and social stability in Egypt, a stability reflected in the summer, warm in the winter, and, because Egypt has
its grandest achievements, the great pyramids. Although little rainfall, lasted quite well. Homes of peasants were
tradition long held that slaves built these giant funerary made in this way. The pharaoh’s home was also made of
monuments to the kings, it now seems clear that an entire mud brick, but was larger, lime washed, and painted.
class of artisans, sculptors, and builders was responsible
for them. That a culture could organize such mammoth Mastabas. ‘The earliest burial places of the Old King-
undertakings and accomplish them with what appears to be dom Egyptian nobility were mastabas, flat-topped one-
the willing cooperation of its people emphasizes the unity story rectangular buildings with slanted walls. Faced with
of the society as a whole. brick or stone, the mastabas were oriented very specifically,
with the four sides facing north, south, east, and west. Sur-
ARCHITECTURE viving mastabas vary in length from 15 to 170 feet, and vary
in height from 10 to 30 feet. The interiors have different
The ancient Egyptian architecture extant today is made layouts, but all include the following: (1) a chapel or of-
of stone. Many kinds of stone were abundantly available, fering room, used to make offerings to the spirit of the
and this availability must in part explain the giant propor- dead person (there are two doors to this room, one real, the
tions of these surviving buildings. Limestone and sand- other false—to be used by the spirit to collect what was
stone were easily quarried in nearby locations along the offered); (2) the serdab or cellar, a tiny secret room in the
 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS 23

center of the mastaba, containing a statue of the dead per- a physician who came to be deified as the god of medicine
son (the ka statue) and treasure; and (3) a shaft running and science.
from the mastaba down through the earth, and into the The six levels of this stepped pyramid rise over two hun-
actual burial chamber located perhaps over a hundred feet dred feet high, making it the oldest sizable stone structure
below ground level. The plan of the mastaba is believed to in the world. It was once surrounded by courts and build-
be an adaptation of a house plan, for the tomb was re- ings, the whole complex enclosed by a wall over thirty feet
garded as the house of the soul. high. Zoser’s ka statue was oriented to peer out toward an
adjacent funerary temple through two peep-holes in the
The Stepped Pyramid of Zoser. ‘The stepped pyramid of
serdab, so that, in the afterlife, he could continue to ob-
King Zoser [ZHO-suh] (Third Dynasty, ca. 2600 B.C.E.),
serve the rituals in his honor.
built on the west bank of the Nile at Saqqara (fig. 1.19),
makes clear how the true pyramid developed from the The Great Pyramids. "The Great Pyramids at Giza (fig.
mastaba. ‘The stepped pyramid is essentially a stack of 1.20) on the west bank of the Nile were built in the Fourth
mastabas; if the steps were filled in, the pure pyramidal Dynasty of the Old Kingdom. The three pyramids were
form would be achieved. The stepped pyramid was built by built by the pharaohs CHEOPS [KEE-ops], ca. 2530
IMHOTEP [EE-moh-tep], King Zoser’s architect. B.C.E.; CHEFREN [KEF-run], ca. 2500 B.c.E.; and MYC-
Imhotep is the first artist/architect in history whose name ERINUS [MIK-ur-EE-nus], ca. 2470 B.c.E. Because the
has been recorded for posterity (his name appears on pharaoh was considered divine and would consequently
Zoser’s ka statue in the serdab of the pyramid). Imhotep return to the gods when he died, the pyramids were de-
was also an astronomer, writer, sage, priest, and, above all, signed to soar to heaven. Inscribed on the walls of later

Ficure 1.19 Imhotep, Stepped Pyramid of Zoser, Saqqara, ca. 2600 B.C.E., Third Dynasty.
This stepped pyramid was transitional between the rectangular mastabas (here seemingly
placed one on top of another) and the true pyramidal form.
24 CHAPTER 1

te
ee

FicurE 1.20 Great Pyramids, Giza, built fo the Old Kingdom pharaohs Cheops, ca. 2530
B.C.E., Chefren, ca. 2500 B.c.E., and Mycerinus, ca. 2470 B.C.E., Fourth Dynasty, limestone and
granite. The permanence of the pyramids, built to last forever, was related to the Egyptian
concept of an afterlife and the mummification of their dead.

pyramids are descriptions of kings climbing the sides of ented north, south, east, and west. The proportions of the
the pyramids to join the sun god Ra, and the triangular base width to the height of the pyramids are eleven to
shape may itself symbolize the falling rays of the sun. seven, a proportion that modern research has shown is in-
The Great Pyramids are extraordinary accomplishments herently pleasing to many people. Inside, the pyramids
of engineering. Satisfying the Egyptian craving for perma- have systems of corridors that lead to the burial chamber,
nence, the pyramid is one of the most stable geometric where the mummified body of the pharaoh was placed,
forms. The Great Pyramids are built of solid limestone ma- along with the rich possessions that were to accompany
sonry. The blocks were cut with metal tools in the eastern him to the afterlife.
Nile cliffs, marked by the stone masons with red ink to in-
dicate their eventual location, floated across the river dur-
THE BOOK OF THE DEAD
ing the seasonal floods, and then dragged up temporary
ramps and moved into their final position. The largest and The expectation of life after death colored all aspects of
oldest pyramid, that of Cheops, covers thirteen acres and Egyptian culture. Among the objects found in the coffins
is made up of approximately 2.3 million blocks, each aver- of the dead were papyrus scrolls containing prayers and
aging 2.5 tons in weight. When the polished, pearly white incantations, or spells, to guide the soul in the afterlife.
limestone encasement stones were still intact, it is believed The Book ofthe Dead, which the Egyptians referred to as The
to have soared skyward approximately 480 feet. Book of Coming Forth by Day, spells out the procedures
With characteristic Egyptian mathematical precision, through which the deceased had to pass before being ad-
the three Great Pyramids are aligned, their corners ori- mitted to the Field of Reeds, the eternal realm of the god
 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS 25

Osiris. There the deceased soul’s heart was weighed against pyramid of Chefren at Giza, is a majestic and monumen-
how well he or she had.treated others and respected the tal symbol of the king’s strength created by combining a
gods. A favorable judgment could be rendered for those human head (probably an idealized portrait of Chefren
able to recite a confession like the following': himself, the face of which is now damaged) with the body
I have not inflicted pain. I have not caused anyone to go of a lion. The Great Sphinx is 65 feet high, the scale in-
hungry. I have not made any man to weep. I have not com- dicative not only of the power of the pharaoh, but also of
mitted murder. I have not given the order for murder to the Egyptian love of enormous proportions. The Sphinx
be committed. I have not caused calamities to befall men reappears in Classical Greek mythology, in particular in
and women. I have not plundered the offerings in the tem- the story of Oedipus (see Chapter 3).
ples. Ihave not defrauded the gods of their cake-offerings.
I have not carried off the fenkhu cakes [offered] to Spirits. Mycerinus and Khamerernebty. Egyptian sculptors de-
I have not committed fornication. . . . I have not filched picted the human figure in a very limited number of poses:
[land from my neighbor’s estate] or added it to my own sitting on a block, standing with one foot forward, sitting
acre. I have not encroached upon the fields [of others]. cross-legged on the floor (a less common pose), or kneel-
I have not committed sin. . . . |have not committed rob- ing on both knees (quite rare). Further, each of these poses
bery with violence... [have not stolen. .. . Ihave not slain is shown in a specific way and according to certain con-
men and women. ... I have not stolen grain... . Ihave not ventions. These standard poses were established in the Old
purloined offerings. . .. |have not uttered lies. . . . [have not
Kingdom and continued largely unchanged through the
uttered curses. ... [have not committed adultery. ... Ihave
three millennia of ancient Egyptian culture. To be origi-
not attacked any man... . |have not blasphemed. . . . Ihave
wronged none, I have done no evil. nal and innovative was not a goal for ancient Egyptian
artists.
A favorable judgment meant the soul would join other The double statue of the royal couple Mycerinus and his
living souls in a realm of peace and joy. An unfavorable wife, Queen Khamerernebty (fig. 1.22), carved of slate, ca.
judgment meant the soul’s heart would be devoured by the 2470 B.C.E., demonstrates the conventions of represent-
monster Ament. For those who could not claim to have ing the standing figure. This is believed to have been the
led a good life, The Book of the Dead contained incantations first double statue of its kind; it set a fashion for showing
that might protect against an unfavorable judgment. the pharaoh embraced by, or supported by, the queen. The
queen’s revealing dress clings to her contours. The king,
in addition to a wrapped linen skirt, wears a ceremonial
SCULPTURE
false beard and headdress, both symbols of rank.
The Great Sphinx. Most extant Egyptian sculpture is Certain features seen here are characteristic of all
religious or political in purpose, and either reflects the Egyptian standing figures: the frontality, the erect stance
characteristic Egyptian desire for immortality and belief in with the left foot forward and the arms rigidly against the
an afterlife or demonstrates the pharaoh’s power and di- body, and the sense of vigor and dignity. In spite of both
vinity. The Great Sphinx (fig. 1.21), which guards the having a foot forward, these stiff figures do not appear to
be walking, for weight is equally distributed on both feet.
This is not a natural stance; people normally stand with
FiGurE 1.21 Great Sphinx, Giza, ca. 2500 B.C.E., Fourth their weight equally on both feet, only when side by side,
Dynasty, sandstone, height 65’ (19.81 m). Although similar to or, more frequently, stand with their weight supported on
the Assyrian guardian monsters in combining a human head one foot.
and an animal body (see fig. 1.10), here the facial features are Because such sculpture was funerary in purpose and was
those of the pharaoh, and the monumental dimensions are in-
placed in the tomb as a precaution against having no home
tended to impress the viewer with his power.
for the ka if the mummy were destroyed, permanence was
of great importance—the web of stone between the queen
and king is intended to prevent breakage. (This statue was
actually buried with Mycerinus in his pyramid at Giza.)

RELIEF SCULPTURE AND PAINTING

Relief sculpture and painting were closely linked in ancient
Egyptian art, and reliefs were often painted. Clarity in sto-
rytelling seems to have been more important to the artist
than naturalistic representation. The style, which includes
few nonessentials, is condensed and abbreviated. Figures
‘Adapted from The Book of the Dead, ed. E. A. Wallis Budge (New York: are shown predominantly from the side, although the eye
Gramercy/Random House, 1999), 574-579. and shoulders are shown from the front. Clearly, these
26 CHAPTER 1

As is traditional, Ti is distinguished from his social inferi-

ors by being made bigger, and his pose combines both
frontal and profile views. The water of the Nile River is
shown as wavy lines, with fish, hippopotami, and a croco-
dile shown in profile. The ribbed background represents
the papyrus plants along the banks of the Nile. At the top
of the painting, where Egyptian artists often put back-
ground detail, there are buds and flowers, and birds of var-
ious kinds, some of which are being stalked by foxes.
A tomb painting such as this was meant to be seen only
by the ka of the deceased—in this case the ka of Ti, whose
position was that of “Curator of Monuments.” His own
final monument, like those of other high-ranking Egyp-
tians, was painted with murals showing him in the after-
life. However, because the afterlife was believed to be a
more blissful continuation of real life, it may be assumed
that such tomb paintings documented daily life in ancient
Egypt—at least in its more pleasant aspects.

FiGure 1.23 Ti Watching a Hippopotamus Hunt, Tomb of

Ti, Saqqara, ca. 2500-2400 B.c.£., Fifth Dynasty, painted lime-
stone wall relief, height ca. 3 9” (1.14 m). Standard conven-
tions of mixed perspective in ancient Egyptian art include
depiction of the eye from the front, though the head is shown
in profile, and the shoulders from the front, though the legs
are shown from the side.

FIGURE 1.22 King Menkaure (Mycerinus) and Queen. Egypt,

Giza, Menkaure Valley Temple. Greywacke. Egyptian, Old
Kingdom, Dynasty 4. Reiign of Menkaure ca. 2490-2472 B.C.E.
Height 56” x 225a” XK 214” (142.2 x 57.1 X 56.2 cm). Harvard
Maeerany/ Boston Mascurn of Fine Arts. In common pose the
figure stands, one leg forward, yet rigidly erect, weight equally
distributed on both feet, and therefore seemingly immobile.

nonanatomical figures are not drawn directly from models

but are instead memory images of a composite view of the
human body, each part of the body shown from its most
characteristic point of view. Egyptian art does not portray
what the eye sees, but what the mind knows is there.
Ti Watching a Hippopotamus Hunt. An engaging de-
piction known as Ti Watching a Hippopotamus Hunt (fig.
1.23) was painted on the wall of Ti’s tomb in Saqqara,
dated ca. 2500-2400 B.c.E. in the Fifth Dynasty. Ti does
not actually participate in the killing; instead, he stands on
a small boat and directs his servants, who hold harpoons.
 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS 27

THE MIDDLE KINGDOM Hyksos tribes had introduced to their unwilling hosts. Cer-
tainly, it was through contact with the Hyksos that Egypt
After the collapse of the Old Kingdom, a period of polit- entered the Bronze Age. The New Kingdom or Empire
ical and social turmoil ensued—the first of the so-called in- that resulted was the most brilliant period in Egyptian his-
termediate periods of Egyptian history. For over 150 years tory. It was a Theban king, AHMOSE I [AR-mohz], who
no single dynasty could reunite the country as Narmer had first pushed back the Hyksos into Palestine, conquering
done a thousand years earlier. Finally, in about 2040 B.c.E., foreign peoples along the way and bringing into being the
a prince by the name of Mentuhotep II, from Thebes, first Egyptian empire. During the reign of THU TMOSE
managed to subdue both upper and lower parts, inaugu- III [thoot-MOS-uh], (r. 1479-1425 B.c.£.), the first Egypt-
rating the Middle Kingdom. The subsequent government ian king to be called “pharaoh,” Egypt controlled not only
was far less centralized than that of the Old Kingdom, with the entire Nile basin but the entire eastern Mediterranean
only affairs of national import being left to the king, while coast as far as present-day Syria. The great empire only
much more authority was given to regional governors. fell into decline after about 1200 B.C.E., when it came
Under these new conditions, the country prospered as under the successive influence of Assyria and Libya, and fi-
never before. Largescale waterworks were undertaken to nally lost its independence to Persia in about 525 B.C.E.
irrigate higher ground in the Nile basin, and farming
yields, which were already higher than anywhere else in
the world, increased dramatically. ARCHITECTURE
‘The New Kingdom established its capital at Thebes, and
ARCHITECTURE a great amount of building was done there as well as up
and down the length of the Nile. Much art was produced
Few monuments of the Middle Kingdom can be seen in an exuberant display of wealth and sophistication. Bur-
today, for they were replaced by grander structures during ial was still carried out with great care during the New
the New Kingdom or were built of mud brick and, conse- Kingdom, but the futility of pyramids as places of safe
quently, have largely disappeared. A few traces of pyra- preservation was now fully recognized, Pyramids, monu-
mids remain—they appear to have been similar to those of mental advertisements of the treasures contained within,
the Old Kingdom but smaller, and a number of rock-cut were irresistibly attractive to robbers and looters. Conse-
tombs, burial places hollowed out of the faces of cliffs, sur- quently, nobility and royalty were now buried in cham-
vive. These are to be found at Beni Hasan, located 125 bers hollowed deep into the cliffs on the west bank of the
miles up the river from Giza, and were built ca. 2100-1800 Nile River in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes. Here,
B.C.E., during the Eleventh Dynasty. rock-cut tombs were approached by corridors up to 500
The basic plan of these tombs is believed to be similar feet long hollowed straight into the hillside. The entrances
to that of an Egyptian home of the time. Each tomb con- were carefully hidden, and rocks were arranged over the
sists of a vestibule or portico, a hall with pillars, a private entrances to look as if they had fallen there. Many clever
sacred chamber, and a small room at the rear to contain a tricks and precautions were used by the ancient Egyptians
statue of the dead person. The interior has certain ele- to protect their tombs. In one case, their success lasted
ments that appear to be stone versions of structures orig- until 1922, when the shaft tomb of Tutankhamen (some-
inally made of other materials. Thus, although the columns times referred to popularly today as King Tut) was found
are of stone, the form is that of a bundle of reeds tied to- nearly intact. All other known tombs were looted in an-
gether. The ceiling is painted with a diapered and check- tiquity.
ered pattern that looks much like the woven matting used
to cover houses. The walls are also often painted, though Temple of Queen Hatshepsut. ‘The Old Kingdom has
there is a change from Old Kingdom subjects discernible been called the period of the pyramids; the New Kingdom
here. Instead of military exploits, the paintings now feature is the time of the temples. The concern for concealment
depictions of domestic and farm life. brought about the end of monumental memorial archi-
tecture. A mortuary temple of the queen or king would
now be built far from the actual tomb. The funerary Tem-
ple of Queen Hatshepsut (fig. 1.24), for instance, was built
THE NEW KINGDOM against a cliff at Deir el-Bahari, Thebes, ca. 1478-1458
After the Middle Kingdom collapsed and a second inter- B.C.E., early in the Eighteenth Dynasty, by the architect
mediate period had begun, an eastern Mediterranean tribe SENMUT [SEN-mut].
called the Hyksos invaded northern Egypt in 1674 B.C.E., In a culture dominated by male kings, HATSHEPSUT
bringing with them bronze weapons and horsedrawn char- [hat-SHEP-sut] (r. 1478-1458 B.C.E.) is a figure of some
iots. For over two hundred years, Egypt was again divided. significance. At the death of her husband, Thutmose II,
But beginning in 1552 B.c.E., the old order was reestab- she became regent of Thutmose III, her son-in-law. For
lished, perhaps by means of the new technology that the the next twenty years, Thutmose III, who would later
28 CHAPTER 1

Figure 1.24 Senmut, Funerary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut, Deir el-Bahari, Thebes, ca.
1478-1458 B.c.E., early Eighteenth Dynasty. In the New Kingdom, the body of the queen or
pharaoh was buried in a different location from the mortuary temple. That of Queen Hat-
shepsut was built with terraces, ramps, sculptures, and hanging gardens.

conquer so much of the Mediterranean, was at best some- Typical of Egyptian buildings, the Temple of Hatshep-
thing like her prime minister, carrying out her will. The sut was roofed with stone. As a result, the rooms are dense
size and magnificence of her temple reflect her political forests of statues and square or sixteen-sided support
importance. columns—the distance between these supports had to be
The huge temple is constructed of repeated elements— small enough to span with a stone lintel. Sculpture was
colonnaded terraces with columnar porticoes (covered used lavishly; there were perhaps two hundred statues in
walkways), halls, and private chambers. The three terraces Hatshepsut’s funerary temple. The walls were covered with
are connected by ramps to the cliff, and chambers are cut brightly painted low relief. The terraces, now bare, were
into the cliff. These chambers are chapels to the god once filled with gardens.
Amen; to the cow-headed goddess Hathor, who protects
the city of the dead; to Anubis, the god of embalming, who Temple of Amen-Mut-Khonsu. In the New Kingdom,
protects the dead; and to the queen herself. many temples dedicated to the gods were built, and the
 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS 29

FiGurE 1.25 Temple of Amen-Mut-Khonsu, Luxor, major construction under Amenhotep

IH, ca. 1390 B.C.E., and Ramesses II, ca. 1260 8.c.£. Like all ancient Egyptian temples, this is
constructed on the post and lintel system. Columns and capitals look like plant stalks and
buds—perishable forms have been made permanent in stone.

priesthood remained powerful. The Temple of Amen-Mut- can be learned about the lifestyle of average Egyptians
Khonsu (the god Amen, and his wife Mut, the goddess of from these excavations.
heaven, were the parents of Khonsu) at Luxor (fig. 1.25) is One such site is Deir el-Medina, a village that first came
one of the largest Egyptian temples. It was built over a long into being in the Eighteenth Dynasty as the permanent res-
time period, with major construction under Amenhotep III idence of the tomb builders and artisans who worked across
(r. 1390-1352 B.c.E.), and under Ramesses II (r. ca. the Nile at Luxor. The city existed for nearly four centuries,
1279-1212 B.c.E.). The temple, which was considered the through the Twentieth Dynasty, and grew to contain about
home of the god, was based on house plans, but made larger seventy homes within its walls and fifty outside. The inte-
and more permanent. The entire temple complex, like rior layout of each of the houses is relatively uniform. The
many other Egyptian temple complexes, is organized entrance room, which opened onto the street, was the
around a longitudinal axis and is essentially symmetrical. household chapel, with niches for offerings and an image
of the god Bes, a family deity associated with childbirth. Be-
Family Homes. Much of what is known today about the hind this was the main room, with a high roof supported by
ancient Egyptians derives from the study of royal tombs; one or more columns. A raised platform on one wall served
consequently, knowledge of Egyptian life is largely lim- as both an eating area and bed. Beneath this was a cellar.
ited to the uppermost levels of society. But at a few sites the One or two smaller rooms for sleeping or storage led off
homes of everyday people have been unearthed, and much the main room. At the back of the house was a walled
30 CHAPTER 1

garden, which also served as the kitchen, with an oven in one Ramesses II’s respect for the sun god. But all this is over-
corner and, nearby, a grain silo and grinding equipment. A shadowed by the four enormous statues of Ramesses II, each
staircase led from this courtyard to the roof of the house, 65 feet high. (The much smaller figures around and be-
where the cool evening breezes of the Nile could be enjoyed. tween the legs of these statues are members of his family.)
Furniture might have included stools, tables, wooden beds, Despite their giant scale, however, these four statues
and lamps made of pottery, containing oil and a wick. look very much like statues carved more than a millen-
More lavish homes, with large gardens and pools, were nium earlier during the Old Kingdom in the pose, physi-
built by Egyptians of higher standing. A painting of the cal type, and attire. When they are compared closely,
home and garden of the royal scribe Nakte (fig. 1.26), from differences between sculpture of the Old, Middle, and
the Eighteenth Dynasty, shows him with his wife, stand- New Kingdoms do become apparent: Old Kingdom sculp-
ing before their home, giving praise to the king and queen. ture is relatively realistic; New Kingdom sculpture is more
Their garden pool is surrounded by trees, including a elegant. But, in view of the enormous time span, the dif-
grape arbor. The house is whitewashed to reflect the heat. ferences are minor. Once again, Egyptian art is seen to be
High up on the wall are windows into the main room, and characterized by remarkable uniformity.
on the roof are two triangular vents designed to catch the
evening breezes. The house is elevated on a platform to
protect its mud brick from moisture and flood. RELIEF SCULPTURE AND PAINTING
As in the Old and Middle Kingdoms, New Kingdom tem-
ples and tombs were decorated with reliefs and paintings.
SCULPTURE There were some innovations, however. For instance,
greater freedom of pose, wider variety of movement, more
Temple of Ramesses II. ‘The perpetuation of Old King- complex figure groupings, and a more flowing line are seen
dom types into the New Kingdom is demonstrated at the in the New Kingdom than in the Old Kingdom. But the
‘Temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel (fig. 1.27), built ca. basic conventions endure, such as the profile head with
1260 B.C.E., during the Nineteenth Dynasty. The facade frontal eye, the impossible poses, and the arrangement of
and inner rooms are cut into the sandstone on the west bank figures in zones of the register system.
of the Nile. In theory, the temple was built in honor of the
sun; there is a statue of the sun god in a niche in the center Nobleman Hunting in the Marshes. Painted around 1400
of the facade. At the top of this facade is a row of dog-headed B.C.E., in the Eighteenth Dynasty, in a tomb at Thebes, the
apes, sacred to the worship of the rising sun. Reliefs and hi- Nobleman Hunting in the Marshes (fig. 1.28) illustrates this
eroglyphs on the facade also have to do with the pharaoh new freedom, as well as the perpetuation of long-established

FIGURE 1.26 House and Garden of the Scribe Nakte, from Nakte’s Book of the Dead, Eighteenth
Dynasty, British Museum, London. In the New Kingdom, papyrus scrolls that would assist the
dead in successfully passing their last test before Osiris prior to enjoying the afterlife were
often placed among the wrappings of mummified bodies. Called Books of the Dead, these scrolls
were often beautifully decorated.
 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS 31

aes

FIGURE 1.27 Four Seated Figures of Ramee ILTemple of Ramesses II, Abu Simbel, facade,
ca. 1260 B.C.E., Nineteenth Dynasty. So completely governed by tradition and convention was
Egyptian art and culture that, more than 1,200 years after Chefren was carved, these figures of
Ramesses II demonstrate that the seated figure continued to be depicted in almost exactly the
same way.

FIGURE 1.28 Nobleman Hunting in the Marshes, from a tomb tradition in New Kingdom painting. Active and agile, the
at Thebes, ca. 1400 B.C.E., Eighteenth Dynasty, wall painting nobleman holds three birds in one hand and a wand in the
on dry plaster, British Museum, London. Created a millennium other. Equally impressive is the acrobatic accomplishment
after the painting of 77 Watching a Hippopotamus Hunt, (fig. of the cat sitting on the bending lotus stems, for she catches
1.23) the painting Nobleman Hunting in the Marshes demon-
one bird with her teeth, another with her claws, and a third
strates the remarkable consistency of ancient Egyptian style.
~ Emphasis continued to be placed on the clarity with which in-
with her tail. One bird is catching a butterfly. All people,
formation was conveyed rather than on realistic representation. birds, animals, and fish are shown in profile. The birds
neatly form a series of overlapping profiles.
Nobleman Hunting in the Marshes deserves comparison
with 77 Watching a Hippopotamus Hunt (see fig. 1.23), painted
a thousand years earlier in the Fifth Dynasty. The similar-
ities are striking. Both men are longhaired and wear white
skirts. Both stand on their boats, rather than iv. Both of their
boats are on rather than im the water. In both, people are
drawn with the heads and legs seen from the sides, but eyes
and chest from the front. The continued use of relative size
to indicate importance is shown by the small figure between
the nobleman’s legs; she cannot be interpreted as being in
the distant background, for she grasps his shin.

AKHENATEN AND TUTANKHAMEN

The sole significant challenge—and it proved only a tem-
porary deviation—to Egypt’s consistency of attitude and
approach to representation and design came in the
32 CHAPTER 1

Connections

DANCE AND MUSIC on a double oboe by the fourth. Two Many modern Egyptians, as well as
IN ANCIENT EGYPT nude figures dance to the music. So re- scholars, believe contemporary belly
laxed is the scene that most of the dancing derives from dances such as that
hat we know of music and dance conventions of traditional Egyptian rep- seen in the wall painting on the tomb of
in ancient Egypt depends on two resentation have been abandoned. Nebamun. The belly dance, called the
very different kinds of evidence: the vi- In addition to the double oboe seen baladi, probably originated in Egypt as
sual record of dancers and musicians we here, Egyptian music made special use of part of both fertility and funeral rituals.
find in surviving reliefs and paintings; harps, lutes, and lyres. Surviving paint- Like the contemporary belly dance, the
and, more problematic, present musical ings often show a blind man playing the original dances may well have been de-
and dance forms that appear to have sur- harp, but lutes and lyres were apparently signed to create a sense of physical and
vived since ancient times. Of the first, we played predominantly by women. Single emotional rhapsody, and they probably
have, for instance, a detail of a wall paint- oboes, flutes, and clarinets were also pop- utilized many of the same musical effects,
ing from the tomb of Nebamun at ular, and trumpets were used in military particularly ever-increasing rhythmic
Thebes, dating from about 1400 B.c.E. and religious ceremonies. Religious fes- pace and provocative physical move-
(fig. 1.29). It shows four seated women, tivals appear to have been primarily mu- ment.
three of whom are watching and appar- sical occasions, and participants routinely
ently clapping along with music played danced throughout the celebration.

FIGURE 1.29 Musicians and Dancers, detail ofa wall painting from the tomb of Nebamun,
Thebes, ca. 1400 B.C.E., fragment, its X 27 = (29.9 X 69.2 cm), British Museum, London.
The two central foe the one sepstirs the reeds and the seated figure next to her, are re-
markable in the way that they face the viewer, a point of view rarely seen in Egyptian painting.

par 35 —~ a fen) @~<

LSa_i ;
—, Sf MANE, “

WAS
 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS 33

Eighteenth Dynasty under Amenhotep IV [am-EN-oh- ca. 1348-1336 B.C.E., represents an extraordinary change
TEP] (r. 1352-1336 B.c.z:). He closed the Amen temples, from traditional Egyptian art. Akhenaten and his Queen,
displaced the sun god Amen-Ra, officially dispensed with Nefertiti, play with their three daughters, who are shown
the pantheon of other Egyptian gods, and replaced them as miniature adults. Akhenaten even kisses one of his chil-
all with a monotheistic system, worshiping the single god dren, a rare display of affection in Egyptian art. These
Aten, the sun disk. He moved the capital from Thebes to people are shown in casual poses. More notable, however,
a new city far to the north that he called Akhetaten, “the are their physical distortions—long necks and skulls, pro-
horizon of Aten,” modernday Tell el-Amarna. He then truding abdomens, and large hips, presumably shown to
changed his name to Akhenaten [AK-uhn-AH-tan], too, create a likeness. Although royalty, Akhenaten and his fam-
which means “He who is effective on behalf of Aten.” Just ily are not idealized, perfect physical types. Royalty is now
as significantly he transformed the art of Egypt, liberating depicted in domestic situations, casually, intimately. Rather
it from convention. than stressing dignity, this art is playful and informal.

Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Their Children Worshiping Queen Nefertiti. Akhenaten’s wife, the beautiful Queen
the Sun. ‘This painted limestone relief (fig. 1.30), dated Nefertiti (fig. 1.31), was recorded in a life-size portrait in

FIGURE 1.30 Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Their Children Worshiping the Sun, ca. 1348-1336
B.C.E., Eighteenth Dynasty, painted limestone relief, 12 ;” x 15 x” (31.1 X 8.7 cm), Staatliche
Museen zu Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Agyptisches Museum. The only notable break in
the continuity of Egyptian life were the changes—political, religious, and artistic—instituted
by the pharaoh Akhenaten in the Eighteenth Dynasty.
34 CHAPTER 1

FicureE 1.31 Queen Nefertiti, ca. 1348-1336 B.C.E., Eigh- Figure 1.32 Inner coffin of Tutankhamen’s sarcophagus, ca.
teenth Dynasty, painted limestone, rock crystal eyes, height 20 1336-1327 B.C.E., polished gold, inlaid with enamel and semi-
(50.8 cm), Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preussischer Kulturbe- precious stones, height 6’ 1” (1.85 m), weight 250 Ibs., Egypt-
sitz, Agyptisches Museum. Although ideals of beauty have ian Museum, Cairo/Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Munich, Germany.
changed greatly throughout time, the appeal of Nefertiti, ele- Akhenaten’s successor, popularly known today as King Tut, was
gant wife of Akhenaten, endures. a minor ruler who died young. Yet the splendor of his burial
indicates the care lavished on the burial of royalty, as well as
the reason why tombs were plundered by grave robbers.
 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS 35

Oren Glibwuct
has

NUBIA valued metals, Egypt sent pottery, wine, Nubian mercenaries to fight in Egypt’s
honey, and finely woven textiles to armies.
r up the Nile river, near Khartoum, Nubia. During the Middle Kingdom, Nubia
Nubia was the first complex hierar- By about 2500 B.c.£., Nubian leaders came under Egyptian rule, but during
chical society south of the Sahara had established the kingdom of Kush, a the ninth century BCE, the Nubian
desert. Egypt maintained extended wealthy state that came to dominate the kingdom of Kush ruled southern Egypt.
contact with Nubia, which was famed for upper reaches of the Nile. Around 2300 By the eighth century B.C.E., Kush had
its reserves of iron, copper, and gold. B.C.E., the Egyptian pharaohs sent a five of its kings reign as Egyptian
Nubia, in fact, means “gold” in the prince of Aswam named Harkuf on three pharaohs, known as the twenty-fifth or
Egyptian language. In exchange for these journeys to Nubia to trade and to recruit “Ethiopian” dynasty.

ca. 1348-1336 B.C.E., carved of limestone and painted, the EGYPTIAN MusIc
eyes inlaid with rock crystal. Discovered in 1912 in the stu-
dio of Thutmosis, Akhenaten’s chief sculptor, this individu- Because historians have found no Egyptian musical nota-
alized portrait is characteristic of the more informal, relaxed tion to speak of, we can only speculate about the sound of
style of Akhenaten’s reign. The carving of this charming por- the music itself; however, thanks to the pictorial charac-
trait is sensitive and refined, and its beauty is probably not ex- teristics of hieroglyphics, we do know of the widespread
aggerated. Surviving texts refer to the Queen as “Fair of use of music in Egyptian culture. Drawings of both secu-
Face,” “Great of Love,” and “Endowed with Favors.” lar and sacred rituals, plus actual instruments found in
tombs, suggest that music formed an important part of life
Tomb of Tutankhamen. Akhenaten’s successor was TU- for the ancient Egyptians. Like so many of the arts of this
TTANKHAMEN [too-tan-KAH-moon] (r. ca. 1336-1327 ancient time, music was spread by the aural tradition,
B.C.E.), at the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Tu- passed down from generation to generation. Although
tankhamen was married to one of the daughters of Akhen- vocal music was probably the most prominent musical
aten and Nefertiti. However, as king, Tutankhamen genre, because it is the most natural means of expression,
disavowed his parents-in-law and returned to the wor- instrumental music accompanied Egyptian poems, mak-
ship of Amen, reestablishing the capital at Thebes. ing them into songs of celebration, mourning, or declara-
Tutankhamen’s fame today derives from the discovery of tions of love. Small ensembles performed at the many
his tomb, nearly intact and containing an extraordinary rituals of harvest, birth, and death.
treasure, in the early 1920s by the British archaeologist A closer look at music instruments gives us the best clue
Howard Carter. Tutankhamen’s tomb, which was uncov- as to the importance and function of music in this era.
ered in the Valley of the Kings near Thebes, consisted of The harp seems to be the most prominent Egyptian in-
a corridorlike shaft leading to four decorated rooms. strument. It consisted of a bent piece of wood much like
From this tomb comes the inner coffin of Tu- the bow of a bow and arrow, but with many gut strings of
tankhamen’s sarcophagus (fig. 1.32), made of polished gold varying lengths producing a variety of pitches. Pictures
about a quarter of an inch thick, inlaid with enamel and showing several strings being plucked at the same time in-
semiprecious stones, 73” inches long, and weighing 250 dicate there was probably harmony in the music, which
pounds. This alone makes clear why tombs were sacked. contradicts the common historical claim that one melody
Tutankhamen was probably between eighteen and twenty was the only texture of music for the ancients. A melody
years old when he died from a blow to the head. Despite with harmony might have been possible, or even two dif-
the brevity of his reign, this minor ruler was buried in a ferent melodies played simultaneously. Modes or scales
sarcophagus that contained three coffins, one inside an- were obviously used imitating melodic lines because the
other, the outer two of wood covered with gold sheets, and structures of string instruments indicate a gradation from
low pitches to high.
the innermost one made of solid gold.
 36 CHAPTER I

ANCIENT EGYPT IN THE was it eternal, it was colossal. Robert’s statue in the mortuary temple of
EUROPEAN IMAGINATION painting overstates its scale: The figures Ramesses II:
that approach it are minuscule and the I met a traveler from an antique land,
( \fthe “Seven Wonders of the World” pyramid itself disappears off the canvas Who said: Two vast and trunkless legs of
NJ fist listed by Greek authors in the into the clouds and airy mists, like a Hi- stone
second century B.C.E., only the pyramids malayan peak, as if the painting cannot Stand in the desert... Near them, on the
at Giza survive. Perhaps because of this, contain it. But Robert does capture sand,
they have come to symbolize in Western something of its emotional power. Un- Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose
consciousness what is perhaps the closest able to perceive its bounds, we realize we frown,
thing to eternity on earth. As a twelfth- are in the presence of something that ap- And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold com-
proaches, imaginatively at least, the infi- mand,
century Arab historian put it: “All things
nite—what eighteenth-century writers Tell that its sculptor well those passions read
fear time, but time fears the pyramids.” Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless
When Napoleon Bonaparte attacked would call the “sublime.” things,
Egypt in 1798, in order to cut off Eng- The sublime is both spiritual—an The hand that mocked them, and the heart
land’s lifeline to India, he inspired his earthly manifestation of God—and ter- that fed,
troops on the day of one of the most fa- rifying, because it makes our own being And on the pedestal these words appear:
mous battles in history, the Battle of the seem so insignificant and ephemeral. “My name is Ozymandias, king ofkings:
Pyramids, with the words: “Soldiers, forty Probably no writer in the nineteenth Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!”
centuries look down upon you.” century summed up the ability of Egypt- Nothing beside remains, Round the decay
The Frenchman Hubert Robert’s ian art to so move us better than the Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare
1760 painting The Pyramid (fig. 1.33) English poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, The lone and level sands stretch far away.
captures another of its aspects: Not only whose poem “Ozymandias” is based on a

FicureE 1.33. Hubert Robert, The

Pyramid, 1760, oil on wood, 4’ X 4’ X Pe
(1.22 x 1.28 m), Smith College Museum
of Art, Northampton, Massachusetts.
Robert’s work was painted amidst a gen-
eral revival in France of monumental
Egyptian architecture, particularly of fu-
nerary monuments, many of which were
proposed in competitions organized by the
French government, but none of which
was ever built.

SB
a ADAG es as iis rte : a 2 = rig — : . aa : as
Te ei A aC ROSES ae
 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS 37

Cultural Impact
deas seen in prehistoric art reappear structed ca. 2000 B.C.E., making it a rel- tect I. M. Pei in his 1988 design for the
in later eras, evidence of a continuum atively new structure when compared to entry to the Louvre Museum in Paris.
of human creativity and concerns the great pyramids of Egypt, built be- Although the pyramidal form is repeated,
through the ages. Certain depictions of tween ca. 2530 and ca. 2470 B.c.E. The rather than emphasizing its permanence
animals, as seen in the cave paintings at simple static post and lintel seen at by building in stone like the ancient
Lascaux and the sculptures at Le Tuc Stonehenge was used as a basic con- Egyptians, Pei’s pyramid, constructed of
d’Audoubert, suggest that the ability to struction method throughout the cen- glass, assumes a sense of fragility. The
recreate an image has a long history. The turies—it is seen in buildings as disparate ancient Egyptian pyramid functioned as
greater realism in the depictions of ani- as the Parthenon, a temple of the fifth a tomb to protect the remains of the
mals than of humans, evidenced by the century B.C.E. (fig. 3.3), and Le Cor- pharaoh and the accompanying treasure
Woman of Willendorf, indicates that artis- busier’s Savoye House, a private home of from the public, whereas its Parisian de-
tic distortion was already a conscious 1929-30 (fig. 23.9). scendant serves to promote public access
choice in prehistoric times. Intentional Ancient Egypt, one of the most struc- to the Louvre’s artistic treasures.
deviation from absolute visual reality is tured societies of all times, created art of Use of large-scale sculpture both to
evident as early as the steles that record correspondingly extreme stylistic con- immortalize and to glorify political lead-
the victory of Naram-Sin and the laws of sistency over thousands of years. ers seen in the images of the pharaoh and
Hammurabi. Indeed, the entire history Nowhere else is the apparent avoidance his family, as of Ramesses II on the fa-
of art may be regarded as a series of fluc- of innovation and disinterest in experi- cade of his temple at Abu Simbel, begins
tuations between degrees of realism and mentation found. Yet we may wonder if in ancient Egypt. We see how very ef-
abstraction. the same qualities were characteristic of fectively art was employed to convey a
Early cultures developed at very dif- art produced for people other than roy- political message in later cultures, for ex-
ferent times in various parts of the globe. alty, and for purposes other than politi- ample, in the sculpture of the ancient
Certain cultures regarded as prehistoric, cal or funereal. Roman emperor Augustus of ca. 20
due to absence of extant documentation, The appeal of ancient Egypt’s pyra- B.C.E. (fig. 4.15) and in Jean-Antoine
actually postdate other cultures. For ex- mids persists, the form perpetuated in Houdon’s portrait of George Washing-
ample, prehistoric Stonehenge was con- our own time most notably by the archi- ton of 1788-92 (fig. 16.16).

Pictures of percussion instruments also indicate that Performances were given by professionals. There was a
music was used for walking, chanting, and dancing. Such variety of social levels with the highest belonging to those
evidence of a beat suggests the music had a more compli- musicians of the temple that were both male and female.
cated rhythm and was much more musically advanced than Lower on the social scale were musicians who acted as en-
that of the early Western church (see Chapter 5). The Egyp- tertainers for various festivals or who accompanied dancers
tians’ poetic language itself would have influenced the or workers in action.
rhythm and as a means of expression, inflections in the voice
would have had an automatic transference into the rhythm.
LITERATURE: LyrRIC POETRY
Pictures of metal instruments being struck by dancing girls
or actual wood and brass instruments preserved in tombs The literature of the ancient Egyptians is not readily avail-
give us an idea of the tone color of Egyptian music. able: Most of what remains exists only in scattered frag-
Certainly, wind instruments evolved from an ample sup- ments. The oldest Egyptian poems, dating from ca. 2650
ply of reeds and other water plants growing beside the to 2050 B.c.E., are religious. Most are incantations and in-
Nile River. Wind blowing through these vibrating sources vocations to the gods to aid the departed Egyptian kings.
would have produced sounds of nature that were copied But one of the most important Egyptian religious poems is
and adapted to a mode of expression for this culture so the pharaoh Akhenaten’s “Hymn to the Sun.” In this poem,
closely connected to the land. Instruments similar to the Akhenaten presents himself as the son of Aten, and then
shofar (ram’s horn) of the Hebrew people were abundant describes the sun’s rising: “At dawn you rise shining in the
and used as a means of communication. horizon, you shine as Aten in the sky and drive away
38 CHAPTER 1

darkness by sending forth your rays. The Two Lands [Lower ian religious poetry in emphasizing the joys and pleasures
and Upper Egypt] awake in festivity, and people stand on of life. The spirit of the poem anticipates later Roman po-
their feet, for you have raised them up. They wash their etry that emphasizes the enjoyment of life’s pleasures in
bodies, they take their garments, and their arms are raised an attitude of carpe diem (“seize the day”). As with later
to praise your rising. The whole world does its work.” Greek and Roman love poetry, and the nearly equally an-
Other ancient Egyptian poems of interest include “The cient love poetry of the Hebrews (the biblical Song of
Song of the Harper” (ca. 1160 B.C.E.) and a series oflyrics Songs), ancient Egyptian love poems display a wide range
composed between ca. 2000 and 1000 B.C.E., especially the of mood and feeling. Written on limestone as well as on
love poems written during the late Rameside period (ca. papyrus, these ancient love poems reflect attitudes that ap-
1300-1100 B.c.£.). The harper’s song differs from Egypt- pear strikingly modern.

KEY TERMS
culture pictographic stele hieroglyphics
Paleolithic ideograms relief sculpture ka
Neolithic polytheism statues in the round mastaba
cromlech anthropomorphism myth serdab
henge ziggurat glazed sphinx
post and lintel battered dualistic religion
cuneiform weeper holes dynasties
 PREHISTORIC, MESOPOTAMIAN, AND EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATIONS 39

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

hitp://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/arcnat/chauvet/en/
(explores the cave at Chauvet)
http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Stonehenge. html
(excellent images and commentary concerning Stonehenge)
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc/projects/comm544/library/images/828.html
(takes a look at the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin)
hitp://oi.uchicago.edu/Ol/MUS/HIGH/Ol_Museum_Assyria.html
(Assyrian art museum)
hitp://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/department.asp?dep-3
(Metropolitan Museum of Art, Ancient Near East collection)
http://logos.uoregon.edu/explore/orthography/egypt. html
(examines Egyptian hieroglyphs)
hitp://greatpyramid.org/aip/index.htm
(The American Institute of Pyramidology)
http: //touregypt.net/egyptantiquities/
(site on Egyptian antiquities)
http: //academic.memphis.edu/egypt/index.html
(Institute of Egyptian Art and Archeology)
http://touregypt.net/museum/index.htm
(a virtual museum concerning the dynasties)
CHAPTER 2

co. 1800 B.ce. Mycenaeans arrive on Greek peninsula

eS 1623 8.c.. Volcanic eruption on the island of Thera
co. 1460 B.C.e. Mycenaeans conquer Crete
a co. 14008.c£ Knossos destroyed by Greeks
SNe co. 12508.c£ Trojan War; Mycenaean sack of Troy
: co. 11008.c£. Dorian invasions
7768.c£. Olympic games begin
594-593 .c& Solon reforms Athenian government
507 8.c&. —_Cleisthenes divides Athens into demes
4908.c£ Battle of Marathon

“A 1 ART AND ARCHITECTURE

third millennium 8.c£. _Statuette of a woman
ca. 1800 8.c£ Kamares Ware pithos
co. 1700-1500 8.c£. The Snake Goddess
cS 1700-1300 8.c.£. Palace of Minos, built and modified
mG 1630-1500 8.c£. Landscape, wall painting
co. 1550-1450 B.ce. Toreador Fresco
FP =a. 1550-15008.ce. Gold mask from tomb V
Ls co. 14008.c£. Palace Style amphora
co. 1300-1200 8.c.e. Lion Gate
Treasury of Atreus
co. 1200 8.c.£. Warrior Vase
7508.c& Geometric style Dipylon krater
Y : co. 6508.cz Levy Oinochoe
ca. 600 B.C. Kouros
560-550 8.ce ‘Temple of Hera |
550-525 8.ce —Exekias, amphora
ca.5158.c& —— Euxitheos and Euphronios calyx krater
ca. 5108.c£. Temple of Aphaia

iy LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

ca. 8008.c£ Homer, Iliad and Odyssey
mid-7th Alphabetic writing derived from Phoenicians, begins
century B.C.E.
621.8.c£. Draco publishes Athenian code of laws
(co. 610-580 8.c.£.) Sappho, He Is More than a Hero
7th century B.C£. —Hesiod’s Theogony
fe 6th and 5th century 8.c.£. Herakleitos’ materialist philosophy
| \ 560-550 8.c£. Democritus’ atomist philosophy
& 550-525 B.c£. Pythagoras’ number philosophy
 Aegean Culture
and Early Greece

HH
i
1 jemel
PITH PPM

Funerary Krater, attributed to the Hirschfeld Workshop. Geometric style from the Dipylon
Cemetery, Athens, ca. 750 B.C.E. Terracotta, height 42 a” (108.3 cm.), dia. at mount 28 0
(72.4) cm.). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1914 (14.130.14). Photograph ©
1996, The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
 SS v

ao
a wd
> Ag
Ee “23%
~ SUF
of

ANDROS

IONIAN

SEA

Phylakopi 3, -
g° a ¥
MELOS?
a
THERA Akrotiri

SEA OF CRETE
4 bp A)
7
Ss v4
\
R4
N
£4 N
0 50 100 Miles

0 50 100 Kilometers

Map 2.1 The Aegean world.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

AEGEAN CULTURES
Early Mediterranean people, mythology, and the arts

THE RISE OF ANCIENT GREECE

Western civilization takes root

AEGEAN CULTURES the existence of these cultures—Troy in Anatolia, Myce-

nae on mainland Greece, and Knossos on Crete—was con-
NOW KNOW THAT BETWEEN approximately sidered more likely than not the creation of one poet’s
3000 and 1100 B.c.E., prior to the rise of the imagination. For the principal evidence for these great
Greek city-states, a number of cultures flour- early cultures was to be found in Homer’s Greek epics,
ished along the coasts of the eastern Mediterranean and on The Iliad and The Odyssey. But when the archaeologist
the islands in the Aegean Sea. However, until about 1870, HEINRICH SCHLIEMANN [SHLEE-man] (1822-1890)
42
 AEGEAN CULTURE AND EARLY GREECE 43

first uncovered Helen’s Troy and, subsequently, Agamem-

non’s Mycenae, and then, in 1899, when SIR ARTHUR
EVANS (1851-1941) uncovered the labyrinth of Knossos
on Crete, it became clear that the world of Homer’s Iliad
Sie
=e
eA
ee

and Odyssey had really existed. More important still, it rey

Alans
onereee
mmSa
Se
ent
tener
seemed that the stories and myths from these Bronze Age |

civilizations were, at some deep and important level, the

basis of later Greek traditions and beliefs. Three civiliza-
tions rose to dominance in quick succession in this early
Aegean period: the Cycladic culture on the Cyclades islands,
the Minoan culture centered on the island of Crete, and the
Mycenaean or Helladic culture on the Greek mainland.
Early Aegean culture was dominated by one important
geographical factor, the Aegean Sea itself, which was dot-
ted with over a thousand islands and could be sailed with
confidence long before the development of sophisticated
navigational equipment. What appears to have been a rich
maritime culture developed. The Minoans certainly traded
with mainland Greece, especially with the city of Mycenae.
There is also evidence of commerce with Egypt. Surviving
tablets found at Knossos on Crete are written in two dif-
ferent scripts known as Linear A and Linear B. The first
of these remains undeciphered, although there are indi-
cations it may have originated in Phoenicia, present-day
Lebanon. Such linguistic influence again suggests trade -
contacts. The second script, Linear B, which has been
dated to before 1460 B.C.E., was deciphered in 1952 by an
English scholar, who discovered it to be an early version
of Greek. It has also been found on similar tablets across
Greece and at Mycenae itself. Two important conclusions
FIGURE 2.1 Statuette of a woman, third millennium B.C.E.,
can be drawn from this. In the first place, Mycenaeans
marble, height 243 ” (62.9 cm), Gift of Cristas—G. Bastis.
must have occupied Crete by 1460 B.c.E. Second, and more
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. This flattened
important, is the suggestion that by around this date the
physique forms a striking contrast to the bulbous body of the
Aegean cultures shared a common, Greek language.
prehistoric Woman of Willendorf (see fig. 1.2). Yet this Cycladic
figure, and others like it, are also thought to have been con-
CYCLADIC CULTURE nected with early beliefs about human fertility.

The most ancient of the Aegean civilizations developed in

the Cyclades in the second half of the third millennium
B.C.E. (2500-2000 B.c.£.). It continued to thrive, probably The non-naturalistic anatomy of the carving is charac-
under the influence of the Minoan civilization in Crete, teristically Cycladic. An angular torso is flattened and two
to the south, until the middle of the second millennium dimensional; a cylindrical neck supports an oval head, flat-
B.C.E. tened on top, with receding forehead. The eyes would
Many statuettes found in tombs in the Cyclades were probably have been painted on, and lips and ears may have
carved of marble in workshops there during the third and been carved in relief. But the most notable facial feature is
second millennia B.C.E. They range in size from a few the particularly prominent nose. The proportions of the
inches to lifesize. The marble statuette of a nude female Cycladic figures vary somewhat—some are rounder, oth-
with her arms crossed over her body (fig. 2.1) is charac- ers more angular, the shoulders and hips broader or nar-
teristic of most extant examples of Cycladic art. The only rower. The pose, however, is almost unvarying. iy
FR
Pe
Ba

indication of attire or jewelry are lines incised at the neck. A number of wall paintings recently discovered at “

Although the legs are together and straight, the figure was Akrotiri on Thera include a landscape unlike any other
not made to stand up. These Cycladic figures are presumed known to have survived from antiquity (fig. 2.2). Swal- oe

in general to represent the Mother Goddess, bringer of lows fly above a landscape consisting of a series of jagged Ne

fertility and the major deity in the ancient Aegean. Since peaks, with giant plumes of red lilies erupting from their
they were often buried with people, they are also presumed tops and sides. It is thought that the art of wall painting
to have had a part in the funeral ritual. was probably brought to the Cyclades from Crete soon th
iP
3oo

Baas
ibs
44 CHAPTER 2

is

FIGURE 2.2 Landscape, from Akrotiri, Thera, Cyclades, before 1630-1500 B.C.E., wall paint-
ing with areas of modern reconstruction, Archaeological Museum of Herakleion/Museum
of Prehistoric Thera, Crete, Greece. Recently discovered, these murals show an affection for
nature, though the subjects are by no means copied literally. Rather, nature’s forms have been
translated by the painters into a colorful, rhythmic decoration. The result is quite unlike
anything else known from antiquity.

after 1700 B.C.E., but nothing like this work is found in Late Minoan. It was with the beginning of the Middle Mi-
Minoan culture. noan phase, ca. 2000 B.C.E., that the civilization appeared
to have developed significantly, at which time a series of
large urban centers grew up on the island at Knossos,
MINOAN CULTURE Phaistos, Mallia, and Zakro.
According to later Greek myth, the Minoan civilization The Minoans were sailors and traders. Crete, which is
on the island of Crete was created by an offspring of Zeus, the largest of the Aegean islands, nearly 150 miles in
the chief deity in the Greek pantheon of the gods. Zeus’s length, was provided with natural protection by the sea;
main characteristics include his ability to change his phys- life was secure on this idyllic island. Consequently mili-
ical form and his attraction to mortal women. On one oc- tary subjects are rarely found in Minoan painting and
casion, Zeus is said to have fallen in love with Europa, a sculpture, and Minoan architecture is not fortified. More-
Phoenician princess. He, therefore, transformed himself over, the extant Minoan architecture is largely domestic
into a beautiful white bull and approached Europa who, and secular, for although religion appears to have played
entranced by the creature, climbed onto its back. Zeus im- an important cultural role, temples do not seem to have
mediately flew up into the sky with his prey. According to been a part of it. The most significant architectural re-
the myth, the product of their union was King Minos, the mains are generally referred to as palaces, although they
founder of the civilization on Crete. It was after this king appear to have served a wide variety of functions beyond
that the archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans later named Mi- simply housing the ruling families.
noan civilization. Evans’s archaeological work established
that life had flourished on the island between around 2800 The Palace of Minos. ‘The major surviving Minoan ar-
B.C.E. and 1400 B.C.E., a period that Evans subdivided into chitectural monument is the so-called Palace of Minos at
three main phases—Early Minoan, Middle Minoan, and Knossos (fig. 2.3), built between 1700 and 1300 B.c.k. The
 AEGEAN CULTURE AND EARLY GREECE 45

FIGURE 2.3. Palace of Minos, Knossos, Crete, ca. 1700-1300 B.c.£. Built on a site that re-
ceives cool sea breezes even in midsummer, the palace is decorated with delicate and colorful
wallpaintings that feature aquatic motifs.

palace was continually modified—parts were added, de- verted” column because, unlike the later Greek column, it
molished, and reconstructed, until the arrangement tapers downward, the diameter being smaller at the bot-
seemed to be without a plan. It was also enormous, once tom than at the top. The columns were made of wood
covering six acres and including 1,300 rooms. Built around rather than stone and were painted bright red. They stood
a central courtyard and several smaller courtyards, the on simple stone bases and were topped by bulging cush-
palace is a seemingly arbitrary accumulation of rooms ion-shaped capitals (fig. 2.5). Replicas now line the Great
linked together by corridors, highly irregular and confused Staircase of the palace at Knossos. This impressive stair-
in layout (fig. 2.4). The Greeks later referred to it as the case once served as a lightwell and gave access to all five
“Labyrinth,” meaning literally the House of the Double stories of the palace.
Axes (from the Greek Jabyrs, “double ax”). Over time, how- The basement of the palace was the storage area for
ever, the word labyrinth has taken on the meaning of food, supplies, and valuables. Some of the earthenware
"maze. storage vases remain in place. These huge pithoi (singu-
Open and airy, the palace was constructed with many lar, pithos) were used to store oil, grain, dried fish, beans,
porticoes, staircases, airshafts, and lightwells (uncovered and olives. The palace was a self-sufficient unit that in-
vertical shafts in buildings allowing light into the lower cluded oil and wine presses as well as grain mills. Highly
stories), and built on several levels and in several stories— valued items, such as those made of gold and other pre-
up to five stories in some areas. But the room ceilings were cious materials, were stored beneath the floor of the base-
low and, consequently, the palace never rose very high. ment. These objects were placed in carefully cut holes
The wall surfaces were stuccoed and covered with murals. lined with stone slabs.
The Minoans built with an unusual and distinctive type Because of today’s tendency to judge other cultures on
of column. The Minoan column is referred to as an “in- the basis of their plumbing and level of sanitation, it may
46 CHAPTER 2

Theatral area

| a
=
——.

] North a
——_ entrance a

eH]ch

[tiie

West | °
entrance 15 i 5 5

= ara
cf) 12 = = a-s mz.

ore
13 14 oP

| 4 O mrt
, (ej eee a) Sj
c =I)
nc Oe South [Uy
w entrance 1

_— 0 30m

FIGURE 2.4 Palace of Minos, Knossos, Crete, ca. 1700-1300 B.c.E., plan: (1) throne room;
(2) staircase; (3) temple repositories; (4) pillar crypt; (5) main shrine; (6) corridor access to
magazines; (7) altars; (8) corridor of the processions; (9) staircase; (10) Hall of the Double
Axes; (11) Queen’s Hall; (12) bathroom; (13) lavatory; (14) storeroom; (15) Great Staircase;
(16) lapidary workshop.

FIGURE 2.5 Palace of Minos, Knossos, Crete, ca. 1700-1300

B.C.E., staircase in east wing with inverted columns. Structurally as
sound as the usual column shape that tapers to the top (compare the
columns on the ancient Greek Parthenon, fig. 3.3), this inverted
shape, which tapers toward the bottom, is a characteristic of Minoan
architecture.
 AEGEAN CULTURE AND EARLY GREECE 47

FIGURE 2.6 ‘Toreador Fresco, from the Palace of Minos at

Knossos, Crete, ca. 1550-1450 B.C.E., wall painting, height
with border ca. 243" (62.2 cm), Archaeological Museum, Her-
akleion (Iraklion), Crete. The importance of the bull in Mi-
noan culture is evidenced by this display of bull vaulting. In
spite of extensive restoration, the delicacy and lively animation
typical of Minoan wall painting remains evident.

also be worth mentioning that the palace-had fine bath-

rooms with decorated terra cotta bathtubs, as well as good
plumbing and an effective sewage system.

The Toreador Fresco. “The Minoans made lavish use of

wall paintings. The most famous example features the bull, FIGURE 2.7 Kamares Ware, spouted three-handled pithos,
known to have been a sacred animal on Crete. Known as with fish, from Phaistos, Crete, ca. 1800 B.C.E., terra cotta,
the Toreador Fresco (fig. 2.6), it was painted around height 192" (50 cm), Archaeological Museum, Herakleion
1550-1450 B.c.E. in the Palace of Minos at Knossos. The (Iraklion), Crete. Kamares Ware, identified by its color, was
dark areas are original; the rest is restoration. ‘The activ- often decorated with aquatic motifs in accord with the artists’
ity depicted here is bull-vaulting, in which a person jumps island home.
over a running bull’s back. As the painting illustrates, when
the bull charges, the jumper must “take the bull by the
horns,” so to speak, vault onto its back, and hope to land
standing up like the figure on the far right of this painting.
typical motifs on Kamares Ware ceramics. The forms
Despite the fact that there are other representations of this
flow—wave patterns were popular with the seafaring Mi-
activity, the purpose of bull-vaulting remains unclear. It
noans, as were other marine and plant forms. Kamares
may have been a means of sacrificing people or it may have
Ware pieces are heavy, with thick walls and asymmetri-
been an early form of bullfighting; whether this was a rit-
cal shapes.
ual or a sport remains uncertain. It has even been ques-
The Palace Style, which dates from approximately 1600
tioned if the acrobatic feat depicted is actually possible,
to 1300 B.C.E., is represented by a three-handled vase, with
but no one has come forward with an offer to prove it one
naturalistic lilies and papyrus (fig. 2.8), made ca. 1400
way or the other. B.C.E., from Knossos. Like Kamares Ware, the Palace Style
is characterized by graceful forms that derive from nature.
Ceramics. Painting, in several distinctive styles, was
But unlike Kamares Ware decoration, the forms do not
also done on Minoan ceramic objects. The most impor- flow over the surface of the vase. Instead, the plants seem
tant styles of Minoan ceramic painting are known as to grow up the side of the vase. Palace Style decoration is
Kamares Ware and the Palace Style. A spouted three-
more delicate than that of Kamares Ware. The color, too,
handled pithos (fig. 2.7), decorated with fish and made ca. is different, for Palace Style decoration is painted with dark
1800 B.C.E., is an example of Kamares Ware, which is dis- colors on a light background.
tinguished by its color: a dark purplish brown background
is painted with chalk white and touches of orange red. The Snake Goddess. Although the Minoans produced
Dynamic and decorative swirls, spirals, and S-shapes are no large-scale sculpture in the round, they did create
48 CHAPTER 2

MYCENAEAN CULTURE
Beginning about 2000 B.c.E., Greek-speaking peoples
began to invade the Greek mainland, inaugurating the
Mycenaean or Helladic Age (Hellas is the Greek word for
“Greece”). After about 1500 B.C.E., when Minoan culture
began to decline, these mainland peoples started to have
increasing influence throughout the region. As opposed
to the islanders, who relied on the sea for protection and
whose palaces were, as a result, open and airy, the mainland
Greeks built strong fortresses and, under continual threat
of invasion from the north, were evidently much more
concerned with things military. Most of these strong-
holds—such as Mycenae and Tiryns—were in southern
Greece, the Peloponnese, although there were also settle-
ments in the north, in particular at Athens and Thebes.
Among these, Mycenae was the most powerful and rich-
est center; as a result, the entire culture takes its name from
this city.
In Homer’s Iliad, the Trojan War begins when the king
of Mycenae, Agamemnon, leads the Greeks against the
city of Troy. In legend, the battle was said to have been
precipitated when the Trojan prince Paris abducted Helen,
the wife of Agamemnon’s brother. Homer’s story seems to
have had a basis in history, although it is more plausible
that the Greeks were prompted in their aggression by their
predilection for plunder. The Mycenaeans also conquered
other territories in the Mediterranean area, including
Cyprus, Rhodes, and Crete, assimilating many aspects of
the defeated people’s art, especially that of the Minoan
civilization.

The Palace at Mycenae. ‘The main gateway to the forti-

FIGURE 2.8 Palace Style three-handled vase, with lilies and fied hilltop city of Mycenae was the famous Lion Gate (fig.
papyrus, from Knossos, Crete, ca. 1400 B.C.E., terra cotta, Ar-
2.10), built ca. 1300-1200 B.c.z. The Lion Gate is con-
chaeological Museum, Herakleion (Iraklion), Crete. In Palace
Style, as in Kamares Ware, forms of nature are used as inspira-
structed of huge stones, with the horizontal lintel above
tion for decorations. However, rather than swirling over the the doorway estimated to weigh twenty tons. Above the
surface, in Palace Style the decoration appears to grow up the lintel is a relieving triangle, an opening that serves to re-
vase. lieve the weight on the lintel. The relieving triangle is
filled by a relatively thin slab of limestone on which lions
are carved in relief. Symmetrical rampant guardian lions,
muscular and powerful, flank a Minoan column—an “in-
verted” column that tapers downward and has a cushion-
small-scale figures. The best known example of Minoan like capital. This relief is the oldest piece of monumental
sculpture is the Snake Goddess, or Snake Priestess, a stat- sculpture in Europe.
uette made of faience, a lustrous glazed ceramic, ca. The Lion Gate leads to, among other structures extant
1700-1500 B.c.E. (fig. 2.9). The physical type of the stat- at Mycenae, the so-called Treasury of Atreus (fig. 2.11),
uette, with its rounded limbs and body and pinched waist, built ca. 1300-1200 B.c.£. Atreus was the father of
is typically Minoan. The chief deities of the Minoan re- Agamemnon. The building was given its name by the ar-
ligion were female—mother or fertility goddesses. The chaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, who had a fanatical in-
goddess portrayed here holds a snake in each hand. In terest in Homer's heroes. It is, however, a little misleading,
many religions snakes were associated with earth deities since it was neither a treasury nor was it associated with
and with male fertility. Snakes were believed to be in di- Atreus. It was actually a tomb.
rect contact with the gods of the lower world and there- The dromos, or entranceway, was cut into the hillside,
fore supposed to be able to cure disease and restore life. and the walls were lined with ashlar masonry, in which
The snakes, combined with the goddess’s frankly female each stone is carefully cut with right-angle corners. At the
form and bared breasts, suggest fertility. end of the dromos, the doorway to the tomb is surmounted
 AEGEAN CULTURE AND EARLY GREECE 49

Then & Now

‘THE SNAKE GODDESS ends that grew from, and were propa-
gated by, a religion in which the deity
he efforts of the Feminist movement was female, and revered as wise, valiant,
in the United States and Europe in powerful and just, provided very differ-
the late 1960s and early 1970s gave rise ent images from those which are offered
not only to a vast array of social and po- by the male-oriented religions of today.”
litical reforms but to revisions of histori- If it were a male, King Minos, for exam-
cal interpretation as well. Most art history ple, who exercised governmental au-
texts before the early 1970s, reflecting the thority, it was perhaps the female
social balance within the society that pro- goddess who exercised spiritual and
duced them, paid little or no attention to moral authority in Crete.
art by women, and most works of art were The demonization of woman has had
viewed from a particularly male perspec- a long tradition in Western culture dat-
tive. Attempting to redress the balance, ing from the Ancient Sumerian epic of
Feminist historians became especially in- Gilgamesh with its snakes and danger-
terested in the art of Aegean civilizations ously seductive women. This demo-
because it seemed that artifacts such as the nization is reflected in the Greek
Minoan Snake Goddess (see fig. 2.9) were transformation of the Minoan Snake
the products of a matriarchal culture in Goddess into the mythic figure of the
which women, rather than men, played Medusa, whose hair is a nest of vipers
the dominant roles. and whose gaze turns men into stone,
Key to this theory is a 1976 book by as-well as in the Christian story of Eve’s
Merlin Stone entitled When God Was a seduction by the Devil, who, signifi-
Woman. “It was quite apparent,” Stone cantly, takes the form of a snake, bring-
wrote, describing her research into ing about humankind’s expulsion from
Aegean culture, “that the myths and leg- Paradise. 1500 B.c.E., faience, height 1 12” (29.5
cm), Archaeological Museum, Herakleion
(Iraklion), Crete. Minoan religion focused
on female deities. In Minoan art, both
women and men were depicted with un-
usually tiny waists and long flowing hair.

FiGurE 2.10 Lion Gate, entrance to Mycenae, Greece, ca.

1300-1200 B.c.E., limestone, height of relief ca. 9’ 6” (2.89 m).
The lion, the animal most frequently depicted throughout the
history of art, was often used as a guardian figure.
50 CHAPTER 2

by a lintel and a relieving triangle. Originally the doorway

facade was elaborately decorated with carved reliefs of var-
ious colored stones, and the doorway was flanked by slen-
der columns carved with ornamental relief, the columns
tapering downward in the Minoan manner. The tomb it-
self is a tholos (plural, tholoi), the term for any round
building, in this case a domed circular tomb shaped like a
beehive about 43 feet high. The technical name for this
kind of structure is a corbeled dome. Such a building is
constructed by first digging a circular pit in the earth.
Courses of ashlar masonry are then laid in a circle around
the circumference of this space, each successive course
slightly overhanging the one below, gradually dimin-
ishing the diameter of the circle, until a single stone, the
“capstone,” covers the small remaining opening. The pro-
jecting corners of the masonry blocks are then cut off and
smoothed to create a continuous curving surface.
Just inside the Lion Gate at Mycenae is Royal Grave
Circle A (there is also a second—Grave Circle B), dated

FiGure 2.11 Interior, Treasury of Atreus, Mycenae, Greece,

ca. 1300-1200 B.C.E., stone, height ofvault ca. 43’ (13.11 m),
diameter 47'6” (14.48 m). The final step in the construction of FIGURE 2.12 Gold mask, from tomb V of Grave Circle A,
a corbeled dome was to cut off all projecting edges and smooth Mycenae, Greece, ca. 1550-1500 B.c.E., gold, height ca. 12”
the stone surface into a continuous curve. (30.5 em), National Archeological Museum, Athens/Hirmer
Fotoarchiv, Munich, Germany. The rich burials of Mycenaean
nobility included a variety of sheet gold objects. Homer
described Mycenae as “rich in gold.”

1600-1500 B.C.E., which was excavated by Schliemann in

1876. Schliemann found that this double circle of stone
slabs enclosed six shaft graves. In these graves Schliemann
found golden treasure. Many of the bodies buried here
had been literally laden with gold. Two children were
found wrapped in sheets of gold. Among the objects un-
earthed here were a magnificent gold diadem embossed
with geometric patterns, small individual ornaments of
gold plate sewn or stuck onto the clothing, a rhyton
(drinking vessel) in the shape of a lion’s head, gold cups,
bronze dagger blades inlaid with gold, silver, and copper,
a gold breast plate, and gold masks (fig. 2.12), some of
which were found placed over the faces of the dead. These
last were made of thin sheet gold and hammered into shape
over a wooden core.
The objects found in the excavations of Grave Circle A
make it easy to understand why Homer referred to the city
of Mycenae as polychrysos—“rich in gold.” These are the
graves of the nobility—the Mycenaean ruling system was
one of family dynasties—but they are not the graves of
Atreus and Agamemnon, even though the mask illustrated
here is often referred to as the “mask of Agamemnon.” In
fact, the mask predates any possible Mycenaean invasion
of Troy by nearly three hundred years (the Trojan War is
now dated to ca. 1250 B.C.E.).
 AEGEAN CULTURE AND EARLY GREECE 5l

Then & Now

HEINRICH SCHLIEMANN AND THE entertained themselves by reciting pas- Schliemanns concealed their finds, prob-
MODERN DISCOVERY OF TROY sages in turn. ably hiding them in Greece.
Schliemann was convinced Homer’s The city of Troy was in nine levels. Al-
orn into a poor German family, Iliad was factual and the location of Troy though Schliemann believed Homer’s
Heinrich Schliemann (d. 1890) was a could be determined from descriptions in ‘Troy was at the second level from the bot-
linguistic genius who learned Russian in the story. Excavation began in 1870. In tom, ‘Iroy ‘Two, it was, in fact, Troy Six
six weeks, became involved in the indigo 1873, Schliemann found walls and be- or Seven; Homer’s Troy was about a mil-
trade in Moscow, cornered the market, lieved he had discovered ancient Troy. lennium more recent than Schliemann
and became very rich while still a young However, he was having difficulty obtain- thought. Yet Schliemann did prove the
man. He amassed more wealth by estab- ing permission to excavate from the Turk- ‘Trojan War was fact, and his finds pro-
lishing a banking and loan business in ish government, which feared Schliemann vided great impetus to the study of ar-
California. He divorced his first wife would steal any treasure he might find. chaeology, a new field in the 1870s.
because she was not interested in ar- ‘These fears were well founded, for when Considered the founder of modern ar-
chaeology; among his second wife’s at- Schliemann came upon a few gold objects, chaeology, Heinrich Schliemann exca-
tractions was the fact that she knew The he dismissed the workmen and dug out vated at Troy, Mycenae, Tiryns, and
Iliad in Greek by heart—the new couple these objects with the aid of his wife. The Orchomenos.

self is crudely constructed. The base is significantly

smaller than the opening, making the shape unstable and
impractical. The Warrior Vase dates from the end of the
Mycenaean civilization and, in its unrefined execution and
decoration, can be seen to portend the destruction of so-
cial order in Mycenae. Around 1100 B.c.E. the Aegean
civilization died out, resulting in a period of decline in
which writing seems to have disappeared, and art-mak-
ing ground to a halt. Faced with Dorian invaders from
the north, whose weapons were made of iron instead of
bronze—perhaps the very invaders the soldiers depicted
on the Warrior Vase are marching to meet—Mycenaean
civilization collapsed.

THE RISE OF ANCIENT GREECE

FIGURE 2.13. Warrior Vase, from Mycenae, Greece, ca. 1200 Mycenaean civilization, and with it the Bronze Age in the
B.C.E., terra cotta, height ca. 16” (40.6 cm), National Archaeo- Aegean, came to an abrupt end around 1100 B.c.£. During
logical Museum, Athens. Differing from the characteristic the following century, many of the accomplishments of the
flora-and-fauna decoration of the Minoans, whose safety was
previous millennia appear to have been forgotten. Not until
ensured by their island location, the war motifs of this vase re-
around 1000 B.c.E. did the Greeks of the mainland begin
flect the more military aspect of Mycenaean life. Although not
realistically drawn, the decoration of the Warrior Vase pro-
to forge a new civilization that would culminate in the fifth
vides a document of early defensive arms and armor. century B.C.E. in the achievements of Classical Athens. ‘The
history of Greece in the intervening centuries is usually
subdivided into several phases: the Geometric period, ca.
The Warrior Vase. Probably no surviving artifact bet- 1000-700 B.c.E.; the Orientalizing period, a period of
ter embodies the warlike character of the Mycenaeans Greek colonization and contact with the East, ca. 700-600
than the famed Warrior Vase (fig. 2.13), made ca. 1200 B.C.E.; and the Archaic period, ca. 600-480 B.C.E. It was
B.C.E. Between bands of decoration, soldiers march, seem- owing to the achievements of these five hundred years that
ingly in single file. At the far left, a woman raises her arm Greek culture was able to flourish so spectacularly after
to bid farewell to the troops. The execution of the paint- 480 B.C.E. and that the artistic, cultural, and political foun-
ing is careless, the figures are caricatures, and the vase it- dations of modern Western civilization were laid.
52 CHAPTER 2

THE PANTHEON OF GREEK GODS a model for the tyrant of the Greek polis, but frequently
an adulterous husband. His wife, Hera, is often jealous
According to Greek mythology, before the world was cre- with good cause. Their marital relationship reflects the
ated, before the division into earth, water, and sky, there weakness of human relationships, and their monumental
was Chaos. From this Chaos there emerged a god named jealousies and rages were reflected not only in the devas-
URANOS [YOOR-ah-noss], representing the heavens, tating wars that disrupted Greek life but also in the petty
and a goddess named GAEA [JEE-ah], representing the animosities that spoiled civic harmony.
earth. Their union produced a race of giants called the Ti- Fate, however, was a reality that transcended the power
tans. One of these, KRONOS [KROH-nos], overthrew of the gods. And although there was no single “God” with
his father, Uranos, and married his sister RHEA [REE- absolute power, there was a coherence to the Greek
ah]. Their offspring were the Olympian gods. However, mythological universe that set limits to the power of the
there was a prophecy that Kronos himself would be over- gods. The ancient Greek attitude toward their gods em-
thrown by one of his own children, and so to forestall this bodied their skeptical view of human nature, and many of
he decided to eat all his own progency. Only ZEUS the more famous Greek myths reflect this. However, un-
[ZOOSS] survived, saved by Rhea. When Zeus ultimately like Christianity and Judaism, Greek culture never devel-
and inevitably revolted against his father, Kronos regur- oped a single unified account of these myths, which exist
gitated all the other children—DEMETER [du-MEE- instead in many varying forms.
ter], the goddess of agriculture and fertility, HERA
[HEAR-ah], goddess of marriage and stability, HADES Mystery Cults. As with other cultural traditions, Greek
[HAY-deez], god of the underworld; POSEIDON [pu- myths served as the basis for religious cults, which created
SIGH-dun], god of the sea; and HESTIA [HESS-tiah], a sense of community among disparate groups that com-
goddess of the hearth and home. Zeus married Hera, and prised the Greek populace. Cults, such as the Eleusinian
from them emerged a second order of gods and goddesses: mystery cult, conducted special rituals open only to initi-
APOLLO [a-POLL-oh], who as god of the sun and light ates or cult members. The Eleusinians emphasized strong
represents intellectual beauty; DIONYSOS [die-oh- moral standards, and they held a ritual meal. Other cults,
KNEE-see-us], god of wine and revelry, APHRODITE such as the fertility cult of the goddess Demeter, admitted
[ah-fro-DI-tee], goddess of love, who represents physical only women. Such cults provided women, who were ex-
beauty; ARES [AIR-ease], god of war; and ARTEMIS cluded from political life, with roles outside the home.
[AR-tum-iss], goddess of the moon and the hunt. Demeter cult members would gather on a hill for three
ATHENA [a-THEE-nuh], goddess of wisdom, and of the days, offer sacrifices to the goddess, and hold a communal
arts and crafts, and patron goddess of Athens, sprang full feast of celebration.
grown from the brow of Zeus himself—a pure idea. Perhaps the best known of the Greek cults was the cult
It was Prometheus, a Titan, who first took earth, mixed of Dionysus, the god of wine and revelry, whose myster-
it with water, and fashioned human beings out of the re- ies were celebrated in the spring. Dionysian revelers would
sulting mud, forming them in the image of the gods. His stream into the mountains to dance and sing to frenzied
brother fashioned the animals, bestowing on them the var- music, which drove the celebrants to rip apart sacrificial
ious gifts of courage, strength, swiftness, and wisdom, to- victims, usually a goat, but on occasion a human being.
gether with the claws, shells, and wings that distinguish
them from one another. The first woman was Pandora, a Oracles. Oracles were religious professionals who inter-
joint creation of all the gods. According to one version of preted the will of the gods. The most famous of the Greek
the story, each of the gods gave her something—Aphrodite oracles was the oracle of Apollo at Delphi. This oracle was
gave her beauty, Hermes the gift of persuasion, Apollo a woman who was reputed to receive cryptic messages from
musical skill. Zeus presented her to Prometheus’s brother, the god while she was in a trance. Messages relayed to the
and she brought with her a box containing all her mar- oracles typically took the form of riddles, which demanded
riage presents. When she opened the box, all the blessings careful analysis and interpretation. One inquiry of the Del-
escaped—except hope! In another, darker version, Pan- phic oracle was made by King Croesus of Lydia, who asked
dora was given to humankind as a punishment, and the jar whether he should wage war against the Persians. The or-
she carried contained curses that plague humans. acle’s answer was that if Croesus did war against Persia, a
Unlike the gods of the ancient Hebrews and of India, mighty empire would be destroyed. Croesus thought that
those of ancient Greece could rarely be counted on for the prophecy referred to the destruction of Persia; how-
help. Exceptions are Prometheus, who gave humans fire, ever, it was his own empire that fell at the hands of the
and Athena, who helped Odysseus in many ways. Tradi- Persian king Cyrus. Another famous inquiry was brought
tionally inhabiting the top of Mount Olympus, in north- by Oedipus, who sought the oracle’s help in identifying
eastern Greece, the Greek pantheon, the family headed the murderer of King Laius, who, unbeknown to Oedi-
by Zeus, supervises human society. Unlike the Christian pus, was his biological father. What the oracle said, how it
system, there is no god who represents complete good or was interpreted, and what consequences resulted are de-
complete evil. Zeus is a patriarch, a father, in some sense scribed in Sophocles’s play Oedipus the King.
 AEGEAN CULTURE AND EARLY GREECE 53

Oren Chibwas
hes

HESIOD’s THEOGONY AND Like his father Uranos, Kronos dis- with its lists of succeeding gods, Hes-
MESOPOTAMIAN CREATION poses of his offspring. However, one iod’s Theogony echoes Mesopotamian
MYTHS child, Zeus, is saved by Gaia and grows lists of kings, which are traced back
in safety until he can liberate the other genealogically to the gods. Both
qe his Theogony, HESIOD [HEH-see- devoured children, battle with the Ti- Mesopotamian and ancient Greek po-
ud] (ca. seventh century B.C.E.) presents tans, and displace his father as the chief etry account for the order and hierar-
a poetic account of the origins of the male deity. chy of the universe.
Greek gods. The Theogony identifies Gaia The Greek account of the origin Like Homer’s epics, Hesiod’s works
as the original divine being. Gaia is both of the gods is indebted to various had a profound effect on succeeding gen-
the physical earth and a giant humanlike Mesopotamian creation accounts. From erations of Greek culture. Hesiod’s
deity who produces her own mate, Ura- Mesopotamia, Greece derived the idea poems were considered repositories of
nos, the sky. This primal couple then of projecting a magnified version of wisdom and technical knowledge about a
spawns the first beings, the Titans, whom human power onto the divine realm. host of matters, including farming and
Uranos tries to eliminate by stuffing them Greece also borrowed the idea of the war. The works of both Homer and Hes-
back into the recesses of their mother. universe as a city governed by a succes- iod went on to form the foundation of
One of these children, the Titan Kronos, sion of rulers, each displaced by the classical Athenian education in the fifth
slays his father and replaces him as Gaia’s next in a power struggle. Moreover, century B.C.E.
consort.

THE GEOMETRIC PERIOD reemerged after 1000 B.c.E. However, the distinctive style
of art that appears around the latter date was probably in-
The geometric period (ca. 1000-700 B.C.E.) is sometimes fluenced by the Dorian invaders. Known as the Geometric
referred to as the Heroic Age, since it was during this time style and characterized by geometric forms, it soon dom-
that Homer created his poetic epics, the I/iad and Odyssey, inated the art of the Greek mainland.
centered on the figures of the great heroes Achilles and Geometric pottery is distinguished by decoration in
Odysseus. The other arts are less well preserved for us bands that cover the entire surface, the decoration adapted
now. There is very little trace of architecture and not much to the zones or divisions of the vase. In contrast, the dec-
sculpture. Most of the evidence for the visual art of the oration on earlier Aegean pottery flows over the entire
period is derived from pottery. surface of the object.
Cultural development in this period appears to have A characteristic example of the Geometric style is the
been slow. After the destruction of the Mycenaean em- eighth-century B.C.E. terra cotta krater, a large vase with
pire, mainland Greece lacked a political center. When a wide mouth, seen in fig. 2.14. The subject depicted on
communities began to emerge, as at Athens in Attica and this vase, used to mark a burial, is a common one: mourn-
at Sparta in Laconia, they took the form of independent ers lamenting the deceased, who is shown lying on a fu-
city-states, poleis (singular, polis). neral bier. Funerary processions are pictured going from
The development of the Greek polis, which provided the home of the deceased to the cemetery. Other Dipylon
the focus for political, artistic, and religious activities in vases include depictions of funeral processions, horse-
the region, is central to the later Western ideal of democ- drawn chariots, animals to be eaten at the funeral banquet,
racy. However, in this early period, each polis was ruled and funeral games—it was customary to have games at fu-
by a council of aristocrats. It is also important to note that nerals in honor of the deceased. Significant to the future
the polis, with its tradition of fierce independence, meant course of vase painting is the beginning of narrative. Greek
that even at its artistic and cultural height in the fifth cen- potters would increasingly decorate a greater percentage
tury B.C.E., Greece remained politically fragmented and of the surface with larger and more representational figures
always on the verge of violent self-destruction. Athens and that relate a tale.
Sparta, for instance, remained hostile neighbors. Their
temporary alliance in the early fifth century B.C.E. man-
Sculpture. Prior to the mid-seventh century B.C.E.,
aged to beat off Persian invaders, but Greek civilization
Greek sculptors restricted their work to small-scale pieces
was delivered a fatal blow later in the same century by the
in wood, clay, ivory, and bronze (bronze casting of sculp-
Peloponnesian War between these same two city-states.
ture seems to have started in Greece in the ninth century
Ceramics. There was undoubtedly some cultural conti- B.C.E.). All work in perishable materials has been lost, but
nuity between Mycenaean Greece and the civilization that there are a few extant ivory pieces and many fine bronzes.
54 CHAPTER 2

FiGureE 2.14 Funerary Crater, attributed to the Hirschfeld

Workshop. Terracotta, height 42 a” (108.3 cm.), dia. at mount
283” (72.4 cm). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers
Fund, 1914 (14.130.14). Photograph © 1996 The Metropoli-
tan Museum of Art. Geometric-style vases are, as the term in-
dicates, decorated with precisely drawn, simple geometric
forms. Each of the several shapes of Greek vases has a name
and was used for a specific purpose; this very large krater was FiGurRE 2.15 Horse, second half of the eighth century B.C.E.,
used as a burial marker. bronze, height ca. oe (16 cm), Staatliche Museum, Berlin. In
the Geometric Period, forms of nature were simplified and
made literally geometric; torsos of horses and humans (as on
The surviving examples, found in tombs and sanctuar- the Geometric vase in fig. 2.14) turned into triangles.
ies, are statuettes of humans and animals. Bronze cows and
rams were used as votive offerings to the gods in place of
actual sacrificial animals. Because horses were associated
with certain goddesses and gods, they received special at-
Both The Iliad and The Odyssey reflect their social context,
tention and may have been used as votive offerings to the
a warring aristocratic society in which honor, courage, hero-
deities. The example shown here (fig. 2.15) dates to the
ism, and cunning are the prime human virtues. The gods
second half of the eighth century B.c.E. This late Geo-
and goddesses of the Greek pantheon figure prominently in
metric horse is simplified, abstracted, and highly sophisti-
the Homeric epics. Each of the poems centers on a single
cated. It is representative of a physical type found in
heroic figure. The Iliad describes the wrath of Achilles and its
sculpture and in painting—the horse looks like those on
consequences for himself and his comrades. The Odyssey tells
contemporary Geometric vases. The pinched waist, more-
over, is common to both horses and humans in Geomet-
the story of Odysseus, who, after long years spent wander-
ing, returns to reclaim what is his own from a group of Greek
ric art, be it in sculpture or in painting.
princes who have more or less laid siege to his wife and home.
Homer’s Yliad and Odyssey. Greek poetry in written Homer's Iliad and Odyssey have been enormously influential
form begins with the two most famous epics in Western in the history of Western poetry. The Roman poet Virgil’s
literature, The Iliad and The Odyssey. Tradition credits the Aeneid (see Chapter 4) and John Milton’s Paradise Lost (see
authorship of these poems to Homer, about whom noth- Chapter 14) both imitate Homer’s epics in their different
ing is known with certainty except his name. Early Greeks ways, to cite only two famous examples.
believed Homer to have been blind, and many scholars The Iliad describes a short period toward the end of the
think he lived in Ionia, in Asia Minor, but none of this is ‘Trojan War (ca. 1250 B.C.E.), the ten-year siege that a band
sure. Both The Iliad and The Odyssey were first put in writ- of ancient Greek military adventures laid against the city
ing during the seventh century B.C.E., although they are of ‘Troy. The work focuses on the anger and exploits of its
based on a long oral tradition predating their written ver- hero, Achilles, renowned as the greatest of all soldiers. The
sions by hundreds of years. Despite their long genesis, each epic begins with a quarrel between Achilles and the Greek
epic bears the stylistic imprint and imaginative vision of a king and military commander, Agamemnon, over the beau-
single resourceful poet. tiful Trojan woman, Briseis. Agamemnon had taken Briseis
 AEGEAN CULTURE AND EARLY GREECE 55

as his royal right, even though Achilles believed he had closer to our own than the more primitive world of The
earned her as his share of the battle spoils. Achilles ex- Ihad. Moreover, where the focus of The Iliad is narrowly
presses his disgust with Agamemnon by withdrawing sulk- trained on the military world, the vision of The Odyssey is
ily and refusing to do battle with the enemy. Without much wider. Its values are those of home and hearth, of
Achilles’ help, the Greeks are repeatedly defeated by the patience and fidelity, of filial piety, of the wisdom gained
‘Trojans. Achilles returns to battle only after his friend through suffering. The range and depth of its depiction
Patroclus is killed. He kills Hector, the son of the Trojan of women far surpasses The Iliad’s image of women as the
king Priam, and abuses his corpse out of frustration and mere property of men. In addition to the clever and faith-
guilt at having let his friend Patroclus die through his anger. ful Penelope, The Odyssey’s female characters include the
The source of the quarrel, the reason for Achilles’ return intelligent and beautiful princess Nausicaa; the danger-
to battle, and the military exploits Homer describes in vivid ously seductive witch Circe; the goddess Calypso, who
detail all reflect the warrior world The Iliad celebrates. offers Odysseus immortality; Athena, who serves as
Though the gods are present throughout to comment on Odysseus’s guide and protector; and Odysseus’s nurse,
the action, at the center of Homer’s world are his human ac- Euryclea. Moreover, when Odysseus visits the Land of the
tors. The poet is concerned with human responsibility and Dead, he sees not only his mother, Anticleia, who had died
motivation, and for these reasons his work stands at the in his absence, but other famous women of heroic times.
very beginning of the Western literary tradition. Odysseus’s journey home is interrupted by his one-year
Although The Iliad glorifies great deeds performed on stay with Circe and by the eight years he remains on Ca-
the battlefield, the poem also conveys a sense of war’s ter- lypso’s island. In total, he is absent from Penelope and home
rible consequences. Homer vividly describes battles, with for twenty years, ten for the long siege of Troy and ten for
armies arrayed against one another in deadly combat. He his voyage. This long delay is due partly to Odysseus’s unal-
describes with equal drama the conflicting loyalties of he- terable fate and partly to his temperament. Warring within
roes on both sides as they take leave of their wives and him are two contrary impulses: a wish to return to the peace-
families to kill one another in defense of honor and in ful kingdom of Ithaca, where he reigns as prince, and a de-
pursuit of military glory. These heroic values are honored sire to experience adventure and test himself against
consistently throughout the epic, though The Iiad’s world- dangerous challenges. This split is echoed by the clash be-
view is occasionally tempered by scenes that portray other, tween Odysseus’s temptation to forget his identity as hus-
less military virtues. For example, kindheartedness and band, father, and king in his adventures, and his responsibility
forgiveness are exemplified in the scenes between the ‘Tro- to resume these less exotic and more stable roles.
jan warrior Hector and his family, and in the scene de- The Odyssey makes reference at a number of points to
scribing Achilles’ meeting with the old Trojan king Priam, characters and events of The Iliad, most notably to the
who comes to ask Achilles for the body of his son Hector. death of Achilles. In an important scene near the middle
Perhaps the most famous adventure story in Western of The Odyssey, Homer has his hero descend to the under-
literature, Homer’s Odyssey contains a number of memo- world, where he meets the spirit of Achilles. Odysseus also
rable episodes. Two of the most famous concern danger- encounters the shade of Agamemnon, whose murder by
ous escapes. In one episode, Odysseus is captured by the his wife serves as a warning of the fate that could befall a
giant one-eyed Cyclops. Odysseus gets the Cyclops drunk, man who has been away too long. Homer uses the tragic
blinds him with a stake, and escapes from the monster’s story of the house of Atreus in thematic counterpoint to
cave by clinging to the belly of a sheep so the Cyclops can- the duties and responsibilities of husband, wife, and son
not feel him. In a second adventure, Odysseus and his men that The Odyssey endorses.
have to sail through the dangerous seas inhabited by the Insofar as they reflect an entire culture’s values, the
Sirens, whose enchanting singing causes sailors to crash Homeric poems became the basis of Greek education. The
their boats on the rocky shores of their island. ‘Io avoid human characters in The Iliad and The Odyssey served as
this fate, Odysseus plugs his men’s ears with wax and then models of conduct—of heroism and pride, of cunning and
has them tie him to the mast of their ship. loyalty—for later generations. The Homeric gods, how-
These and other exotic events make The Odyssey differ- ever, were less models of ideal behavior than influences on
ent in spirit from The Iliad. Other differences concern The human events. Homer gives them a secondary importance,
Odyssey’s hero, Odysseus, who after a twenty-year absence choosing instead to emphasize men and women living out
from home, returns to his wife, Penelope, and his son, mysterious destinies. Moreover, Homer reveals the gods as
Telemachos. Whereas Achilles’ strength in The Iliad is subject to the same implacable fate as humans. Although
purely physical, Odysseus also has mental fortitude. they are honored and worshipped by the characters, the
Odysseus’s cunning and wit enable him to escape numer- gods are also portrayed as worthy of blame as well as praise,
ous dangerous predicaments, and he also pursues self- of laughter as well as fear.
knowledge. Odysseus seems much more modern than
Achilles, and his journeys toward understanding and to- Sappho and the Lyric Poem. As with epic poetry, there
ward “home” and all that means take place in a world much was an oral tradition of lyric poetry long before the first
56 CHAPTER 2

THE ODYSSEY ON FILM consider the following questions, if you erences to the Trojan War?
have read it. Why?
he Odyssey of Homer was made into 3. What actors would you cast in
a television film in 1997. Directed 1. What do you think the director the following roles: Odysseus,
by Andrei Konchalovsky, it was later re- should emphasize in filming the Penelope, Athena, ‘Telemachus,
leased in theaters and is now available on story? Why? Circe (Kirke), Calypso, Cyclops?
DVD. Whether or not you have seen the 2. To what extent do you think 4. How might the gods on Mount
film version of Homer’s epic, you can the director should include ref- Olympus be portrayed? Explain.

verse was written down. Unlike epic, which was chanted, Ceramics. Between 700 and 600 B.C.E., the style of Greek
lyric poetry was originally sung, accompanied by the lyre, pottery was influenced by trade with the Near East, Asia
the stringed instrument from which the name /yric derives. Minor, and Egypt. An example is the seventh-century Levy
Also unlike epic, which flourished in Ionia, lyric flourished Oinochoe (fig. 2.16) (an oinochoe is a wine jug with a pinched
on the island of Lesbos, especially in the sixth century lip). Although the design appears to be stenciled, in fact the
B.C.E. with the lyric poetry of Sappho [SAFF-oh] (ca. outlines and details are incised. Oriental motifs appear—lo-
610-580 B.C.E.). Where epic provides a somewhat distant tuses, palmettes, rosettes, winged animals, and sphinxes.
and communal perspective on human experience in nar-
rative, lyric offers a poetic, personal voice, an intimate ex-
pression of subjective feeling and sensation.
FIGURE 2.16 Levy Oinochoe, Orientalizing style, east Greek,
Sappho’s fame as a poet was acclaimed by Plato, who de-
ca. 650 B.C.E., terra cotta, height 154” (39.4 cm), Musée du
scribed her as “the tenth Muse.” The Early Christian Louvre, Paris. Reunion des Musées National/Art Resource,
Church, however, did not appreciate the sensuality of the N.Y. The importance of figures in vase painting was gradually
poems, nor the lesbian subject matter of many of them. increased. Contact with the East resulted in the use of Oriental
Much of Sappho’s work was destroyed during the Middle motifs.
Ages, with manuscripts of her poetry consigned to fires dur-
ing the fourth century C.E. in Constantinople and during
the eleventh century in Rome. Only a few poems remain in
their entirety along with a series of fragments of others.
Little is known of Sappho’s life, except she was married
and had a daughter, Cleis. Even from what little survives
of Sappho’s works, readers can appreciate the intensity of
emotion they express and the direct and graceful way they
celebrate female experience.

THE ORIENTALIZING PERIOD

In the Orientalizing period, ca. 700-600 B.C.E., the Greek
city-states began to foster trade links, particularly across
the Aegean Sea, and many built up large merchant fleets.
For the first time in three hundred years, Greece made
contact with the civilizations of the Near East, in particu-
lar Egypt, Persia, and Phoenicia, and began to import ob-
jects as well as ideas. It is from the mid-seventh century
B.C.E. that the earliest Greek stone sculptures of the human
figure date, and it seems certain that the Greek sculptors
were inspired by the example of the Egyptians. It is also
around this time that Greece began to be unified linguis-
tically through the introduction of a new alphabet, seem-
ingly derived from that of the Phoenicians.
 AEGEAN CULTURE AND EARLY GREECE 57

By 600 B.C.E., this Orientalizing style influenced Corinth,

a port city with close ties tothe cultures of the East. From
600 to 550 B.c.E., Corinth was the leading vase-producing
city in Greece. The color of Corinthian ware is distinctive:
purplish brown, reddish brown, red, and black are painted on
a lighter background. The origin of a vase may be deter-
mined by the color of the clay from which it was made; the
clay of Corinth is beige whereas that of Athens is orange.
An example of Corinthian ware is the olpe, or pitcher,
dating from about 600 B.C.E., seen in fig. 2.17. Animals
are popular motifs on Corinthian ware, some real, as goats,
panthers, lions, stags, bulls, and birds; others imaginary,
as sirens and sphinxes.

THE ARCHAIC PERIOD

The Archaic period, ca. 600-480 B.C.E., saw the emergence
of the two most important types of Greek vase painting,
known as black-figure and red-figure, both focusing in

FIGURE 2.17 Pitcher (olpe), from Corinth, ca. 600 B.C.E.,

terra cotta, height 115” (29.2 cm), British Museum, London.
Corinthian ware was made in the city of Corinth, where the
clay is beige in color, differing from the orange clay found in
Athens. Corinth and Athens competed in the production of
vases.

FIGURE 2.18 Exekias, Ajax and Achilles, amphora, black-

figure style, 550-525 B.C.E., terra cotta, height 262” (67 cm),
Vatican Museums, Rome. Narrative became progressively
more popular on vases, the subjects often taken from mythol-
ogy. Exekias, master of the black-figure style, is especially
noted for his carefully composed scenes.

Athens, which took the lead in vase manufacturing from

Corinth.
Black-Figure Vases. ‘The black-figure style was refined
in the second half of the seventh century B.C.E. and reached
its peak between 600 and 500 B.c.E. In the black-figure
style, painting is done with a black glaze on a natural or-
ange clay background. The artist draws the outlines and
then fills in the color. Details are created by scraping
through the black glaze to reveal the orange clay beneath.
Because the artist must exert considerable pressure to make
these details, the lines do not tend to flow readily.
The amphora, a two-handled vessel, by EXEKIAS
[egg-ZEEK-yas] dated 550-525 B.C.E. (fig. 2.18) is a ma-
ture example of the black-figure style. On it are depicted
Achilles and Ajax from Homer’s epic The Iliad.
58 CHAPTER 2

The figures stand on a baseline, suggesting some con- ca. 560-555 B.C.E. The scenes on Pan-Athenaic amphoras
cept of a three-dimensional space. The composition is a are always much the same. Depicted on the vase is Athena,
perfect balance of verticals, horizontals, and diagonals, the patron goddess of Athens, armed with shield and spear.
figures’ poses conforming to the shape of the vase. Exekias On the other side the activity for which the vase was
paints perfect profile portraits yet the eye is seen from the awarded is shown.
front in the Egyptian manner; not until around 470 B.C.E.
would artists depict the eye in profile. Red-Figure Vases. Around 530 B.C.E., under pressure
Narratives dominate vase decoration over the next cen- from the Persians, a flood of Ionian Greek refugees came
turies, the subjects frequently derived from mythology as to Greece from Asia Minor, introducing Oriental and Ionic
well as daily life. A special type of vase that recorded a spe- influences to mainland art. At the same time, red-figure
cific aspect of ancient Greek life were the amphoras rep- style vase painting started in Athens. As this style took
resenting the Pan-Athenaic Games, which were held every hold, the black-figure style gradually disappeared. Red-
summer in Athens in honor of Athena. Almost always done figure finally replaced black-figure around 500 B.C.E.
in the black-figure technique, the type is represented here The red-figure technique is essentially an inversion of
by an example (fig. 2.19) signed by NIKIAS [NEEK-i-as], the black-figure technique, for now the figures are left the
color of the clay and the background is painted black. De-
tails within the contours of the figures are painted with a
FIGURE 2.19 Signed by Nikias as potter, Pan-Athenaic brush and are consequently more fluid than when incised
amphora, black-figure style, ca. 560-555 B.C.E., terra cotta, in the black-figure technique.
height 245” (61.7 cm), “Athena Polias” View #2. Purchase Signed by EUXITHEOS [yoog-SITH-ios] as potter
Fund 1978. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. A special and EUPHRONIOS [yoo-FRO-nios] as painter is a calyx
type of vase, routinely painted in black-figure even after the krater (fig. 2.20), dating from about 515 B.C.E., on which
introduction of red-figure, Pan-Athenaic amphoras were is depicted the Death ofSarpedon from the story of the Tro-
given as prizes. The specific competition for which the jan War. In this scene, Sarpedon is lifted by the twin broth-
vase was awarded is shown on the other side of the vase.
ers Sleep and Death in the presence of Hermes and two
Trojans. The narrative element is highly developed, as is
the refined style. Sarpedon is shown from the front, the
anatomy realistically rendered, details of the muscles, ten-
dons, and beards finely depicted.

The Greek Temple. “The monumental structures erected

by ancient Greek architects have influenced much of West-
ern architecture. Even today, the principles and vocabulary
of the ancient Greeks continue to be an extremely signif-
icant source of inspiration for architects. Because build-
ings constructed of impermanent materials—wood, for
instance—no longer exist, virtually nothing remains of do-
mestic architecture. However, many structures built of
stone survive. Because the functions of these buildings tend
to be limited to religious purposes, the history of ancient
Greek architecture focuses largely on Greek temples.

The Temple of Hera I at Paestum. ‘The earliest style of

Greek temples is known as the Doric (see Fig. 3.2), after
the tribes that invaded Mycenae from the north after about
1100 B.c.E. The Doric style is simple, severe, powerful in
appearance, with little decorative embellishment.
Dated 560-550 B.c.E., the Temple of Hera I (fig. 2.21),
so called to distinguish it from the later Temple of Hera
built at the same site in southern Italy, was constructed of
local limestone. Its closely spaced columns’ support a high
and heavy entablature that makes them appear squat.
Thick heavy columns taper noticeably to the top, with an
abrupt transition from shaft to capital, which projects
widely beyond the shaft. Little entasis—a subtle convex
bulge in the middle of a column shaft—is seen in these
 AEGEAN CULTURE AND EARLY GREECE 59

LANDSCAPE AND ARCHITECTURE and clarity that can be contained, so to mother. The temples at Paestum were
speak, by the human eye. built side by side, on the same axis, ori-
A ccording to Vincent Scully, an ar- With this in mind, Scully notes that ented toward a conical notched moun-
Lf\chitectural historian, the great each of the Minoan palaces possesses the tain to the east. Standing beside them,
Greek temples can best be understood same relation to the landscape. The at their western end, the direction from
by exploring their relation to the land- palace is set in an enclosed valley on a which the viewer would naturally ap-
scape around them. Characteristically, north-south axis; there is, nearby, a proach them, the perspective created by
the Greek landscape is formed by moun- gently mounded or conical hill; beyond their sides points toward the mountain
tains of moderate size, which surround this, on the same axis, is a higher, double- itself. “Once seen together,” Scully
very clearly defined areas of valley and peaked or cleft mountain. writes, “both landscape and temple will
plain, and by islands, clearly demarcated ‘The two temples of Hera at Paestum seem forever incomplete without the
land surfaces surrounded by flat blue sea. have an analogous relation to the land- other. Each ennobles its opposite, and
Unlike the deserts of Asia Minor and scape. Hera is not only the wife of Zeus, their relationship brings the universe of
northern Africa or the Alps of central and thus the goddess of marriage and nature and man into a new stable
Europe, the Greek landscape is of a scale domestic stability, but also the earth order.”

Pie be st sta SR ee sc
are hee eae ciantine nite em aieaeeed a ae te LT ONE AATEC aM EE SEAN ISTO: AEROS LR SENDA OAS TE NE one a

FiGuRE 2.20 Euxitheos and Euphronios, Death of Sarpedon, early columns. The entire effect, although monumental,
calyx krater, red-figure style, ca. 515 B.C.E., terfa cotta, height appears somewhat disproportionate and awkward.
18” (45.7 cm), Purchase, Bequest of Joseph H. Durkee, Gift of
Darius Ogden Mills and Gift of C. Raston Love, by exchange, Sculpture. The history of ancient Greek sculpture is
1972. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Whereas in dominated by images of the human figure, particularly the
the black-figure technique details must be scraped through the kouros (plural, kouroi) [COO-ross; COO-roy] (fig. 2.22),
black glaze, in the red-figure technique details are painted on a lifesize representation of a nude male youth, seen stand-
with a tiny brush. Details are therefore achieved more easily, ing with one foot forward and arms to his sides, and the
and greater fluidity of line is possible. kore (plural, korai) [CO-ray], the female equivalent, but
clothed.
Strictly speaking, the first large-scale sculptures of the
human figure date from the Orientalizing period, although
the form developed so rapidly in the Archaic period that
we concentrate on sixth-century B.C.E. examples. The early
Near Eastern influence appears to have been decisive. The
characteristic pose of the kouros is believed to have derived
from Egyptian sculpture. The marble kouros (fig. 2.22),
carved ca. 600 B.C.E., shares many of its features with Egyp-
tian figures (see fig. 1.22): the rigid frontality, erect stance,
and pose with left foot forward. However, the Greek figure
is nude and has been carved to be freestanding. There are
thus no webs of stone between the arms and body and be-
tween the legs, and no supporting back pillars.

Table 2-1 TIME PERIODS IN ANCIENT GREEK CULTURE

Geometric ca. 1000-ca. 700 B.C.E.
Orientalizing — ca. 700-ca. 600 B.C.E.
Archaic ca. 600-ca. 480 B.C.E.
Classical ca. 480 8.c.£.-323 B.c.£. (death of Alexander
the Great)
Hellenistic 323 B.c.£.-30 B.C.E. (death of Cleopatra)
60 CHAP
T ER 72

FIGURE 2.21 ‘Temple of Hera I, Paestum, Italy, 560-550 B.C.E., limestone. The sixth century
B.C.E. was a time of architectural experimentation. The proportions used here are not entirely
harmonious, and the two temples built later at Paestum have thinner columns and less over-
hang to the capitals.

The kouros reproduced here was originally painted— orately painted. Figures like this with one hand extended
sculpture was customarily colored with reds, yellows, blues, may represent a goddess or donor.
and greens. Some pieces still retain some of their original Exquisitely sculpted, this delicate and dainty figure ap-
color; touches of red pigment remain on this kouros’s hair pears soft and sensual. The face still has an “archaic smile,”
and elsewhere. but the eyes are smaller than they were before, and the
Early kouros figures are highly stylized and character- slanting eyes, hairstyle, and decorative treatment of the
istically have an enigmatic expression, which is often re- costume suggest an Eastern origin for this figure in
ferred to as an Archaic smile. The eyes are abnormally the Ionian islands—perhaps the island of Chios.
large, and the hair forms a decorative beadlike pattern. The figure is dressed in a chiton, a belted single-piece
The anatomy is arranged for design rather than in strict garment for women with buttoned sleeves, which was im-
imitation of nature; thus the abdominal muscles and ported to Athens from eastern Ionia just before the mid-
kneecaps become surface decoration. The figures are not dle of the sixth century B.C.E. The sculptor gives much
portraits of individuals and there is no evidence that they attention to this costume. The fabric is thin and clings to
were done from models. the body, the folds and draping are complex, the cut of the
Over time, kouros and kore figures become less styl- garment is asymmetrical, and the hemlines are emphasized
ized and more naturalistic and the poses more relaxed. with colored bands. The cloak, worn over the chiton, ties
They remain slender, but the waist gradually expands. Pro- on one shoulder, creating diagonal patterns and curved
portions of the various body parts become more natural lines. The simplicity of earlier sculpture has given way to
and are no longer indicated by lines on the surface but more sophisticated, subtle modeling, even as Greek culture
rather by the sculpting of the material itself. It is possible was becoming more sophisticated itself.
to assign approximate dates to examples on the basis of
these changes. Philosophy. Perhaps nothing distinguishes the rise of an-
The changes that were gradually taking place are cient Greece as a civilization more than its love of pure
demonstrated by a late Archaic kore (fig. 2.23), carved ca. thought. The Greeks were the first to practice philosophy,
520 B.c.E. Made of marble, this particular kore was elab- literally the “love of wisdom,” in a systematic way, cate-
 AEGEAN CULTURE AND EARLY GREECE 61

FIGURE 2.23 Kore, wearing an Ionic chiton, ca. 520 B.C.E.,

marble, height 22 ri (56.3 cm), Acropolis Museum, Athens.
The decorative chiton, made of soft thin fabric, clings to the
body. The Archaic smile is still evident here.

gorizing the various aspects of the world and their rela-

tion to it in terms that were based not on faith or emotion
but on logic and reasoning.
Before the ascendancy of Socrates and his pupil Plato in
the late fifth century B.C.E. a group of early Greek thinkers,
called the Presocratics, hotly debated the nature of the
world and their place in it. The Presocratic philosophers
located near the Ionian city of Miletus in Asia Minor
changed the way the world can be understood. Instead of
an approach based on mythological tradition, Milesian
thinkers such as THALES [THAY-lees] (624-526 B.C.E.)
and HERACLITUS [hair-a-CLITE-us] (ca. 537-475
B.C.E.) offered more abstract conceptual explanations based
on their observations and their sense that the universe was
governed by impersonal and uniform laws. These forces
FIGURE 2.22 Kouros, ca. 600 B.C.E., marble, height 64”
(1.93 m), Fletcher Fund, 1932, Metropolitan Museum of Art, and laws the earliest Greek philosophers attempted to
New York. A Greek kouros is a statue of a standing nude male. identify and explain. For Thales, the source of the uni-
Details of the anatomy form a decorative surface pattern. The verse and its primal material was water, which, he rea-
pose, with one foot forward yet the weight of the body equally soned, could explain both the changing and the more
distributed on both feet, comes from Egypt. stable qualities of the universe. Thales brings to his
62 CHAPTER 2

Cultural Impact
deals of physical beauty—male and fe- more modern figures, such as the faceted poetry. One literary genre, however, that
ale—vary greatly from one culture and females in Picasso’s 1907 Demoiselles has flourished from ancient Greek times
time period to another. That of the slender @’Avignon, (Fig. 21.3) and more recently, until today is the lyric poem, the earliest
Cycladic woman (Fig. 2.1) contrasts strik- with contemporary fashion models, whose major recorded exemplar of which is
ingly with the curves of the Greek femi- slim bodies and angular features adorn the Sappho, whose passionate love lyrics
nine ideal seen in the kore of ca. 520 B.C.E. covers of popular women’s magazines. directly influenced the Roman poet
These early female figures may be com- Ancient Greece has also had a signif- Catullus and numerous Renaissance
pared with later versions of female beauty icant influence on the literature of sub- poets, including Shakespeare’s contem-
as seen in Botticelli’s sensuously fluid Venus sequent civilizations. Homeric epic porary, Ben Jonson. Love poems, which
(fig. 13.18), Rubens’ fleshy mermaids (fig. continued in a line through Virgil’s trace their lineage to Sappho, are among
15.20), Ingres’s languidly linear Odalisque, first-century Aeneid, to Dante’s four- the most popular literary genres, as evi-
and Rodin’s solidly and _ realistically teenth-century Commedia and Milton’s denced by new editions of love poems by
sculpted woman in The Kiss (fig. 18.15). seventeenth-century Paradise Lost. And earlier authors, such as Shakespeare, and
Curiously, the angular, segmented, two-di- although epic is no longer a popular lit- by numerous anthologies of love poems
mensional body of the Cycladic female fig- erary genre, the epic similes or extended in the twenty-first century, one of which,
ure has less in common with these comparisons found in The Iliad and The To Woo and to Wed, was edited by Robert
substantial feminine images than with Odyssey remain a staple of contemporary Pinsky, an American poet laureate.

thinking a more naturalistic, even empirical outlook than philosophy of the Epicureans (see Chapter 3) and had a
had been in evidence previously. dramatic influence on the thinking of the scientists who
For Heraclitus, the primary material of the universe evolved modern atomic theory and quantum mechanics.
was fire, which also exists in constantly fluctuating forms. But perhaps the most important of these Presocratic
Heraclitus saw the world as being in a state of constant thinkers was PYTHAGORAS [pih-THAY-guh-rus]
flux, and especially in a state of strife, in which opposites (582-507 B.c.E£.). For him, “number” was at the heart of all
constantly conflict. Nothing is, he claimed; rather all is in things. Today he is most often remembered for his theo-
a constant state of becoming. One can never step in the same rem in geometry—in right-angle triangles, the square of
river twice, he wrote. And perhaps equally enigmatically, the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the square of the
he suggested that human beings should seek to understand other two sides. These triangles are unified by number.
the order of the universe, which he called its Logos, and Pythagoras extended this principle to music. He discov-
live their lives in conjunction with its spirit. ered that a string of a certain length, when plucked, made
Another group of thinkers, the atomists, led by DEM- a certain sound; divided in half, it played the same note,
OCRITUS [dih-MAH-crih-tus] (ca. 460 B.C.E.), conceived only an octave higher. Mathematical ratios, he reasoned,
of the world as being made up of two basic elements: determined musical sound relationships. The entire nat-
atoms—small, invisible particles that cannot be divided ural world, including the movement of the planets, de-
into smaller units—and the void, the empty space between pended on these same ratios, he believed. There was,
atoms. Atomism survived in a changed form in the later underlying all things, a “harmony of the spheres.”

KEY TERMS
FAnrAl relieving triangle Geometric style Doric
labyrinth dromos krater entasis
pithos ashlar masonry oinochoe kouros (pl. kouroi)
terra cotta tholos olpe kore (pl. korai)
Kamares Ware corbeled dome black-figure style Archaic smile
Palace Style rhyton amphora philosophy
faience mythology red-figure style atomist
lintel polis (pl. poleis) calyx krater
 AEGEAN CULTURE AND EARLY GREECE 63

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

hitp://www.getty.edu/art/collections/objects/o1 5054.html
(This site contains a brief description and image of Cycladic sculpture.)
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cache/perscoll Greco-Roman. html
(A good general site on all things Greek and Roman, including ancient written works.)
hitp://www.varchive.org/schorr/warvase.htm
(An excellent discussion of the Warrior Vase can be found here.)
hitp://lib.haifa.ac.il/www/art/mythology westart.html
(A collection of images concerning classical mythology of all the gods, and many links.)
hitp://faculty.etsu.edu/kortumr/Oéarchaicgreece/htmdescriptionpages/23architecture.htm
(The basic elements of a typical Greek temple facade.)
\( CHAPTER 3 ee ee te *
= .
dep; lee 2 ae iv
Cale
hy ER
a ee 2
St oy gy ix se eee ee
es I
om, ae een
2 hap
ee vee

480 B.CE. Athens destroyed by Persians

479 BCE. Athenians defeat Persians
461-429 B.ce. Perikles rules Athens
Shae 431-404 B.C. Peloponnesian War
430-429 B.C. Plague kills Perikles
404 B.C. Athens falls to Sparta
359-336 B.CE. Philip of Macedon reigns
338 B.CE. Philip of Macedon conquers Greece
336-323 B.CE. Alexander the Great reigns
-
ART AND ARCHITECTURE
480 B.C. Kritios Boy
ca. 450-440 B.c.e. Polykleitos, Doryphoros
448/447—-438/432 b.c.e. Iktinos and Kallikrates, Parthenon
ca. 445-430 B.C. Achilles Painter, Muse and Maiden
437-432 B.C. Mnesikles, Propylaia
431-404 B.C. Polykleitos the Younger, theatre Epidauros
ca. 350-300 8.c.e. Praxiteles, Aphrodite of Knidos
oe
ca. 330 B.C.E. Lysippos, Apoxyomenos
co. 200-190 B.C. Nike of Samothrace
co. 180-160 B.ce. Altar of Zeus
begun 175 B.C, Temple of the Olympian Zeus
finished ce. 132
x
co. 150 B.cE— Hagesandros, Athanodoros, Polydoros of Rhodes, Laocodn and His Sons
4 first century C.E.

LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

» |
458 B.CE. Aeschylus, the Oresteia
4 co. 44] B.CE. Sophocles, Antigone
Bis
i 430-429 B.C. Sophocles, Oedipus the King
&
¥
415 B.CE. Euripides, The Trojan Women
411 B.C. Aristophanes, Lysistrata
407 B.C.£. Plato becomes Socrates’ student
387 B.CE. Plato founds Academy at Athens
367-347 B.CE. Aristotle studies at Academy under Plato
360 B.C. Plato, The Republic
ka co. 350-300 B.c.e. Aristotle, The Poetics
343-336 B.CE. Aristotle serves as tutor to Alexander the Great
335 B.CE. Aristotle founds Lyceum in Athens
 yy. ee ee

Classical and Hellenistic

Greece

Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer), Roman marble copy of a Greek original of ca. 440 B.C.E. height 6 6”
(1.98 m), Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples, Italy. Scala/Art Resource, NY.
 | Athenian allies 460- 446 B.C.
| J Persian Empire -
‘| i Sparta 446 Bc.
| |(3 Sparta’s allies446 B.C.

& THASOS
Q ‘

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“we

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a
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ie
Mh JS Le AEGEAN Mitilene

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+ ANDROS
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RHODES

Map 3.1 Classical Greece

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

CLASSICAL GREECE
The golden age of the arts

HELLENISTIC GREECE
A geographic expansion of the empire and a scholarly exploration of the past

66
 CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC GREECE 67

CLASSICAL GREECE large estates of some nobility to landless farmers, who, as

a result of their improved economic status, suddenly found
n the decade between 490 and 480 B.C.£., something
themselves able to vote. Like Solon, Pisistratos also cham-
[remnant happened in Greece, and in Athens in par-
pioned the arts, commissioning the first editions of The
ticular, that resulted in one of the most culturally pro-
Iliad and The Odyssey for students and scholars, and en-
ductive eras in the history of humankind. Before 490 B.C.£.,
couraging the development of Greek theater.
as we explored in the last chapter, the Greeks had developed
Shortly prior to 508 B.c.E., CLEISTHENES [KLICE-
a highly sophisticated culture, but it pales by comparison to
thuh-nees] (d. 508 B.c.£.) divided Athens into demes
developments in the so-called Athenian Golden Age, a pe-
(neighborhoods), representing what he had labeled the ten
riod of unsurpassed cultural achievement that can be said “tribes” of Athens. Each “tribe” was allotted fifty seats on
to begin with the Athenian defeat of the Persians in 479
a Council of Five Hundred. The fifty representatives for
B.C.E. and end nearly eighty years later, in 404 B.c.E., when each neighborhood were selected at random from a list of
Athens fell to Sparta. But the cultural achievement of the nominees. ‘The Council elected ten generals yearly to run
era was by no means exhausted with Athens’s fall. This the city, and at the head of them was a commander in chief,
Golden Age had sparked a Classical period in Greece— also elected yearly. Thus, out of the demes of Athens, de-
“classical” because it forms the very basis of Western tra- veloped the first democracy.
dition down to this day—that would extend nearly another
century until the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.E. The Persian Threat. This democracy was put to the test
Even as the political power of Greece waned, its cultural beginning in 490 B.C.E. when the same Darius who built
preeminence carried on, through a Hellenistic period the palace at Persepolis in Persia (see fig. 1.14) invaded
(from the verb “to Hellenize,” or spread the influence of the Greek mainland. On the plain of Marathon, north of
Greek culture), in which the basic tenets of Greek thought Athens, Darius’s mighty army was confronted by a mere
were perpetuated by the three dynasties that emerged after ten thousand Greeks, led by General MILTI-ADES [mil-
Alexander's death—the Ptolemies in Egypt, the Seleucids TIE-uh-dees]. In a surprise dawn attack, Miltiades’ troops
in Syria and Mesopotamia, and the Antigonids in Mace- crushed the Persians, killing an estimated six thousand;
don—despite the competition for political dominance the Greeks suffered only minimal losses. Victory was an-
among them. Only after Rome captured Corinth in 146 nounced to the waiting citizens of Athens by a messenger
B.C.E., making Greece into a province of the Roman Em- who ran many miles from Marathon to Athens with the
pire, did Greek culture begin to be absorbed into the new news, an early form of what would, centuries later, become
“Romanized” world. Even then the Hellenistic period was a marathon run.
not truly at an end, continuing in Egypt until the death of But the Persian giant was not yet tamed. A rebellion in
Queen Cleopatra in 30 B.C.E. Egypt and the death of Darius in 486 B.C.E., following
which his son Xerxes ascended the throne, preoccupied the
Persians temporarily. But all the while the Athenian gen-
FROM ARCHAIC TO CLASSICAL
eral THEMISTOCLES [thih-MIS-tu-klees] was prepar-
Political Reform. Many things contributed to the as- ing for what he believed to be the inevitable return of the
tonishing rise of Athens as the cultural center of the world Persian army. And come Xerxes did, in 480 B.C.E., with an
in the fifth century B.C.E. Chief among them is the century army so large that reports had it drinking rivers dry.
of political reform that preceded the Golden Age. As early It is to HERODOTUS [heh-ROD-ut-us] (484-420
as 621 B.C.E., the benevolent ruler DRACO [DRAY-koh] B.C.E.), the first writer to devote himself solely to history
published what is thought to be the first comprehensive and who is therefore known as the Father of History, that
code of laws in Athens. This offered a single standard of we are indebted for much of our knowledge of the Per-
justice to all Athenians, whether the landed aristocracy, sian Wars. He estimated the Persian army at five million
the growing commercial class, or poor farmers. men, surely an exaggeration, but certainly the Persians far
Just as important to this process of change was SOLON outnumbered the Greeks. Although a Greek allied army
[SOH-lon] (ca. 640-558 B.C.E.), who reformed the civil fought most of the battle, a small force of three hundred
administration of Athens. He divided the citizens into four Spartan soldiers has gone down in history. Led by
classes, all of whom had the right to take part in the debates LEONIDES [lee-ON-ih-dees], they went north from
in the political Assembly. Though Solon limited the high- Athens to Thermopylai [thur-MOP-uh-lye], a narrow pass
est offices to members of the nobility, he did allow the between the sea and the mountains, where they held off the
lower classes to sit on juries, and jury duty became a civic Persian advance for days, buying time for the Greek army
responsibility. He ended debt slavery (the practice of pay- to retreat and set up a second line of defense. Betrayed by
ing off a debt by becoming the creditor’s slave), employed a local guide, who showed Xerxes a path around the pass,
large numbers of artisans, and promoted trade, particu- the Spartans were finally surrounded, but continued fight-
larly trade in pottery. PISIS-TRATOS [pi-SIS-truh-tus] ing until all were dead. Athens was destroyed by the Per-
(ca. 605-527 B.C.E.) went even further, redistributing the sians, and Themistocles retreated to the island of Salamis
68 CHAPTER 3

[SAL-ah-miss]. This was a trick, however, for when the royal stoa in which the “Laws of Solon” were carved on
Persians sailed after him, they were unable to maneuver in stone and could be viewed by all citizens.
the narrow bay, and the Persian fleet was entirely de- No attempt was made to rebuild the temples on the
stroyed. Within a year, the Persian land forces were also Acropolis. Their foundations were left bare as a reminder
driven from the mainland, and Greece was free. of the Persian aggression. But by mid-century, the restora-
tion of the site seemed:a matter of civic responsibility, an
act of homage to Athena who had helped the Greeks de-
THE GOLDEN AGE OF ATHENS feat the Persians, and it was taken on by the great Athen-
Over the centuries Athens had grown and prospered, a ian leader PERIKLES [PAIR-ih-klees] (ca. 500-429
city within strong stone walls, protected by a vast citadel B.C.E.). Perikles was first elected general-in-chief in 461
on an acropolis (literally, the high point of the city, from B.C.E., and, except for two years when he was voted out of
akros, meaning “high,” and polis, “city”). There, temples office, remained in command until his death in 429 B.C.E.
were erected, law courts and shrines were built, and a Under the artistic and administrative supervision of
forum for the Pan-Athenaic Games was constructed. The PHIDIAS [FI-dee-us], the best artists and artisans were
Persians destroyed all this and more in 480 B.c.E. The hired, over 22,000 tons of marble were transported from
whole of Athens had to be rebuilt. quarries ten miles away, and vast numbers of workers were
The entire population was put to work restoring the employed in a construction project that lasted until the
city’s walls. When the walls were completed, the Atheni- end of the century. The acropolis embodied, for Perikles,
ans turned their attention to the agora, or marketplace, the Athenians’ “love of beauty,” as he put it in an oration
in which shopkeepers and craftspeople made, displayed, delivered in 430 B.C.E. at a state funeral for Athenian cit-
and sold their wares. Here, at the foot of the Acropolis, izens who had died in battle. Its buildings were “things of
they built a council chamber, a court house, several long the mind,” he said, embodiments of the greatness of
stoas, or roofed colonnades, to house shops, and a smaller Athens itself (fig. 3.1). And it is true that when work on

FIGURE 3.1 General view of the Acropolis. Even in relative ruin, the Athenian Acropolis re-
mains a breathtaking sight and a poignant reminder of past accomplishments.
 CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC GREECE 69

the citadel was completed, the Acropolis at Athens was, mine whether the order used in the construction of a build-
with the possible exception of the Egyptian pyramids, ing is Doric, Ionic, or Corinthian.
probably the most impressive visual spectacle in the world. As noted in Chapter 2, the Doric is the oldest and sim-
It is often said that the Greeks’ characteristic pursuit of plest of the three orders and was the order most frequently
balance and order in their art was a reaction to the extreme employed by the ancient Greek architects. By the Golden
disorder of the world around them. Two major disasters Age it had been perfected. Its capital is characterized by the
struck Athens in the late fifth century B.C.E. The first, a square block of the abacus and the cushion-shaped echi-
devastating plague, occurred in 430-429 B.C.E., its most nus, usually cut from the same piece of stone. There is no
important victim being Perikles himself. The Greek his- base beneath the Doric column, whereas there is a base
torian THUCYDIDES [thyou-SID-id-ease] (ca. 460-ca. beneath the Ionic and Corinthian columns. The Doric
400 B.c.E.) described how the “bodies of the dying were frieze consists of alternating triglyphs, so called because
heaped upon one another” as “half-dead creatures” were they have three sections, and metopes, square or rectan-
“staggering about in the streets or flocking around the gular areas that may be decorated.
fountains in their desire for water.” A year earlier, the long- The Ionic order is characterized by the scroll/volute
standing Spartan resentment of Athenian power had capital—graceful and curling. The Ionic was Eastern in
erupted in the Peloponnesian War, which ended with origin and was especially popular in Asia Minor and the
Athens’s defeat at the hands of the Spartans in 404 B.C.E. Greek islands. The entablature has a frieze of continous
The war brought an end to Athenian supremacy and to decoration.
the Greek golden age. It also signaled the breakdown The Corinthian order, a development of the Hel-
in the city-state structure that had prevailed for centuries. lenistic age, is characterized by the large curling acanthus
leaves that ornament the capital. The Corinthian is the
most ornamental and delicate of the three orders. It was
ARCHITECTURE AND ARCHITECTURAL the order least used by the Greeks but most favored later
SCULPTURE ON THE ACROPOLIS _ by the Romans.
The Greek Orders. ‘The ancient Greeks developed the The Parthenon. Built by Perikles with funds intended
three orders or arrangements of architecture—the Doric for the defense of Athens, the Parthenon [PAR-theeh-none]
order, the Ionic order, and the Corinthian order (fig. 3.2). (fig. 3.3) is the only Acropolis building that was actually
Although there are differences in the entablature, shaft, finished—construction of the rest was halted by the Pelo-
and base, the column capital is the easiest way to deter- ponnesian War. The Parthenon is considered the ultimate

FicurE 3.2 Diagram of the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders. The three orders of Greek
architecture were developed in antiquity and continue to be used even today.

T | : ab Ganeaerenee | I wet ot
ipo Cornice Cornice Dentils —— Cornice Denil)
Entablature maak
oe aa = mama waa Entablature Entablature =|
———______—
Eri riglyp Frieze :
rieze NMelope J Frieze p
——— Architrave ne ee ee
Architrave Abacus C % <= Architrave
apital parr Pee Nee VN eer eee
Capital Echinus Capital

Column
Column

lonic Corinthian
70 CHAPTER 3

SU
RS,

‘eens

deeds

ai

FIGURE 3.3 Iktinos and Kallikrates seen from the northwest, Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens,
448432 B.c.E., marble. The epitome of Classical Greek architecture, the Parthenon is a regu-
lar Doric temple. All major lines actually curve slightly. Such refinements are now believed to
have been intended to add to the beauty of the building rather than to correct for optical dis-
tortion.

example of ancient Greek architecture, the paradigm of The beauty of the Parthenon derives largely from the
perfection. Dated by inscriptions to between 448/447 and perfection of its proportions. The facade is based on the
438 or 432 B.C.E., it is the perfect example of the Classical so-called Golden Section: the width of the building is
Doric temple and is dedicated to the goddess Athena. Lo- 1.618 times the height, a ratio of approximately 8:5. Plato
cated at the highest point on the Acropolis, the Parthenon regarded this ratio as the key to understanding the cos-
is the largest building there and is also the largest Doric mos. Additionally the Parthenon possesses all of the “re-
building on the Greek mainland. The architects were IK- finements”—the deviations from absolute regularity and
TINOS [ik-TIE-nus] and KALLIKRATES [ka-LIK-kra- rigidity—used by ancient Greek architects. Despite ap-
tees]. Phidias took on the task of its sculptural decoration, pearances, there are no straight lines to the Parthenon.
and he made a gold and ivory cult image of Athena The steps and the entablature both form convex curves.
Parthenos, dedicated in 437 B.C.E. Each block of marble is a rectangular prism with precisely

Building
Propylaia Mnesikles 437-432 B.C.E.
Parthenon Iktinos and Kallikrates 448-432 B.C.E.
Erechtheion Mnesikles A437 or 421-406/405 B.c.£.
Temple of Athena Nike probably Kallikrates or Mnesikles 427-424 B.C.E.
 CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC GREECE 71

cut right-angle corners, but when the courses were laid,

the blocks were positioned so as to be faceted in relation
to one another. The columns have entasis, the slight bulge
in the column shaft, and they taper to the top—that is,
their diameter is less at the top than at the bottom. Fur-
ther, the columns at the corners are wider and are placed
closer together than elsewhere.

Parthenon Sculpture. ‘There are three categories of sur-

viving Parthenon sculpture: ninety-two squarish metopes
on the entablature, carved in high relief—most of those
that survive have as their subject the mythological battle
between the Lapiths and centaurs (fig. 3.4); the frieze on
the upper wall of the cella, carved in low relief; and the
huge figures that filled the east and west pediments, carved
in the round.
The west pediment depicts the competition between
Athena and Poseidon for the land of Attica. The east ped-
iment depicts the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus.
The figures are badly damaged, but nonetheless demon-
strate the Classical balance between idealism and natural-
ism. Perfectly and powerfully proportioned bodies are
revealed by naturalistic drapery folds (fig. 3.5).
FiGurE 3.4 Lapith and centaur, metope, Parthenon, ca. 440 The frieze (fig. 3.6) was carved ca. 440 B.C.E. of marble.
B.C.E., marble, height 4’5” (1.34 m), British Museum, London. The background of the frieze was painted and so were de-
The struggle of the Lapiths against the centaurs served the tails of the horses’ bridles and reins. Other accessories were
Greeks as a metaphor for the conflict between the civilized and
made of bronze and riveted on. A recent interpretation
the barbaric.
suggests that the Parthenon frieze is a version of one of
the foundation myths of Athens, that of King Erechtheus
and his daughters.

FIGURE 3.5 ‘Three seated goddesses, east pediment, Parthenon, 438-432 B.C.E., marble. Far
from their stiff ancestors, the movements of these casual figures seem to flow easily. The drap-
ery is contrived to reveal the body and appears almost wet.
7D. CHAPTER 3

FIGURE 3.6 Procession of Women, relief, from the Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens, ca. 440 B.C.E.,
marble, height of relief frieze 3’6” (1.07 m), Musée du Louvre, Paris. Herve Lewandowski/ Reunion
des Musées National/Art Resource, NY. The aesthetic principle of unity and variety is demon-
strated here: The figures have enough in common to appear unified, yet sufficient variety to
avoid monotony. The physical type favored in the Classical Period was strong and young, ide-
alized rather than individualized.

The Propylaia. ‘Yhe visitor to the Acropolis entered a hall, from which the wings of the Propylaia extend. As-
through the Propylaia [PROP-uh-LIE-yuh] (fig. 3.7), the cending several levels, passing between Ionic columns, the
front gates, constructed at the only natural access point to visitor emerged on the east side, exiting through another
the Acropolis. The architect was MNESIKLES [mee- porch with six Doric columns. The Parthenon and the
NES-ih-klees]. A porch with six Doric columns leads into Propylaia both combine Doric exteriors with Ionic in-
teriors.
FIGURE 3.7 Mnesikles, Propylaia, Acropolis, Athens seen The Erechtheion. ‘The most architecturally complex
from the west, 437-432 B.C.E., marble. To gain access to the
building on the Acropolis, the Erechtheion [er-EK-thee-
Acropolis (“high city”), the visitor ascended the many stairs
of the Propylaia (“front gates”). on] (fig. 3.8), was begun either in 437 B.C.E., the same year
as the Propylaia, or in 421 B.C.E., after the death of Perik-
les. Work continued until 406/405 B.c.£., but the building
was never finished. The architect may have been Mnesik-
les, the architect of the Propylaia.
The most famous part of the Erechtheion is the Porch
of the Maidens on the south side. Here are six
caryatids—female figures used as architectural supports
(male figures that function in the same way are called at-
lantes). The structural use of sculpture in architecture
is a rarity in ancient Greece. These statues blend with
the building, the curls of their hair flowing into the cap-
itals. They stand in the contrapposto pose (see next sec-
tion), the supporting leg hidden by the drapery of their
dress that falls in folds simulating the fluting of a col-
umn, emphasizing their architectural role. The figures
form an obvious group, yet each of the six is slightly dif-
ferent—an example of the Greek aesthetic principle of
“unity and variety.”
 CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC GREECE 73

bbe)

FIGURE 3.8 Mnesikles, Erechtheion, Acropolis, Athens, 437 or 421-406/405 B.c.E., marble.
The most complex of the Acropolis buildings, the highly irregular plan of the Erechtheion
covers several areas sacred to the early history of Athens. On the Porch of the Maidens, female
figures (caryatids) perform the structural role of columns.

The Temple of Athena Nike. ‘The Temple of Athena proportion and scale, the human figure was portrayed ac-
Nike (fig. 3.9), dated between 427 and 424 B.C.E., was cording to equally formalized ideal standards.
probably built from a plan by either Kallikrates or Mne-
The Kritios Boy. ‘The kouros called the “Kritios Boy”
sikles. This miniature temple has four Ionic columns on
(fig 3.10) was executed in a style associated with that of
the front and four on the back. The continuous sculpted
the sculptor KRITIOS [CRIT-i-os] of Athens, whose work
frieze on the entablature is also an Ionic feature. Between
is otherwise known only from Roman copies. The Kritios
410 and 407 B.C.E. a surrounding wall covered with low-
Boy differs from earlier kouroi significantly in terms of
relief sculpted panels depicting Athena as she prepared for
pose. The spine forms a gentle S curve; one hip is raised
her victory celebration was added—WNike is the Greek for
slightly in apparent response to the displacement of weight
“victory.” onto one leg. This is the contrapposto (counterpoise)
pose, introduced by the ancient Greeks at the beginning
of the transition to the Classical period. The head is turned
SCULPTURE slightly to the side, the pose is relaxed and natural. The
The chief subject of the sculpture on the Acropolis, char- body is carved with accurate anatomical detail, and the Ar-
acteristically Greek, is the human figure. Just as the de- chaic smile has gone. A new sense of movement appears,
sign of the temples was determined by carefully conceived in large part a result of his weight falling on a single leg.
orders as well as mathematically precise notions of proper Although the arms are broken off, it is apparent that they
74 CHAPTER 3

J ns

FIGURE 3.9 Probably Kallikrates or Mnesikles, Temple of

Athena Nike, Acropolis, Athens, 427-424 B.c.E., marble. Dedi-
cated to Nike, the winged goddess of victory, this tiny Ionic
temple was largely dismantled and has now been reconstructed.

were not placed rigidly at the sides as in earlier figures.

The Kritios Boy indicates a growing anatomical under-
standing of bone, muscles, tendons, fat, flesh, and skin,
and the way in which they work together.
Polykleitos. ‘The sense of naturalness and perfection hinted
at in the K7itios Boy is fully realized in the Doryphoros (Spear-
Bearer) (fig. 3.11). This was originally made in bronze, ca.
450-440 B.c.E., by POLYKLEITOS [pohl-ee-KLYE-tus],
but now survives only in a marble Roman copy. At about
the same time as he was working on The Spear-Bearer, Poly-
kleitos developed a set of written rules for sculpting the ideal
human form. By careful study of copies of Polykleitos’s work,
the basics of The Canon can be discerned. All parts of the
body were considered. The height of the head was used as
the unit of measurement for determining the overall height
of the body—The Spear-Bearer is eight heads tall. This statue
was viewed in antiquity as the definitive word on perfect
proportions and was copied many times.
The Spear-Bearer stands in a fully developed contrapposto
pose. Because only one leg is weight-bearing, the two sides
are not identical. The pelvis and shoulders are tilted in op-
posite directions. The spine forms a gentle S shape. The
pose is natural, relaxed, and perfectly balanced. With com-
plete understanding of the human body, Polykleitos recorded
everything—down to the veins in the backs of the hands. FIGURE 3.10 —Kritios Boy, ca. 480 B.C.E., marble, height 3’ 10”
(1.17 m), Acropolis Museum, Athens. This work is transitional
Praxiteles. "The sculptor PRAXITELES [prac-SIT-el- between the Archaic and Classical periods. The rigid frontality
ease] is known especially for Aphrodite (Venus) figures, of the Archaic era is broken by the gentle turn of the head and
represented by the Aphrodite of Knidos (fig. 3.12), another the slight movement in the torso.
 CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC GREECE 75

FIGURE 3.11 Polykleitos of Argos, Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer),

Roman copy of a Greek original ca. 440 B.c.E. Height 6’6”
(1.98 m). Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples, Italy,
Scala/Art Resource, NY. In the Classical period, the relaxed
and natural contrapposto (counterpoise) pose, with the weight
on one leg, hips and shoulders no longer parallel, and spine in
a gentle S curve, became the norm.

Roman copy after an original of ca. 350-300 B.C.E.

Aphrodite is the goddess of love, born from the sea. In the
sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E., male nudes were com-
monplace, as we have seen, but the female nude was a rar-
ity. However, due to the influence of Praxiteles, whose
work was highly praised in ancient times, the female nude
became a major subject for late Classical and Hellenistic
artists. The subject here is the modest Aphrodite—she FIGURE 3.12 Praxiteles, Aphrodite ofKnidos, Roman marble
covers herself—yet sensuality is not suppressed in the copy of a Greek original of ca. 350-300 B.c.£., height 6’8”
slightest. She stands in a slight S curve, weight on one foot, (2.03 m), Museo Pio Clementino, Musei Vaticani, Rome,
turning her head, in a relaxed and easy pose. Scala/Art Resource, NY. The female nude became a popular
subject in the Hellenistic Period. An illusion of warm soft flesh
Lysippos. Sculpture continued to flourish in the late Clas- is created from cold hard stone.
sical period between the end of the Peloponnesian War in
404 B.c.E. and the death of Alexander the Great in 323
B.C.E. The sculptor LYSIPPOS [lee-SI-pus] was active by after exercising on the palaestra—the school where young
370 B.C.E. and still working ca. 310 B.C.E., a longevity that men learned to wrestle and box under the guidance of a
earned him the name “Lysippos the old man.” During these master. The figure’s pose is relaxed and spontaneous; it
many years, Lysippos is said to have produced two thousand looks as if he has just shifted or is just about to shift his
works of art, but he is known today only through a few weight from one leg to the other. Moreover, he is not only
Roman copies. From 328 to 325 B.C.E., Lysippos held the moving from left to right but is also advancing out toward
position of court sculptor to Alexander the Great. the viewer as he stretches his arms forward. Thus, Lysip-
We know Lysippos’s Apoxyomenos (The Scraper) pos makes his subject move in three dimensions.
(fig. 3.14) from a Roman marble copy of the bronze orig- The Scraper is a slender figure with a small head. The
inal of ca. 330 B.C.E. that was found in the Trastevere sec- body is rounded, with long, loose, lithe legs. The propor-
tion of Rome. In this sculpture, an athlete is shown using tions are different from those of Polykleitos’s Spear-Bearer
a strigil, or scraper, to clean the dirt and sweat off his body of 450-440 B.C.E. (see fig. 3.11). Indeed, Lysippos, working
76 CHAPTER 3

Then & Now

THE OLYMPIAD of Rhodes, who won all three events in of U.S. athletes. They are also usually a
four successive Olympiads between 164 major economic boon to the community
he ancient Greeks had a prescrip- and 152 B.C.E. that hosts the games. When Atlanta
tion for good living that is still pop- Over the years, other events were hosted the 1996 Summer Games, for in-
ular today: “sens sana in corpore sano,” as added, including, in 708 B.C.E., the pent- stance, 73,000 hotel rooms were filled
the Romans translated it, “A sound mind athlon, consisting of five events—discus, within a ninety-minute radius of the
in a sound body.” The Greeks celebrated long-jump, javelin, running, and Olympic Center, pumping over $5.1 bil-
the human body and physical accom- wrestling—all contested in the course of lion into the local economy. After more
plishment as no other culture had before, a single afternoon. Only two measure- than a century of being held outside
particularly in sporting contests. These ments of the early long-jumps survive, Greece, the Olympics returned to
events were an important part of the from the mid-fifth century B.C.E., both Athens in the Summer of 2004.
Pan-Athenaic festival in Athens, but the of which are over sixteen meters in
most enduring of all sporting contests length. Since the current world long-
was the Olympiad, begun in 776 B.C.E. jump record is just under nine meters, it
at Olympia on the Greek Peloponnese. is probable that the Greek long-jump
These Olympic Games were held every was a multiple jump event, comparable
four years until 394 C.E., when the to the modern triple-jump (the modern
Roman Emperor Theodosius abolished record of which is just over seventeen
all non-Christian events in the empire. meters). By the mid-fifth century B.C.E.
From the outset, the short foot race, the games had become a five-day event
or stade, was the most important event. and had been expanded to include a
Held in honor of Zeus, the course was chariot race and even sculpture exhibi-
six hundred feet in length (the length of tions.
the stadium at Olympia), about equiva- Centuries after their suppression by
lent to a modern-day two-hundred meter Theodosius, the Olympic Games were
race. Legend has it that at the first reinitiated in Athens in 1896. At this first
Olympics, Herakles paced off the length modern Olympiad, the organizers cele-
himself by placing one foot in front of brated the return of the games by intro-
the other six hundred times. ducing a new running event, the
The first thirteen Olympic Games “marathon,” to celebrate Phidippides’s
consisted solely of this race, but soon the legendary run in 490 B.c.E. from the
diaulos was added, consisting of two plain of Marathon to Athens with news
lengths of the stadium (or about one time of the stunning Greek defeat of the Per-
around a modern track), as well as the sians. eee

dolichos, a long-distance race consisting ‘Today the Olympic Games have be-
FIGURE 3.13. Myron of Athens, Dis-
of either twenty or twenty-four lengths come more than just an athletic contest.
cobolus (Discus Thrower), Roman marble
of the stadium, perhaps two and a half They are big business. The United copy after a bronze original of ca. 450
miles. An athlete who won all three races States Olympic Committee has an an- B.C.E., lifesize, Museo Nazionale
was known as a triastes, or “tripler.” The nual operating budget of $388 million Romano delle Terme, Rome, Italy.
greatest tripler of them all was Leonidas for funding the training and preparation Scala/Art Resource NY.

about a century later, created a new canon of ideal propor- another important development after the idealized figures
tions for the human body. According to the Roman histo- and faces of the Classical period. Anonymity has been
rian Pliny, the height ratio of head to overall figure size in abandoned, and a new interest in individualization has ar-
Lysippos’s sculpture was 1:9, whereas Polykleitos’s was 1:8. rived (see also fig. 3.17).
This new physique was to gain favor and dominate through
the end of the Hellenistic era.
The expressive face of The Scraper, sensitively rendered,
VASE PAINTING
appears somewhat nervous as he glances to the side. This White-Ground Ceramics. In the first half of the fifth
individualized face may be a portrait of the noted wrestler century B.C.E., a new technique was introduced into Greek
Cheilon ofPatrai, who died in 322 B.C.E., of whom Lysip- ceramic production. In this white-ground technique, the
pos is known to have made a statue after his death. This is vase is made of the same reddish Attic clay that was used
 CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC GREECE 77

lines. The white-ground technique presents the painter

with no more technical problems than working on the
equivalent of a white piece of paper—except that the sur-
face of the vase curves.
The white-ground technique is associated in particular
with lekythoi (singular, lekythos), small cylindrical oil jugs
with a single handle, used as funerary monuments and of-
ferings. A lekythos (fig. 3.15) by the Achilles Painter, painted
ca. 445-430 B.C.E. in a mature Classical style, shows a muse
and maiden on Mount Helikon playing a kithara, a stringed
musical instrument. Mount Helikon is the mountain of the
muses; muses, goddesses of the arts, excelled in song.

THE EMERGENCE OF DRAMA

Aeschylus. Greek drama developed from choral cele-
brations honoring Dionysos, the Greek god of wine and
fertility. These celebrations included dancing as part of
the religious ritual. Legend has it that the poet Thespis

FIGURE 3.15 Achilles Painter, Muse and Maiden, lekythos,

white-ground style, ca. 445-430 B.C.E., terra cotta, height 16”
(40.7 cm), Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich. Alinari,
Art Resource, NY. One of the great advantages of working in
the white-ground technique is that technical restrictions are
reduced to a minimum. Neither the figures (as in the black-
figure style) nor the background (as in the red-figure style)
need to be filled in.

FicurE 3.14 Lysippos, Apoxyomenos (The Scraper), Roman

copy after the original bronze of ca. 330 B.C.E., marble, height
6' 9” (2.06 m), Gabinetto dell’Apoxymenos, Museo Pio
Clementino, Musei Vaticani, Rome. Anderson—Roma, Art
Resource, NY. A little more than a century after the Spear-
Bearer, the ideal male nude has slenderer proportions and
moves freely in space. No longer to be seen solely from the
front, The Scraper is of interest from all sides.

for earlier black- and red-figure pottery. However, here a

white slip is painted over the surface of the vase. The fig-
ures are not then filled in, as they were in the black-figure
technique, nor is the background filled in, as in the red-
figure technique. Instead, the central picture and sur-
rounding decorative patterns are painted on with a fine
brush. The style is characterized by free and spontaneous
78 CHAPTER 3

introduced a speaker who was separate from the chorus tiers of seats built into the slope of the hillside. The hills
but who engaged in dialogue with the chorus. From this echoed the sound of the actors’ voices, which were pro-
dialogue drama emerged. A second actor was then added jected through large masks that further amplified them.
to this first speaker and the chorus by AESCHYLUS The words appear to have been mostly sung to music, and
[ESS-kuh-luss] (ca. 524-456 B.C.E.), who is today ac- music accompanied the dances performed by the chorus.
knowledged as the “creator of tragedy.” Ancient Greek plays were performed on an elevated
Greek plays were performed in huge outdoor am- platform. Behind the acting area was a building (skene) that
phitheaters capable of seating upward of fifteen thousand functioned as both dressing room and scenic background.
people. The theater at Epidauros, for example, accom- Below the stage was the orchestra, or dancing place for
modated sixteen thousand (fig. 3.16). The audience sat in the chorus. Standing between the actors and the audience,

FIGURE 3.16 Polykleitos the Younger, theater, Epidauros, ca. 350 B.C.E., later modified.
Alinari, Art Resource, NY. Ancient Greek theaters were built into a hillside that provided
support for the tiers of seats. Ancient Roman theaters, in contrast, were built freestanding.
 CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC GREECE 79

the chorus had an important part in the drama, often rep- Athenian audiences watching performances of Oedipus
resenting the communal perspective. One of the chorus’s the King would have been familiar with Oedipus’s story
principal functions was to mark the divisions between the from sources such as Homer’s Odyssey. Oedipus’s parents,
scenes of a play, by dancing and chanting poetry. These King Laius and Queen Jocasta of Thebes, had been fore-
lyrical choral interludes typically comment on the action told of their son’s terrible fate and therefore left him as a
and interpret it while providing the author’s perspective baby in the wilderness to die. This plan went awry when
on the mythic sources of the plays. the child was taken by a shepherd to Corinth, where he
Aeschylus is the earliest dramatist whose works have sur- was adopted by a childless couple, King Polybus and
vived. Seven of his ninetten plays are still extant. His plays, Queen Merope. Upon hearing an oracle pronounce his
like those of his successors Sophocles and Euripides, were fate, and believing Polybus and Merope to be his natural
all written for the twice-annual festivals for Dionysos held parents, Oedipus then left Corinth to get far away from
at Athens. Each dramatist had to submit three tragedies the king and queen. Ironically, however, en route to his
and a lighthearted “satyr” play for performance together true birthplace, Thebes, Oedipus kills an old man who
at the festival. The work for which Aeschylus is best gets in his way. This old man, Oedipus only much later
known—the trilogy called the Oresteia [oar-es-TIE-uh], discovers, was his true father, Laius.
after the central character, Orestes [oar-ES-tees]—won first Sophocles’ version of the story, Oedipus the King, begins
prize in the festival at Athens of 458 B.C.E. The first play in at the point when Thebes has been suffering a series of
the trilogy, Agamemnon, dramatizes the story of the mur- catastrophes, the most terrible of which is a devastating
der of the Greek king, Agamemnon, who upon returning plague. Oedipus had previously saved Thebes from the
from the Trojan War is slain by his wife, Clytemnestra [clie- Sphinx, a winged creature with the body of a lion and the
tem-NES-tra], and her lover Aegisthus [aye-GISS-this]. head of a woman. The Sphinx had terrorized the city by
The second play, The Libation Bearers, describes the return devouring anyone who crossed its path and was unable to
of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra’s son, Orestes, who kills answer its riddle correctly—“*What goes on four legs in
his mother and her lover to avenge the death of his father. the morning, two legs in the afternoon, and three legs in
The concluding play, The Eumenides [you-MEN-ih-dees], the evening?” Oedipus solved the riddle by answering
describes the pursuit of Orestes by the Furies for his act of “Man.” After slaying the Sphinx, Oedipus was given the
vengeance and Orestes’ ultimate exoneration in an Athen- kingship of Thebes and the hand of its recently widowed
ian court of law. queen, Jocasta, in reward. Unknown to Oedipus, but
Taken together, the three plays dramatize the growth of known to the Athenian audience, was the fact that Jocasta
Greek civilization—the movement from a Homeric tribal was his mother and her recently slain husband, Laius, had
society system, in which vengeance was the rule and indi- been killed by Oedipus himself. All this and more Oedipus
viduals felt obligated to exact private vengeance, to a mod- soon discovers as he comes to self-knowledge.
ern society ruled by law. The third play of the trilogy Sophocles’ Oedipus the King is one of the greatest
describes the establishment in Athens, under the jurisdic- tragedies in theatrical history—one of the definitions of
tion of the goddess Athena, the city’s patron, of a court of tragedy is the representation of the downfall of a great
law to decide Orestes’ case. Athena herself must render hero. It also provides one of the best examples of dramatic
the verdict as the jury of citizens is unable to decide irony, where speeches have different meanings for the au-
Orestes’ guilt or innocence. Symbolically, with the estab- dience and the speaker: The audience knows much more
lishment of the court of law in the last part of the trilogy, than the speaker. ‘Thematically, the play raises questions
the old order passes and a new order emerges. Communal about fate and human responsibility, particularly the extent
justice rather than the pursuit of individual vengeance to which Oedipus is responsible for his own tragic destiny.
comes to regulate civil society. Sophocles portrays his tragic protagonists heroically.
These tragic heroes suffer the consequences of their ac-
Sophocles. Of the Greek tragic dramatists, SOPHO-
tions nobly and with grandeur.
CLES [SAH-fuh-clees] (496-406 B.C.E.) is perhaps the
In the twentieth century, Sigmund Freud used the
most widely read and performed today. Unlike those of
Oedipus story as the basis for his theory of the Oedipus
his forebear Aeschylus, Sophocles’ plays focus on individ-
complex. According to Freud’s theory, a boy grows up
ual human, rather than broad civil and religious, concerns.
competing with his father for his mother’s attention and af-
His most famous plays—Oedipus the King and Antigone—
fection, so much so that the boy at times hates his rival fa-
center on private crises and portray characters under ex- ther enough to wish him dead. Conversely, his feelings for
treme duress. Antigone, which takes place in Thebes, a city
his mother are rooted in his unresolved desire for sexual
prostrated by war, turns on the difficult decisions that
gratification with her.
Antigone, Oedipus’s daughter, and King Creon, his
brother-in-law, must make. In Oedipus the King, set against Euripides. One of the greatest and most disturbing of
a background of a plague-stricken city, Sophocles examines Greek tragic dramatists is EURIPIDES [you-RIP-idease]
the behavior of Oedipus, who has been destined before (ca. 480-406 B.c.E.). As Aristotle put it, where Sophocles
birth to murder his father and marry his mother. depicts people as they ought to be, Euripides depicts them
80 CHAPTER 3

as they really are. His plays were written under the shadow Socrates. SOCRATES [SOC-ra-tees] (469-399 B.C.E.),
of the Peloponnesian War, and they spare no one, showing the most famous of Western philosophers, is known pri-
humankind at its worst. Although ostensibly about the en- marily through his characterization in Plato’s dialogues.
slavement of the female survivors of Troy, The Trojan In Plato’s writings, Socrates (fig. 3.17) appears as a figure
Women, first staged in 415 B.C.E., is a barely disguised in- whose goal is self-knowledge and truth. Best known for
dictment of the women of Melos after the Athenian defeat questioning others’ beliefs and eliciting their assumptions
of that city. In The Bacchae, Euripides depicts a civilization in a form of dialectical inquiry known as the “Socratic
gone mad, as followers of Dionysos kill the king of Thebes method,” Socrates is a model of intellectual honesty. He
under the drunken belief that he is a wild animal. was sentenced to death in 399 B.c.E. after being put on
Dionysos’s followers, perhaps in part a portrait of the trial for impiety and corruption of the young. The au-
Athenian people, are unwilling to think for themselves and thorities offered Socrates the chance to escape, but the
hence liable to be led blindly into the most senseless of acts. philosopher chose death over exile.
In Electra, a play that somewhat parallels Oedipus the Known as the “Father of Ethics,” Socrates pursued wis-
King, Euripides creates a female counterpart to Sophocles’ dom so as to know the good, the just, and the beautiful. His
tragic hero. With the help of her brother, Orestes, Elec- pursuit of right living was governed by his famous maxim
tra murders her mother, Clytemnestra, thus avenging the “Know thyself.” Socrates urged self-examination and ques-
death of her father, Agamemnon, at the hands of tioning of one’s own and others’ ideas and assumptions.
Clytemnestra and her lover. Euripides emphasizes Electra’s Socrates believed that such discourse was necessary for the
haunted mind after her just but morally horrifying act. moral life and happiness.
Socrates was active at a time when Sophists taught phi-
Aristophanes. All was not tragedy on the Greek stage,
losophy for practical and opportunistic ends. Although
however. Comedy was very popular, and the master of the
Sophist philosophers shared Socrates’ emphasis on the
medium was ARISTOPHANES [air-ihs-TOF-fannees]
concerns of life in the world, their aims and practices dif-
(ca. 445-388 B.C.E.). His plays satirized contemporary pol-
fered from his. In place of eternal truths, the Sophists be-
itics and political personalities, poking fun at Greek soci-
lieved that morals and ethics were matters of convention
ety and ridiculing the rich in particular. Aristophanes even
took on Socrates, depicting him as a hopeless dreamer. In
Lysistrata, produced in 411 B.C.E. in the midst of the same
Peloponnesian War that so outraged Euripides, Aristo- FIGURE 3.17 _Lysippos, Portrait bust of Socrates, Roman
phanes’ title character persuades her fellow Athenian copy of an original bronze of ca. 350 B.C.E., marble, lifesize,
women to withhold sexual favors from their husbands until Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome. At his trial in 399 B.C.E.
peace is declared. They carry out their plans with merri- for impropriety toward the gods and corruption of the young,
ment, teasing their husbands and even occupying the Socrates cheerfully admitted to causing unrest and insisted it
Acropolis. The women win the day, judging their husbands’ was his duty to seek the truth.
priorities acutely, and at the end of the play Spartans and
Athenians are reconciled and dance together in joy.

ATHENS AND SPARTA

Athens Sparta
Literate society; poetry Militaristic society; no poetry
and drama and no drama
Democracy Oligarchy
Scientific/ philosophical No science or philosophy
Girls not educated Girls educated
Women excluded from Women competed in athletic
athletic contests contests
Women prevented from Women allowed to own property
owning property

PHILOSOPHY
Of all the legacies of Greece, its philosophical tradition is
one of the most enduring. The Greeks believed that what
distinguished human beings was their ability to reason, and
thus the philosopher held a special place in their society.
 CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC GREECE 81

and that no such thing as truth existed. Knowledge, the

Sophists said, was relative, based on individual experience,
and hence could be reduced to opinion. Unlike Socrates,
the Sophists would argue either side of an issue with the
sole goal of being persuasive. The phrase “mere rhetoric”
and the term “sophistry” to mean specious reasoning refer
to the practices of the Greek Sophists.
For Socrates, as expressed in his maxim “The unexam-
ined life is not worth living,” self-awareness through rea-
son determines how to master passion and appetite. Living
a virtuous life directed by a reasoned pursuit of moral per-
fection leads to happiness.
Socrates provided Western thought with a new philo-
sophical direction. By living according to his principles,
by making philosophy a lifelong process, Socrates also pro-
vided a model and ideal of one who loves wisdom, the lit-
eral meaning, in Greek, of the word “philosopher.”

Plato PLATO [PLAY-toh] (427-347 B.c.£.), a pupil of

Socrates, and Socrates are frequently spoken of in the same
breath because so many of Plato’s dialogues present
Socrates as a character and speaker. As a result, it is not
easy to determine where Socrates leaves off and Plato be-
gins. It is perhaps best to consider Plato’s idealist philos-
ophy as extending key elements of Socratic thought. In
dialogues such as The Symposium and The Republic, Plato
(fig. 3.18) developed the perspective implicit in his men-
tor’s life and teaching.
Plato believed that truth could be found in mathemat- FIGURE 3.18 Silanion (?), Portrait bust of Plato, 350-340
ical perfection. Plato argued, for instance, that the idea of B.C.E., Roman copy of an original bronze of ca. 427-347 B.C.E.,
a circle, rather than any actual example of one, was true and marble, Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek, Mu-
perfect. Any example of a circle only approximated the nich. Although his real name was Arsitocles, Plato went by his
perfect idea which existed in a special realm that tran- nickname, which means “the broad one,” a physical trait evi-
scended all particular manifestations. Plato identified this dent even in this portrait bust.
realm as the realm of Perfect Forms or Ideas. Virtues such
as courage and kindness similarly transcended their every-
day exemplary manifestations. edness. The soldiers and the workers in Plato’s republic
Plato postulated that ideal Goodness, Truth, and Beauty work together at their allotted tasks under the director-
were all One, in the realm of Ideal Forms. Thus all actions ship of the highest social group, the philosophers, whose
can be measured against an ideal, and that ideal standard decisions govern the republic by reason.
can be used as a goal toward which human beings might In Book 7 of The Republic, Plato uses two analogies to
strive. According to Plato, human beings should be less explain his idea about different levels of knowledge or un-
concerned with the material world of impermanence and derstanding. One, the analogy of the Divided Line, pres-
change and more concerned with the spiritual realm of ents a vertical line divided into four segments, with the
Perfect Forms. Thus the highest spiritual principle, reason, upper two representing the intellectual world and the
should be used to control the lower human aspects of en- lower two the visible world. The lowest part represents
ergy and desire. shadows and reflections (explained below in the Allegory
Both ideas are advanced in Plato’s best known work, of the Cave); the one above that represents material and
The Republic, a complex and ambitious book concerned pri- natural things. The two lower parts are complemented by
marily with justice and how to achieve a just society. Plato the upper segments, which represent reasoning about the
proposes the division of society into three layers, each of world and its objects (the lower segment of the upper line),
which reflects one of the three aspects of the soul. Plato ar- and philosophical principles arrived at without reference
gues that people whose impulse is toward satisfying their to objects (abstract thought, the uppermost portion of the
desires are not capable of making judgments in accordance line).
with reason and should therefore occupy the lowest posi- Plato supplements this image about the nature of
tion in society, that of servitude. Above these workers are knowledge with his famous Allegory of the Cave. In this,
the soldiers, whose primary force is that of energy or spirit- he describes a cave in which human beings are chained to
82 CHAPTER 3

Connections

LITERARY ELEMENTS OF PLATO’S ¢ The Dialogues collectively pres- ¢ The Dialogues employ various
DIALOGUES ent a quest or epic journey in forms of metaphorical thinking
search of wisdom. An additional and analogy, the most famous of
lato’s Philosophical Dialogues have long epic dimension is evident in the which is Plato’s Allegory of the
been regarded as a literary as well as character of Socrates, who is un- Cave in Book 7 of the Republic.
a philosophic masterpiece. In addition to afraid of the unjust death to The Dialogues contain various re-
their engaging conversational style, which he is condemned by the peating images, the most impor-
Plato’s writings exhibit the following Athenian authorities. The neo- tant of which, light, symbolizes
characteristics: classical French painter, David,
the highest form of knowledge,
portrayed Socrates as he was a form of divinely intuited illu-
¢ The Dialogues individually are
preparing to drink the hemlock
cast as intellectual dramas. They mination.
that would kill him.
dramatize a conflict of ideas, typ-
ically represented by Socrates
and one or more other speakers.

a wall. The only light visible is that reflected from a fire be- carried out, Aristotle is reputed to have remarked that he
hind and above them. When objects are cast as shadows on would not allow Athens to commit a second crime against
the wall, the cave inhabitants take these shadows for real- philosophy.
ity. Only the one freed from the cave can see that what he Aristotle’s logic provides a framework for scientific and
had previously considered real are simply shadowy reflec- philosophical thinking still in use today. The basis of Aris-
tions of their actual counterparts. Instead of being a pris- totle’s logic is an analysis of argument. Its central feature
oner of illusion like those still chained in the cave, the is the syllogism. In syllogistic reasoning, one proposition
escapee has a true knowledge of reality. or statement follows from another by necessity, when the
For Plato, such a revelation reflects the difference be- premises are true. In such a case the syllogism is consid-
tween ignorance and knowledge of truth, between the ered valid, as in the following example:
world of material objects and the realm of Ideal Essences,
All philosophers are mortal.
the true forms of those things. This division between the
Aristotle is a philosopher.
higher spiritual forms and the lower material world is Aristotle is moral.
echoed by other dualisms in Plato’s philosophy. Foremost
among the divisions are those between the philosopher In the next example, the syllogism is invalid even though
and the common people, the perfect and the imperfect, the conclusion is true, because one of the propositions—
and the spiritual life and the physical life. the first—is untrue:
Aristotle. Born in Stageira, in’ Thrace, ARISTOTLE [air- All philosophers are men.
iss- TOT-ul] (384-322 B.c.E.) studied in Plato’s school, the Aristotle was a philosopher.
Aristotle was a man.
Academy, in Athens. He remained there for twenty years
until Plato’s death in 347 B.C.E., when he left to establish Aristotle’s logic also includes an analysis of the basic cate-
his own school, first in Assos and later in Lesbos. Aristotle’s gories used to describe the natural world. According to
most famous pupil was Alexander the Great, whom the Aristotle, things possess substance (their primary reality)
philosopher served as private tutor from 343 until 336 B.C.E., and incidental qualities. A dog, for example, possesses
when Alexander succeeded to the Macedonian throne. something—this is its substance—that distinguishes it from
In 335 B.c.£. Aristotle, known as the “Father of Sci- other animals, making it a dog and not a cat or a horse. At
ence,” returned to Athens to establish his own school at the the same time, the dog may be large and brown with long
Lyceum, where lectures and discussions took place under shaggy hair—these are incidental qualities and secondary
a covered walkway. Lecturers moved about among their compared to the dog’s substantial reality. Another dog,
audiences, thereby acquiring the designation “Peripatetics” which is small and white with short fine hair, nonetheless
(walkers). Like Socrates, Aristotle was charged with impi- possesses the same substance as the first larger darker dog.
ety and condemned by the Athenian tribunal of judges. Aristotle disagreed with his teacher Plato on a number of
Upon leaving Athens before a sentence of death could be important issues. For Aristotle, an object’s matter and form
 CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC GREECE 83

are inseparable. Even though we can think of the “white- a treatise on the nature of literature, focusing particularly
ness” of a dog and its “dogness,” those concepts do not have on Sophocles’ Oedipus the King. The Poetics offers a provoca-
independent existence outside of the things they embody. tive and enduring set of ideas about the literary experi-
Unlike Plato, who posited a realm where the perfect idea of ence. Aristotle, in fact, is concerned in The Poetics not only
a dog exists independent of actual dogs, for Aristotle the with literature but with art in general.
idea of a dog can only exist in relation to an actual canine An important idea derived from The Poetics concerns
quadruped. By insisting on the link between form and mat- Aristotle’s notion of “catharsis.” Aristotle explains cathar-
ter, Aristotle brought Platonic ideas down to earth. sis as a purging of the passions of pity and fear aroused in
Similarly, Aristotle emphasized the way the substance of an audience during the tragic action of a play. Aristotle
a thing becomes itself in a process of growth and develop- considers this catharsis the goal or end of tragedy. Aristo-
ment. With his early study of biology as an influence, Aris- tle’s reasoning reverses conventional wisdom, suggesting
totle’s thinking takes account of development and process that an audience’s experience of pity and fear at, for ex-
in ways that Plato’s more mathematically influenced phi- ample, Oedipus’s tragic fate, would provide pleasure and
losophy does not. For example, Aristotle describes the po- not pain. The reason is that the emotions built up during
tential of a seed to become a flower or a fruit, of an embryo the course of the tragic dramatic action are “purged” by the
to become a living human or animal. end of the performance. In Aristotle’s view, the purging
Aristotle’s philosophy is grounded in the notion of tele- includes both physical purging through the excitement
ology, which views the end or goal of an object or being as generated and released, and a spiritual purgation analo-
more important than its starting point or beginning. His gous to the release or cleansing of the soul for religious
teleological mind explains the way all material things are purposes. Such purging thus contributes to the health of
designed to achieve their purpose and attain their end. the society beyond the theater.
This end or goal of each thing is the fulfillment of the po- Aristotle’s insights into literary language and dramatic
tential it embodies from the beginning of its existence. structure have remained influential for more than two
Aristotle arrives at a conviction about the nature of God thousand years. Throughout the Renaissance, and well
from logic rather than from ethics or religious faith. In his into the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Aristotle was
Physics, Aristotle argues that everything is in motion to- recognized as having set the standards for literary appre-
ward realizing its potential. Because everything is in mo- ciation. At the end of the second millennium, nearly 2,500
tion, there must be something that provided the first years after Aristotle wrote The Poetics, literary historians
impulse (the prime mover) and that itself is not in motion. and critics continue to employ Aristotle’s categories and
For to be in motion is to be in a potential state, and the terminology.
prime mover must be in a state of completeness and thus
not in motion. The prime mover must be immaterial as
well as unchanging. PLATO AND ARISTOTLE CONTRASTED
Finally, Aristotle differed from his Greek predecessors
1. Plato separated Ideal Forms from material things. Aristotle
significantly in his approach to ethics. For Aristotle, there insisted on the inseparability of form and matter.
were no absolutely unchanging ethical norms to guide be-
2. Plato made universals primary and particulars secondary.
havior and determine conduct. Instead, there were only
Aristotle made particulars primary and universals secondary.
approximations based on the principle of the mean be-
3. Plato emphasized Being over Becoming. Aristotle empha-
tween extremes. Courage thus exists as a balance between
sized Becoming over Being.
cowardice and rash behavior, and temperance as a balance
between deprivation and overindulgence. Virtue consists 4. Plato celebrated mathematics as the model of pure thought.
Aristotle grounded his philosophical system in biology.
of negotiating between extremes, the balance point chang-
ing according to circumstances. 5. Plato's philosophy emphasized stasis. Aristotle's philosophy
Aristotle’s ethics is grounded in the realities and con- emphasized growth and development.
tingencies of this world. Aristotle consistently emphasized 6. For Plato the highest form of knowledge was knowledge of
concrete, tangible, everyday experience and thus provided the pure Forms or Ideals—Platonic Idealism. For Aristotle,
a necessary empirical counterpoint to the idealism espoused knowledge was grounded in empirical reality—Aristotelian
Empiricism.
by his teacher and predecessor, Plato. Together their com-
plementary philosophies have spurred theological and 7. Plato’s philosophy tended toward the transcendental.
philosophical speculation for more than two thousand Aristotle's philosophy was directed toward the immanent.
years. If, as one modern philosopher put it, “All philosophy 8. Plato favored intuition over logic. Aristotle made logic the
is but a footnote to Plato,” Aristotle’s has been the richest, basis of his philosophy.
most complex, and most influential “footnote” of all. 9. Plato used reason to overcome the physical world. Aristotle
Of his many achievements, Aristotle’s work as the first used reason to discover the order of the world.
Western literary theorist has been among his most influ- 10. Plato’s philosophy influenced Augustine's theology.
ential. Aristotle’s literary ideas are developed in his Poetics, Aristotle's philosophy influenced Aquinas's theology.
84 CHAPTER 3

Connections

MusIc AND MATHEMATICS IN More is known about Greek musical sounds described in ancient Greek musi-
ANCIENT GREECE theory than about its practice, largely be- cal treatises but also in the proportions
cause few music manuscripts have sur- Greek architects used to design buildings
ie for the ancient Greeks, was vived. Treatises such as The Section of the and Greek sculptors employed in mod-
not an isolated art. The basic ele- Canon, attributed to Euclid (fl. ca. 300 eling the human figure. It finds further
ments of Greek music derived from B.C.E.), the Greek mathematician who in- expression in ancient Greek astronomy.
mathematics, which served as the foun- vented geometry, provide the earliest full Although musical analysis has under-
dation of ancient Greek philosophy and account of Pythagoras’s acoustical theory. gone considerable change since Pythago-
astronomy. Music thus became associ- For Pythagoras, numbers provided ras’s time, his basic ideas about tonal
ated with these other Hellenic achieve- the key to understanding the universe. relationships remain an important element
ments, largely through ideas about He believed music and arithmetic func- of music theory today. Moreover, his con-
number, especially numerical relation- tion as a single unit, with the system of nection between music and mathematics
ships expressed as ratios. The most im- musical sounds governed by mathemat- and its later adaptations in philosophy and
portant early Greek theorist of music ical laws. Pythagoras argued that because astronomy reveal his continued influence
was PYTHAGORAS [Pi-THA-go-rus] music embodies number in ratios and well beyond the bounds of his famous geo-
(ca. 580-507 B.C.E.). Pythagoras’s influ- proportions, music exemplifies the har- metrical theorem. ‘To take only one exam-
ence extended into the Middle Ages and mony of the universe. ple, the medieval quadrivium’s inclusion
beyond, largely through the De Musica of Pythagoras studied the relationships of music, along with arithmetic, geome-
BOETHIUS [BEE-thee-us] (ca. 480-524 between two or more given notes and try, and astronomy, suggests both the
C.E.), a Christian philosopher who once represented them in numerical equa- importance of music in the medieval cur-
described music as “number made audi- tions. (The ratios 12:6, 9:6, 12:9, and 9:8 riculum and its close relationship with
ble.” Pythagoras and Boethius believed represent the proportions between mu- mathematics. Finally, Pythagoras’s belief
all things beautiful are subject to num- sical intervals, and these ratios have re- in the fundamental unity of the world,
ber, an idea Boethius expressed in his mained the basis of the tonal system of grounded in number, has served as a pow-
formulation that “music demonstrates in Western music since ca. 500-1500 C.E.). erful influence for scientists, mathemati-
sound the pure world of number and de- Pythagoras’s concern with beautiful cians, and philosophers seeking to
rives its beauty from that world.” numerical ratios is echoed not only in the understand the laws of the universe.

MUSIC AND GREEK SOCIETY that supported choruses of Greek plays by duplicating the
melodic line.
Music is mentioned in ancient Greece as early as Homer’s
Music was so important to the ancient Greeks that all
Iliad, which includes a reference to Achilles playing a lyre
philosophers, including Plato and Aristotle, made a point
in his tent. It was not uncommon for a warrior to soothe his
of discussing it. Plato, for example, believed music could
spirits with the charms of music, much as in ancient Israel
influence human emotion and character. He argued that
David played the harp to assuage the anxieties of King Saul.
only music that encouraged bravery and emotional stabil-
An integral part of Greek life, music was associated with
ity should be taught to the young. Aristotle also believed
festivals and banquets, religion and social ritual, including
in the importance of music for building character. Like
marriages, funerals, and harvest rites. It was associated with
Plato, Aristotle wrote about music’s power to affect the
Greek drama, for which a special place, the orchestra, was
development of the inner person, particularly music’s
set aside for dancers. Music was an essential part of the
power to affect the soul. Other ancient philosophers com-
Homeric epics, which were chanted to the accompaniment
mented on music’s ethical influence. Like Plato and Aris-
of the lyre. In addition, music formed a significant part of
totle, they associated certain musical modes with virtue
the Olympic athletic contests. At the festivals, the ancient
and vice, spiritual development and spiritual danger.
Greeks held contests for musicians equal to those of the
athletes, awarding prizes and honors of similar measure. The Musical Modes. Greek music was primarily a music of
The lyre appears on numerous Greek vases. Its tortoise- melody, with little concern for harmony. For the ancient
shell bowl provided the resonance, much as the body of Greeks, musical scales, or modes, on which melodies were
an acoustic guitar does today. The strings were plucked based, had particular ethical effects associated with them.
with the fingers or with a plectrum (the quill of a feather). Each mode used a particular sequence of intervals that es-
The aulos was a double-piped wind instrument with a dou- tablished its modality. The Greek system, still in use today,
ble reed that vibrated with an aggressive and strident tone divides the octave into twelve equal-sounding smaller inter-
much like that of a modern oboe. It was probably the aulos vals, each called a half step. In a musical mode or scale, there
 CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC GREECE 85

are eight tones with seven intervals between them, five of

which are half steps and two whole steps. The position of
the whole and half steps in the scale or mode affects the spe-
cific character or quality of the scale or mode. Some scales
or modes sound “happy” or “bright”; others sound “mourn-
ful” or “dark.” Strings on lyres were often tuned to one of the
“calming scales” as dictated by the doctrine of ethos.
Each of the Greek musical modes was considered to
have a specific ethical effect on hearers, thus resulting in
the various strictures placed on them by Plato and Aristo-
tle. The best of the modes, the one most conducive to
virtue, was thought to be the Dorian mode, which, for
Aristotle, represented the golden mean of music, compa-
rable to the golden mean of his ethics.
Although ancient Greek instruments, such as the lyre,
can be recognized from their depiction in painting and
sculpture, the melodies played on them are virtually ex-
tinct. The scraps of melody inscribed on papyrus or incised
in stone do not provide much help in understanding what
ancient Greek music sounded like. The best available ex-
amples of ancient Greek musical manuscripts date from
the second century B.C.E. and are tributes to the god Apollo.

HELLENISTIC GREECE ~
After the fall of Athens in 404 B.c.E., Sparta controlled the
Greek mainland, until Thebes ended Spartan hegemony.
FIGURE 3.19 Portrait bust of Alexander the Great, Roman
In 359 B.c.E., Macedonia, a minor Greek state on the
copy of aGreek original of ca. 330 B.C.E., marble, Staatliche
northern end of the Aegean, beyond Mount Olympus,
Kuntsammlungen, Dresden Museum, Germany. Although a
began to assert itself when Philip IT became ruler. In 338 womanizer, an excessive drinker, and perhaps a megalomaniac,
B.C.E., Macedonia defeated the Greeks decisively at Alexander was nevertheless a great general who astonished the
Chaeronea. Ambassadors were dispatched to Athens and world with his stunning succession of military triumphs, which
Thebes with terms for peace. Among the ambassadors to gave the word “empire” a new meaning.
Athens was Philip’s eighteen-year-old son, Alexander—
Alexander the Great (356-323 B.C.E.), as he would come to
be known (fig. 3.19). Raised to rule, Alexander came to forced to sail down the Indus River to the Indian Ocean.
enjoy the enthusiastic support of almost all Greek intel- Along this route he founded present-day Karachi—at the
lectuals. When Philip II was assassinated in 336 B.C.E.— time named Alexandria after himself. Returning finally to
possibly at Alexander’s behest, since Philip had divorced his Babylon, in 323 B.c.E., Alexander caught a fever and died.
mother and removed his son from substantive roles in the The Hellenistic era begins with Alexander’s death at the
government—Alexander took control. age of thirty-three. Alexander had brought about a min-
On his accession, he crushed a rebellion in Thebes, de- gling of Eastern and Western cultures through his policies
stroying the city and selling the entire population into slav- and conquests. For instance, he encouraged marriages be-
ery. He then set out to expand the Macedonian empire and tween his soldiers and Middle Eastern women by providing
control the world. By 334 B.c.E., he had defeated the Per- large wedding gifts and by marrying two Persian women
sians. Prior to entering Egypt, Alexander controlled only himself. But culturally the Greek army had a greater im-
the coast of the eastern Mediterranean. By 332 B.C.E., he pact on the Middle East than the Middle East had on it. In
had conquered Egypt, where he founded the great port city fact, the term “Hellenistic,” first used in 1833 by the histo-
of Alexandria in the Nile Delta. Marching back into rian Johann Gustav Droysen, was coined to describe the
Mesopotamia, he entered Babylon and made a sacrifice to impact of Greece on the Middle East—its “Hellenization”—
the local god, Marduk. Then he marched on Persepolis and after Alexander's death. The generals Alexander had installed
burned it. Convinced India was small, and that beyond it as governors of the different territories in his empire set
lay Ocean, as he called it, by which route he could return to themselves up as kings. Political, artistic, social, and eco-
Europe by sea, he set out to conquer present-day Pakistan. nomic dominance shifted from the mainland of Greece to
However, his troops were exhausted and met unexpected the new Hellenistic kingdoms such as those of the Seleucids
resistance in the form of war elephants; Alexander was thus in Syria and the Ptolemies in Egypt. The cities of Pergamon
86 CHAPTER 3

——}» campaigns of Alexander the Great

empire of Alexander the Great 323 B.C.E.

e
*Alexandria (Merv)
8 A RIA Hindu
i ey
“99S A “Gord Se maces Alexandria Areion
PARTHIA c
= . ASIee Alexandria
Frlizamas sy 4 a ( eis (Kandahar)
nN Nn
4 Iranian sO”) ARACHOSIA
‘rege | Poet i.
a RHODES. io
: Plateau at f
fr
aoe CARMANIA teks @
Mean Sea Tyre rs * . Pasargadae
iS 1s —, wer

pple
LAP
Alexandria —- =

carne
smcnat ARABIA
EGYPT
Arabian
Desert Arabian Sea

Map 3.2 Alexander’s empire

in Turkey and Alexandria in Egypt in particular were great century B.C.E., but was reconstructed in Hellenistic times,
centers of learning. The massive library at Alexandria con- beginning in the second century B.C.E., with work contin-
tained over 700,000 papyri and scrolls, and Pergamon’s li- uing into the second century C.E. in Roman times under the
brary rivaled it. As if inspired by the dramatic successes of Emperor Hadrian. The Corinthian capital was given greater
Alexander himself, the art such Hellenistic cities spawned prominence here than it ever was in Classical Greek archi-
was itself highly dramatic. Where Classical Greek art was tecture. This extraordinary structure once was an eight-by-
concerned with balance and order and idealized its subjects, twenty temple, the columns in the peristyle formed with
Hellenistic art focused on the individual, in all the individ- double rows of twenty columns on the sides and three rows
ual’s unidealized particularity, and on emotional states. Even of eight columns on the ends. Today, although little remains
the dominant philosophies of the day reflect this tendency. of this monumental undertaking, there is enough to make
More important for the future of Western thought were it obvious that the Corinthian order is the most ornamen-
the acts of preservation and dispersion performed by Hel- tal and the most luxurious of the three orders.
lenistic scholars as they collected, edited, analyzed, and in-
terpreted the philosophical works of the past. This work Pergamon’s Altar of Zeus. Perhaps nothing better em-
of humanistic scholarship included preserving not only the bodies the extravagant Hellenistic attitude to architecture
works of ancient Greek philosophy and literature, espe- and the visual arts in general than the upper city of Perg-
cially those of Plato and Homer, for example, but the Greek amon in Asia Minor, built by KING ATTALOS [ah-TAL-
translation of the Hebrew Bible as well. Moreover, the us] (r. 241-197 B.C.E.) and almost finished by EUMENES
emergence of humanistic scholarship was accompanied by I [you-MEN-ease] (197-159 B.c.E.). This Hellenistic city
educational institutions established for its continued de- was grand in vision, designed on a large scale and embel-
velopment. In the spectacular libraries at Alexandria and lished with a profusion of ornament. Essentially a large
Pergamon, and in Athens, which was home to a great acad- complex of architecture and sculpture built in the slope of
emy of its own, Greek intellectual achievements endured. a hill, Pergamon appears as if nature has been sculpted
into several terraces occupied by splendid structures. The
ARCHITECTURE upper city included the celebrated Altar of Zeus (fig. 3.21),
built 180-160 B.c.E. under Eumenes II, a demonstration
The Temple of the Olympian Zeus. ‘The popularity of the of the dramatic theatricality and large scale favored in the
Corinthian order in the Hellenistic era is demonstrated by Hellenistic era. In 278 B.C.E., the Gauls came sweeping
the Temple of the Olympian Zeus in Athens (fig. 3.20). This into Asia Minor, to be conquered by Attalos I of Perga-
temple was originally built in the Doric order in the sixth mon in 241 B.c.E. This monument was erected to com-
 CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC GREECE 87

FIGURE 3.20 ‘Temple of the Olympian Zeus, Athens, second century B.C.E.-second century
C.E. This once enormous temple was the first large-scale use of the Corinthian order on the
exterior of a building. The Romans would favor the ornate Corinthian order.

FIGURE 3.21 Altar of Zeus, from Pergamon, west front, restored, built ca. 180-160 B.C.E.,
under Eumenes II, base 100’ square (30.5 m. sq.), Staatliche Museen, Berlin. The subject de-
picted on the frieze on the Pergamon altar is highly emotional, its rendering charged with the
dramatic action and expression characteristic of Hellenistic art.
88 CHAPTER 3

FIGURE 3.22 Battle of the Gods and the Giants, Altar of Zeus, Pergamon, ca. 180-160 B.C.E.,
height 7’ 6” (2.34 m), Staatliche Museen, Berlin. Here Athena has grabbed the hair of a
winged monster who writhes in agony. His mother, identifiable by her “monstrous” curled
locks, rises to help him.

memorate the victory over the Gauls. The Altar of Zeus Known as gigantomachy, the subject of the revolt of
occupied a terrace all its own on the hill at Pergamon. the giants—the Titans of Greek mythology—against the
gods was popular with Hellenistic artists. On the Altar of
Zeus its treatment can be interpreted symbolically. Here
SCULPTURE
the gods’ triumph over the giants symbolizes the victo-
The Battle of the Gods and the Giants. The Altar of ries of Attalos I—art and politics working together for
Zeus at Pergamon was much celebrated in antiquity. On propagandistic ends. The style of this work—its action,
the sides of the podium of the altar was the relief frieze of violence, display of emotion, and windblown drapery—
the Battle of the Gods and the Giants (fig. 3.22), four hundred also defines the Hellenistic age in the arts. All restraint is
feet in length. The relief carving is very deep; the figures gone, much as Alexander had abandoned it politically at
are almost carved in the round. the era’s outset.
 CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC GREECE 89

Cross Currents

THE HELLENIZATION OF INDIA Alexander’s troops defeated the Indian Remnants of Alexander’s forces set-
troops, it was rumored that the army of tled in Bactria, between the Oxus River
y 326 B.C.E., Alexander the Great’s the Ganges, further east, was equipped and the Hindu Kush mountains. Exca-
forces had pushed as far east as the with five thousand such beasts, and thus vations at the Bactrian Greek city of Al
Punjab in northwest India. It was there the Greek troops refused to go on. But the Khanum have revealed Corinthian cap-
that they confronted, for the first time, war connection between the Greek world and itals and fragments of statues of various
elephants, two hundred strong. Although India had been established. gods and goddesses. Coins with images
of Herakles, Apollo, and Zeus were pro-
duced. There were portraits of the
Bactrian kings on the other sides: Eu-
thydemus, Demetrius, and Menander.
However, it was not always Greek ideas
that triumphed over Indian cultural tra-
ditions. Around 150 B.c.E., King Menan-
der was converted to Buddhism by the
monk Nagasena. The monk’s conversa-
tion with the king is preserved as The
Questions ofMelinda (Melinda was the In-
dian version of Menander’s name).
At Gandhara, on the north end of the
Indus River, across the Khyber Pass from
Bactria, Greek influence was especially
strong. Although Gandharan art is
mostly Buddhist in content, it has a Hel-
lenistic style. In Taxila, a temple resem-
bling the Parthenon in structure was
FIGURE 3.23 ‘Trojan horse frieze, Gandhara, second to third century C.E. Although constructed between 50 B.C.E. and 65
the style shows local influences, the subject matter here is most definitely Greek as the c.E. There is even evidence that the
Trojan prophetess Cassandra and the priest Laocoon (see fig. 3.25) attempt to block the Homeric legend of the Trojan horse was
entry of the Greek gift-horse into Troy. known here (fig. 3.23).

The Nike of Samothrace. ‘The splendid Hellenistic Nike 150 B.C.E. to the first century C.E. It was rediscovered only
ofSamothrace (fig. 3.24), also known as the Winged Victory, in 1506 in Rome.
is related to the figures in the Pergamon frieze in the great The subject of the sculpture is taken from Homer’s Iliad.
sweeping gesture of the body, in the suggestion of move- Laocoon was a priest of Apollo of Troy. He and his sons
ment through space, and in the revealing treatment of the were strangled by snakes sent from the sea by Apollo when
drapery. The date of the Nike of Samothrace is debated, Laoco6n tried to warn the Trojans against accepting the
but it was probably created between 200 and 190 B.c.E. wooden horse, seemingly left as a gift to them by the re-
The statue was originally placed on the prow of a stone treating Greeks. In the sculpture the figures writhe vio-
ship located in a niche cut into the mountainside above lently, but all in one plane, like a relief. Laocoén and his
the Sanctuary of the Great Gods at Samothrace. The head two sons try to move apart, but are bound together by the
was turned to face the sea. The composition was designed serpent’s coils, creating an extraordinary dynamism.
to give the impression that the goddess had just descended
to the prow of the ship, her garments still responding to
her movement through space. PHILOSOPHY

Laocoén and His Sons. An expenditure of still greater The English words “stoic,” 66
“skeptic,” 06
“epicurean,” and
energy, induced by agony, is seen in the Laocoon group “cynic” derive from schools of Greek philosophy—Sto-
(fig. 3.25), sculpted by Hagesandros, Athanodoros, and icism, Skepticism, Epicureanism, and Cynicism. Although
Polydoros of Rhodes according to ancient sources. The none of these philosophical systems has had the long-term
date of this statue is debated, the possibilities ranging from impact of Platonism or Aristotelianism, Stoicism and
90 CHAPTER 3

FIGURE 3.24 Nike of Samothrace, ca. 200-190 B.C.E., marble, height 8’ (2.44 m), Musée
du Louvre, Paris. Stone seemingly brought to life, this dynamic figure of Victory moves
through space, the drapery blown against her body by her rapid movement.

Epicureanism dominated Greek philosophy during the fortunes. According to the Stoic view, an intelligent spir-
Hellenistic period. In addition, all four philosophies were itual force resembling reason, the Logos, pervades the uni-
embraced by the Romans, with Stoicism also later finding verse. Human beings can achieve happiness only by
a home in Christian philosophy. bringing their wills into harmony with this pervasive uni-
versal reason. The individual must accept whatever for-
Stoicism. Stoicism was less concerned with formulat- tune brings; all the individual can do is exercise control
ing a systematic philosophy than with providing an ap- over her or his own will. Characteristic Stoic virtues are
proach to everyday living. Primarily ethical in impulse, it serenity, self-discipline, and courage in the face of suf-
offered a basis for conduct in responding to life’s mis- fering and affliction.
 CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC GREECE 91

simpler diet that prevented the pain of hunger while avoid-

ing the dangers of indigestion. Similarly, Epicurus pre-
ferred the stability of friendship over the shifting pleasure
and pain afforded by romantic passion.

Skepticism. ‘The English word “skeptic” derives from

the Greek skeptikos, which means “inquirer.” Skepticism
is not necessarily a negative perspective; rather it requires
an attitude of questioning. Two early and important ex-
ponents of Skepticism were SEXTUS EMPIRICUS [em-
PIR-i-cuss], who lived in the mid-second century B.C.E.,
and his intellectual ancestor, PYRRHO [PIE-roh]
(ca. 360-270 B.C.E.). As with Stoicism and Epicureanism,
Skepticism was less a philosophical system than a perspec-
tive on experience anchored in practical advice about how
to live an unperturbed life. The aim of the Skeptic, like
that of the Stoic and the Epicurean, was to establish and
preserve a state of physical and mental composure, a con-
dition of psychological stability and emotional equilibrium.
What distinguishes Skepticism from Stoicism and Epi-
cureanism is its emphasis on achieving this state of un-
perturbed equilibrium through suspending judgment
about nearly everything. The reason for this suspension
of judgment is that we cannot know anything with cer-
FiGure 3.25 Laocodn and His Sons, perhaps a Roman marble tainty, because for every assertion there can be a coun-
copy after a Greek original by Hagesandros, Athanodoros, and terassertion, and all evidence is inconclusive in itself. The
Polydoros of Rhodes, variously dated between the second cen- conflict between opposing assertions—for example, “the
tury B.C.E. and the first century C.E., height 7’ (2.10 m), Museo gods exist” and “the gods do not exist”—can only be set-
Pio Clementino, Musei Vaticani, Rome. Reunion de Musées
tled by an appeal to an additional criterion, in this case, a
Nationaux (RMN), Art Resource, NY. In the Hellenistic period,
belief. But because the criterion can be similarly called
drama replaced the emotional restraint of the Classical period.
Laocoén and his sons, attacked by serpents, make obvious their into question, there is nothing on which finally to base
torment through straining poses and agonized facial expressions. knowledge. Thus, according to the Skeptics, peace of mind
can only be achieved by abandoning the search for knowl-
edge and accepting uncertainty.

Epicureanism. Epicureanism is frequently thought of as Cynicism. Cynicism was a school of thought founded by
a philosophy of self-indulgence and pleasure seeking. Its ANTISTHENES [An-TIS-the-nees] (ca. 455-360 B.C.E.),
primary practical impulse, however, is to escape fear and a pupil of Socrates. Anticipating the Epicurean thinkers,
pain. The founder, EPICURUS [ep-ee-CURE-us] Antisthenes argued that happiness can be attained only by
(341-271 B.c.E.), taught that fear, especially the fear of freeing oneself from desires. (This notion is also central to
death and punishment after death, is responsible for classical Buddhism.) Perhaps the best known exemplar of
human misery. As an antidote to what he considered reli- the philosophy of Cynicism was Diogenes (ca. 404-323
gious and mythological superstition, Epicurus argued that B.C.E.), who influenced later Stoic thinkers. Little is known
the gods lack interest in the affairs of human beings, and of Diogenes beyond some anecdotes, including one about
death utterly extinguishes pain. Thus, according to Epi- how he wished hunger could be as easily gratified and sat-
curus, human beings have nothing to fear from it. isfied as masturbation satisfied the need for sex.
A materialist, Epicurus believed the soul, like the body, The Cynics, however, are important largely for their
was a physical substance, composed of tiny particles in mo- sense of detachment from desire. Like the Stoics, who came
tion. As such, for Epicurus the only path to knowledge was after and were influenced by them, the Cynics advocated
through physical sensation; consequently, the way to the absence of desire rather than a lust for life. "The Cynics’
achieve happiness was to enhance physical pleasure and to rule, as it were, was to pursue the more laborious path of
limit physical pain. Epicurus argued that the way to achieve virtue rather than the easier road of pleasure. Although the
lasting pleasure was to avoid what he called “kinetic” pleas- meaning of the term “cynic” is allied with “one who lives a
ure in favor of “static” pleasure, which creates a state of dog’s life,” shamelessly and without a secure sense of humor,
equilibrium. For example, Epicurus recommended reject- the philosophical overtones of the Cynics’ writings suggest
ing the pleasure of indulging in spicy or rich food for a one who distrusts all easy claims to altruism and comfort.
92 CHAPTER 3

Critical Thinking
BLACK ATHENA ropean scholars have consistently failed were a black African people; (2) whether
to acknowledge the African and Asian the Greeks were indebted to Egyptian
Lc his book Black Athena: The Afroasi- roots of Classical civilization. In re- learning. How would you go about de-
tic Roots of Classical Civilization, Mar- sponse, Mary Lefkowitz has rebutted ciding with whom to agree on these is-
tin Bernal argues that ancient Greek Bernal’s arguments in her book Not Out sues? What steps would you take in
culture derived from Egypt and Phoeni- ofAfrica. Two questions underscore the evaluating Bernal’s claims and Lefkowitz’s
cia. Bernal contends, moreover, that Eu- disagreement: (1) whether the Egyptians counterarguments?

Cultural Impact
lassical Greek civilization, especially the human condition, recognizing the today, as for example in the rhetoric of
that of Golden Age Athens, was cru- realities and constraints of human life, Stephen Toulmin. The Greek philo-
cial to the development of Western civ- yet constantly striving to realize ideals. sophical tradition continues as contem-
ilization as we know it today. The Greeks The Greeks invented democracy and porary philosophers, such as Robert
of antiquity developed a rich and vibrant left it as a legacy for nations to emulate Nozick and Marth Nussbaum, analyze
culture, whose achievements consisted two millennia after Athens’s decline. intellectual problems. Greek educational
of preeminent masterpieces of pottery, The Greek ideal of political freedom ideals are reflected in the contemporary
sculpture, and architecture, poetry and also served as the basis for the pursuit of university.
drama. Their achievements also included other ideals, such as justice, truth, and The impact of Classical and Hel-
expertise in the practical arts of com- beauty. Political freedom was one aspect lenistic Greek civilization has been so
merce and seafaring; metalwork, coin- of the culture’s belief in individual ex- pervasive and so extensive that the pub-
ing, and engraving, medicine and pression. lic buildings of many cities in Europe
athletics; and philosophy, education, and Another important legacy left by and America reflect Greek architectural
government—many of which continue Classical Greece was its system of paideia, style. The influence of Greek sculpture
to exert a significant influence on the or learning, which was grounded in re- can be seen in grand public buildings and
contemporary Western world. spect for individual thought and empha- in palatial private residences. Above all,
PROTAGORAS [proh-TA-go-rus] sized logic, dialectic, debate, and against the backdrop of a warring main-
(ca. 485-415 B.C.E.) wrote, “People are elegance of expression. The philosophy land Greece in the fifth century B.C.E.,
the measure of all things,” a phrase that of Plato and Aristotle continued to be in- the Greeks provided the Western world
heralded the enterprise first undertaken fluential through the Middle Ages and with a sense of the value of harmony and
in Classical Greece but has been central into the Renaissance. In some areas of balance in all things—in art and archi-
to Western culture ever since. Classical thought—logic, poetics, and rhetoric— tecture, literature and philosophy, poli-
Greek civilization thoroughly explored Aristotelian principles remain influential tics and everyday life.

KEY TERMS
Classical frieze contrapposto half step
Hellenistic triglyphs white-ground technique whole step
demes metopes lekythos (pl., lekythoi) gigantomachy
acropolis Ionic tragedy Stoicism
agora entablature dramatic irony Epicureanism
stoa Corinthian Oedipus complex Skepticism
orders Golden Section Sophists Cynicism
Doric entasis syllogism
abacus caryatids lyre
echinus atlantes modes
 CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC GREECE 95

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

http://www.hyperhistory.corn/online_n2/maptext_n2/greece_pers.html
(A basic map of the Persian wars, including links to the wars themselves.)

hitp://www.culture.gr/2/21/211/21101a/e21 1aa01.html
(A good discussion of the architecture of the Acropolis.)
hitp://www.arwhead.com/Greeks/
(A basic general site on all things Greek, including architecture, theatre, war, and pottery.)
http://lib.haifa.ac.il//Wwww/art/gr_menu.html
(An excellent collection of 220 images of Greek painting and sculpture.)
http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/browse-Sophocles. html
(A good site devoted to the works of Sophocles with discussion boards.)
, ae 287 B.CE. Equal citizenship granted to plebeians
264-146 B.C. Punic Wars
241 BCE. Conquest of Sicily
238 B.CE. Conquest of Sardinia, Corsica
218—216 B.CE. Hannibal's invasion of Italy
ee 146 B.C. Conquest of Carthage, Macedonia, Greece
ies 133 BCE. Conquest of Pergamum
\ 63 B.CE. Conquest of Judaea
> Ge Se sea Octavian Caesar Augustus, establishes Pax Romana during his rule
5 ae 58-50 B.C.e. Conquest of Gaul
; Ce al hCk: Conquest of Egypt
pete eit a CE O4 Fire destroys Rome
Re e a ay| Ie Vesuvius erupts, destroying Pompeii and Herculaneum
ce. 98-117 Trajan rules
i ae Ce. 180 Roman Empire is at its largest: 1,750,000 square miles of land and 50 million people
ay : eae
: CE. 284 Diocletian divides Roman Empire
i a ce. 330 — Constantine moves seat of Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium

ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE

xe — 3 ca, 520 B.CE. Tomb of Hunting and Fishing
Wife and Husband Sarcophagus
eS ra ECE Capitoline She-Wolf
first century B.C. A Roman Patrician with Busts of His Ancestors
ca. 80 BCE. late second— Portrait of a Roman; Temple of “Fortuna Virilis”
aad mid-first century B.CE.
- late first century B..£.— Pont du Gard
~ early first century CE.
ca. 20 B.CE. Augustus of Primaporta
‘a 13-9 8.ce Ara Pacis
Ee SCE: Forum of Augustus
teehee CE. 63-79 Ixion Room, House of the Vettii
ye ce. 80 Colosseum
4) ce. 106-13 Apollodorus of Damascus, Column of Trajan
Cé. 118-25 Apollodorus of Damascus, Pantheon
CE. 164-66 Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius
CE. 213-17 Baths of Caracalla
Vin. CE 315 Arch of Constantine
Dee CE. 325-26 Head of Constantine the Great
LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY
ca. 254-184 B.C. Plautus, The Haunted House
first century B.C.E. Lucretius’ De Rerum Natura Cicero, Horace, Ovid, Petronius
Sn, ca. 30-19 B.C. Virgil, The Aeneid
19 BCE. Horace, Odes
46—44 B.C. Cicero, Orations
Marcus Aurelius, Meditations
first century B.C.E. Epictetus and Stoicism
co. 60 B.C.E. Catullus, Love Poems
 oman Civilization

Roman man holding busts of his ancestors. Late first century B.C.E., marble, lifesize, Musei
Capitolini, Rome, Italy. Photograph © Scala/Art Resource, NY.
 [j Roman control 500 B.c.
(iy Roman control 290 B.c.
i Roman control 240 s.c.
— = Roman roads

LIGURIAN

- |

ADRIATIC
SEA —

Brindisi

SARDINIA

TYRRHENIAN
SEA IONIAN
SEA

{Catania

°)
50 100 Miles
MEDITERRANEAN SEA 50 100 Kilometers

Map 4.1 The expansion of Roman rule to 200 B.C.E.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

ETRUSCAN CIVILIZATION
Rome’s ancestors set the stage for greatness

THE ROMAN REPUBLIC

Conquest, feats of engineering, and portrait sculpture

THE EMPIRE
All roads lead to Rome—Augustus builds, Constantine converts to Christianity
96
 ROMAN CIVILIZATION 97

THE GREEK LEGACY

AND THE ROMAN IDEAL
N MANY WAYS, ROME INHERITED ITS culture—its art,
[sliterature, its philosophical and religious life—from
Greece. By the seventh century B.C.E., and along with
the Latins, Etruscans, and Celts, the Greeks occupied parts
of the Italian peninsula. This ensured the influence of
Greek ways on the developing Italian culture. However, it
was the later Roman determination to control and rule the
entire Western world that consolidated the Hellenization Rikb:n:
Caule
cide
5be
aa
eens
acon

of the West and much of the Eastern world. Even more ef-
fectively than Alexander the Great, the Romans spread
Greek art and literature as far as Britain in the north, Africa FiGuRE 4.1 Reconstruction of an Etruscan temple according
in the south, the Euphrates River in the east, and Spain in to Vitruvius, Instituto di Etruscologia e Antichita Italiche,
the west. Apart from disseminating Greek culture, Roman University of Rome. To a great extent, the Etruscan temple
civilization produced remarkable achievements of its own, form was a modification of the Greek. Different from the
in the fields of politics, law, and engineering. Greek, however, are the high flight of stairs on one side only,
deeper porch, and wider cella.

ETRUSCAN CIVILIZATION ARCHITECTURE s

O
ET
ON
; ca
4
z

While the Greeks were settling in southern Italy and Sicily, Temples. Only the stone foundations of Etruscan temples
another people—the Etruscans—inhabited the central Ital- have survived. Fortunately, the ancient Roman author and
architect VITRUVIUS [vi-TROO-vee-us] (fl. first century
ian mainland. Little is known about the Etruscans. Their
C.E.) described an Etruscan temple, on the basis of which it
alphabet is derived from Greek, but their language seems
has been possible to create a reconstruction (fig. 4.1).
unique, insofar as can be judged from the small amount
of undeciphered literature and the few inscriptions on The Etruscan temple was similar to the Greek temple
in its rectangular plan, raised podium, and peaked roof.
works of art that survive. Herodotus, the fifth-century
Some temples were built with columns of the Tuscan
B.C.E. Greek historian, said that the Etruscans came to
order, which is the Doric order modified by the addition
Italy from Lydia (Turkey) in Asia Minor around 800 B.c.E.
of a base. Nonetheless, the Etruscan temple differs from
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, however, claims they were an
the Greek temple in several significant ways. For in-
indigenous Italian people, which appears more likely.
stance, the Etruscan temple has steps on only one side,
Etruscan civilization proper dates from about 700 B.C.E.
whereas the Greek temple has steps on all four sides. The
and was at its peak in the seventh and sixth centuries
Etruscan temple has a deep front porch, occupying much
B.C.E.—the same time as the Archaic period in Greece.
more of the platform than is occupied by the porch of a
While Etruscan civilization was at its height, the future
Greek temple. And the cella (enclosed part) of the
imperial capital of Rome remained little more than a clus-
Etruscan temple is divided into three rooms, further dif-
ter of mud huts inhabited by shepherds and farmers known
fering from the Greek temple plan.
as Latins. Why Rome would eventually be transformed
into the most powerful city in the world is difficult to say, Tombs. Although Etruscan temples have disappeared, a
except that, positioned on the south bank of the Tiber significant number of tombs remain. Etruscan tombs were
River in central Italy, it was midway between the Etruscan rich with weapons, gold work, and vases. As a result, like
settlements to the north and the Greek colonies in the their Egyptian and Mycenaean counterparts, they were
south of the peninsula. Rome thus lay on the trade route the targets of grave robbers. Scientific excavation of Etrus-
between the two civilizations. The Etruscans were influ- can tombs began only in the mid—nineteenth century.
enced by the Greeks and came to know them literally The tombs are of two types: corbeled domes covered
“through” Rome. They sent skillfully manufactured with mounds of earth, and rock-cut chambers with rec- ai

bronze household utensils down the Tiber through Rome tangular rooms. The most famous and most impressive of
and on to the Greeks in the south in return for Greek the rock-cut tombs at the ancient site of Cerveteri is the
vases, many of which have been found in Etruscan tombs. so-called Tomb of the Reliefs (fig. 4.2), of the third century Hostile
gil
oes
th,
20
init
SF
id
re
Bon
Greek heroes and deities were incorporated into the B.C.E. The tomb is made of tufa, a type of stone that is
Etruscan pantheon, and their temples reflected Greek in- soft when cut, but hardens when exposed to the air and
fluence. In turn, the Etruscans exerted an important civi- tends to remain white. Such tombs were used for families;
lizing influence over the Latins in Rome. this one has places for over forty bodies. The interior of the

i
aan
Pb
ft
sa
98 CHAPTER 4

FIGURE 4.2 Tomb of the Reliefs, Cerveteri, third century B.C.E., interior. This exceptional
tomb is believed to duplicate an actual Etruscan home in stone, even including pillows and
pets. An entire family was buried here.

‘Tomb of the Reliefs replicates a home and provides a doc- eled in clay and once brightly painted, is shaped like a
ument of Etruscan life. The beds even have stone pillows! couch, with the deceased couple shown to recline on top;
Roof beams are carved, and on the walls are depictions of women and men were social equals. Like contemporary
weapons, armor, household items, and busts of the dead. Greek statues, the pair have Archaic smiles (see Chapter 2).
The column capitals are similar to an early Ionic type They are shown as if alive, comfortable, healthy, and
brought to Greece from Asia Minor, which supports happy, although they do not seem to be individualized por-
Herodotus’s theory that the Etruscans originated in Lydia. traits.
Other tombs were painted with scenes from everyday
life. Particularly fine examples have been found at ‘Tar-
SCULPTURE
quinia, where the subjects include scenes of hunting and
fishing, banquets, musicians, dancers, athletic competi- The Etruscans were celebrated in antiquity for their abil-
tions, and religious ceremonies. The paintings in the Tomb ity to work in metal. ‘Their homeland of Tuscany (which
of Hunting and Fishing (fig. 4.3), of ca. 520 B.C.E., in which is named for the Etruscans) is rich in copper and iron and
fish jump out of the water in front of a man who attempts provided ample raw materials. From 600 B.C.E. onward,
to catch them, and birds fly around a man who attempts to the Etruscans produced many bronze statuettes and uten-
shoot one with a sling shot, convey a sense of energy and sils, some of which they exported. The most famous Etrus-
even humor. can bronze sculpture is the so-called Capitoline She-Wolf
This wall painting is presumably a view of the afterlife. (fig. 4.5), of ca. 500 B.c.E. The two suckling babes, the leg-
Its optimism is also seen in Etruscan sculpture. An early ex- endary twin founders of the city, Romulus and Remus,
ample is offered by a wife and husband sarcophagus, from were added in the Renaissance. However, the she-wolf is
Cerveteri (fig. 4.4), ca. 520 B.C.E. The sarcophagus, mod- authentic and has the energy and vitality characteristic of
 ROMAN CIVILIZATION 99

FiGurRE 4.3. Tomb of Hunting and Fishing, Tarquinia, wall painting, ca. 520 B.c.E. This and
other tomb paintings record the good life when Etruria prospered in the sixth century B.C.E.
Later, as the economic situation declined, the outlook on the afterlife was less optimistic.

FiGuRE 4.4 Wife and Husband Sarcophagus, from Cervet-

eri, ca. 520 B.C.E., terra cotta, length 67” (2.01 m), Museo
Nazionale di Villa Giulia, Rome. The deceased couple is FiGuRE 4.5 —Capitoline She-Wolf, ca. 500 B.C.E., bronze,
shown as if alive, healthy, and enjoying themselves. The height 33 iy (85.1 cm), Museo Capitolino, Rome. The
rounded forms are readily achieved in malleable terra cotta, Etruscans were famed in antiquity for their fine metalwork.
unlike hard stone. With the twin infants, added in the Renaissance, this Etruscan
bronze has become the symbol of Rome.

dh
100 CHAPTER 4

Etruscan art. A beautiful decorative surface is achieved by B.C.E., the city inaugurated a series of campaigns against
contrasting the crisp, curving patterns of the neck fur with Carthage, a Phoenician state in North Africa. The Punic
the wolf’s sleek, smooth body. Wars ensued (from the Latin poeni, meaning “Phoeni-
cian”). When they ended, in 146 B.C.E., Carthage had been
razed, and Rome had established an overseas empire, with
control over the islands of Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia.
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC The Roman army had traditionally been made up of
Beginning with Romulus, Rome was ruled first by a suc- citizen property owners, but in about 107 B.C.E., a general
cession of kings and then, in 509 B.C.E., constituted itself named Gaius Marius began to enroll men in the army who
a republic, which lasted until 27 B.c.E. Romulus himself is did not meet the property or citizenship qualification.
said to have established the traditional Roman distinction These men saw military service as a career, and a profes-
between the patricians, the land-owning aristocrats who sional army was soon in place. Each soldier served for
served as priests and magistrates, lawyers and judges, and twenty years and, when not involved in combat, was oc-
the plebeians, the poorer class who tilled the land, herded cupied by the construction of roads, bridges, and aque-
livestock, and worked for wages as craftspeople, trades- ducts. At the end of their service, they were given land in
people, and laborers. ‘To complicate this traditional dis- the province where they had served, as well as Roman cit-
tinction, however, there is evidence of wealthy plebeian izenship.
families and poor patricians. In fact, the distinction be- The financial opportunities afforded by imperial con-
tween these Roman social strata may very well have been quest stimulated the growth of a new “class” of Roman
one of “first” families versus later immigrants. citizen. Born into families that could pursue senatorial sta-
Initially, the plebeians depended on the patricians for tus, these men instead chose careers in business and fi-
support. According to one ancient historian, each plebeian nance. They called themselves equites (“equestrians”),
in Romulus’s Rome could choose for himself any patrician probably because they served in the cavalry in the mili-
as a patron, initiating the system known as patronage. tary—only the wealthy could afford horses—and they em-
The essentially paternalistic relationship of patrician to braced a commercial world that their patrician brothers
plebeian reflects the family’s central role in Roman society. (sometimes quite literally their brothers) found crass and
At the head of the family was the pater, the father, and it demeaning. By the first century B.C.E., these equites were
was his duty to protect not only his wife and children, but openly in conflict with the Senate, pressing for greater and
also his clients, those who had submitted to his patronage. greater rights for both themselves and the plebeians.
In return for the pater’s protection, his family and his Civil war among Roman political factions soon erupted.
clients were obligated to give him their total obedience The general LUCIUS CORNELIUS SULLA [SOO-lah]
and to defer to him in all things—an attitude the Romans ruled as dictator from 82 to 79 B.C.E., murdering thousands
referred to as pietas. The patrician males led the state as of his opponents and introducing a new constitution, that
they led the family, contributing to the state’s well-being placed power firmly in the hands of the Senate. But all he
in return for the people’s gratitude and veneration. So fun- finally succeeded in doing was exacerbating the situation.
damental was this attitude that by imperial times, the Struggles for power between Gaeus Pompeius Magnus—
Roman emperor was referred to as the pater patriae, “the Pompey the Great—and GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR [SEE-
father of the fatherland.” zar] (fig. 4.6) finally ended in 48 B.C.E. with Caesar’s defeat
From the outset, the republic was plagued by conflict of Pompey. Caesar became dictator of an empire that in-
between the patricians and the plebeians. There was ob- cluded Italy, Spain, Greece, Syria, Egypt, and North Africa.
vious political inequality. The Senate, the political assem- In 45 B.C.E., on the Ides of March—March 15—Caesar
bly responsible for formulating new law, was almost himself was assassinated. The civil wars that followed
exclusively patrician. Thus the plebeians formed their own brought the republic to a definitive end, and Caesar’s
legislative assembly, the Consilium Plebis, electing their adopted grand-nephew and heir, Octavian, became the sole
own officers, called tribunes, to protect them from the pa- power in Rome, the pater patriae, “father of the fatherland.”
trician magistrates. Initially, patricians were not subject to Renaming himself Augustus, “the revered one,” Caesar Au-
legislation passed by the plebeian assembly—the plebiscite. gustus reigned as emperor from 27 B.C.E. until 14 C.E.
Finally, in 287 B.C.E., however, the plebiscite became bind-
ing legislation on all citizens, whether plebeian or patri-
cian, and something resembling equal citizenship was
ART OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
established for all. Although the Romans conquered the Greeks militarily and
At about the same time, Rome began a series of military politically, the Greeks conquered the Romans artistically
campaigns that would, eventually, result in its control of and culturally. As the first-century B.C.E. poet Horace put
the largest and most powerful empire ever created. By the it, “Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit” (“Captive Greece
middle of the third century B.C.E., Rome had established conquered her wild conqueror”). Roman writers rarely
dominion over the Italian peninsula. Beginning in 264 make reference to Roman artists. Instead, they write about
 ROMAN CIVILIZATION 101

Gre Orluudc
hes

THE ROMAN PANTHEON Greek Roman Role/Function There were, nonetheless, some impor-
Persephone Proserpina queen of the tant differences in the way the Romans
he major gods of the Romans were underworld viewed their gods. The Roman pantheon
essentially the same as those of the reflected the culture’s political rather
Aphrodite Venus goddess of love
Greeks. In adopting the Greek gods, the than spiritual values, and Roman gods
Romans demonstrated in yet another fere tended to be less embodiments of vari-
Ares Mars
way how the great military conquerors ous human virtues and foibles and more
were themselves conquered by Greek Apollo Apollo god of SUD; personifications of abstract ideas—love,
culture. The accompanying chart iden- es war, and fortune, for instance.
tifies the deities of Rome with their The Romans also had a vast array of
Greek counterparts and their corre- Artemis Diana goddess of the other, local gods. Every place, tree,
sponding roles and responsibilities: hunt stream, meadow, and wood had its own
Hermes Mercury messenger of spirit. Unlike the gods of Greek origin,
Greek Roman Role/Function the gods anthropomorphic, or human, character-
Zeus Jupiter/Jove chief god/sky Poseidon Neptune god of the sea istics were rarely attributed to these spir-
Juno wife of Hades Pluto god of the its. However, it was essential for, say, a
Hera
Zeus/Jove underworld farmer to keep on good terms with the
Cupid god of love Athena Minerva goddess of spirit of his fields. Because so much de-
Eros
wisdom pended on annual water flow, the sources
Dionysos Bacchus god of god of of rivers were especially venerated spots
wine/revelry Hephaistos Vulcan
metalwork and often decorated with numerous
Demeter Ceres earth shrines.
goddess/grain

the Greek masters—Polykleitos, Phidias, Praxiteles, Lysip- used the orders with greater freedom than the Greeks,
pos. Roman authors refer to the Greeks as the “ancients”; often taking elements from each for use on a single build-
Greek art already had the authority of antiquity for the ing. The Romans used the Corinthian order most, the
Romans. The Romans not only imported Greek vases, Doric least—the opposite of the Greeks. Unlike Greek ar-
marbles, and bronzes, but Greek artists as well, many of chitects, Roman architects often used engaged columns
whom they then put to work copying Greek originals. (columns that are attached to the wall) on the inside and
Yet Roman art is not solely a continuation of Greek art. outside of buildings.
The Romans were very different from the Greeks, and Much Roman building, like Greek building, was done
their art is accordingly different in emphasis and focus. with ashlar masonry, using carefully cut stone blocks laid
The Romans were impressed with great size—the size of in horizontal courses. But in the late second century B.C.E.,
their empire, of their buildings, of their sculptures. Above the Romans developed a type of wall made by setting small
all, the Romans were a practical people. They were superb broken stones in cement. Such walls were very strong and
engineers. Their sculpture and painting is realistic, with an could be faced with different types of patterned stonework.
emphasis on particulars—specific people, places, and This construction method opened new directions in ar-
times—a trend that continued until the second century chitecture, including construction using concrete, which
C.E., when Christianity began to foster a more abstract and consists of cement mixed with small pieces of stone. Con-
mystical direction. crete is strong, can be cast into any shape, and is far less
costly than stone construction. Although the Romans did
Architecture The Romans adopted the Greek orders— not invent concrete, they developed its potential.
the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian—but made modifica- The rectangular Ionic Temple of “Fortuna Virilis” in
tions. Directly influenced by the Tuscan order of Etruscan Rome (fig. 4.7) was built late second to mid—first century
architecture, the Romans made Doric columns taller and B.C.E. and was probably dedicated to Portunus, the Roman
slimmer and gave them a base. The acanthus leaves of the god of harbors and rivers. Etruscan elements include the
Corinthian order were combined with the volutes of the raised platform or podium, the entry on one end only by
Ionic order to create the composite order. The Romans ascending a flight of stairs, a front porch that takes up
102 CHAPTER 4

FiGuRE 4.7 Temple of “Fortuna Virilis,” Rome, late second

to mid-first century B.C.E. The rectangular Roman temple
FIGURE 4.6 Portrait bust of Julius Caesar, first century form is essentially a combination of the Greek and Etruscan
B.C.E., marble, height 38” (96.5 cm), Museo Archeologico temple forms—compare to the Greek Parthenon (see fig. 3.3)
Nazionale, Naples. Like all Roman portrait sculpture of the and the Etruscan temple (see fig. 4.1).
time, the bust is stunningly realistic. Every anomaly of the
facial terrain has been observed and recorded.

about one-third of the whole podium area, and a cella top and is lined with cement. Flat stone slabs were placed
nearly as wide as the podium. over the top to keep out leaves and debris.
The Romans, however, unlike the Greeks, favored cir-
Sculpture. The ancient Romans made extensive use of
cular temples, an example being the Temple of Vesta in
sculpture—on both the inside and outside of public and
Rome (fig. 4.8), built ca. 80 B.c.E. Vesta was the goddess
private buildings, on columns, arches, tombs, and else-
of the hearth and of fire. The temple is simple in plan and
where.
small in scale. Circular Roman temples were made of con-
The Romans imported and copied Greek statues, and
crete and faced with brick or stone. The Corinthian
they modeled their own sculpture on that of the Greeks.
columns here are tall and slender. The entablature is much
But whereas the Greeks made statues of deities and ideal-
reduced and the roof rests almost directly on the columns.
ized heroes, Roman sculpture focused on individual peo-
Aqueducts. ‘The Romans constructed an extensive net- ple, particularly political figures.
work of aqueducts throughout their territories. Some of A Roman Patrician with Busts of His Ancestors (fig. 4.10),
the aqueducts were many miles long, crossing valleys, from the late first century B.C.E., also makes clear the great
spanning rivers, going over mountains and even passing emphasis placed on lineage by the ancient Romans. The
underground. In Rome itself, beginning in 144 B.C.E., a high level of realism may have been assisted by the cus-
system of aqueducts brought water to all seven of the city’s tom of making deathmasks, called imagines by the Romans.
hills, paid for by spoils from the victory in Carthage. Shortly after death, a wax mask was modeled on the face
The most famous and best preserved of the ancient of the deceased and was then sometimes transferred to
Roman aqueducts is the Pont du Gard (bridge over the stone. Masks of the ancestors of the deceased were carried
Gard River) at Nimes, in southern France (fig. 4.9), built or worn in funeral processions, and portrait busts and
first century B.C.E.—first century C.E. The Pont du Gard is imagines of ancestors were generally displayed in homes.
based on a series of arches, each arch buttressed by the This man wears the toga, a garment fashionable in the Re-
arches on either side of it. The water channel is at the very publican era.
 ROMAN CIVILIZATION 103

FiGuRE 4.9 Pont du Gard, Nimes, France, late first century

B.C.E.—early first century C.E., height 180’ (54.9 m), current
length approx. 900’ (275 m). Between 8,000 and 12,000 gal-
FIGURE 4.8 ‘Temple of Vesta, ca. 80 B.C.E., Rome. In addi- lons of water were delivered to Nimes per day through this
tion to perpetuating the Greek and Etruscan rectangular tem- aqueduct, which extended for thirty-one miles.
ple, the Romans made significant use of the circular temple.
Among the orders, Greeks used the simple Doric most,
Roman comic dramatists are PLAUTUS [PLOW-tus] (ca.
whereas the Romans preferred the ornate Corinthian order,
254-184 B.C.E.) and Terence (195-159 B.c.E.). Terence’s
seen here.
plays were aimed at an aristocratic audience, by whom he
was subsidized; Plautus wrote for the common people. Not
surprisingly, Plautus is the more robust and ribald of the
LITERATURE two. Although the plays of both dramatists are humorous,
‘Terence’s wit is more cerebral than Plautus’s, which more
Like their counterparts in the visual arts, Roman writers often elicits a belly laugh. Despite these differences, the
owe an immense debt to the Greeks. For the most part, works of both playwrights are adaptations of Greek com-
Roman poets used Greek genres, although satire appears edy.
to have been a Roman invention. Roman playwrights Terence offers subtlety of plot for Plautus’s farce; he
sometimes adapted Greek plays, with varying degrees of provides character development and interplay for Plau-
ingenuity. tus’s stock figures; and he presents economical dialogue in
place of Plautus’s colorful wordplay. Terence more obvi-
Catullus Like the Greek lyric poet Sappho, CATUL-
ously exhibits tolerance for his characters and apprecia-
LUS [ka-TUL-us] (84-54 B.C.E.) wrote passionate love
tion for their mixed motives and muddled but often good
poems, one of which is, in fact, a translation into Latin of
intentions. He is more sympathetic toward the elderly,
one of Sappho’s most celebrated lyrics, “Seizure.”
particularly the old fathers that Plautus ridicules. Terence
Reflecting daily life in first-century B.C.E. Rome, many
is also more interested in women than Plautus, generally
of Catullus’s poems are written in a racy colloquial style.
making them more complex and interesting characters.
Catullus also wrote twenty-five poems about his love affair
Plautus’s chief characters, those who run the dramatic
with Lesbia. These demonstrate his range and show him
engine of his plots, are typically slaves and parasites who
at his passionate best. Catullus can also be moving in ex-
turn the tables on their masters. With a notable lack of
pressing grief, as his lament for the death of his brother
respect for authority, Plautus’s characters flout social reg-
demonstrates. ulations, especially by undermining figures of authority—
Roman Drama: Plautus and Terence Although Greek masters, fathers, and husbands. In Plautine comedy, slaves
theater excelled in the grandeur of tragedy, the theatrical outwit their masters, sons fool their fathers, and wives dupe
glory of Rome is its comedy. The two most important their husbands.
104. CHAPTER 4

THE EMPIRE ~
When Octavian, Caesar Augustus (63 B.C.E.-14 C.E.), as he
was soon known, assumed power in 27 B.C.E., he claimed
to have restored the Republic. In reality, however, he had
complete authority over not only the Senate but over all of
Roman life. By 12 c.E. he had been given the title Pontifex
Maximus, or “High Priest,” and when he died, two years
later, the Senate ordered that he be venerated henceforth
as a god. Together with his wife Livia, who was herself a
skilled administrator, he created the conditions for a period
of peace and stability in the empire that lasted for two hun-
dred years. Known as the Pax Romana, the “Roman Peace,”
it was made possible in large part by Augustus’s sensitivity
to the people that Rome had conquered. Augustus dis-
patched governors to all the provinces with armies to main-
tain law and order. But these armies, freed of the need to
conduct wars, turned to building great public works—aque-
ducts, theaters, libraries, marketplaces, and roads. ‘Trade was
greatly facilitated, and economic prosperity spread through-
out the empire. Rome, however, remained at the heart of
this trade network. After nearly a century of political tur-
moil, Augustus’s rule ushered in a new Golden Age. The
art and literature of the Augustan period are regarded as the
pinnacle of Roman cultural accomplishment.
The empire was so strong by the end of Augustus’s reign
that even a series of debauched and decadent emperors,
such as CALIGULA [cal-IG-you-lah] (12-41 c.g.) and
NERO [NEAR-oh] (37-68 C.E.), could not destroy it.
There were also some very able emperors, including the
so-called “Five Good Emperors”—NERVA [NER-vah]
(r. 96-98 C.E.), TRAJAN [TRA-jan] (r. 98-117 C.E.),
HADRIAN [HAY-dree-an] (r. 117-138 C.E.), ANTONI-
NUS PIUS [PIE-us] (r. 138-161 C.E.), and MARCUS AU-
RELIUS [OW-REE-lee-us] (r. 161-180 C.E.). These five
ruled for eighty-four consecutive years, during which Rome
flourished as never before. By 180 c.£. the Roman empire
had grown to enormous proportions, extending from Spain
in the west to the Persian Gulf in the Middle East, and
from Britain and the Rhine River in the north to Egypt
and the Sahara Desert in the south. It encompassed some
1,750,000 square miles and about fifty million people.
However, beginning with the rule of Marcus Aurelius’s
son COMMODUS [coh-MODE-us] (r. 180-192 C.E.),
the empire started to flounder. His murder inaugurated a
series of civil wars. Of the twenty-six emperors to rule be-
tween 235 and 284 C.E., twenty-five were murdered, as
various military factions vied for power. In addition, plague
Ficure 4.10 A Roman man holding busts of his ancestors. ravaged Rome—between 251 and 266 C.F. many thou-
Late first century B.C.E., marble, lifesize, Museo Capitolino, sands of Romans died from it. And, perhaps most omi-
Rome, Italy. Photograph © Scala/Art Resource, NY. The great nously, the empire’s borders began to be seriously
importance Romans attached to family and lineage, exempli- threatened by barbarian hordes.
fied here in this austere sculpture, is one of the motivating In 284 C.E., DIOCLETIAN [DI-oh-CLEE-shun] briefly
forces in the development of highly realistic portraiture restored order by dividing the empire into four portions—
during the Republican era.
the tetrarchy—and assumed personal control of Asia Minor,
Syria, and Egypt. His counterpart in the West, also desig-
nated “Augustus,” was MAXIMIAN [mac-SIM-ee-an].
 ROMAN CIVILIZATION 105

Then & Now

PLAUTUS Nevertheless, Plautus is alive and well run in 1962. This modern adaptation of
AND THE CONTEMPORARY in modern American theater. In the Plautus mines the vein of comic gold
BROADWAY THEATER 1930s, and again in the 1990s, his popu- found in three of Plautus’s plays.
lar Menaechmi (The Menaechmi Twins) was Why does Plautus’s dramatic and
lautus has been called “the father of turned into an American musical entitled comic genius speak to a contemporary
musical comedy.” This designation The Boys from Syracuse (the Italian, not the American audience? Essentially for the
applies not only because his plays include New York, city). The Menaechmi had ear- same reasons it spoke to his Roman con-
numerous and extensive song passages, lier been transformed by Shakespeare into temporaries: It pokes fun at sober pieties;
but also because of his enormous influ- The Comedy ofErrors, which, like Plautus’s it mocks conventional wisdom; and it ex-
ence on subsequent drama, including the original, revolves around the mistaken presses an irreverent attitude toward
contemporary Broadway stage. Unfor- identities of identical twins. In the mid- what is fashionable and important. It
tunately, the music for the songs in Plau- 1990s, Broadway was home to a revival of makes people laugh both at themselves
tus’s plays has long been lost. Only the A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the and at their society, even while they re-
lyrics remain. Forum, which had an original Broadway main obliged to live within it.

After the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian in 305 music differed, however. Whereas Greek music was basi-
C.E., the tetrarchy briefly continued until CONSTAN- cally contemplative and served as a background to plays
TINE [CON-stan-tine] seized control of thé entire empire and poetry, Roman music was loud and aggressive and fea-
in 324, ruling until his death in 337. In 330, Constantine tured in open-air games, festival parades, and military at-
moved the seat of government from Rome to the port city tacks.
of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople after Brass instruments such as the cornu (a “G”-shaped in-
himself—humility was not part of the job description of the strument) and the tuba (a long straight trumpet) played
Roman emperor (today the city, known as Istanbul, is in accompaniment through raging wars. These instruments
Turkey). Rome’s long ascendancy as the cultural center of were also used to communicate field orders and to an-
the Western world was at an end (see Chapter 6). nounce important visitors. Applying their engineering
One invaluable source for our knowledge of the Roman skills, the Romans used the flow of water to power an
empire was provided by a natural disaster. In 79, the volcano organ that could be heard for miles. This instrument,
Vesuvius, located about 150 miles south of Rome near the called the hydraulos, was used in the Circus Maximus and
bay of Naples, erupted, engulfing a number of small Roman the Colosseum to rouse the crowd, much like the organ at
towns, including the fashionable suburban residences of today’s baseball games. This instrumental music, a painful
Herculaneum and Pompeii. Most inhabitants escaped— reminder of Christians killed for sport, was banned from
but with only their lives. Everything else was left in place, the early Christian church.
food literally still on the tables. Vesuvius buried Hercula- Roman pipers played a flutelike instrument at funerals
neum in hot mud and lava that hardened like stone thirty- and between acts at plays. Guests at a dinner party might
five to eighty feet deep. Pompeii was covered in twenty to be entertained by vocal and instrumental dinner music.
thirty feet of pumice stone and ash. Excavation was begun Theater music evolved from interludes between acts to
at both sites in the mid-eighteenth century—a process that longer pieces that frequently appealed to the audience as
has been far easier at Pompeii, but which today is still not much as the drama itself.
complete at either site and has provided a great deal of in-
formation on first-century C.E. life in the Roman empire.
Our knowledge of Roman painting, for instance, would be ARCHITECTURE
immeasurably poorer without the evidence of these towns. An active builder, Augustus once claimed to have restored
eighty-two temples in a single year. Suetonius’s Lives ofthe
MusIcC Caesars says that Augustus boasted, “I found Rome a city
of brick, and left it a city of marble,” although he did so
Our knowledge of Roman music is based on what we can largely by putting a marble veneer over the brick.
learn from mosaics, sculpture, and the remains of brass in-
struments found on ancient battlefields. Just as Romans The Roman Forum. One of Augustus’s most ambitious
adopted much of Greek architecture, sculpture, poetry, projects was his forum, dedicated in 2 B.c.E. Augustus, a
and philosophy, so too Greek music was absorbed. Roman skilled manipulator of public opinion, gave political
106 CHAPTER 4

ea Roman Empire ca. C.£. 180

BRITANNIA
SUPERIOR .
Lendiniunee

Atlantic

“SSILLYRICUM
~

Piees0l7 la
:Fs aguntuntige® a ‘ a (Jerusa e
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Map 4.2 The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, ca. 180 C.E.

significance to this forum by dedicating its temple to Mars The Colosseum. Another form of public architecture was
the Avenger. It was intended to serve as a reminder of the the theater. The celebrated Flavian Colosseum in Rome (fig.
revenge he had taken on the murderers of his uncle, Julius 4.12), so called because of its association with a colossal statue
Caesar, and the temple, with eight columns across its front, of the emperor Nero, was dedicated in 80 C.E. The Colos-
was one of the largest in the city, rivaling the Athenian seum is an amphitheater, a type of building developed by
Parthenon in size. The Forum of Augustus is actually one the Romans. The word “theater” refers to the semicircular
of many fora traditionally referred to collectively in the form. The prefix “amphi” means “both”; an amphitheater is
singular as “the forum.” The Roman forum consists of a theater at both ends and therefore circular or oval in plan.
nineteen fora—those of Julius Caesar, Augustus, Trajan, The seating area of the Colosseum accommodated over fifty
Nerva, a forum of peace, and so on—all abutting one an- thousand people, each of whom had a clear view of the arena.
other (fig. 4.11). The original use of the forum was simi- ‘To protect the audience from the brilliant Roman sunshine,
lar to that of the Greek agora. The forum was the center an awning could be stretched over part of the Colosseum.
of city life, the public area where assemblies were held, The supporting structure of the Colosseum is made of
justice was administered, and markets were located. ‘There concrete, but the exterior was covered with a stone facing
were also a number of temples, such as two dedicated to of travertine (a form of limestone) and tufa. Holes can
Vesta, the Temple of Saturn, the Temple of Castor and now be seen in the stone where people dug to get at the
Pollux, and the Temple of Antoninus Pius and Faustina. bronze clamps that held the facing in place. These stones
Although each forum was symmetrical in plan, the differ- hide the supporting structure. This is fundamentally dif-
ent fora were combined chaotically. The Romans, more ferent from the Greek approach to architecture, where the
cosmopolitan and materialistic than the ancient Greeks, structure was not hidden but, rather, emphasized.
built on a larger scale, using a greater variety of building On the exterior, entablatures separate the stories and
materials, and paid less attention to minute details. The engaged columns separate the arches. The three architec-
Roman predilection was for combining diverse elements to tural orders are combined. On the lowest level is the Tus-
achieve a grand overall effect. can variation on the Doric order; above is the Ionic; and
 ROMAN CIVILIZATION 107

Ficure 4.11 Forum, Rome. A forum, a public area with markets, meeting places, and tem-
ples, was roughly the Roman equivalent of the Greek agora. The area of the forum in Rome
was expanded over many years.

FIGURE 4.12 Colosseum, Rome, dedicated 80 C.E. The freestanding amphitheater, devel-
oped by the Romans, was made possible by the use of concrete and the arch principle. Com-
pare this to the Greek theater of Epidauros where support for the seats is provided by the
hillside (see fig. 3.16).
108 CHAPTER 4

the third level is Corinthian. These columns, engaged to “all the gods” (the literal meaning of the word pantheon).
the wall, have no structural function; their only purpose is Originally, steps led up to the entrance, but over the cen-
as surface decoration. turies the level of the street has been raised, and once there
The practical Roman designers combined the use of was also more to the porch. Otherwise, the Pantheon is
concrete with another extremely important architectural very well preserved. In contrast to the Greek emphasis on
development—the arch. The visitor to the Colosseum can the exterior of temples, the most important part of the
enter or exit through any of eighty arches around the Pantheon is the interior. Inside, the enormous dome that
Colosseum at street level. Each of these arches is but- crowns this building is the focus of attention. The space is
tressed by its neighbors and buttresses its neighbors in not interrupted by interior supports, creating a feeling of
turn, as is true of the Pont du Gard. The interior is con- vast spaciousness (fig. 4.14). The Pantheon was consid-
structed with vaulted corridors and many staircases to per- ered the most harmonious interior of antiquity.
mit the free movement of a large number of people. The dome, based upon the arch principle, is another of
A tremendous number of amphitheaters were built the great innovations of Roman architecture. A series of
throughout the empire because it was official policy that arches forms a vault. An arch rotated 180 degrees forms
the state should provide entertainment for the public. This a dome.
entertainment included several categories of bloody com- The Pantheon’s dome is raised on a high base, making
bat: human versus human; human versus animal; animal the height and diameter of the dome the same—144 feet.
versus animal; and naval battles—the Colosseum could be The Pantheon was the largest dome until the twentieth
flooded to accommodate warships. The quality of this “en- century. The dome is made of concrete, the weight of
tertainment” soon turned into a political issue, but the dis- which is concentrated on eight pillars distributed around
plays nonetheless became progressively more extravagant. its circumference. The oculus, the “eye” or opening in
The Pantheon. Built between 118 and 125 C.E. during
the reign of Emperor Hadrian and designed by the archi-
tect Apollodorus of Damascus, the magnificent Roman
Pantheon (fig. 4.13) is a large circular temple dedicated to FicureE 4.14 Giovanni Paolo Panini (Roman, 1691-1765),
Interior of the Pantheon, Rome, ca. 1734, oil on canvas
50)" XxX 39” (1.28 xX .99 m), Samuel H. Kress Collection.
FiGurE 4.13 Apollodorus of Damascus, Pantheon, Rome, Photograph © 2001 Board of Trustees, National Gallery of
118-25 C.E., exterior. A superb display of Roman engineering Art, Washington, DC, 1939. 124(135)/pA. Photo by Richard
skill, the Pantheon includes a variety of ingenious devices to Carafelli.
deal with the lateral thrust exerted by the dome. The paradigm
of circular temples, the Pantheon would prove to be the model
for many buildings in the following centuries.
 ROMAN CIVILIZATION 109

the center of the ceiling, is thirty feet across and the sole
source of light in the building. The squarish indentations
in the dome, called coffers, were once plated with gold
and each had a bronze rosette fastened in the center. The
effect, with the brilliant sunlight of Rome coming from
the central oculus above, must have been dazzling.

SCULPTURE
With Augustus’s rise to power in 27 B.C.E., sculpture
changed its style. Depictions of realistically rendered aging
Republicans were jettisoned in favor of more idealized ver-
sions of youth and an increased taste for things Greek.
This change in taste was in part the result of Augustus’s
efforts to import Greek craftspeople and artists. In the new
Augustan style, Greek idealism was combined with Roman
realism.
Augustus of Primaporta. ‘The statue the Augustus of
Primaporta (fig. 4.15), of ca. 20 B.C.E., is a slightly over-
lifesize marble figure that was intended to glorify the em-
peror and Roman peace under his rule. The face of the
statue is recognizably that of Augustus; the same features
are seen on other portraits of the emperor, although here
they are somewhat idealized. Augustus is shown to be
heroic, aloof, self-contained. A prototype is seen in fig-
ures such as the Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) of Polykleitos
(see fig. 3.11); indeed, Augustus probably held a spear in
his left hand originally, but it has since been restored as a
scepter. There is perhaps even a concession to traditional
Greek nudity in showing the emperor barefoot. The grand
gesture with one arm extended—as if addressing his
troops—was a common pose. The cupid riding on a dol-
phin beside Augustus’s right leg is an allusion to Aeneas’s
mother, Venus, in Virgil’s heroic poem, The Aeneid, sug-
gesting Augustus’s own supposed divine heritage. The re-
lief on Augustus’s cuirass (breastplate) is symbolic and
refers to the Pax Romana, the peace and harmony that pre-
vailed under his reign.
The Ara Pacis. At times the distinction between archi- FIGURE 4.15 Augustus ofPrimaporta, ca. 20 B.C.E., marble,
tecture and sculpture is blurred, for a building that is to- height 6’ 8’’ (2.03 m), Braccio Nuovo, Musei Vaticani, Rome.
tally covered with relief sculpture, as is the Ara Pacis (Altar Although this statue does record the appearance of Emperor
ofPeace), built 13—9 B.c.E. by Augustus. Whether it is sculp- Augustus, under his reign harsh Roman republican realism was
somewhat softened by Greek idealism.
ture or architecture, however, it is undoubtedly the great-
est artistic work of the Augustan age. Augustus billed
himself as the “Prince of Peace,” and this altar is an ex-
ample ofart used as political propaganda. groups, or look off in different directions; figures are seen
The Ara Pacis is a small rectangular building. Among from the front, from the side, and in three-quarter views.
the extensive reliefs that adorn its sides is an imperial pro- Drapery is skillfully rendered so that fabric falls naturalis-
cession including Augustus and Livia (fig. 4.16). Accom- tically, yet also forms a pleasing rhythmic pattern of loops
panying them is the imperial household, including and curves across the whole relief.
children, priests, and dignitaries. These figures move along An illusion of spatial recession has been created in stone
both of the side walls of the altar, converging toward the relief. Figures in the front are a little larger than those in
entrance. The degree of naturalism achieved in this mar- the back and are carved in higher relief. Because the dif-
ble relief is striking. The depictions of people are varied— ferent levels of relief create an illusion of space, blank areas
some stand still, others talk with their neighbors, or form between the figures no longer look like a solid wall but
110 CHAPTER 4

FiGuRE 4.16 Ara Pacis, relief of procession of figures, 13-9

B.C.E., height ca. 5'3’’ (1.6 m). Augustus, now older, is
depicted with his wife, Livia. Unlike the timeless, generalized,
idealized Greek relief from the Parthenon (see fig. 3.6), the
Roman relief shows specific people at a specific event.

rather read as actual space into and from which figures re-
cede and emerge. A particularly clever illusionistic touch is
the positioning of toes so they protrude over the ledge on
which the figures stand. It is as if the figures are genuinely
three dimensional and capable of stepping out of their space
and into ours, adding to the immediacy of the work.
The Column of Trajan. Columns, usually erected to
celebrate a military victory, are another distinctively
Roman form of movement. The emperor Trajan (r.
98-117 C.E.) erected the Column of Trajan (fig. 4.17) in
the Forum of Trajan in Rome in 106-113 c.£. The creator
of the Pantheon, Apollodorus of Damascus, designed the
column.
The base is made of huge blocks with a square stairway
inside, while a circular stairway consisting of 182 steps
winds around the interior of the actual column. The sur-
face of the column is covered with a continuous band of re-
lief 656 feet long that makes twenty-three turns as it spirals
upward like a twisting tapestry. The relief consists of about
150 scenes and 2,500 figures.
The reliefs (fig. 4.18), reading from the bottom to the
top, document an actual event—the military campaign of
101-03 C.E. to subdue the forces of Decebalus, prince of
FiGurE 4.17 Apollodorus of Damascus, Column of Trajan,
Dacia, present-day Romania. This was the first of Rome’s Rome, 106-13 C.E., marble, height with base 125’ (38.1 m). In
wars against the Dacians. In the second, in 105-07 C.E., spite of the obvious difficulty the viewer encounters in follow-
‘Trajan completely destroyed his enemy. ing a story told in a relief that spirals around a column rising
The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius. ‘The over- high above, this was not the only such commemorative column
erected by the Romans.
lifesize equestrian statue of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (fig.
4.19), of 164-66 C.E., became a favorite type of commem-
orative sculpture. This statue has survived to the present
only because it was long mistaken for a portrait of Con-
stantine, the first Christian emperor, and was thus spared is garbed in the traditional robes of the Republican
the fate of being melted down as so many other “pagan” philosophers. He subdues his enemies without weapons
Roman bronzes were (for instance, the statue of Trajan on or armor—originally, a barbarian lay beneath the horse’s
top of his column—see fig. 4.17). A philosopher-emperor, upraised hoof—and in victory brings with him the prom-
gentle and wise, who held Stoic beliefs, Marcus Aurelius ise of peace.
 ROMAN CIVILIZATION 111

THE ARA PACIS AND THE Augustus as emperor. Behind Tiberius is Augustus introduced a series of meas-
POLITICS OF FAMILY LIFE Antonia, Augustus’s niece and the wife ures to combat this decline in the tradi-
of Tiberius’s brother Drusus, at whom tional Roman family. He criminalized
| Pui generations of Augustus’s fam- she is looking. Antonia holds the hand adultery and passed a number of laws de-
4 ily appear in the section of the Ara of her and Drusus’s son, Germanicus. signed to promote marriage as an insti-
Pacis illustrated in fig. 4.16. On the left, Drusus’s nephew Gnaeus clings to his tution and encourage larger families.
his head covered by his robe, is Marcus uncle’s robe. Men between the ages of twenty-five and
Agrippa. At the time of the carving he In the period before the Ara Pacis, sixty and women between the ages of
was married to Augustus’s daughter Julia there are very few examples of depictions twenty and fifty were required to marry.
and was next in line to be emperor after of children in Roman public sculpture, a A divorced woman was required to re-
Augustus, but he died in 12 C.E., two fact that raises an important question: marry within six months, a widow within
years before Augustus himself. Next to What moved Augustus to include chil- a year. A childless woman, married or
him in the relief is his eldest son, Gaius dren so conspicuously in this monument? not, was required to pay large taxes on
Caesar, who clings to Agrippa’s robe. Au- By the time Augustus took control of her property. A childless man was denied
gustus was particularly fond of Gaius and Rome, slaves and freed slaves threatened any inheritance. And the nobility were
his younger brother Lucius. The two to outnumber Roman citizens in Rome granted political advantages in line with
boys often traveled with the emperor, itself, and they clearly outnumbered the the size of their families.
and he took on important aspects of their Roman nobility. Augustus took this seri- The Ara Pacis can be seen as part of
education, teaching them to swim, to ously and saw it as the result of a crisis in Augustus’s general program to revital-
read, and to imitate his own handwrit- Roman family life. Adultery and divorce ize the institution of marriage in
ing. The proud grandmother, Augustus’s had become commonplace. Furthermore, Roman life. His own family, so promi-
wife Livia, stands beside Marcus Agrippa the cost of maintaining a family was in- nently displayed in the frieze, was in-
and Gaius Caesar. Behind her is her own creasing. Consequently Roman families tended to serve as a model for all Roman
son Tiberius, who would in fact succeed were becoming smaller and smaller. families.

We Se ip ARGO ar ane EE

FIGURE 4.19 =Equestrian Statue ofMarcus Aurelius, 164-66

C.E., gilded bronze, height 116” (3.51 m), Piazza del Campi-
doglio, Rome. This equestrian image became a model for fu-
ture representations of military leaders.

Figure 4.18 Apollodorus of Damascus, Column of Trajan,

Rome, 106-13 C.E., relief, detail of fig. 4.17. The long band of
reliefs records Trajan’s victories over the Dacians with docu-
mentary accuracy. Details of setting, armor, weapons, and even
military tactics are included.
112 CHAPTER 4

Portrait Head of Caracalla. A time of political revolu-

tion and social change, the violence of the third century in
Rome is embodied in the portrait head of Caracalla (fig.
4.20). The emperor’s real name was Antoninus; his
Constitutio Antoniniana gave everyone living in the Roman
empire civil rights.
Yet he was also a brutal soldier who consolidated his
hold on the throne by murdering his brother, and it is this
aspect of his character that is portrayed in sculpture. How
has the sculptor accomplished this? His facial expression
is stressed, the eyes emphasized by carving out the pupils
and engraving the irises. Caracalla gazes into the distance,
seemingly focusing on a definite point. His forehead is fur-
rowed, his brow contracted, as if in anxiety.
Many copies of the bust survive—Caracalla must have
approved of this image himself. It is as if brutality has be-
come the very sign of power and authority. The portrait set
a style for the third century, which emphasizes such ani-
mated facial expression. The skillful carving, creating a
vivid contrast between flesh and hair, is descriptive rather
than decorative.
Head of Constantine. ‘The eyes of this head of Con-
stantine the Great (fig. 4.21), the first Christian emperor,
who ruled 306-37, gaze out into the distance like Cara-
calla’s, but Constantine no longer seems to focus on any-
thing in particular. Instead, in keeping with the spirituality
of the times, he appears to be in a kind of trance. The head
itself, over eight feet high, was originally part of an enor-

FIGURE 4.20 =Caracalla, ca. 215 C.£., marble, lifesize. Samuel

D. Lee Fund. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. This
bust records Emperor Caracalla’s physical appearance, but goes
beyond the superficial representation of the subject’s facial ter-
rain to reveal his personality—which was described as often
angry. FIGURE 4.21 Constantine the Great, head from a huge statue,
325-26 C.E., marble, height 8'5” (2.58 m), Palazzo dei Conser-
vatori, Rome. This image of Constantine, the first Christian
emperor, impresses through enormous scale rather than pho-
tographic realism. With the spread of Christianity came a turn
away from the factual and toward the spiritual.

mous thirty-foot-high seated sculpture of the emperor, of

which only a few marble fragments survive, among them
a giant hand that points heavenward. Placed behind the
altar of the Basilica Nova in Rome, it dominated the inte-
rior space. Constantine is both mystical and majestic. He
is shown to be calm, capable, and composed by an image
that is self-glorifying and self-exalting.
The Arch of Constantine. Constantine had come to power
after defeating the emperor Maxentius. To celebrate his vic-
tory, the Senate erected a giant triple arch next to the Colos-
seum in Rome (fig. 4.22). Much of the decoration was taken
from second-century C.E. monuments, and the figures
changed to look like Constantine (fig. 4.23). The medal-
lions decorating the arch were carved 128-38 C.E. during
 ROMAN CIVILIZATION 113

ANCENTROME
The most significant ey emperors and the dates they reigned:
Augustus 7 CE ACE Septimius Severus oe 2 11
Tiberius 14-37 Caracalla 211-217
Caligula 7-41 Alexander Severus 2272230
Claudius 41-54 Maximinus Thrax 235-238
Nero 54-68 Philip the Arab 244-249
Vespasion 67-79 Gallienus 253-268
Titus 79-8) Aurelian 270277
Domitian 81-96 Diocletian 284-305
Nerva 96-98 Maximian 286-305
Trajan 98-117 Constantius Chlorus 305-306
Hadrian 117-138 Galerius 305-311
Antonius Pius 138-161 Maxentius 306-312
Lucius Verus 161-169 Licinius 311-324
Marcus Aurelius 161-180 Constantine the Great BO/—337,
Commodus 180-193

FIGuRE 4.22 Arch of Constantine, 312-15 C.E., Rome. The simple type of ancient Roman
triumphal arch has a single opening; the more complex type like the Arch of Constantine has
three openings. ‘Typically Roman is the nonstructural use of columns as surface decoration.
114 CHAPTER 4

a Sao Sbrteaiee ise 8 ae ie e

Figure 4.23 Arch of Constantine, north side, medallions carved 128-38 C.E., frieze carved
early fourth century C.E., Rome. The contrast between the naturalism of the medallions and
the simplified distortions and absence of interest in spatial illusionism in the frieze reveals
major changes in Roman art.

the time of Hadrian. In the medallion showing Emperor though it is known that such paintings sold for high prices.
Hadrian hunting a boar, a variety of levels of relief create a Almost the only Roman painting to survive is found on
sense of depth. Horses move on diagonals. Figures twist, walls in the form of murals.
turn, and bend in space. By way of contrast, the frieze below, The walls of private homes were frequently painted.
carved in the early fourth century, had Constantine in the The best extant examples of ancient Roman wall painting
center, but he was later replaced by a figure of Jesus, and are those that were preserved in Pompeii and Hercula-
now the head is gone. A complete disgregard for the Clas- neum by the eruption of the volcano Vesuvius in 79 C.E. A
sical tradition is evident here. No attempt is made to create few later examples have survived in Rome, Ostia, and the
space—there are no diagonals, no foreshortening, and all provinces.
the carving is done to the same depth. The figures are not The German historian August Mau classified ancient
united in a common action. Instead, each figure is isolated. Roman wall painting into four styles in 1882. Although
Rather than being depicted in the contrapposto pose, the fig- Mau’s system continues to be used today, there is dis-
ures stand with their weight equally distributed on both feet. agreement among art historians as to precisely when one
Figures are indicated as being behind others by rows of style ends and the next begins.
heads above. The proportions of the figures are stocky and
doll-like, very different from Classical Greek proportions. First Style. The First Style starts in the second century
B.C.E. and continues until ca. 80 B.C.E. It is referred to as
the “incrustation” or “masonry” style, since the paintings
PAINTING
of this period attempt to imitate the appearance of col-
Only a fraction of the paintings produced by ancient ored marble slabs. The wall surface from the Casa di Sal-
Roman artists remain. The small-scale portable paintings lustio at Pompeii (fig. 4.24), of the mid-second century
on ivory, stone, and wood are now almost entirely gone, al- B.C.E., is divided into squares and rectangles which are
 ROMAN CIVILIZATION 115

painted to look like costly marble wall-facing. There are

no figures and no attempt to create the illusion of three-
dimensional space—the only illusion is that of marble cre-
ated in paint.
Second Style. ‘The Second Style begins about 80 B.C.E.
and lasts until 30 or 20 B.C.E. it is often referred to as the
“architectonic,” “architectural,” or “illusionistic” style. In
this period actual architectural structures, which were
themselves colored, were copied in paint. The Villa of the
Mysteries, outside Pompeii (fig. 4.25), dates to the mid-
first century B.C.E. One room here is especially famous,
partly for the puzzle it presents. Many theories have been
suggested to explain the activities depicted on the four
walls of this room—the subject may have to do with a
bridal initiation into the mystery cult of Dionysos. The
figures are solid and substantial, and almost all female.
They move in a shallow space with green floors and red
walls, which are divided up into sections. A novel feature
is that the figures act and react across the corners of the
room, animating and activating the space.
A more characteristic example of the Second Style is isso

the cubiculum (fig. 4.26) from the Villa at Boscoreale, a mile

FIGURE 4.25. Scenes of Dionysiac mystery cult, Villa of the
north of Pompeii, built shortly after the mid-first century
Mysteries, outside Pompeii, ca. 50 B.c.E. Although the exact
B.C.E. The bedroom of a wealthy Roman by the name of subject depicted in this room remains unclear, it seems to be
Publius Fannius Synistor, this room was at the northwest connected with the cult of Dionysos, god of wine. Clever use is
corner of a colonnaded court of the house. It was buried made of space, for the figures interact with one another on ad-
by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 C.E. and was only joining walls across the corners of the room.
rediscovered in the late nineteenth century.
The walls of the room are painted with illusionistic ar-
chitecture that creates open vistas into space. The painter stage painting—there are theater masks at the top of the
has extended the dimensions of the room; the solid wall is
wall, and Vitruvius refers to the use of stage scenery as
obliterated. It has been suggested that this was inspired by house decoration. Or perhaps this reflects actual contem-
porary architecture. Might this be a portrayal of an ideal
villa? Could this be a visual retreat—the idea of escaping
from daily cares into this fantastic architectural realm?
FIGURE 4.24 Casa di Sallustio, Pompeii, second century
The painter uses perspective, but not scientifically or
B.C.E. The first of the four styles of ancient Roman wall paint-
ing (a system of classification developed not by the ancient consistently. It is not possible to make a logical ground-
Romans but by a nineteenth-century historian) is readily rec- plan of this cityscape. What do the buildings stand on? Yet
ognizable. Also known as the “incrustation” style, the First the light falls as if from an actual window in the back wall.
Style consists of painted imitations of marble slabs. Both the First and Second Styles evidence the Roman
delight in fooling the viewer’s eyes. Such realism was ad-
mired in antiquity. In his Natural History, Pliny says a cer-
tain painted decoration was praised “because some crows,
deceived by a painted representation of roof-tiles, tried to
alight on them.” With different textures, with marble
columns that appear round, with painted colonnades on a
projecting base, a fairly convincing illusion of three di-
mensions is created on a two-dimensional surface. The
Boscoreale cubiculum is intended to trick the eye on a grand
scale. The murals may be indicative of the villa owner’s
desire to amuse, to entertain, and, especially, to impress
his guests.
Third Style. The Third Style dates from the late first
century B.C.E. to the mid-first century C.E. The Third
Style is variously known as the “ornamental/ornamented,”
116 CHAPTER 4

FiGureE 4.26 Roman paintings. Pompeian, Villa at Boscoreale. Bedroom (cubiculum, noctur-
num) overview, first century B.C.E. Rogers Fund, 1903 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York. In this example of the Second Style, also known as the “architectonic” style, an entire
bedroom is painted with illusionistic architecture and distant cityscapes.

“capricious,” 9
“ornate,”
66
“candelabra,” or “classic” style.
99 66
Fourth Style. ‘The Fourth, and final, Style largely dates
There is a new concern with decorative detail. The abrupt from the mid-first century C.E. or from the earthquake in
shift evident in the Third Style coincides with the reign of 62 C.E. until the eruption of the volcano Vesuvius in 79
Augustus. C.E., although extant examples postdate the eruption of
The Third Style places an emphasis on the wall surface Vesuvius. The Fourth Style is the most elaborate of all and
rather than on illusions of depth (fig. 4.27). Walls are now is known as the “composite,” “fantasy,” or “intricate” style.
often almost monochromatic, the range of colors restricted The painting technique is somewhat freer, sketchier, more
to red, black, or white. These large areas of monochrome impressionistic than in the First, Second, or Third Styles.
emphasize the wall’s two-dimensionality. Landscapes are There is greater use of still life, mythological, and land-
no longer spread over the wall to create spatial illusions, scape subjects.
but are instead treated as framed pictures on the wall, as vi- The Ixion Room of the House of the Vettii in Pompeii
gnettes, not located in depth behind the wall surface but (fig. 4.28), painted 63-79 C.E., is typical. Within the Fourth
on the surface. The surrounding flat fields of colors are Style are returns to “false” earlier styles. This example
painted with elaborate details of architecture, plant forms, combines the simulated marble inlay of the First Style on
and figures, delicate and decorative. ‘The massive columns the lower wall, the illusionistic architecture of the Second
and architectural framework of the Second Style have Style on the upper wall, and the framed vignette sur-
given way to spindly nonstructural columns. rounded by a flat area of solid color of the Third Style. A
 ROMAN CIVILIZATION 117

FIGURE 4.27 House of M. Lucretius Fronto, Pompeii, mid-first century C.E. In the Third
Style, also known as the “ornamental” style, there is a return to a flatter effect with large areas
of solid color and scenes treated as framed pictures hanging on the wall.

completely painted fantasy is achieved. Figures and archi- world as much as possible. He urged his followers, in his
tecture are combined. What more could possibly be added Discourses, to control what elements of their lives they could
to this playful and decorative ornament? and to avoid worrying about those they could not. Epicte-
tus accepted, for example, that he could not change the
fact he was a slave. What he could control, however, was
PHILOSOPHY
his attitude toward his situation. It was this attitude, ac-
Stoicism. Like so much else in the artistic and philo- cording to Epictetus, that determined one’s moral worth,
sophical traditions of Greece, Stoicism migrated to Rome not one’s external circumstances.
(see Chapter 3). From the second century B.C.E. through Unlike Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius was born into a
the period of the Roman empire, Stoicism was the domi- wealthy Roman family. He succeeded his uncle, Antoninus
nant Roman philosophy. The great Roman orator MAR- Pius, to the imperial throne in 161 C.E. This was a time of
CUS TULLIUS CICERO [SIS-ur-oh] (106-43 B.c.£.) great difficulty for Rome, which had suffered a devastat-
commented on it, but Stoicism’s two best known adherents ing plague as well as incursions into its territories by bar-
and practitioners were EPICTETUS [eh-pic-TEE-tus] barians. As emperor, Marcus Aurelius spent nearly half his
(ca. 60-110 C.E.), a Greek slave and secretary in the impe- life on military campaigns. It was during his military du-
rial administration, and Epictetus’s student Marcus Aure- ties that he composed his Meditations, a series of reflec-
lius, who reigned as emperor some years after Nero. tions on the proper conduct of life.
Like the Greek philosophers who came after Aristotle, The Meditations are more attentive to religious questions
Epictetus was a practical philosopher. His interest lay less than Epictetus’s Discourses. Like his Greek Stoic predeces-
in elaborating a metaphysical system than in providing sors, Marcus Aurelius described the divine less in terms of
guidance for living a life of virtue and equanimity. Epicte- a personal god in the Judeo-Christian tradition and more
tus exemplified the Stoic ideal in his own life, living sim- as an indwelling spirit of rationality. Marcus Aurelius con-
ply and avoiding the temptations and distractions of the sidered the entire universe to be governed by reason, and
118 CHAPTER 4

conflicting political forces. Livy wrote history to provide

his countrymen with a panoramic account of their past, to
celebrate its glories, and to encourage them to abandon
decadent behavior. His varied and flexible writing style,
although sometimes factually inaccurate, is particularly
well suited to the analysis of historical characters and to
recreating the rhetorical brilliance of their speeches.
Like Livy, much of the work of GAIUS CORNELIUS
TACITUS [TASS-i-tus] (ca. 56-120 c.£.) has been lost.
About a third of his important works, the Histories and the
Annals, have survived. The Histories provide an account of
Tacitus’s own time, from 69 to 96 C.E., whereas the Annals
cover an earlier period from the death of Augustus and the
succession of Tiberius in 14 C.£. to the end of Nero’s reign
in 68 C.E. Tacitus’s work analyzes the decline of political
freedom in Rome and criticizes dynastic power. ‘Tacitus
found Tiberius false, Claudius weak, Nero unstable, and
the imperial wives dangerous.
Just how false, weak, unstable, and dangerous the
Roman emperors were is taken up in considerable detail in
the Lives of the Caesars by GAIUS SUETONITUS [Sway-
TONE-ee-us] (ca. 69-122 C.E.). A biographer as well as a
historian, Suetonius’s Of Famous Men includes short biog-
raphies of Roman orators, rhetoricians, philosophers, and
poets, including lives of Horace, Terence, and Virgil. His
FIGURE 4.28 Ixion Room, House of the Vettii, Pompeii, Lives ofthe Caesars, which covers the first twelve emperors
63-79 C.E., The Fourth Style, also known as the “composite”
from Julius Caesar to Domitian, presents a vivid picture of
style, combines aspects of the earlier styles: imitation marble
incrustation; illustionistic architecture; and areas of flat color
Roman society, particularly the political corruption and
with small framed scenes. moral decadence of its leaders.

LITERATURE
he accepted the world as fundamentally good. It is the eth-
ical dimension of The Meditations, however, that has deter- Poetry in the Roman empire flourished as never before
mined their popularity and influence. In preaching a under the rule of Augustus. Augustus himself appears to
doctrine of acceptance, Marcus Aurelius recommended that have been a significant patron of the literary arts and he en-
a person not return evil for evil, but rather ignore the evil couraged writers to glorify the themes of his reign—peace
that others did to one, since what happened to an individ- and the imperial destiny of Rome.
ual’s person and possessions was insignificant. According Virgil. Latin poets celebrated Roman culture while em-
to Marcus Aurelius, only the soul, the inner self, counted. ulating the cultural achievements of their Greek prede-
cessors. The poet who best harmonized these two cultural
ROMAN HISTORIANS and literary strains was Publius Vergilius Maro, known
simply as VIRGIL [VER-jil] (70-19 B.c.E.), whose poem
Gaius Sallustus Crispis, Sallust (ca. 86-34 B.C.E.), began The Aeneid [ee- NEE-id] rivals the Homeric epics in liter-
writing about 43 B.C.£. Sallust’s birth during a time of ary splendor and cultural significance.
civil war, and his maturation during a period of foreign Virgil was almost certainly commissioned by the em-
war and political strife, likely contributed to his preoccu- peror himself to write his great epic. Much in the poem is
pation with violence and political conflict. Sallust’s his- Augustan in theme.
torical writing deals with corruption in Roman politics, The Aeneid is a heroic account of the events that led to
the origins of party struggles, and the history of Rome the founding of the city of Rome and the Roman empire,
from 78 to 67 B.C.E. especially the misfortunes and deprivations that accom-
Titus Livius, or Livy (59 B.c.E.-17 C.E.), wrote an ex- pany heroic deeds. The poem concerns the Trojan prince
tensive history of Rome, from the mythological founding AENEAS [ee-NEE-as], who flees his home as it is being
of the city to the year 9 C.E. Livy’s history was written in destroyed at the end of the Trojan War and sails away to
142 books, of which only about 36 have been preserved. found a new city in Italy—the successor to the great Tro-
His work differs from Sallust’s in its emphasis on individ- jan civilization. Clearly Aeneas’s new city is the forerunner
ual historical figures and their influence, rather than on of Rome, and the person of Aeneas in the poem is obvi-
 ROMAN CIVILIZATION 119

Then & Now

GRAFFITI reads, “Passed by here the Adelantado want to know our names, they are Gaius
Don Juan de Ofjate, from the discovery and Aulus;” and “Gaius Julius Primige-
: ‘he urge to write on walls is appar- of the Sea of the South, the 16th April nius was here. Why are you late?” But
ently as old as civilization itself. Be- of 1605.” It is the first of a long legacy of the Romans were also adept at the kind
fore the invention of writing, for such inscriptions, culminating in the of graffiti we normally associate today
instance, prehistoric people outlined graffiti that today “decorates” so much with “bathroom humor”: One wit ap-
their hands on cave walls, as if to say, “I of the local landscape—the so-called parently paraphrases Julius Caesar’s fa-
was here.” In contemporary society, our “tags,” or names, of graffiti “writers” that mous boast “I came, I saw, I conquered,”
national parks and monuments are vie for prominence on many walls of transforming it into “I came here, I
plagued by this apparently basic human urban America. screwed, I returned home.” There are as
need to announce our presence, as gen- The Romans, it seems, were them- well many graffiti of the “Marcus loves
eration after generation have inscribed selves great practitioners of the “art” of Spendusa” and “Serena hates Isidore” va-
their names and dates of visit on canyon graffiti. In Pompeii alone over 3,500 riety. But one writer sums up the feel-
walls and giant redwoods. One of the graffiti have been found. Among them is ings of future generations of graffiti
earliest records of the Spanish conquest the normal fare: “Successus was here;” readers: “I am amazed, O wall, that you
of the American Southwest is preserved “Publius Comicius Restitutus stood here have not collapsed and fallen, since you
on Inscription Rock at El Morro Na- with his brother;” “We are here, two must bear the tedious stupidities of so
tional Monument in New Mexico. It dear friends, comrades forever. If you many scrawlers.”

ously in some degree intended to honor Augustus him- It is probable that Augustus felt that his great empire
self—the links between Augustus and Aeneas were alluded should have a literary work to rival Homer. Like Homer's
to by other artists (see p. 184). Thad, Virgil’s epic depicts the horrors and the glories of war.
The first of the Aeneia’s twelve books begins in mediasres Like Homer's Odyssey, Virgil’s poem describes its hero’s ad-
(in the middle of things), as Aeneas and his men are caught ventures, both dangerous and amorous. In spite of Virgil’s
in a storm and shipwrecked at Carthage on the north debt to Greek epic, however, The Aeneid is a thoroughly
African coast. Dido, the Carthaginian queen, provides food Roman poem. It is saturated in Roman traditions and
and shelter, and Aeneas describes the destruction of Troy marked at every turn by its respect for family and country,
at the hands of the Greeks (Book II) and his journey to characterized by pietas, or piety, a devotion to duty, espe-
Carthage (Book II). Enamored of Aeneas, Dido urges him cially love and honor of one’s family and country.
to remain at her court rather than travel to Italy to estab-
Roman Satire. Although Latin literature, like much
lish a new home for his people. When Aeneas instead
Roman art and architecture, was based closely on Greek
leaves her to fulfill his destiny, the queen commits suicide
models, the Romans developed one literary genre almost
by throwing herself on a funeral pyre, the spiking flames
exclusively as their own—satire. It is true that a few Greek
of which are visible to Aeneas as he sails away (Book IV).
poets wrote satirical verse, most notably, Arkilokhos in the
Books V and VI describe Aeneas’s arrival in Italy and his
seventh century B.C.E., but the Greeks did not have a name
journey to the underworld—a characteristic feature of epic
for satire and did not recognize it as a distinct literary
poems. In the second half of the poem (Books VII-XI]),
genre. Arkilokhos’s poems were called e/egies, not satires.
Virgil describes Aeneas’s arrival at the Tiber River, which
It was left to the imagination of Gaius Lucillius (ca. 180-102
will be the site of the future city of Rome, and the Battle
BCE) to devise a poetic form and manner called satura, or
of the Trojans with the Latin people who live there, a bat-
satira, and to write more than thirty books of satires, in
tle ultimately won by the Trojans. which he laments the triviality of the world and the greed
Aeneas struggles with both his destiny and his con-
and stupidity of people. What would become popular and
science. He experiences danger and suffering in his ardu-
typical targets of satire first appear in his poems: bores,
ous journeys and battles; and he experiences anguish over
cuckolds, gluttons, misers, politicians, thieves, and whores,
his harsh treatment of Queen Dido. While celebrating Ae-
among others.
neas’s victory and heroism and highlighting his courage
and filial piety, Virgil also expresses sympathy and com- Horace. ‘The most important writer of odes—lyric poems
passion for all human beings, whose existence is charac- on particular subjects made up of lines of varying lengths—
terized by suffering and sorrow, an experience beautifully was Quintus Horatius Flaccus, known simply as Horace
captured in Virgil’s words from Book II, /acrimae rerum, (65-8 B.C.E.). Of humble origins, Horace was freed from
“the tears of things.” economic worry when he was befriended by Virgil, who
120 CHAPTER 4

Cultural Impact
he Roman genius for organization crowds and to let them enter and exit The idea of civility in social conduct
and problem solving is among its quickly and efficiently. Today’s sports and civilized discourse in public life is
most significant cultural legacies. The fans attend football games and soccer another of Rome’s cultural legacies (al-
Romans were superb engineers. matches at similarly sized stadiums that though we must remember that Rome
Their roads, bridges, baths, aqueducts, owe much to their Roman antecedents. had slaves, and women had few rights).
theaters, forums, walls, palaces, and mon- Romans’ love for the efficient and But perhaps the Romans’ greatest impact
uments can be found in more than thirty practical is also seen in their political was in their language, Latin, which is the
modern nations. These numerous feats structure. The Romans invented the field ancestor language for the Romance lan-
of engineering are massive in scale, tech- of civil law—the branch of law that deals guages—Italian, Spanish, French, and
nically sophisticated, extraordinarily with property rights—which became the Romansh all descend from it. And al-
practical, and built with a meticulous at- foundation of legal systems in many though English is Germanic in root, it
tention to the craft of surveying. Western countries. The Romans were nonetheless contains thousands of Latin
The road system they put in place also responsible for the idea of natural loan words, so much so that studying
across Europe is, in part, still in use law, which emerged from the philosophy Latin in school provides the basis for de-
today. The Romans built bridges and of Stoicism. Natural law postulated a set veloping an extensive English vocabu-
aqueducts that crossed rivers and valleys of rights beyond those described in civil lary. And finally, the Romans, who
and carried fresh water to houses and (or property) law and became the basis inherited their alphabet from the Greeks
public baths. Roman town architecture for the “inalienable rights” promised by through the Phoeneicians, but who also
was also eminently practical. Great am- the framers of the American Declaration made changes in it, left in the Roman al-
phitheaters like the Colosseum in Rome of Independence many centuries later phabet an even more pervasive cultural
were designed to accommodate vast (see Chapter 17). legacy.

helped him secure the support of Maecenas, a wealthy pa- are often related with an erotic twist. Ovid’s poetry com-
tron of the arts. Like Virgil, Horace was also encouraged to bines skillful narrative with elegance and grace. In addi-
write poetry by Augustus. Horace’s odes espouse a philos- tion, Ovid is generally recognized as a subtle analyst of the
ophy of moderation, which derives from earlier Greek cul- human heart. Though ironic, Ovid’s poetry is not cruel or
ture. Horace’s influence on English poetry was perhaps sarcastic; rather, Ovid seems almost compassionate toward
greatest from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries. One the characters whose experiences he describes.
of his most famous poems, “Ars Poetica” (“The Art of Po-
etry”), was especially valued as a guide to poetic practice Catullus. Although the Greeks had their love poetry, most
during the Renaissance and the eighteenth century. notably the poems of Sappho, it was the Roman poet Cat-
Horace was fully aware of his genius, boasting that “not ullus who gave the Western world its first body of love po-
all of me shall die,” and “I have raised a monument more etry, a suite of poems in which the complexities of love were
lasting than bronze.” His odes celebrate wine, women, and presented in detail across a span of love’s phases from a
song, while also recounting the glories of Roman history. highly subjective point of view. Catullus depicted love as a
And though Horace’s fame rests most squarely on his four way of living and not just as a mad aberration or as simple
books of Odes, he is also recognized as a consummate lust. Like other love poets who succeeded him in the Re-
satirist, inspired by Lucillus, but more urbane in style and naissance, Catullus based his poems on and dedicated them
tone and more tempered in his satirical indictments. Un- to a particular woman to whom he gave the name Lesbia, as
like Lucillus, Horace satirized general types rather than echo of the Greek island of Lesbos, home of Sappho, his
specific individuals, thus becoming a major influence on Greek amatory poetric predecessor. In fact some of Catul-
the satirical traditions that developed in seventeenth cen- lus’s love poems are Latin translations of poems by Sappho,
tury Europe, especially in England and France. though Catullus wrote many others that were original love
poems, which alternate between praise of and scorn for the
Ovid. Augustan Rome’s successor to Catullus, OVID [O- Lesbia that inspired them. Catullus’s legacy remains not so
vid] (43 B.C.E.-17 C.E.) wrote witty and ironic poems. The much any of his individual poetic masterpieces, but rather
titles of Ovid’s books reveal his persistent interest in the an overall strategy of recounting the story of a love affair in
erotic—the Amores (Loves) and the Ars Amatoria (The Art of all its emotional and psychological complexity.
Love). His most famous work, the Metamorphoses [meh-tah-
MOR-foh-sees], is based on a series of stories about trans- Seneca. LUCIUS ANNAEUS SENECA [SEN-uh-kuh]
formation, many derived from Greek mythology. These (4 B.C.E.-65 C.E.) was a Stoic thinker, a statesman, and a
 ROMAN CIVILIZATION 121

Critical Thinking
ANCIENT ROME IN THE MOVIES: a number of major film awards, including Would it matter greatly if the plot
GLADIATOR the Oscars for best actor and best film of were fiction while the general spirit of the
2000. times was accurately depicted? Explain.
any films have been made in which Why do you think Gladiator became a How would you characterize the
Rome has been depicted at differ- hit? What accounts for its popularity? film’s treatment of Commodus, marcus
ent historical stages. Among the most ‘To what extent is the film historically Aurelius, Maximus, and Lucilla? To what
popular is the recent movie Gladiator, accurate? And how would you go about extent have they been portrayed with
starring Russell Crowe, a film that won evaluating its historical accuracy? reasonable historical accuracy?

dramatist. Seneca was the tutor to the Roman emperor satirist PETRONIUS [peh-TROHN-ee-us] provided a
Nero and, when the young prince ascended to the throne, sharply realistic picture of the manners, luxuries, and vices
he served as a trusted adviser. Eventually he fell out of favor, of the age. The Satyricon [sah-TIR-ih-con], usually at-
however, and after being implicated in a conspiracy to as- tributed to Petronius, depicts the pragmatic materialism of
sassinate the emperor, he was ordered to kill himself. Stoic first-century C.E. Rome. Although only fragments of the
to the end, Seneca opened his veins and bled to death. work survive, the Satyricon nonetheless vividly conveys
Seneca’s plays, written more to be recited than per- early Rome’s veneration of material wealth and infatua-
formed, are deeply indebted to his Greek precursors: tion with physical pleasure.
Sophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides. In fact, the titles of In the longest extant section of the work, “Dinner with
a number of his plays are identical to those-oef the Greek ‘Trimalchio,” an aristocratic narrator describes a meal he
dramatists—Medea, Agamemnon, and Oedipus, for exam- and his friends share with the slave-turned-millionaire, ‘Iri-
ple. Characterized by violence and bloodshed, Seneca’s malchio. The dinner conversation reflects the temper of
plays had an important influence on Renaissance drama, early Roman civilization in the characters’ selfishness, their
particularly on the development of revenge tragedy in Eliz- anti-intellectualism, and their obsession with cheating one
abethan England, including Shakespeare’s Hamlet. another. The satire is enhanced by numerous echoes of the
Greek heroic traditions with references to Homer’s Iliad
Petronius. First-century C.E. Rome was saturated in ma- and Odyssey. The ironic references reflect the Roman char-
terial rather than spiritual values. The Roman emperor acters’ distance from the heroic ideal—they live only for
Nero set the tone with elaborate banquets, orgiastic feast- themselves and only for the moment. Already the idealism
ings, and bloody entertainments. During Nero’s reign, the of Augustan Rome seems very distant.

KEY TERMS
‘Tuscan order pietas tetrarchy oculus
tufa composite order amphitheater coffer
patrician engaged column travertine ode
plebian concrete vault satire
patronage aqueduct dome

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

http://www. initaly.com/regions/classic/etruscan.html
(An introductory site on Etruscan art, culture, and architecture with links.)
http://classics.mit.edu/Carus/nature_things.html
(This site discusses Lucretius’s On the Nature of Things, including commentary.)
http://www.alnpete.co.uk/lepcis/plans/tour.html
(This is a tour of the major sights of the site of Lepcis Magna.)
http://harpy.uccs.edu/roman/html/romptg. html
(The Four Pompeiian painting styles are presented in various Roman villas.)
 CHAPTER 5
meet nih a
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“4 Wie tha = Se
oo Sle ee
Sah SS Se a

. ca. 2000 B.C. Abraham is called from Mesopotamia to Canaan

co. 1600 B.C.E. Hebrews leave Canaan for Egypt
co. 1250 B.C. Moses and Hebrews wander in Sinai desert, reach Canaan
co. 1000 B.c.£. Israelites establish monarchy
co. 1000-961 B.c.£. David reigns
ca. 961-922 B.C.E. Solomon reigns
co. 922 B.CE. Monarchy split into kingdoms of Israel and Judah
722 B.CE. Israel falls to Assyrians and its people scatter
587 B.CE. Judah falls to Nebuchadnezzar II;hostages sent to Babylon
539 B.CE. Babylonian Captivity ends when Persians defeat Babylon
34 CE. Stephen, first martyr, is stoned to death
i 35 CE. Paul converts to Christianity
V 200 ce. Rome is center of Christianity
a 313 Ce. Constantine the Great legalizes Christianity
y 325 CE. First Council of Nicaea develops Nicene Creed
J 330 ce. Constantine names Constantinople new capital of Roman Empire
' 391 CE. Theodosius |declares Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire
t. 395 £5 Roman Empire split into East and West
ae 527-65 Ce. Justinian reigns
” 1054 ce. Schism between Eastern and Western Churches
(Se: 1071 ce Conquest of eastern Byzantine provinces by Seljuk Turks
1204 ce. Crusaders pillage Constantinople
1453 CE. Constantinople falls to Turks

ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE

mid-third century CE. Jesus the Good Shepherd
ca. 333 CE. Old St. Peter's
\y . 391 CE. Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus
fourth century CE. Catacomb of Santi
Pietro e Marcellino, Dome of Heaven
526-47 Ce. San Vitale
~~ 532-37 CE. Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, Hagia Saphia
é ; co. 547 CE. Mosaics of Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora
ji begun 1063 ce. Saint Mark’s, Venice
} ca. 1200 ce. Creation Dome mosaic
j late thirteenth century C.E. Madonna and Child Enthroned

LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

Ps ca. 3000 B.C. Portions from book of Genesis circulated orally

ca. twelfth—tenth Book of Genesis
centuries B.C.E. recorded
early first century C.E. Books of Ezra and Nehemiah written
ca. 70-100 ce. Gospels written
75-95 CE. Book of Revelation written
44 397 CE. Augustine, Confessions
| Judaism, Early Christianity,
and Byzantine Civilization

Theodora and her Attendants, San Vitale, Ravenna, ca. 547, mosaic.
 =

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Map 5.1 Ancient Israel.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

JUDAISM
The Hebraic faith establishes its history and tradition with the Bible

EARLY CHRISTIANITY
The arts nurture and transmit the beliefs of the Christian faith

BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION
The schism of the church forges the way for Byzantium in the East

124
 JUDAISM, EARLY CHRISTIANITY, AND BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION 125

JUDAISM HISTORY AND RELIGION

HE GREEKS AND THE ROMANS dominated the an- The history and religion of the Hebrews are essentially
cient world politically and socially, but another tra- one and the same, and that history and religion are
dition, although not as significant artistically or recorded in the Bible. The Hebrew Bible can be read as the
politically, came to influence Western civilization as well. history of the Hebrews’ relationship with their god. For
The founders of this tradition called themselves the “Chil- the Israelites, God’s power was made manifest in particu-
dren of Israel,” the Israelites, or Hebrews (from Habiru, lar events, such as the creation of the world and its de-
meaning “nomad” or “outcast”). Later they became known struction in the great flood.
as Jews, a name derived from their place of habitation, the Creation. ‘The Hebrews believed that God created
area around Jerusalem known as Judaea. heaven and earth. The Bible describes both the world and
Whereas the Greco-Roman tradition was rational, prac- the human beings that originally populated it as “good.”
tical, and dedicated to the arts, the Hebrew tradition was Human kind no longer lives in the original paradise, how-
spiritual, mystical, and founded on faith. The Jews pro- ever, because, as related in Genesis, Adam and Eve disobey
duced a “religion of the book,” what Christians regard as God’s word in the Garden of Eden and eat the forbidden
the Old Testament portion of the Bible, providing a spir- fruit. Adam and Eve’s expulsion inaugurates a pattern of
itual and moral foundation for Western culture. Judaism exile that continues in the wanderings of the patriarchs.
itself sought no converts—the Hebrew scriptures repre-
sented God’s words to his “Chosen People.” These scrip- Patriarchs. The early patriarchs of ancient Israel be-
tures emphasized a special national destiny, privilege, and lieved they were favored by God and consequently led lives
responsibility. Christianity, which grew out of Judaism, did that honored God. The first of the patriarchs was Abra-
seek converts, and was from its earliest days in the first ham, regarded as the ancestor of the Jews. When God
century C.E. a missionary religion, seeking to attract as called Abraham out of the land of Ur to Canaan, Abra-
many followers as possible. It spread the word of God ham’s response was an immediate and total acceptance of
through evangelists, from the Greek ewangelos, meaning God’s will.
“bearer of good news”—eu means “good” and angelos To Abraham and his followers and descendants God
“messenger.” The missionary zeal of the Early Christians made the solemn promise of the covenant. An agreement
ultimately united the Greco-Roman and biblical traditions. between God and his people, it was passed down to the
In 313 C.E., the Roman emperor Constantine granted tol- patriarchs who followed Abraham—to his son Isaac and
eration to Christians, and then received Christian baptism his grandson Jacob, or Israel. In the covenant, God agrees
on his deathbed in 337 himself. to be the Hebrew deity if the Hebrews agree, in turn, to
The nomadic Hebrew people were forced out of the be his people and to follow his will. With each patriarch,
Mesopotamian basin about 2000 B.c.E. by the warlike God renews the covenant originally made with Abraham.
Akkadians and the ascendancy of the Babylonians. Led by This covenant is referred to many times in the first five
the patriarch Abraham, the Hebrews settled in Canaan, books of the Bible, which are called the Law, or the Torah
the hilly country between the Jordan River and the east- (Hebrew for “instruction” or “teaching”).
ern Mediterranean coast. Canaan became their homeland Seven hundred years after the time of Abraham, a re-
and was, the Hebrews believed, promised to them by their newal of the covenant took place while the Hebrews were
god. Monotheistic (meaning the belief in only one God), living in Egypt. Why they had left Canaan for Egypt in
as opposed to the polytheistic religions of Greece, Rome, about 1600 B.C.E., we do not know, but they prospered
and other Near Eastern peoples, the Hebrew religion had there until the Egyptians enslaved them. In about 1250
but one God—Yahweh, a name so sacred that the pious B.C.E., the patriarch Moses defied the pharaoh, and led his
never speak or write it. people out of Egypt (the Exodus) into the Sinai desert,
In contrast, other Near Eastern tribes worshipped the which lies on the peninsula between Egypt and Canaan.
multiple divine beings. The Babylonians, for instance, paid There, on top of Mt. Sinai, God is said to have given
homage to, among others, a storm god and a rain god. Moses the Decalogue, or Ten Commandments.
Where the gods of Egypt and Mesopotamia were imma-
1. You shall have no other gods before me.
nent, or present in nature, Yahweh was transcendent, apart
2. You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or
from nature, which he also controlled. Thus the sun, which any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or
the Egyptians worshipped as a god, was for the Hebrews that is on the earth beneath, or that is in the water
subject to the power of their god, who had created it. under the earth.
Moreover, they considered the figures of other religions 3. You shall not take the name of the Lord your God
subordinate to the God of Israel. in vain.
126 CHAPTER 5

aN.
Observe the sabbath day, to keep it holy, as the Lord them across the Jordan River and into Canaan once again.
your God commanded you. Over the next two hundred years, they gained control of
. Honor your father and your mother. the entire region, calling themselves Israelites, after the
You shall not kill. patriarch Jacob, who had named himself Israel.
. Neither shall you commit adultery.
. Neither shall you steal. Prophets. Despite the imperative of God’s covenant, the
. Neither shall you bear false witness against your
OANNM ancient Hebrews believed human beings were ultimately
neighbor. responsible for their own actions and for doing whatever
10. Neither shall you covet your neighbor's wife, or was necessary to improve their lot. When something was
anything that is your neighbor’s. wrong in the social order, the onus was on believers to cor-
The Hebrews carried the Decalogue with them, carved rect it. This would become the central message of the bib-
into stone tablets kept in a sacred chest called the Ark of the lical prophets from the eighth through the sixth century
Covenant (fig. 5.1). Other sacred objects were also kept in B.C.E.
the Ark such as the menorahs (seven-branched candelabra), The Israelite prophets spoke for God. They were not
which had been described by God to Moses, and which “prophetic” in the sense that they foretold the future. In-
originally lit the Ark in its portable tabernacle. Although stead they functioned as mouthpieces, preaching what they
they do not cover every aspect of the wide-ranging ethical had been instructed by God in vision or through ecstasy.
thinking of the Biblical authors, the Ten Commandments They taught the importance of living according to the Ten
contain the essence of the religious law of the ancient Commandments. In many cases, the prophets operated as
Judeo-Christian world. Their influence has been enormous. voices of conscience, confronting the Israelite kings with
Beginning with the six hundred and more laws recorded in their wrongdoings. The most important biblical prophets
the book of Leviticus, and continuing with the exploration were Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, although there were
of morality in the time of Jesus, the Commandments pro- another twelve whose books are included in the Old ‘Tes-
vide a basis for moral reflection and analysis. tament.
For the ancient Hebrews, divine acts like the confer- Isaiah called for social justice and for an end to war. A
ring of the Ten Commandments were acknowledgements verse from the book of Isaiah adorns the United Nations
of their status as God’s Chosen People. And though the building in New York City: “And they shall beat their
Hebrews wandered for forty years “in the wilderness” of swords into ploughshares, and their spears into pruning
the Sinai, they were delivered to the Promised Land, the hooks; nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither
land of “milk and honey,” by the patriarch Joshua, who led shall they learn war any more” (Isa. 2:4).

FIGURE 5.1 Menorahs and Ark of the Covenant, wall painting in a Jewish catacomb, third
century C.E., 311” x 5'9” (1.19 X 1.8 m), Villa Torlonia, Rome. The form of the menorah
probably derives from the Tree of Life, an ancient Mesopotamian symbol.
 JUDAISM, EARLY CHRISTIANITY, AND BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION 127

Then & Now

THE BIBLE Originally written in Hebrew, with found influence on English and Ameri-
brief sections in Aramaic, a Near East- can literature for nearly four hundred
he books of the Hebrew Bible were ern Semitic language, the present-day years.
composed over a period of nearly Bible in English has been influenced by During the 1940s and 1950s, the
fifteen hundred years, from approxi- a series of different translations: Greek King James translation was updated and
mately 3000 B.c.£., from the earliest (the Septuagint); Latin (the Vulgate— corrected, taking account of archaeolog-
Genesis materials until near the begin- translated by St. Jerome); and Renais- ical discoveries made in the late nine-
ning of the second century B.C.E. when sance English, initially translated by teenth and early twentieth centuries, and
the book of Daniel was written. Origi- John Wycliffe and William Tyndale. reflecting developments in historical and
nal manuscripts of the biblical books The most important early English trans- linguistic scholarship. The resulting Re-
have not survived. The earliest extant lation, however, was that undertaken by vised Standard Version (RSV) was re-
passages are those found in caves in a committee established by King James vised once more and published as the
Qumran—the “Dead Sea Scrolls”— I. Known as the “King James transla- New Revised Standard Version (NRSV)
which include parchment scrolls of the tion” or the “Authorized Version” or in the 1990s.
prophetic book of Isaiah (fig. 5.2). “AV,” this rendering has exerted pro-

FIGuRE 5.2. The Dead Sea Isaiah Scroll (detail), first-century B.C.E.-first-century C.E. The
Scrolls are copies of the Hebrew Bible made by a radical Jewish sect that disavowed the leader-
ship of Jerusalem. The Scroll contains all sixty-six chapters of the Bible’s longest book.

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Kings. By 1000 8.c.£., the kingdom of Israel was estab- did not prevent him from composing poetry and music, in-
lished, with SAUL (r. ca. 1040-1000 B.C.E.) as its first king. cluding, as is traditionally held, though doubted by some
The first book of Samuel describes Saul’s kingship and the scholars, some of the biblical Psalms. Perhaps the most in-
arrival of David, who saves the Israelites from their enemy, teresting aspect of David, however, is his imperfection, for
the Philistines, by slaying the giant Goliath with a stone the Bible depicts him as a person who was both a sinner
from a slingshot. : and a penitent. His transgressions include having one of
DAVID (r. ca. 1000-961 B.C.E.) was Israel’s greatest king. his soldiers, Uriah, dispatched to the front line where he
His reign lasted about forty years and was a time of mili- would undoubtedly be killed, so David could marry his
tary success, a period that included the capture of Jerusalem, widow, Bathsheba. Yet David was also to suffer the death of
which David made the capital of his kingdom. David’s rule his son Absalom, who mounted a military rebellion against
128 CHAPTER 5

Grr SGlsedohe:

THE BIBLE AND ASIAN RELIGIONS something similar: “What you do not Hatred is never appeased by hatred in this
wish done to yourself, do not do to oth- world; it is appeased by love. This is an
ers” (Analects). Another version of this eternal Law.
Ae said, “You shall love your
neighbor as yourself’? (Mark teaching was voiced by the Jewish rabbi Buddha, Dhammapada, 5
12:29-31), he was expanding on a text Hillel, around the time of Christ as:
“What you yourself hate, don’t do to Islamic and Hindu traditions record
from the book of Deuteronomy in the Old similar advice:
‘Testament, where the biblical writer pres- your neighbor. This is the whole Law;
ents what Jesus called the first great com- the rest is commentary.” Hindu: Do naught unto others which
mandment: to “love the Lord your God The essence of this message is also would cause pain if done to you.
with all your heart, with all your mind, and anticipated in Taoist and Buddhist texts. Mahabharata XIII:14
with all your strength” (Deut. 6:4-5). Al- Here are Lao-Tzu and Buddha offering
still other versions of the command to Islamic: No one of you is a believer until
lied with this statement is a version of it he desires for his brother that which he
that has come to be known as the Golden love all beings:
desires for himself.
Rule: “Do unto others as you would have To those who are good to me, I am good;
them do unto you” (Matt. 7:12). and to those who are not good to me, I am Mohammed/Koran
More than five hundred years before also good, and thus all get to be good.
Christ, however, Confucius had said Lao-Tzu, Tao Te Ching, 49

him. The books of Samuel reveal political intrigues and ning an elaborate temple that could be constructed later,
complex familial dynamics with great subtlety and literary during the reign of David’s successor, his son, Solomon,
artistry. David arranged to have the Ark of the Covenant brought
The last important Israelite king was David’s son, to Jerusalem and housed in a special tent.
SOLOMON [SOL-oh-mun] (r. ca. 961-922 B.C.E.). Fa- From his newly established capital, David extended his
mous for his wisdom, Solomon is also associated with the control over the neighboring tribes, conquering territory
‘Temple he had built in Jerusalem. Like his father, Solomon ranging from the Red Sea north to Damascus and from
was a poet. He is the reputed author of the biblical Song the Mediterranean into the desert beyond the Jordan
of Songs, a sensual love poem that has been read by later River. David failed, however, to unite the kingdoms of
critics as a metaphor for the love between God and his Judah in the north and Israel in the south, and after hav-
people. ing his rule challenged by his son Absalom, David even-
Following the death of Solomon, the kingdom of Israel tually turned over his kingdoms and his capital city to
was split in two. The Northern Kingdom retained the Solomon, son of David and Bathsheba.
name Israel; the Southern Kingdom was called Judah. The Politically astute, Solomon aligned himself with neigh-
Northern Kingdom fell to the Assyrians in 722 B.C.E.; boring territories by taking wives from competing tribes.
the Southern Kingdom was overrun in 587 B.C.E. by the Also an astute businessman, he increased his country’s for-
Babylonians under the command of NEBUCHADNEZ- eign trade and exploited its natural resources of copper
ZAR [ne-BYUK-ad-NEZ-ah], who destroyed Solomon’s and iron. He used slave labor to fortify the city and then
magnificent temple. The Southern Kingdom Hebrews to build a magnificent palace and an elaborate temple to
were carried off into exile, which inaugurated a period house the Ark of the Covenant.
known as the Babylonian Captivity. Solomon’s reign was peaceful; riches accumulated but
Jerusalem in the Time of David and Solomon. King morals began to decay. Solomon’s many foreign wives
David chose Jerusalem as the seat of political power. In brought their foreign gods with them to Jerusalem, intro-
neutral territory, midway between the northern and south- ducing idolatry. With Solomon’s death, the country split,
ern kingdom power centers, Jerusalem straddles the crest and the Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar, captured the
of a mountain range, between the sea and the river Jordan. city, inaugurating a period known as the Babylonian cap-
During David’s reign, the city defenses were strength- tivity. The golden age of Israel ended.
ened, largely through the extension of the city’s walls and Return from Exile. "The Hebrews remained in exile for
the erection of defensive towers. A royal palace was con- over sixty years. Those returning to their homeland around
structed and houses were built for David’s wives and con- 539 B.C.E., rebuilt their Temple. The period from the re-
cubines, for his many court officials, and for his building of the Temple to 70 C.E. was one of almost con-
bodyguards and mercenary soldiers. In addition, after plan- tinuous foreign occupation. The Roman destruction of
 JUDAISM, EARLY CHRISTIANITY, AND BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION 129

Jerusalem marked the end of Jewish power in the region cized fiction. The stories of the Creation and the Fall, of
until the middle of the twentieth century. the Great Flood, and of the Tower of Babel are myths ex-
However, after rebuilding the Temple, the Jews estab- plaining the origin of the universe and its creatures, the
lished a theocracy (a religiously governed state). Although reason human beings suffer pain and death, and the emer-
many exiles returned to Judah, many others remained dis- gence of the world’s languages. These etiological stories,
persed outside Judah and were known as Jews of the Di- or stories about the origins and causes of things, occupy the
aspora, or Dispersion. During the post-exilic period, first eleven chapters of Genesis.
Jewish beliefs began to include new features, very likely The second category of narrative—historicized fic-
influenced by the Persian religion of Zoroastrianism, es- tion—includes the stories of the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac,
pecially the idea that the world was divided into two com- and Jacob. These stories passed down through oral tradi-
peting and contrasting forces of Good and Evil, imaged tion, and achieved written form around the twelfth to the
as forces of Light and Darkness, respectively. From this tenth centuries B.C.E. The patriarchal stories have the char-
period also derive a number of concepts that would later acter of history, as accounts of deeds performed by partic-
prove of importance to Christianity—an apocalyptic day of ular individuals. However, they differ from later biblical
judgment and a Messiah, or Anointed One, who would narratives, such as the books of Samuel, which have been
create a time of peace. termed “fictionalized history.”
The stories about David in the book of Samuel use
techniques of fiction and take liberties with the historical
THE BIBLE AS LITERATURE facts on which they are based. The earlier patriarchal sto-
ries describe characters and situations to convey theolog-
The Hebrew Bible (from the Greek name for the city of
ical ideas and to account for events, such as how the
Byblos, the major exporter of papyrus, the material used
Hebrews found themselves in Egypt (which is explained in
for making books in the ancient world) consists of the
the stories about Joseph and his brothers [Gen. 37—50]).
canon of books accepted and officially sanctioned by Ju-
daism. These include three major groupings: the Law, the
Prophets, and the Writings. The Law comprises the first
five books: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
Deuteronomy. (Authorship of these books is ascribed to
Moses.) The Prophets include those just mentioned and,
Table
1 BOOKSOFHE BBLE
Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament) In order of appearance
in addition, the books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Genesis 2 Chronicles Daniel
Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Exodus Ezra Hosea
Malachi, as well as six historical books: Joshua, Judges, Leviticus Nehemiah Joel
Samuel (two books), and Kings (two books). The remain-
ing books, known as the Writings, include the narrative Numbers Esther Amos
books of Ruth, Esther, and Daniel; the poetic books of Deuteronomy Job Obadiah
Psalms and the Song of Songs; and the wisdom books of Joshua Psalms Jonah
Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes. Also part of the Writings Judges Proverbs Micah
are Chronicles, Lamentations, Ezra, and Nehemiah. Ruth Ecclesiastes Nahum
Some of the biblical books ascribed to the time of 1 Samuel Song of Solomon Habakkuk
Solomon are actually products of the Hellenic age. Eccle-
2 Samuel Isaiah Zephaniah
siastes and The Song of Songs, for example, include con-
cepts such as philosophy, chance, and wisdom that would 1 Kings Jeremiah Haggai
have been foreign to Jews in Solomon’s time. These ideas, 2 Kings Lamentations Zechariah
however, were eventually assimilated into Jewish thought. 1 Chronicles Ezekiel Malachi
The stories about David in the book of Samuel, and
Greek Scriptures (New Testament) In order of appearance
those of Daniel and Jonah, the poetry of the Song of Songs
and the Psalms, and the wisdom of Ecclesiastes are signif- Matthew Ephesians Hebrews
icant literary achievements. Two books of the Hebrew Mark Phillipians James
Bible, however, tower above the rest: Genesis and Job— Luke Collosians 1 Peter
Genesis for its fascinating narratives, and Job for its sub- John 1 Thessalonians 2 Peter
lime philosophical poetry. Both Genesis and Job, Acts 2 Thessalonians 1 John
moreover, reflect the ideals of ancient Israel.
Romans 1 Timothy 2 John
History and Fiction. The narratives in the book of Gen- 1 Corinthians 2 Timothy 3 John
esis can be read as being literally true. However, if they 2 Corinthians Titus Jude
are looked at from a literary perspective, they may be di- Galatians Philemon Revelation
vided into two categories: prehistoric myths and histori-
130 CHAPTER 5

Biblical Poetry. As with other ancient civilizations, He- The public ministry of Jesus began when he was thirty
braic poetry was bound up with the religious, social, and years old, with the performance of his first miracle, the
military life of the Hebrews. War victories were celebrated changing of water into wine, at the marriage feast of Cana,
in verse, as were other achievements, such as the liberation a small village north of Nazareth, where Jesus was born.
of the Hebrew slaves from their Egyptian masters. Indeed, This first miracle is recorded in the New Testament
the two oldest recorded Hebrew poems are celebrations of Gospel of John.
great accomplishments. The Bible’s oldest poem, the Song Yet it is Jesus’s teaching, rather than his miracles, that
of Deborah (Judges 5:1-31) describes how its heroine, Jael, is central to Christian beliefs and values. He delivered his
saves the Hebrew people by killing the Canaanite military message in simple and direct language that common peo-
leader Sisera. Better known is the “Song of the Sea,” which ple could understand: Believe in him and be saved; beware
celebrates the destruction of the Egyptian pharaoh’s army, of false prophets; don’t get lost in the intricacies of reli-
along with his chariots and horsemen, in the Red Sea. gious ritual observance; stick to the essentials of faith in
Religious faith is the consistent concern of ancient He- God, love of humanity, and hope for the future. He taught
brew poetry, such as the poetry of the Psalms, the prophe- through stories, or parables, such as that of the Good
cies of Isaiah, and the wisdom of Job. Complementing Samaritan. Parables illustrate an essential Christian prin-
these religious works are other biblical poems in a more ciple: in the case of the Good Samaritan, that believing
secular vein (although they, too, have been interpreted al- Christians should love their “neighbors”—and that their
legorically as religious). The most beautiful of these are neighbors include all human beings.
the Song of Songs (also known as the Song of Solomon) Jesus’s teaching can be reduced to two essentials: to love
and the book of Ecclesiastes. God above all, and to love others as one loves oneself.
Jesus’s ideals are summed up in the Sermon on the Mount,
the fullest version of which is in the Gospel of Matthew.
EARLY CHRISTIANITY
With its belief that a Messiah would come into the world CHRISTIAN ANTECEDENTS
to save humankind, thereby fulfilling God’s promises, Ju-
daism was fundamental to the emergence of Christianity The antecedents of Christianity take three basic forms:
and to the formulation of the new religion’s central tenets. cult antecedents, philosophical antecedents, and Jewish
Many apocalyptic Hebrew writings, including chapters antecedents. Christian cult antecedents involve specific
7-10 of the book of Daniel, predicted the coming of a Sav- symbolic rituals that influenced later Christian practices;
ior. John the Baptist further prepared the way for Jesus’s Christian philosophical antecedents involve particular
ministry by preaching that a Messiah was at hand. Those ideas that came to influence Christian beliefs. Jewish an-
who believed Jesus when he preached the Kingdom of God tecedents of Christianity were largely scriptural, although
was imminent, and who saw that Kingdom as represented common bonds linked Jewish and Christian rituals as well.
in Jesus, became the first Christians. Cult Antecedents. Christianity did not spring fully
Just as Jews believe they are God’s Chosen People and formed from the teachings of Jesus, or from the writings
Muslims their holy book, the Quran, is the word of God, of Paul. The special form of individualized immortality
Christians believe Jesus is God and Savior. Moreover, they associated with Christianity had been a feature of the mys-
maintain that by accepting Jesus as their Savior, they will tery cults that flourished in Egypt, Persia, and Greece. Be-
share eternal life with him in heaven. One element of their sides postulating a form of personal immortality, many
faith is the belief that Jesus rose from the dead after being mystery cults performed symbolic rituals to enact the birth,
crucified by the Romans. Their faith gave rise to a revision death, and rebirth of deities. The Isis cult of Egypt, for
of the Messianic prophecy, which converted a hope for an example, as well as the cults of Mithra in Persia and Diony-
earthly king into a belief in a divine king, whose coming sius in Greece, included such symbolic reenactments. As
to earth signaled new hope in human redemption. Jesus’s the god of wine and revelry, Dionysus inspired initiates to
kingdom would be a kingdom of the next world, the af- partake of wine, symbolizing the blood of the deity. Cult
terlife, to which the redeemed Christian soul would be members were typically initiated into the mysteries or se-
taken after death. crets of the cult by participating in symbolic rituals that
included fasting, on the one hand, and eating a symbolic
JESUS AND His MESSAGE meal, on the other. Such symbolic rituals would influence
later Christian rituals.
Jesus was Jewish. His followers, who identified him as the Another background to and source from which early
Christ—which means “Messiah” or “Anointed One”— Christianity derived rituals and borrowed traditions was
were the first Christians. Jesus was born in Judaea, a land that of Roman paganism, itself a blend of local and bor-
under the political control of the Romans, during the reign rowed traditions and religious practices. Among these was
of the emperor Augustus. the recognition of Roman gods and goddesses as protec-
 JUDAISM, EARLY CHRISTIANITY, AND BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION 131

tors with specialized functions. The household gods, for and beliefs. Most important among these were a shared
example, protected the home; Vesta protected the hearth; vision of a personal universal deity, a God who made moral
the locus genii protected the outside areas of a place. demands on his subjects. Also central were the strong eth-
Among the specialized functions of Mars, god of war, was ical standards at the heart of Judaism and Christianity. In
the protection of soldiers. It is not far from these Roman addition, Christian rhetorical and literary practice was in-
beliefs and practices to later Christian traditions that honor fluenced by Jewish prophetic and apocalyptic writings.
saints, as it is not far from the Near Eastern cult practices Strong bonds linked Jewish and Christian ritualistic tra-
to later Christian symbolic communal celebrations of a ditions, most notably perhaps the connection between Jew-
shared communion meal and an emphasis on spiritual pu- ish Passover and Christian Easter, which celebrates Jesus’s
rification through fasting. resurrection from the dead, a ritual and belief influenced
as well by death and resurrection elements in the mystery
Philosophical Antecedents. Additional background to cults. On a smaller scale, both religions embrace the idea
and influences on early Christianity include Greek philo- of a weekly holy day, the Jewish Sabbath (observed on Sat-
sophical ideas, especially those of Stoicism and Neopla- urday) and the later Christian day devoted to churchgoing
tonism. Stoicism emphasized self-control and human
and worship of God on Sunday.
brotherhood, both of which became hallmarks of Christ-
ian thinking. Neo-Platonism emphasized the refined spir-
itual nature of reality, with a special emphasis on the EARLY CHRISTIAN HISTORY
spiritual union of the individual soul with the “One” or
Christianity spread throughout the Mediterranean due to
ultimate reality that underlay physical appearances. The
the efforts of martyrs and missionaries. Stephen, the first
Neoplatonist philosopher Plotinus was perhaps the most
Christian martyr, was stoned to death in 34 C.E. for preach-
significant influence, especially his notion of a soul’s as-
ing blasphemy against the Jewish god; Sebastian was tied
cent through ever higher levels of spiritual purification
to a tree and shot full of arrows, martyred for refusing to
and perfection, an idea found in Christian mysticism and
acknowledge the Roman gods.
one that found expression in Dante’s Paradiso.
Paul was the most important of the first-century Chris-
Jewish Influences. In addition to Roman, Greek, and tian missionaries. Born Saul, at first he was strongly op-
Near Eastern influences on the development of Chris- posed to Christianity until he underwent conversion on the
tianity, there was also a strong Jewish influence. As a reli- road to Damascus in 35 C.E. (the so-called Damascene con-
gion that would share a large part of its scriptures with version). From then until his execution ca. 62 C.E., he pros-
Judaism, Christianity leaned heavily on Jewish traditions elytized tirelessly for Christianity, formulating doctrine,

Map 5.2. The Spread of Christianity by 600 C.E.

Atlantic
Ocean i
Bordeau
gen =~.
CYPRUS z

Alexandria
132 CHAPTER 5

writing to other Christian communities, and traveling at

least as far west as Rome.
The next centuries were a period of slow growth for
Christianity and of continual persecution at the hands of the
Romans. For instance, in 64 c.E. Nero blamed the Chris-
tians for a fire that burned down the imperial capital. Two
hundred years later, the emperor Decius expelled the Chris-
tians from Rome. Such persecution was unusual in the
Roman empire, where other sects and religions were usu-
ally tolerated. The problem for the Roman authorities ap-
pears to have been the Christians’ refusal to worship the
Roman gods alongside their own God. The first great turn-
ing point came in 313 C.E., when the emperor Constantine
issued the Edict of Milan, which granted Christianity tol-
eration as a religion. Constantine convened councils con-
cerned with matters of faith, such as the trinitarian nature
FiGureE 5.3. Old St. Peter’s, Rome, begun ca. 333 C.E., re-
of the godhead. The First Council of Nicaea developed the
construction drawing. Based on the Roman basilica, which
Nicene Creed, the conventional recitation of Christian be- would house, in the apse, a statue of the emperor, the new
lief in Jesus as both the son of God and as God incarnate. Christian church placed a cathedra or “chair of the bishop” in
After Constantine’s death, Julian attempted to restore pa- the emperor’s place—hence the origin of the word “cathedral.”
ganism, but in 391 Theodosius I declared Christianity the
Roman state religion, banning all pagan cults.
The Christian church, however, united in name only. In rectangular forecourt, open in the center to the sky, sur-
spreading across the Mediterranean from Jerusalem, Chris- rounded on all four sides by columnar arcades. The atrium
tianity encompassed varying practices and factions, result- was the area for people not yet baptized. Next, the visitor
ing in separate Christian churches in the Roman and Greek passed through the narthex, an entrance hall or vestibule.
worlds. Finally, the Christian church split into two branches Having now reached the actual church, the visitor entered
in the Great Schism of 1054. The Eastern Church, with a
patriarchal leader in Constantinople, formerly Byzantium
FiGuRE 5.4 Old St. Peter’s, Rome, begun ca. 333 C.E., plan.
(currently Istanbul), challenged the supremacy of the The type of church established here, known as the early Chris-
Roman leader, the bishop of Rome, the pope. Each leader tian basilica, would be the basis for later churches built with a
excommunicated the other. The different languages of the longitudinal axis—the Latin-cross plan.
two churches and their differing perspectives on issues, in-
cluding the legitimacy of a married clergy, led to the de- Apse
velopment of widely differing institutions. {)
Transept
a

EARLY CHRISTIAN ART

There is no such thing as an “Early Christian style” of art.
In fact, at first Christianity was averse to art because it
served the worship of idols. However, Christians recog- Aisle
Nave
Aisle
nized that art could help illustrate the Bible’s teachings to
illiterate followers. No longer the object of worship but a
means to worship, art became an important instrument of
theology.
Architecture. When Christianity was made an official
state religion, the need for churches arose. Derived from
the Roman basilica, the Early Christian basilica was well
established by the fourth century. Old St. Peter’s in Rome
(fig. 5.3) is the quintessential example. Erected by Con-
stantine over the tomb of St. Peter, it was destroyed in the
fifteenth century to make way for the present St. Peter’s
(see Chapter 13).
When entering an Early Christian basilica like Old St.
Peter’s (fig. 5.4), the visitor first came into the atrium, a
 JUDAISM, EARLY CHRISTIANITY, AND BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION 133

the nave, a large rectangular space for the masses of peo- A surviving example of an Early Christian basilica, but
ple, and flanked on both sides by one or two aisles, sepa- one that has now been expanded and modified, is Santa
rated from the nave by colonnades. The transept provided Maria Maggiore in Rome (fig. 5.5), originally built ca. 430.
additional space. The apse is a semicircular space at the Early Christian basilicas had drab exteriors—the outside of
end of the church. The visitor had to walk from one end the building was not the part intended to be admired. But
of the church to the other to reach the altar located just in the interiors, as demonstrated by Santa Maria Maggiore,
front of the apse: were very elaborate, with patterned marble floors, marble
The reconstruction drawing of the exterior (fig. 5.3) columns, and mosaics of colored stone, glass, and gold on
shows the nave with clerestory windows, that is, a row of the walls and ceilings.
windows on an upper story. Because the nave ceiling was In addition to the basilica plan with its longitudinal axis,
of lightweight wood, it was easy to support, windows could as used in Old St. Peter’s and Santa Maria Maggiore, round
be made in the walls, and sunlight admitted. The disad- or polygonal buildings with domed roofs were also built in
vantage of wood was the danger of fire. the Early Christian era. The finest example is Santa

FIGURE 5.5. Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, ca. 430 C.E., later modified, view of nave looking
toward altar. An advantage of the longitudinal axis of the Early Christian basilica is that, upon
entering, the visitor’s eyes are automatically directed toward the altar. But a disadvantage of its
post and lintel construction is the limited open space, and fire was a constant threat to a build-
ing in which candles burned below a wooden ceiling.
134 CHAPTER 5

liest works of Christian sculptors, with examples dating

from the early third century C.E. onward. The Sarcophagus
ofJunius Bassus, a prefect of Rome (a high position similar
to that of a governor or administrator), is among the most
notable of these (fig. 5.10). Bassus converted to Chris-
tianity shortly before his death in 359. The front of his
sarcophagus is divided by two tiers of columns into ten
Sa
aa areas. The subjects depicted in these panels are drawn from
the Old and New Testaments of the Bible. The upper row,
left to right, shows the sacrifice of Isaac; St. Peter taken
prisoner; Jesus enthroned with Saints Peter and Paul; and,
in two separate sections, Jesus before Pontius Pilate. The
lower row, left to right, shows the misery of Job; Adam
0 Pas) 50 Vs) 100 ft
and Eve after eating from the Tree of Knowledge; Jesus en-
0 10 20 30 m tering Jerusalem; Daniel in the lions’ den; and St. Paul
being led to his death. The proportions of the figures are
FIGURE 5.6 Santa Costanza, Rome, ca. 350 C.E., plan. A cen-
tral plan (circular or polygonal) building, when roofed with a far from Classical and reflect a late Roman style, as also
dome, as here, offers an uninterrupted interior space. seen in the fourth-century reliefs on the Arch of Con-
stantine in Rome (see fig. 4.23). Large heads are supported
on doll-like bodies. Background setting is almost entirely
Costanza in Rome (fig. 5.6 and fig. 5.7), built ca. 350 C.E. eliminated in these crowded scenes, action or drama kept
This mausoleum, constructed for the emperor Constan- to a minimum, and the figures, even when the story sug-
tine’s daughter Constantia, was once part of a larger gests they should be animated, are passive and calm. These
church. little vignettes are not intended to provide the viewer with
The exterior, made of unadorned brick, is plain and
a detailed narrative, for they are only required to bring to
simple, but the interior is ornate with rich materials, tex-
mind a story that the viewer is expected to know already.
tures, colors, and designs. Light comes in through the
clerestory windows. The surrounding circular aisle, or
Painting. ‘The earliest Christian art is found in the cata-
ambulatory, is covered with a barrel vault, which is orna-
combs—the underground cemeteries of the Christians in
mented with mosaics (fig. 5.8).
and around Rome. The catacombs were practically un-
These mosaics consist of a vine pattern with small
derground towns of sepulchers and funeral chapels, miles
scenes along the sides. Laborers are shown picking grapes,
of subterranean passageways cut into the rock.
putting them into carts, and transporting the grapes to a
A painted ceiling in the Catacomb of Santi Pietro e
press, where three men crush them underfoot. This sub-
Marcellino in Rome (fig. 5.11), from the fourth century, is
ject, common on tavern floor mosaics, may seem out of
a well-preserved example. The walls of catacombs were
place here. But because wine plays an important part in
decorated with frescoes, paintings made quickly on freshly
the Christian liturgy, it was possible to adopt and adapt a
applied lime plaster. The subjects depicted were generally
pagan subject to Christian needs.
related to the soul’s future life. Especially common was the
Sculpture. In the Early Christian era, due to Christian- subject of Jesus the Good Shepherd, seen also in sculpture
ity’s disdain for idol worship, sculpture was secondary to (see fig. 5.9). Filling the center of the ceiling, the painting
painting and mosaic. One of the rare examples of Early embodies the idea that the Christian people make up
Christian figure sculpture is the statue of Jesus the Good Jesus’s flock and, as the Good Shepherd, Jesus watches
Shepherd (fig. 5.9), which dates from the mid-third cen- over and cares for them. The arrangement painted here
tury C.E., and depicts Jesus carrying a sheep across his represents the dome of heaven, with the decoration posi-
shoulders. The subject was common in catacomb paint- tioned to form a cross. The story of Jonah is shown in the
ing (see fig. 5.11). There are several versions of this statue, surrounding semicircles. Jonah is thrown overboard into
this being one of the earliest and the best. Jesus is por- the mouth of the waiting whale (the curly serpent-dog
trayed in the Classical tradition. The pose is free, natural, makes clear that whales were not known from firsthand
and relaxed, with the weight on one foot and the head experience in fourth-century Rome). Jonah emerges from
turned to the side, the contrapposto stance similar to that of the whale and then relaxes in safety under the vines. The
the ancient Greek Spear-Bearer (see fig. 3.11). Young and figures that stand between the semicircles have assumed a
idealized, Jesus gazes into the distance. common early prayer pose—the orans (from the Latin
For the most part, sculptors turned to small-scale relief word for “praying”), with hands raised to heaven.
work on stone sarcophagi (coffins) and ivory panels. Mar- Popular Old Testament subjects for catacomb paintings
ble sarcophagi, the fronts and occasionally the lids of which were Noah and the Ark, Moses, Jonah and the whale,
were carved with figures in high relief, are among the ear- Daniel in the lions’ den, and the story of Susanna. Popu-
 basic scheme of Santa
FIG URE 5.7. Santa Costanza, Rome, ca. 350 C.E., interior. The
Byzantine architects and would also s erve as the model for
Costanza would later be used by
the baptisteries connected to Christian churches.
 CHAPTER 5

eee
SO
eX
(3

ee
ae ia
i

LD
Ta
DL,

FiGuRE 5.8 Waine-Making Scene, ambulatory vault of Santa

Costanza, Rome, ca. 350 C.E., mosaic. Demonstrating the
Christian adaptation of pagan subjects, the vine here repre-
sents the words of Jesus, “I am the true vine.” The grapes
came to symbolize the eucharistic wine and, therefore, the
blood ofJesus.

lar New Testament themes were taken from the life of

Jesus, especially the miracles, such as the healing of the
paralytic and the resurrection of Lazarus. ‘These subjects
illustrate how God is merciful and will intervene to save
the faithful. The rewards of prayer are emphasized. De-
pictions of Jesus’s passion (his suffering at the end of his
life) are entirely omitted; the earliest known representa-
tions of the passion are fifth-century carvings. The cata-
comb paintings do not treat the subject of Jesus’s death
and resurrection, which was a popular subject in the Re-
naissance (see Chapters 13 and 14).

THE NEW TESTAMENT AS LITERATURE

The New Testament is for Christianity what the Hebrew
scriptures are for Judaism and the Quran is for Islam: the
repository of revealed religious truth. The New ‘Testa-
ment, written in Greek, records and interprets the acts and
words of the Christian Savior, Jesus Christ. The New ‘Tes-
tament contains four distinct types of writing: the gospels,
or accounts ofJesus’s life and ministry; the epistles, or let-
ters to the early Christian churches; the Acts of the Apos-
tles, a history of the spread of Christianity during the thirty
years after Jesus’s death and resurrection; and Revelation,
or the Apocalypse, the last biblical book, which is con- FIGURE 5.9 Jesus the Good Shepherd, mid-third century C.E.,
cerned with the end of the world. marble, height 39” (99 cm), Vatican Museums, Rome. Large-
scale sculptures such as this are extremely rare in Early Christ-
Gospels. Apart from Paul’s letters, the gospels are the ian art. The lamb represents Jesus’s followers, whom he guards
earliest books of the New Testament. Written from about and guides.
 JUDAISM, EARLY CHRISTIANITY, AND BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION 137

Seah:BS GSES Sele

LYEAMeTIO COSS+
ine paraeah, taoOe
7”

FIGURE 5.10 Sarcophagus ofFunius Bassus, ca. 359 C.E. marble, 37103” X 8’ (1.18 X 2.44 m),
Museo Petriano, St. Peter’s, Rome. Early Christian sculpture consists primarily of reliefs
carved on sarcophagi and small ivory plaques. Greater importance was attached to the recog-
nition of the subjects than to realistic representation of the human body.

forty to around one hundred years after the death of Jesus, attuned to the religious and philosophical implications of
the New Testament is far closer in time of composition to Jesus’s work and words.
the events it describes than is the Old Testament to the John’s gospel begins, for example, with an idea inherited
events it describes. None, however, is an eyewitness ac- from Greek thought. Jesus is the Logos, the divine word
count of Jesus’s life and work. that came into the world as a light into darkness. Another
Of the surviving gospels, the Gospel of Mark is the ear- image that pervades John’s gospel is that of water. John
liest, composed around 70 C.E. It portrays Jesus as a mir- describes Jesus as the living water who quenches the spir-
acle worker as well as a dynamic and vibrant social itual thirst of those unable to find satisfaction in their lives.
reformer. The Gospel of Mark is action centered, moving This image is closely tied to Jesus’s emphasis on being re-
quickly from one event to the next, describing Jesus’s life, born into the kingdom of heaven through the agency of
ministry, passion, and death. baptism in water and a spiritual and methaphorical baptism
The Gospel of Matthew, written ten to twenty years of the spirit.
after that of Mark, emphasizes Jesus as the Messiah re-
ferred to in Old Testament prophecies, the one who would Epistles. "The New Testament contains twenty-one epis-
complete the Jewish community’s destiny. Luke’s gospel is tles addressed to Early Christian communities. Fourteen
the only one that describes Jesus’s birth in a manger in of these letters are traditionally ascribed to the apostle
Bethlehem. Luke’s gospel also focuses more on women— Paul. The titles of the Pauline epistles are derived from
from Mary the mother ofJesus, to Mary Magdalene, a sin- their recipients: Romans, Corinthians, Ephesians, and so
ner Jesus forgives, to Jainus’s daughter whose illness he on. They were written as a means of explaining points of
cures, to the sinful woman who washes and anoints Jesus’s doctrine, clarifying misunderstandings, and exhorting var-
feet. ious communities to remain committed to their faith in
The Gospel of John differs radically from the three syn- Jesus. The importance of Paul to the spread of Christian-
optic gospels, even as those three gospels differ from one ity in the first century C.E. and his influence in formulat-
another in focus, emphasis, and degree of sophistication. ing Christian doctrine can hardly be exaggerated. Along
John’s is the most theological of the gospels, the one most with his travels, Paul’s epistles served his missionary
138 CHAPTER 5

FiGureE 5.11 Dome ofHeaven, painted ceiling in the catacomb of Santi Pietro e Marcellino,
Rome, fourth century C.E. Catacombs, the underground burial areas of the Early Christians,
were painted with symbolic subjects. Jesus was repeatedly shown as the good shepherd with his
flock of followers.

vocation, to spread Christianity throughout the Greco- The theology in the Pauline epistles is intricate and
Roman world. complex. In developing theories to explain Christian be-
Paul’s epistles expound the Christian doctrines of the liefs, such as the resurrection of the body and the immor-
Incarnation and the Atonement, or Redemption. The In- tality of the soul, Paul relied both on Greek philosophical
carnation refers to the birth of God in human form as ideas and on the Old Testament, which he interpreted in
Jesus. As a co-equal member of the Holy Trinity (the union light of the new teaching. Paul’s ideas have influenced
of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost in a single godhead), Jesus Christian teaching for nearly two thousand years and are
is divine. In taking on a human form, in the flesh and liv- reflected in many works of Western literature, including
ing and dying like any mortal, Jesus revealed his love for Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, Dante’s Divine Comedy, Shake-
humankind. Paul also wrote that Jesus became human so speare’s plays, and Milton’s Paradise Lost.
he could suffer and die for the sins of humankind; his suf-
fering atones for human beings’ sins and redeems hu- Revelation. Also known as “The Apocalypse,” the Greek
mankind. word for “unveiling,” Revelation presents a visionary ac-
 JUDAISM, EARLY CHRISTIANITY, AND BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION 139

Ore Clibwas
hes
CHRISTIAN AND. PAGAN GODS This connection was most evident, In the same way that pagan deities
however, with regard to the pagan and such as Apollo, Prometheus, and Or-
Free the beginning, Christianity was Christian deities. The accommodation pheus were reinterpreted in connection
at odds with pagan religions and of the pagan gods into Christianity was with Christ, God the Father subsumed
their multiple deities. From the stand- one of reinterpretation. For although the elements and characteristics associated
point of Christian monotheism, the characteristics of the pagan deities were with pagan deities such as Zeus and
pagan gods were false idols, and the retained, their qualities were given a new Kronos. The Virgin Mary assumed
myths associated with them, fictions. Christian meaning. The Greek god qualities linked with those of Aphrodite,
And yet, as different as Christianity Apollo, for example, became a precursor Persephone, and Artemis. This absorp-
was, it nonetheless absorbed elements of of the Son of God; Apollo’s prophetic tion of the pagan deities into Chris-
pagan myths and belief. Pagan elements power affiliated him with the Holy tianity, moreover, extended to the
had counterparts in a number of features Spirit. Similarly, Prometheus’s sacrificial Christian saints. Saint Michael, for ex-
of Christianity. These similarities in- effort to liberate humanity was seen in ample, absorbed the militant qualities
cluded belief in a god who died and was light of Christ’s sacrifice; Prometheus’s of Mars. And Saint Christopher, who as
reborn; communal worship; celebration transgression—his exceeding his human legend has it, bore the Christ child on
of ritual ceremonies commemorating the state by interfering with the gods— his shoulders to ford a stream, was
deity; pilgrimages, processions, fasting; linked him with Lucifer, the angel who linked with Atlas, who bore the world
and initiates taking new names upon en- rebelled against God, and when hurled on his shoulders.
trance into the religious community. into hell, became known as Satan.

count of the Last Judgment and the end of the world. pagan. Up until the fourth century, early Christian litur-
Written sometime near the end of the first century C.E., ca. gical music (music used in religious ritual) was based ex-
75-95, this final book of the Bible presents a symbolic vi- clusively on sacred texts. Starting in the fifth century, some
sion of the future. The symbols used include the seven nonscriptural hymns supplemented these scripture-based
seals, the seven lamps, the Great Beast, the seven bowls, chants.
and the woman, child, and dragon. The meaning of this Musical practice differed somewhat in churches that
symbolism has spawned numerous conflicting interpreta- followed the Byzantine liturgy rather than that of St.
tions through the centuries. Ambrose. The Western liturgy of Ambrose made accom-
modations for active musical participation by the congre-
gation. This required the music to be kept relatively
EARLY CHRISTIAN MUSIC simple, with a single note sung to each syllable. In con-
The music of the Early Christian church had its roots in trast, Byzantine liturgical music was more complex, with
Jewish worship. Jewish religious rites were accompanied by many notes sung to a syllable in a florid style. ‘These sixth-
chanting of sacred texts, with an instrumental doubling on century Byzantine liturgical musical practices were mod-
the harp or lyre. Essentially, two different kinds of singing ified, however, by the seventh-century reforms toward less
developed in Christian services: responsorial and an- complex chant melodies.
tiphonal. In Christian services, the congregation sang sim-
ple responses to cantors and choirs, which sang the more
complex parts. In singing a psalm, for example, the cantor PHILOSOPHY: AUGUSTINE
or choir would sing the verses and the congregation the AND THE NEOPLATONIC INHERITANCE
standard response of “Amen” or “Alleluia.”
This responsorial type of chanting was complemented The spread of Christianity during the early centuries was
by antiphonal singing, in which either a cantor and the accompanied by a need to explain and systematize Chris-
congregation or different parts of the congregation alter- tian thought. After Paul, the single most important ex-
nated in singing verses of the psalm. In some cases the pounder of Christian doctrine was Augustine (354-430)
congregation would be divided into parts, usually posi- from Hippo (near present-day Algeria), in northern Africa.
tioned on opposite sides of the church, to enhance the ef- Augustine achieved a synthesis of the Platonic philo-
fectiveness of this alternation of the chant. sophical tradition and the Judeo-Christian emphasis on
Early Christianity, unlike Judaism, prohibited instru- divine revelation. For Augustine, human beings can only
mental accompaniment of any kind, which was considered know true ideas when they are illuminated in the soul by
140 CHAPTER 5

Connections

GREEK AND ROMAN INFLUENCES 2. the immortality of the soul; 1. Judaism and Christianity imagined
ON CHRISTIANITY 3. the priority of spirit over matter; divinity to be singular, unique, and
4. an emphasis on self-knowledge; historically present.
ie in the Roman empire was 5. the subjection of the passions to 2. The Judeo-Christian concept of
not limited by ethnic identity; Roman reason; history was progressive and linear,
citizenship was available to conquered 6. a view of death as a release from moving forward to the grand cul-
people in other lands. This universalist the bonds of the body; mination of the Messianic kingdom
tendency paralleled Christianity’s mis- 7. an emphasis on goodness, beauty, (Judaism) and the Parousia (Pres-
sionary impulse to spread the Christian and truth. ence and Return of Christ at the
message throughout the world. end of the world—Christianity).
The Pax Romana, or Roman peace,
that extended throughout the Roman These elements of Platonic thought
empire made possible the rapid spread were synthesized with the Judeo-Chris- Ironically, Rome, which had been the
of Christianity. tian emphasis on a personal god acting great persecutor of early Christianity, be-
Aspects of Platonism harmonized with providential design in effecting the came the center of Christianity in the
with Christian thought and were ab- divine plan for history. West. The administration of Roman law
sorbed during the early history of the Yet however much early Christianity was displaced by the Catholic Church
church. The major Platonic tenets taken absorbed elements of Greek philosophy with its institutional hierarchy and its
over include the following: differences remained. Most important spreading empire. Rome became Chris-
among these differences are these: tianized; Christianity became Romanized.
1. the existence of a perfect tran-
scendental reality outside of the
world of materiality and time;

Critical Thinking
CHRISTIANITY’S INFLUENCES tices of Hebraic Roman religious tradi- Christianity thought of those influ-
tions as well as Greek philosophical tra- ences? ‘To what extent do you think the
Ithough Christianity was a new and ditions. Why do you think these earlier theologians of the early Christian
different religion from the religions religious and philosophical traditions Church would have found such influ-
that predated and preceded it, it also has impacted Christianity so strongly? ences congenial and to what extent dan-
been associated with beliefs and prac- What do you think the early leaders of gerous? Why?

God. Augustine dismissed knowledge derived from sense image of the spiritual journey influenced medieval poems
experience as unreliable. Such empirical knowledge was of pilgrimage, such as William Langland’s Piers Ploughman
suspect due to humanity’s fall from grace. To Plato’s em- and Dante’s Divine Comedy. As well as providing a frame-
phasis on pure ideas, Augustine added divinely revealed work for these and other forms of spiritual autobiography,
truth as recorded in scripture and interpreted by church the Confessions paved the way for the Renaissance redis-
tradition. covery of the self.
In his early adulthood, Augustine had lived a life of self- In addition to his Confessions, Augustine wrote On Chris-
indulgence and debauchery. His Confessions describe his tian Doctrine, which analyzes and explains the central tenets
dissatisfaction with this way of life, his search for spiritual of Christian teaching, and the City of God, in which he ex-
fulfillment, and, finally, his conversion to Christianity. plores the relationship between faith and reason, and the
As the first Western autobiography, Augustine’s Confess- cause of history as a movement toward the clash of two
ions was enormously influential. Throughout the Middle opposite visions of life, represented by two contrasting
Ages the book was read, copied, and imitated. The book’s cities, an earthly city and a heavenly one, the city of God.
 JUDAISM, EARLY CHRISTIANITY, AND BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION 141

Connections

GNOSTICISM AND CHRISTIANITY served strict dietary practices, refraining Gnosticism shocked the followers of
from sensual indulgence and removing early orthodox Christianity, who were
Iternative, suppressed forms of themselves from temptation. dismayed by Gnostic beliefs in reincar-
L Aoied-Chibstion belief existed along- Gnosticism was a dualist philosophy, nation and equality for women. Gnosti-
side orthodox Christianity in the early which, like Zoroastrianism and Mani- cism nonetheless managed to establish
church. One influential form of early cheism, divided the world into good and itself as an alternative form of Christian-
Christianity was Gnosticism, central to evil. The evil part, which was material ity. Suppressed Gnostic texts coexisted
which was a belief that redemption could rather than spiritual, was created by a de- with the canonical Christian scriptures,
be achieved through possessing special monic spirit. It was this demonic spirit the Gospel of Thomas, dating from the
secret knowledge. Gnostics believed they that was said to be responsible for the fall second century perhaps being the best
had access to secret wisdom (gnosis is the of humanity. Second century C.E. Gnos- known and most widely disseminated,
Greek word for “knowledge”). This spe- tics believed humankind predates the fall and the Gospel ofJudas Iscariot, the be-
cial knowledge was restricted to small and that, before that event, all human be- trayer of Jesus, the latest to stir contro-
groups of Gnostic adherents who pur- ings contained a spark of divinity within versy among christians.
sued lives of asceticism and who ob- them.

One of Augustine’s central ideas is that evil does not Augustine wrote voluminously in support of church au-
possess reality in the same sense that good does. Accord- thority and unity in matters of doctrine. He made vigor-
ing to Augustine, evil is a deficiency in good rather than ous attacks on the doctrines that circulated around the
something that exists in its own right. God did not create church in the early centuries. He also defended Chris-
evil; rather, evil entered the world through incorrect tianity against charges that the new religion was respon-
choices made by human beings, as when Adam chose to sible for the decline of Roman civilization. Instead,
disobey God’s injunction not to eat the forbidden fruit Augustine saw the fall of Rome as part of God’s providen-
(Genesis 1). Regardless of the source of sin, however, Au- tial plan for the progressive development of human his-
gustine follows St. Paul in explaining how Christ redeemed tory toward its fulfillment in the Parousia—the return of
humanity, and how life is a spiritual pilgrimage toward Jesus to earth at the end of the world.
God, in whom human beings find their salvation and their
eternal rest.
Like Paul, whose epistles he echoes frequently, Augus- BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION
tine distrusted the fleshly body, which he held account-
able for humankind’s fall from grace. Augustine, in fact, In 330 C.E., with the Roman empire in severe economic
described the original sin as “concupiscence,” or lust, to and political decline, the emperor Constantine established
which he had himself succumbed during his early adult- the trading city of Byzantium as his new Eastern capital,
hood. This distrust of the physical body and his subordi- renaming it Constantinople in the process.
nation of it to the faculties of the spiritual soul were to From this time on, power and influence increasingly de-
affect church teaching for many centuries. serted Rome, which became a favorite target for invading
Another influential Augustinian idea was that of hu- barbarian hordes from the north. In 410, a barbarian tribe
mankind’s inability to obtain salvation on its own. Augus- from Germany, the Visigoths, laid siege to the former capi-
tine argued that only God could freely grant this grace. tal and, when the Senate refused to pay the invaders tribute,
Because human beings were unable to save themselves, Rome was sacked for the first time in eight hundred years.
their only hope for salvation lay in accepting God’s truth Another group, the Vandals, sacked the city again in 455.
as revealed in sacred scripture, including the New ‘Testa- Meanwhile, the Western empire was crumbling. Suc-
ment. Furthermore, since human beings were prone to cessive waves of Saxons, Angles, and Jutes attacked and
error, misunderstanding, and sin due to the corruption occupied Britain; Burgundians wrested large parts of
they inherited from Adam and Eve’s original sin, they were France from the Romans, and the Vandals came to control
not in a position to understand the complexities of divine North Africa and Spain. By the end of the fifth century,
revelation on their own. For that, they needed the au- Roman power had disintegrated, and the empire had been
thoritative teaching of the church. replaced by a patchwork of barbarian kingdoms.
FIGURE 5.12 San Vitale, Ravenna, 526-47. A central-planned
building is either circular, like Santa Costanza (see figs. 5.6-5.7),
or polygonal, like San Vitale. An advantage of the central dome is
the large space covered; a potential disadvantage is that the visi-
tor’s eyes tend to be attracted up into the dome rather than
toward the altar.

FiGuRE 5.13. San Vitale, Ravenna, 526-47, interior. This view only begins to indicate the
complexity of San Vitale’s interior space. Light enters on three levels, playing over the pol-
ished marble surfaces and glittering glass mosaics.

vA
AAS

142
 JUDAISM, EARLY CHRISTIANITY, AND BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION 143

In the east, however, imperial life flourished in the cap- ter of the ritual, this is less obviously the case at San Vitale,
ital of Constantinople. There, a new and influential Chris- where the worshipper’s eyes are also drawn up to the dome.
tian civilization took root, usually known as BYZANTIUM In striking contrast to its drab exterior, the interior of
[bi-ZAN-tee-um] after Constantinople’s original name. San Vitale (fig. 5.13) is opulent in its ornament, made col-
Christian Byzantium continued to thrive for hundreds of orful by mosaics that cover all the upper portions (the an-
years, although after the seventh century it had to compete gels on clouds are later additions), by thin slabs of marble
with the rising civilization of Islam for control of the veneer, and by marble columns with carved and painted
Mediterranean basin. Finally, in the fifteenth century, Con- capitals (fig. 5.14). Seemingly insubstantial, the lacy deli-
stantinople itself was occupied by Muslim forces. cacy of the surface decoration belies the underlying
Of the early Byzantine emperors, JUSTINIAN [jus- strength of the structure.
‘TIN-ee-an] (r. 527-565) exerted the greatest cultural and Flanking the altar at San Vitale and drawing the wor-
political influence. His armies defeated Germanic tribes shiper’s gaze down from the dome are the celebrated mo-
in Italy, Spain, and North Africa. Most important, how- saics of the emperor Justinian and the empress Theodora
ever, was his rebuilding program in Constantinople itself.
It was Justinian’s wife and empress, THEODORA
[THEE-oh-DOOR-ah], who persuaded her husband not
to abandon Constantinople. Together, Justinian and FiGurE 5.14 San Vitale, Ravenna, 526-47, capital. The
surfaces of the capital and impost block above are carved to
Theodora sought to restore the grandeur of the empire
appear lacelike, which both masks and contradicts the stone’s
and of their capital, Constantinople.
solidarity and strength.

BYZANTINE ART
So generously did Justinian patronize the arts that his reign
is referred to as the First Golden Age of Byzantine art,
with Constantinople as its artistic capital. However, much
of the art created during this First Golden Age survives
only outside Constantinople, in particular in the city of
Ravenna and in the monastery of St. Catherine built by
Justinian at Mount Sinai.

San Vitale, Ravenna. ‘The architecture and mosaics of

the church of San Vitale in Ravenna (fig. 5.12), dated
526-47, are especially important accomplishments of the
First Golden Age. Though begun by Bishop Maximian in
526, San Vitale bears the imprint of the influence of Con-
stantinople and Justinian. It is octagonal in plan, a shape
favored in Constantinople. Light is admitted to the inte-
rior by windows on the lower levels. However, this light is
filtered through the aisles, which are two stories high, be-
fore reaching the nave. The only direct light, and there-
fore the strongest and most dramatic, enters the nave from
the third-story clerestory above.
Like the circular church of Santa Costanza in Rome
(see figs. 5.6-5.7) the polygonal San Vitale has no longi-
tudinal axis and is therefore referred to as having a central
plan. Unlike the Early Christian churches of the basilica
type that have a longitudinal axis (see figs. 5.3-5.5), such
structures have no need of rows of columns to hold up
their roofs and are capped with domes, which are sup-
ported by the walls and external buttresses instead. The
result is that the interior feels light and spacious. How-
ever, two focal points compete for the visitor’s attention.
Whereas on entering a church with a longitudinal axis, the
worshipper is naturally directed toward the altar, the cen-
144 CHAPTER 5

FIGURE 5.15 Theodora and her Attendants, San Vitale, Ravenna, ca. 547, mosaic. The typical
Byzantine face is shown to have large eyes, a long nose, and a tiny mouth. The body is charac-
teristically slender and weightless—or so we might hope, since the figures appear to step on
one another’s feet.

(fig. 5.15) of ca. 547. Justinian and Theodora, each ac- this architectural decoration may lose in realism, it gains
companied by attendants, are shown as good Christian in splendor. Realism is not the goal here. Glittering mo-
rulers, ever to be in attendance at the religious service. saic is an ideal medium with which to enhance the image
The figures are not necessarily intended to be recogniza- of divine power promoted by the Byzantine emperor and
ble portraits of specific individuals. Instead, everyone looks empress while simultaneously increasing the splendor of
much alike, with big dark eyes, curved eyebrows, long San Vitale.
noses, and small mouths—the characteristic Byzantine fa-
cial type. Their drapery gives no suggestion of a body be-
THE GOLDEN AGE OF CONSTANTINOPLE
neath; the only indication that these people have legs is
the appearance of feet below the hem of their garments. Constantinople (known as Istanbul after 1930) lies on the
Their elongated bodies seem insubstantial, ethereal and straits of Bosphorus, at the confluence of the Black Sea
immaterial, motionless, their gestures frozen. and the Sea of Marmara. The city has a fine harbor, con-
The flat frontal figures form a rhythmic pattern across trolling the land route from Europe to Asia and the wa-
the surface of the mosaic. Three-quarter views, which sug- terways that lead to the ports on the Black Sea, the Aegean,
gest a degree of movement and dimension, are avoided. and the Mediterranean. Fortified by walls on three sides
The Byzantine lack of concern for realistic or even con- and the straits on the other, it withstood attacks for a thou-
sistent representation of space is illustrated by the doorway sand years, until the Turks captured it in 1453, after which
on the left, the top and bottom of which are seen from two it became a Muslim city.
different vantage points. The ancient Roman interests in Life in Constantinople at the time of Justinian was rich
specific details and spatial illusion are gone. Yet whatever in pleasures. The well-to-do enjoyed a level of hygiene
 JUDAISM, EARLY CHRISTIANITY, AND BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION 145

FIGURE 5.16 Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, 532-37.
The towers surrounding Hagia Sophia are a later, Ottoman addition. The central dome is but-
tressed by smaller half domes, in turn buttressed by smaller half domes, creating a structurally
sound and visually striking church.

and health unknown in Europe at the time. Entertain- dreds of churches and chapels and the monumental Hagia
ments included chariot races at the amphitheater and the- Sophia, which sailors could use as a landmark twenty miles
atrical productions notorious for their indecency. The out at sea—gave the impression of indomitable power.
empress Theodora had been an actress before marrying The wealth of Constantinople was legendary. The city
Justinian and had a somewhat unsavory reputation as a re- produced manuscripts and jewelry of every description, as
sult. This, however, was only one aspect of the city. Con- well as rich fabrics in cotton, linen, and silk, embroidered
stantinople was also a place of elegance and splendor, with with gold. Valuable metals, ivory, and precious stones were
one of the most magnificent religious buildings ever con- abundant, as were spices, including ginger and cloves, pep-
structed, the Church of the Holy Wisdom, or Hagia per, and saffron. So too were medicinal drugs and ingre-
Sophia, built by Justinian and Theodora after the revolt dients for dyeing fabric.
in 532. The great domed structure stands as testimony to As the world’s richest and largest market, Constan-
their ambitions (fig. 5.16). tinople was tightly controlled; its customs duties were high
Well into the ninth and tenth centuries Constantinople and restrictive. Demand for its goods was maintained by
remained the largest, richest, and most sophisticated city limiting their supply and by keeping prices high. Although
in the world. The immense city walls with their 37 gates commerce with cities throughout western Europe devel-
and 486 towers—not to mention Constantinople’s hun- oped, only Venice was given privileged trading status.
146 CHAPTER 5

By virtue of its easy access to land and sea trade routes, Unlike the dome of the Roman Pantheon (see fig.
Constantinople was well situated to transport goods 4.13), which rests on a circular base, the dome of Hagia
between East and West. Yet despite this abundant mer- Sophia is supported by a square base formed by four huge
cantile exchange, there was still mutual mistrust between piers. Transition from circle to square is achieved through
Constantinople and the West. the use of four pendentives, pieces of triangular sup-
Most important of all were the deep-rooted differences porting masonry. In effect, the dome rests on a larger
between the Christian churches of the West and East. dome from which segments have been removed. Hagia
Latin was the language of the Roman church, Greek that Sophia is one of the earliest examples of a dome on pen-
of the Byzantine church. In Rome, the early church was dentives.
ruled by local bishops, one of whom was elevated by The interior (fig. 5.18) is an extremely lofty, light-
Rome’s lay Christians. In Constantinople, the church was filled, unobstructed space. From the inside, the dome
controlled by a patriarch who was appointed, and often seems to billow or to float—as if it were suspended from
disposed of, by the emperor. In the West, priests were en- above rather than supported from below. Because the
couraged to be celibate and in 1139 celibacy became com- dome is made of lightweight tiles, it was possible for the
pulsory; in the East, priests could and often did marry. architects to puncture the base of the dome with a band
These differences were exacerbated when the Eastern pa- of forty windows. The light that streams through these
triarch refused to submit to the authority of the Roman windows is used as an artistic element, for it is reflected
pope in 1054, precipitating a final and permanent schism, in the mosaics and the marbles. A rich polychromatic
or split, between the Eastern and Western churches. scheme is created by the red and green porphyry
columns, the polished marble slabs on the lower walls,
Hagia Sophia. Hagia Sophia, the Church of the Holy
and the mosaics on the upper walls. Like San Vitale, the
Wisdom in Constantinople (fig. 5.16), was built for Jus-
elaborate surface decoration conceals the strength of the
tinian and Theodora between 532 and 537 by the archi-
underlying structure.
tects Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus. There
is little exterior decoration (the four minarets, or towers,
are later Ottoman additions). Seen from the outside, Hagia St. Mark’s, Venice. ‘The First Golden Age of Byzantine
Sophia appears to be a solid structure, building up by waves art ended with the “iconoclastic controversy.” Yet when in
to the huge central dome. 843 the iconophiles—the lovers of artistic images—tri-
The plan (fig. 5.17) shows the arrangement around the umphed over the iconoclasts, a Second Golden Age of
central dome, with half domes on opposite sides, which Byzantine art began, lasting until the beginning of the thir-
are in turn flanked by smaller half domes. Thus Hagia teenth century. The biggest and most elaborate church of
Sophia, although domed, is not a pure central-plan church the Second Golden Age is St. Mark’s in Venice, begun in
like San Vitale, because a longitudinal axis is created by 1063. Its location on one side of a large piazza (open pub-
the oval nave. Hagia Sophia’s ingenious plan has a single lic area) is particularly impressive. The original facade has
focus of attention as well as a great open space, combining since been modified.
the advantages of the longitudinal basilica plan with those The plan is a Greek cross—that is, a cross with four
of the domed central plan. arms of equal length. There is a dome over the center, plus

FIGURE 5.17 Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus,

Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, 532-37, plan. Hagia Sophia demon-
strates that the advantages of the longitudinal axis of the basilica
plan can be combined with those of the dome of the central
plan. Here the central dome is flanked and buttressed by half 100 200 300 ft
domes, thereby creating a longitudinal axis.
0 50 100m
 JUDAISM, EARLY CHRISTIANITY, AND BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION 147

ATSEE
aS
RE

Se

FiGurE 5.18 Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, 532-37,
interior. Triangular pendentives provide the transition between the circular dome and the
square base on which it rests. The closely spaced windows at the base of the dome create a ring
of light that makes the dome appear to float.
148 CHAPTER 5

a dome over each arm (fig. 5.19). All five domes are cov- ond circle and the outermost circle (fig. 5.21). In the scene
ered with wood and gilt copper, making them very strik- shown here, God is pictured creating Eve from Adam’s
ing and giving St. Mark’s a distinctive silhouette. rib. Among the other memorable scenes is that in which
The interior of St. Mark’s (fig. 5.20) offers the visitor an God is shown giving Adam his soul, usually represented by
experience in ultimate splendor. The vast space is quite a tiny winged figure entering Adam’s mouth.
dark, originally illuminated only by windows in the bases These mosaic figures hardly appear to have been taken
of the domes and by the flickering light of countless can- from live models. Instead, the figures—doll-like and stocky
dles. Yet all the surfaces glitter, for they are covered with with big heads—are intended to express the superhuman
mosaics, many of which are made with gold tesserae (the nature of the subject portrayed. The setting is symbolic
small cubes of color material that are pressed into wet plas- only and represented in the simplest manner possible to
ter to make a mosaic). convey the ideas. To elucidate the narrative, aids, such as
Among the celebrated mosaics of St. Mark’s, the most bands of lettering and symbols, are employed. Emphasis is
famous is the Creation Dome in the narthex, made about on design, decoration, and on the didactic message.
1200. The story of Genesis is told in a series of scenes
arranged in three concentric circles. The narrative begins Madonna and Child Enthroned. Characteristic of this
in the innermost circle with the creation of heaven and Byzantine style is the Madonna and Child Enthroned (fig.
earth. The story of Adam and Eve occupies part of the sec- 5.22), a late-thirteenth-century egg tempera painting on a

FIGURE 5.19 St. Mark’s, Venice, begun 1063, exterior. A dramatic silhouette is created by
the five domes. St Mark’s Greek-cross plan, with four equal arms, differs from the Latin-cross
plan with one dominant axis, represented by Old St. Peter’s (see fig. 5.4).
 JUDAISM, EARLY CHRISTIANITY, AND BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION 149

wooden panel. Egg tempera (pigment mixed with egg yolk) green—two secondary colors. Byzantine drapery is char-
was the standard medium used to paint on wood through- acterized by elaborate and unrealistic folds, seemingly hav-
out the Middle Ages. ing a life of their own, independent of the body beneath.
Madonna and Child Enthroned represents a type repeated The hard ornamental highlights contrast with the soft skin
over and over according to strict rules. It is an icon, a of the figures.
painted image of a religious figure or religious scene used These figures, barely of our species, do not inhabit our
in worship. In this Madonna and Child Enthroned, Mary’s earthly realm. Compression of space is emphasized by the
typically Byzantine face has a somewhat wistful or melan- flat decorative designs. The throne, which has been com-
choly expression. She is gentle and graceful, her bodily pared to the Colosseum in Rome, is drawn in such a way
proportions elongated. Jesus’s proportions are those of a that the interior and exterior do not correspond. Similarly,
tiny adult. Moreover, he acts as an adult, holding the scroll the footstool does not obey the rules of linear perspective,
of law in one hand and blessing with the other. which require objects to diminish in scale as they recede
Mary is traditionally shown wearing garments of red into space. The artist does not seek to portray our earthly
and blue—both primary colors. Jesus wears orange and world; instead, this is God’s heavenly domain.

FIGURE 5.20 St. Mark’s, Venice, begun 1063, interior. Glittering gold mosaics covering the
walls and vaults successfully transport the visitor from the crowded streets of the island city of
Venice to an extraordinary otherworldly environment.
150 CHAPTER 5

FIGURE 5.21 God Creates Eve, detail of the Creation Dome, narthex of St. Mark’s, Venice,
ca. 1200, mosaic. Engaging narrative is more important than realism in these mosaics. The
intended audience was assumed to be familiar with the biblical stories told here, which,
therefore, could be depicted in summary rather than in detail.

Floating in this golden realm are two half angels. Each when few people were literate. It was intended that the
carries a staff, a symbol of Jesus’s passion, and an orb or audience would be able to recognize the subject immedi-
globe with a cross, which signifies Jesus’s domination over ately. Consistency in the use of symbols, therefore, was
the world. These are examples of iconography, the important. The quest for innovation, for the novel, for
language of symbols, which was especially useful in an era things unique, had no place in Byzantine religious art.
 JUDAISM, EARLY CHRISTIANITY, AND BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION 151

FIGURE 5.22 Madonna and Child Enthroned, ca. 1270. Tempera on panel, 383" x 195"
(.970 X .495 m). Framed: 405" x 223" (1.022 X .578 m). Samuel H. Kress Collection.
Margarite d’Arezzo, Photograph © Board of Trustees, National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. The characteristic Byzantine figure type is slender and delicate. The
drapery that forms angular folds is typically Byzantine.
152 CHAPTER 5

Cultural Impact
Jsoci legacy centers on ethics and seminating the philosophical thought of tian religious beliefs and practices of peo-
social justice. From the beginning, the early church fathers. Like their Jew- ples around the world.
t e ancient Hebrews emphasized the ish counterparts, Christian thinkers de- Byzantine civilization has also left a
importance of ethical principles, which veloped elaborate interpretations of the legacy. Throughout the Middle Ages,
they read in the Ten Commandments, Bible; finely discriminating textual analy- the Code of Justinian was the standard
the book of Deuteronomy, and the sis characterizes both traditions and per- legal text in universities. Byzantine
teachings of the Hebrew prophets. To sists to this day. trade enabled the patronage of the arts
this day, the Jewish concern for social Painting, sculpture, and architecture in Renaissance Italian cities. Like their
justice is expressed in countless Jewish in medieval western Europe were almost Western monastic predecessors, Byzan-
philanthropic programs. Like their Jew- exclusively Christian in inspiration. Me- tine scholars preserved ancient Greek
ish predecessors, Christians, too, have dieval music, philosophy, and literature texts, which were ultimately dissem1-
a long tradition of social service, run- also reveal a strong Christian influence. nated throughout Europe in the fif-
ning schools, shelters, hospices, and And though the modern and contempo- teenth century. Moreover, Orthodox
hospitals. rary worlds have become decidedly more Eastern Christianity continues to be
A powerful missionary impulse spread secular, the influence of Judaism and practiced today in both Greece and
Christianity throughout the world, dis- Christianity persists in Jewish and Chris- Russia.

KEY TERMS
evangelist nave catacomb iconophiles
monotheistic aisles fresco piazza
covenant transept responsorial Greek cross
etiological stories apse antiphonal tesserae
parables clerestory liturgical icon
atrium ambulatory schism linear perspective
narthex sarcophagus pendentives iconography
 JUDAISM, EARLY CHRISTIANITY, AND BYZANTINE CIVILIZATION 153

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

http://www. ibiblio.org/expo/deadsea.scrolls.exhibit/intro.html
(The exhibition of Scrolls from the Dead Sea at the Ancient Library of Qumran and Modern
Scholarship exhibit at the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.)
http://www. religioustolerance.org/chr_otb4.htm
(The books of the Hebrew Scriptures [Old Testament] of the major prophets.)
http://www.ntcanon.org/places.shtml
(This table summarizes a few of the important places, and their important witnesses, in the de-
velopment of the canon of the New Testament and links to some early images of various fig-
ures.)
http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/Byzantium/byz_1.html
(A Brief Summary of Byzantine History—this is a full site of many links and images, sponsored
by the Metropolitan Museum of New York.)
CHAPTER 6

cir
610 Muhammad founds Islam
637 Arabs conquer Persia
656-661 Civil Wor
734 Martel Muslims at Poitiers
762-766 — New capital built at Baghdad
1037-1194 — Anatolian Seljuk dynasty
1232-1492 Spanish Nasirid dynasty
1258 Mongol armies destroy Baghdad

ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE

575-646 _—Al-Khansa, Poems

786 —-Mosque at Cordova begun
* early fourteenth century © Alhambra Palace begun
; 1354-91 Court of the Lions, Alhambra
1550-57 Sinan, Mosque of Sultan Sulayman
ie 1556-65 ~—ASheik Meditating in a Pavilion

LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

610 Muhammad establishes Islam

ca. 650 —_—_Text of Quran created
ninth century —_—Hadith recorded
tenth century Thousand and One Nights first recorded in Arabic
980-1037 Avicenna
eleventh century —Firdawsi
1126-1198 Averroes
thirteenth century —_Jalaloddin Rumi, Poems
 Islamic C ivl Iization

Mosque, Cordova, begun 786 , interior.

 ATLANTIC
OCEAN

ARABIAN
SEA

Expansion to 644
Expansion to 661
Expansion to ca. 850
(=
Map 6.1 The expansion of Islam to ca. 850 C.E.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION
A New Religion Emerges from the Middle East

ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION different languages. As Islam grew, it absorbed aspects of

the cultures it conquered. Islam today is the religion of a
slam is the youngest of the world’s major religions. It billion and a half people spread around the globe, one tes-
was first proclaimed by MUHAMMAD (ca. 570-632) timony among many to its continued importance spiritu-
te
aae
ae
care in the town of Mecca, in Arabia, in about the year 610. ally and culturally.
The followers of Islam, Muslims, consider their faith to What accounts for the rapid spread of Islam? One ex-
be the third and final revelation of God’s truth—the first planation is the simplicity of its basic teachings—its five
i
and second manifestations being Judaism and Christianity. pillars of faith, prayer, charity, fasting, and pilgrimage. An-
ey
7
Islam, from the Muslim perspective, is seen as a fulfillment other is the convergence of its religious, political, and mil-
of Judaism and Christianity, and thus Muslims accept the itary objectives in a messianic mission. And once
et atone
fe sanctity of significant portions of Hebrew and Christian conquered by Islam, foreign populations were offered eco-
a
LO
ee
ee
eT
eT
ee
eee
scripture. All three religions share a belief in a single God nomic opportunities, which won as many converts to Islam
ae
wh
)
and are thus monotheistic. In Islam, God is called “Allah.”
Islam absorbed foreign influences from both East and
as did militarism. It spread in part through spiritual ap-
peal, in part through commercial magnetism, and in part
West, and served as a bridge between them. Initially, after through military subjugation. Thus, Islam grew rapidly
its founding by Muhammed, Islam provided a unifying throughout the world—through Arabia, Egypt, Syria, Iraq,
function, bringing together under one spiritual banner, a and North Africa, and then on to southern Spain and east
multitude of Arabic tribes with varied customs, speaking Asia to the borders of China.
tates:
Ped
by
156

sho
4S
 ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION 157

RELIGION ISLAM, THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE,

Muhammad. Muhammad is revered as a prophet. Mus- AND EUROPE
lims consider him the “seal,” or final culmination, of the
prophetic tradition that extends from the biblical patri-
In the thirteenth century, a group of Asiatic nomads, later
called Ottoman Turks, converted to Islam and brought an
arch Abraham through Moses and on to Jesus, whom Mus-
increased energy to Muslim expansion. Under a series of
lims also revere as a prophet but do not consider a divinity.
powerful rulers, called sultans, the Ottomans conquered
The word Muslim literally means “one who surrenders”;
the Byzantine city of Constantinople in 1453. A century
Islam means “submission to God.” In the first place, Mus-
later, under Sultan Suleyman I (the Magnificent), the Ot-
lims surrender themselves to the prophet Muhammad and
toman Empire was at the height of its power. However,
through him to Allah, by obeying Muhammad’ instruc-
by 1700, the Ottoman sultans had lost control over Egypt
tions for living.
and Lebanon, and by the early nineteenth century had lost
A merchant by profession, Muhammad received, at
control of Serbia and Greece. Fueled by the fires of na-
about the age of forty, what he described as a call to be-
tionalism, other Eastern European states, including the
come God’s messenger and prophet. According to Islamic
Balkans, swept themselves out from under Ottoman
tradition, Muhammad heard a voice enjoining him to “re- control.
cite,” to which he responded, “What shall I recite?” The
The seeds of destruction of Ottoman rule, however,
answer came to him in the form of a series of revelations had been sown centuries before. First came a deteriora-
from Allah that lasted more than twenty years, beginning
tion in the quality of imperial leadership, with the two im-
at Mecca and continuing in Medina, a city north of Mecca,
mediate successors to Suleyman the Magnificent—Selim
to which Muhammad fled in 622 because of hostility to
the Sot and Ibrahim the Crazy—notoriously weak and in-
his religious message. He died in Medina ten years later.
effectual rulers. Secondly, religious tensions and political
Muhammad’s flight to Medina is known as the Hijrah or
factions exacerbated the problem.
Hegira, and marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar
Equally important was a military decline occasioned in
(622 C.E. = 1 for Muslims). B
part by the high cost of maintaining increasingly expensive
Upon Muhammad’s death, a succession of caliphs took
land and naval forces. In addition, unproductive wars
his place, which led to a division among the Islamic faith- fought against European enemies sapped Ottoman eco-
ful. In 656 C.E., those who favored choosing only a mem- nomic strength. And, finally, the advances in science and
ber of Muhammad’s family as caliph, rallied around ALI technology that were fueled by capitalist expansion in Eu-
[AH-lee], Muhammad’s cousin. They called themselves
rope did not occur at a similar rate and to the same de-
SHIITES [SHE-ites]. But when Ali was chosen caliph,
gree in the Ottoman Empire. As a result, European
civil war broke out, Ali was murdered, and the UMAYYAD Christendom increased, Turkish Islam decreased, and the
[OO-MY-ad] dynasty, which bore no family relation to center of economic and military power shifted westward in
Muhammad, took control. The ninety-year Umayyad rule the mid-nineteenth century.
was marked by prosperity, but Shi’ite resentment re- Nevertheless, the influence of Islam on the west re-
mained. In 750, led by the great-grandson of a cousin of mained considerable, especially on the art, music, and ar-
Muhammad, Abu-1 Abbas, the Shi’ites overthrew the chitecture of the Iberian Peninsula. But perhaps the
Umayyad caliphs, and the capital of Islam was moved east Ottoman empire’s greatest achievement was less its influ-
from Damascus to Baghdad, under the ABASSID [a-BAA- ence on the west or its military conquests than its unifica-
sid] dynasty. tion of Arab peoples under the banner of Islam and its
The consequences of this transfer of power and continuing spread as the world’s fastest growing religion.
change in capital city were significant, shifting the cen-
ter of gravity from the Mediterranean to Mesopotamia, The Quran. Despite this political strife, Islam remained
where many trade routes intersected. Culturally, it meant strong. At the center of the religion is the Quran (or
a transfer of power from a Byzantine world to a Middle Koran), the scripture of Islam. The word Quran means
Eastern one, in which traditional influences were im- “recitation” and reflects the Muslim belief that the book is
portant. The Caliphate was also transformed, becoming a recitation of God’s words to Muhammad. Muhammad,
the seat of divine authority with a military force and a who was illiterate, memorized the messages he received
salaried bureaucracy to sustain and support it. The Ab- and dictated them to various scribes. Unlike the Hebrew
basids created significant economic changes as well, im- scriptures, which were composed over a period of more
proving commerce and banking systems and developing than twelve hundred years and which for a long time re-
a vast network of trade that encompassed India, China, mained in many different versions, the text of the Quran
Ceylon, the East Indies, and reaching to the Baltic via was definitively established after Muhammad’s death by
the Caspian and Baltic Seas. It extended on to Russia the third caliph, Uthman, around 650.
and then to Africa, the chief trade commodities being Slightly shorter than the New Testament, the Quran is
gold and slaves. divided into 114 Surahs, or chapters, which become
158 CHAPTER 6

Cross Currents

THE SILK TRADE Samarkand and Bukhara. Eventually the and charged high prices. It was the
land route would come to an end at Con- Byzantine emperor Justinian who even-
A: early as the first century B.C.E., silk stantinople, or at the Mediterranean tually broke this monopoly in the sixth
rom China began to reach Rome, ports of Antioch or Tyre, after which century. According to the historian Pro-
where it was received with astonishment ships would complete the journey to copius (died A.D. 562), “certain monks
and admiration. Here was the lightest Rome. from India, knowing with what zeal the
and most beautiful cloth ever seen, but Although silk was the primary com- emperor Justinian endeavored to prevent
the secrets of its production remained modity traded with the West, eastern the Romans from buying silk from the
closely guarded by the Chinese. merchants also loaded camels with ce- Persians (who were his enemy), came to
The trade route that linked China to ramics, fur, and lacquered goods. In ex- visit the emperor and promised him that
the West, and most importantly to change, they received gold, wool, ivory, they would undertake the manufacture
Rome, was called the “Silk Road.” Less amber, and glass from the West. It was of silk.” These monks explained to Jus-
a direct land route than a shifting net- Chinese silk, however, that captured the tinian that silk was made by silkworms
work of caravan trails between remote imagination of Rome, so much so that fed on mulberry leaves; Justinian prom-
kingdoms and trading posts, the Silk the Romans, who had learned about the ised them “great favors” if they would
Road traversed China from the Han cap- Chinese from the Greeks, called the ma- smuggle the requisite worms and mul-
ital of Xi’an, north and west across the terial serica, from the Greek word for the berry trees back to Constantinople and
‘Taklamakan Desert, and on to the oasis Chinese, Serves. For the Romans, China begin to cultivate them there for him.
city of Kashgar. From there, caravans was synonymous with silk. This they did, and Justinian initiated a
carrying Chinese silk proceeded across Until the sixth century A.D., silk was flourishing silk trade that was to become
the mountain passes of northern India, regularly supplied to the Romans by the one of the chief sources of his vast
and on into the ancient Persian cities of Persians, who monopolized the silk trade wealth.

shorter as the Quran progresses. The first Surah contains The supreme creation of Allah, however, is humankind.
287 ayas, or verses; the last contains only three. Each As in the Judeo-Christian scriptures, human beings, made
Surah begins with the words, “In the name of Allah, the in the image of God, are viewed as the culmination of cre-
Beneficent, the Merciful.” ation. Women and men possess distinct, individual souls,
The words of the Quran are the first Muslims hear which are immortal, and can live eternally with God—
when they are born and the last many hear before death. provided individuals live their earthly lives according to
The Quran forms the core of Muslim education and serves Islamic teaching.
as a textbook for the study of Arabic. Moreover, verses ‘To achieve heaven, Muslims must accept belief in Allah
from it are inscribed on the walls of Muslim homes and as the supreme being and the only God. They must also
mosques as decoration and as a reminder of their faith. practice their religion by fulfilling the obligations charac-
An additional important source of Islamic teaching, the terized as the “five pillars” of Islam. These are repetition
hadith (“narrative” or “report”), consists of the sayings of of the creed, daily prayer, almsgiving, fasting during Ra-
Muhammad and anecdotes about him, which were initially madan, and pilgrimage to Mecca.
passed on orally, but in the ninth century were collected The Islamic creed (shahadah) consists of a single sen-
and written down by scholars. Six canonical collections of tence: La ilaha illa Allah; Muhammad rasul Allah (“There is
hadith are used to determine points of Islamic theology no God but Allah; Muhammad is the messenger of Allah”).
and doctrine. All Muslims must say this creed slowly, thoughtfully, and
with conviction at least once during their lives, though
Basic Tenets and the Five Pillars of Islam. ‘The basic many practicing Muslims recite it several times each day.
tenets of Islam concern the nature of God, creation, hu- Daily prayer (sa/at) is recited five times: at dawn, mid-
mankind, and the afterlife. According to Islam, God is one, day, midafternoon, sunset, and nightfall. In Muslim com-
immaterial, invisible, and omnipotent. This single God munities, uezzis call the faithful to prayer from mosque
dominates the entire universe with his power and his towers. Whether the people pray where they are or go to
mercy. He is also the creator of the universe, which, be- the mosque, they must cleanse themselves of impurities
cause it is his creation, is also beautiful and good. before praying. During prayer, Muslims face Mecca and
 ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION 159

perform a series of ritual gestures that includes bowing The final pillar of Islam is the pilgrimage (4aj) to
and prostration. Mecca, which all healthy adult Muslims are expected to
Charity or almsgiving (zakat) is the third pillar of Islam. complete at least once (fig 6.1).
In addition to ad hoc giving to the poor, Islam instructs
its followers to contribute one-fortieth of their income Islamic Mysticism: The Sufis. Like all other major reli-
and assets to the needy. Originally a form of tax, today the gions, Islam has its mystics. Because it developed in Byzan-
zakat is a respected form of holy offering. tium, where there was a strong Jewish and Christian
The fourth pillar is the fast (sawm) during the holy mystical tradition, and also in India, which had its own as-
month of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Muslim lunar cetic tradition, Islam was influenced to find its own mys-
calendar. ‘The fast includes abstaining from food, drink, tical path. This path was followed most powerfully by the
medicine, tobacco, and sexual intercourse from sunrise to Sufis. The word sufi means “woolen” and refers to the
sundown. Moreover, during the month of fasting, Mus- coarse woolen clothing the Sufis wear as a sign of their re-
lims are expected to recite the entire Quran at least once. jection of worldly comforts.
Ramadan is considered the Islamic holy month because it Although the Sufis trace their lineage back to the sev-
was during Ramadan that Muhammad received his initial enth century, it is more likely the movement began in
call as a prophet and during Ramadan that he made his earnest in the ninth century, when there was an increase in
historic flight from Mecca to Medina ten years later. materialism; the Sufis’ choice of austerity was a direct

FIGURE 6.1 Jesus Watching Muhammad Leave Mecca, from a medieval Persian manuscript,
from Al-Biruni, “Chronicle of Ancient Nations.” ORMS. 161.f.10v. Courtesy of Edinburgh
University Library. Muhammad leaves Mecca on camelback in the hijrah or emigration in the
year 622 that became the founding moment of Islam, escaping the wrath of the polytheistic
Meccans who rejected his message of faith in the one true God. Regarded in Islam as one of
Muhammad’ prophetic predecessors, Jesus is shown looking on approvingly, in an image that
both suggests continuity and also shows Muhammad about to go beyond the religious under-
standings of his day (Edinburgh University Library.)
160 CHAPTER 6

Table
ees
6-1 FIVE PILLARSOFISLAM ee
ie eA FIVE PILLARE OEIC a of all life. This notion is expressed in the poetry of the
thirteenth-century Persian mystic JALALODDIN RUMI
1. Repetition of the creed (shahadah): There is no God but [ROO-me] (1207-73), whose poems often feature a lover
Allah; Muhammad is the messenger of Allah.
seeking his beloved as a metaphor for the soul’s seeking
2. Daily prayer (salat): Dawn, mid-day, mid-afternoon, sun- of God.
set, nightfall
3. Almsgiving (charity): One-fortieth of income and assets
(zakat) PHILOSOPHY
A. Fasting during Ramadan (sawm): Abstention from food, Avicenna and Averroes. If the Quran expresses Islamic
drink, medicine, tobacco, sex from sunrise to sundown
theology and the Sufis the mystical element of Islamic
5. Pilgrimage (hajj): Once in a lifetime pilgrimage to Mecca, thought, Islam’s philosophical bent is best figured by AVI-
the Muslim holy city CENNA [ah-vee-SEN-ah] (980-1037) and AVER-ROES
[a-VER-o-ease] (1126-1198).
Better known as a doctor than as a philosopher, Avi-
response to this. During the twelfth century, the Sufis or- cenna articulated the beliefs of Islam in terms drawn from
ganized themselves into monastic orders, much like the Aristotle and Plato, wedding two divergent Greek philo-
monks of medieval Christendom. A convert to a Sufi order sophical traditions as well as linking Greek philosophy
was called a fakir (“poor man”) or dervish (“beggar”), terms with Islamic beliefs. Following Aristotle, Avicenna argued
intended to indicate the monk’s experience of poverty and that God was the creator, or Prime Cause, of all that ex-
begging. Although the monastic practices of the Sufis var- ists, a necessary being whose existence and essence were
ied, they generally included strict discipline along with ab- one and the same.
stinence, poverty, and sometimes celibacy. The second major voice of Islamic philosophy was raised
One of the more notable features of Sufism in early not in Arabia but in Spain by Averroes, another physician-
Islam is that it recognized women as fully equal to men. A philosopher. Like Avicenna, Averroes attempted to build a
woman could become a Sufi leader or shaykh (feminine bridge between the philosophy of Aristotle and the more
shaykha). Among the most prominent of shaykhas was Neoplatonically based theology of Islamic thinkers.
RABIA AL-ADAWIYYA [RAA-be-ah] (d. 801), who By following Aristotle’s lead in paying renewed atten-
preached an intensely devotional love of God with a cor- tion to the natural world, Averroes paved the way for
responding withdrawal from the ordinary world. Her em- Thomas Aquinas (see Chapter 12) to develop his scholas-
phasis on worshiping God out of pure love, rather than tic philosophical system, which was also indebted to Aris-
for either temporal or eternal reward, served as both an totle and which, like the philosophy of Averroes, privileged
inspiration and a model for other Sufis. reason above faith. Both Aquinas and Averroes, for exam-
Prominent among Sufi ideas is the soul’s yearning and ple, argue that the existence of God can be proved by rea-
perpetual search for God, since God is the ultimate source son without the aid of revelation.
Averroes and Avicenna helped preserve the Western in-
tellectual tradition through their reverence for education,
books, and philosophy. The libraries acquired by Islamic
rulers and philosophers continued the philosophic tradi-
Although Islam shares many beliefs with Christianity, there are tion that began in the West with the Greeks and found re-
important differences between the doctrines of these Western newed expression in the religious thought of the Middle
faiths. The table lists some of the fundamental ones.
Ages and the scientific spirit of later centuries.
Muslims Christians

Revere Jesus as a great prophet. Worship Jesus as God.

Believe Jesus ascended into Believe in the resurrection
MATH, SCIENCE, AND SCHOLARSHIP
heaven but did not die and ascension of Jesus. Among the most important contributions of Islamic cul-
on the cross. ture to the west was Arabic numbers and the concept of
Believe in the sin of Believe all humanity zero, a discovery of Al-Khwaizmi (780-850), arguably the
Adam and Eve, but not the inherited the original greatest of Muslim scholars. Among his achievements was
idea of inherited sin for all. sin of Adam and Eve. the invention of algebra. Before his introduction of the
Accept the Torah, Psalms, Accept as sacred scripture a nine numbers we know today and the placeholder, zero,
and Gospels as sacred larger biblical canon than the west made do with Roman numerals, a cumbersome
scripture, but do not accept Muslims, one that includes system, far inferior to the elegance of the Arabic numeric
the rest of the Hebrew or historical and prophetic system. A further numerical refinement was made by Al
Christian scriptures. books as well as poetic Uglidisi in the next century—the concept of decimal frac-
and wisdom literature.
tions, as for example, in the value of Pi: 3.1416.
 ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION 161

Critical Thinking
SCHOLARLY CROSS FERTILIZATION Arab mathematicians, for example, be- cient and medieval scholarship of the
came masters of algebra and trigonome- world, centuries before the European
uring the early Middle Ages, when try, adding to the Greek invention of Renaissance.
Islam was born in the seventh cen- geometry. Translation was the crux, as Why do you think that such scholarly
tury, there was little contact between Eu- Arabic scholars translated Greek and In- cross-fertilization has been on the de-
rope and the Arab world. While Arab dian texts into Arabic, and then trans- cline for the last half century? To what
power consolidated and Islam spread lated these and other Arabic works into extent do you think religious and politi-
over the next centuries, Arab scholars Latin and Hebrew. Medieval Arab schol- cal factors influenced this decline?
picked up where the Greeks had left off. ars, thus, served as a bridge linking an-

In addition to their mathematical inventions, Muslim The Mosque. ‘There is little evidence of art in Arabia be-
scholars made a number of key scientific discoveries and fore Islam and, at first, Islam did not encourage art. Islam
contributions. Muslim chemists invented the process of opposes idol worship—Muhammad had all pagan idols de-
distillation and created the distillate, alkuhl (alcohol), stroyed. Furthermore, a Muslim could pray anywhere
which is forbidden to Muslims. Islamic astronomers made without the need of religious architecture. Nonetheless,
more precise instruments such as the astrolabe, which is in the late seventh century, Muslim rulers started to build
used to measure the altitude of stars above the horizon. palaces and mosques—the buildings in which Muslims
The Egyptian Muslim scientist, Al Hazen-(d. 1038) ad- assemble for religious purposes. In an attempt to compete
vanced the field of optics and improved the technology for with Byzantium, the caliphs built with materials and on a
making and grinding lenses. Muslim physicians wrote scale to rival Christian churches. Typically, a mosque is
books on diseases such as rabies, measles, and smallpox, rectangular in plan, with an open court, and a fountain in
among them Rhazes (d. 932), director of a Baghdad hos- the center used for purification. Covered walkways, with
pital. Moreover, the famous Jewish doctor, Moses Mai- flat roofs supported on columns and arches, lead to the
monides, was trained in Arabic medicine. Maimonides and side, on which is located the mihrab, a small niche indi-
other Arabic-trained Jewish physicians were consulted by cating the side facing Mecca. All mosques are oriented to-
the sultan of Baghdad and by the Pope in their respective ward Mecca, Muhammad’s place of birth, and it is the
centuries. direction in which Muslims turn when praying. Minarets
In addition to such practical mathematical and scien- are towers beside mosques from which the faithful are
tific contributions to knowledge, Islamic scholars, follow- called to prayer by the muezzin, the person who ascends
ing the admonition of Muhammad to “seek knowledge,” a spiral staircase to a platform at the top.
preserved numerous Greek manuscripts of Plato, Aristo- Construction of the mosque at Cordova in Spain (fig.
tle, Gales, Ptolemy, and others. These scholars copied, ed- 6.2) was started in 786. The plan (fig. 6.3) is simple, mak-
ited, and translated the Greek texts into Arabic. They also ing it easy to enlarge the mosque by adding more aisles, as
provided commentaries on Aristotle’s works and preserved was done on several occasions. The interior (fig. 6.5) con-
much knowledge of botany, astrology, and medicine among tains hundreds of columns. A visitor must follow the aisles
Greek-influenced Mediterranean peoples. All of this schol- through this forest to reach the mihrab side. There are
arship and practical knowledge became enormously influ- two tiers of arches, which create a light and airy interior,
ential in the development of medieval European an impression enhanced by the contrasting stripes of the
universities. voussoirs—the wedge-shaped stones that make up the
arches. The individual arches are the characteristically
Muslim horseshoe shape. The result is a fluid, almost mys-
ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE tical space.
Islamic art is not the art of one particular group of people, The Mosque of Sultan Sulayman (Suleiman) (fig. 6.6),
nor that of one country. Rather, it is the art associated with built 1550-57, is the main mosque of Istanbul, an enor-
the life of one person, Muhammad, and the teachings of mous complex including tombs, hospitals, and facilities for
one book, the Quran. It is therefore a fusion of many dif- traveling merchants that symbolizes the city’s importance as
ferent cultures, the most influential of which are Turkish, the center of Western Islamic civilization. The architect of
Persian, and, particularly and originally, Arabic. the mosque was SINAN [sin-AHN], the greatest master
162 CHAPTER 6

FIGURE 6.2 Mosque, Cordova, begun 786, exterior. This mosque, a masterpiece of Islamic
architecture, was started by Abd-al Rahman I. It is an example of the work of the Umayyad
dynasty in Spain.

FIGURE 6.3. Mosque, Cordova, begun 786, plan. Although of his day. The mosque appears to build up in waves, as does
the original structure was enlarged four times, the traditional Hagia Sophia (see Chapter 5), which was built a thousand
plan continued to be organized and precise, as if laid out on a years earlier in the same city: The Muslims were clearly at-
grid. The mosque includes a court, prayer hall, and arcades.
tempting to rival the Byzantines. The very tall minarets give
Qibla wall emphasis to the vertical; those at Hagia Sophia are later
Muslim additions. The similarity between the buildings con-
tinues with the domes for, like Hagia Sophia, the mosque has
a large dome, two big half domes, and several smaller ones.
The surface decoration of the facade is so light and lacy that
it makes the building appear delicate and fragile. The court-
yard is constructed with columns and arches but, rather than
a flat roof, there is a series of domes—the same roofing sys-
tem employed in the mosque itself, creating a sense of unity
between inside and out.
The interior of the mosque (fig. 6.7) has a ring of win-

a
dows at the base of the dome, which makes the dome ap-
pear weightless and floating, and a large number of
windows in the walls, turning them into airy screens. The
Minaret shimmering tile decoration has the effect of separating the
| surface from its underlying structural function. Orna-
Borers)
SEE CE, mental patterns and inscriptions are found everywhere.
 ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION 163

JERUSALEM Solomon’s ‘Temple. For Muslims, the The city of Jerusalem is constructed
Temple Mount and the magnificent out of the history and cultures of many
J‘he possession of the city of mosque constructed on it, the Dome of peoples. Roman vaults are coupled with
4. Jerusalem has historically been the Rock (fig. 6.4), are second only to Christian convents; an Arab arch can-
contested by three major world faiths: Mecca and Medina as holy sites. For not be separated from a Jewish wall.
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The Jews and Christians, this was the site of This complex mix of religions and cul-
city’s history is one of warring religious the patriarch Abraham’s aborted sacrifice tures makes Jerusalem a truly multicul-
factions, all claiming its holy ground of his son Isaac. For members of all three tural city, whose bedrock is a faith in
for themselves. Today, within a space faiths, Solomon’s Temple was the site of God, albeit a God called by various
of five hundred yards, sometimes in Jesus’s debate with the rabbis and a place names, and conceived under a variety of
peaceful coexistence, sometimes not, lie where he preached. identities.
the western wall of ancient Israel’s
Temple of Solomon, the rock marking
the place of Jesus’ tomb, and the Mus-
lim shrine designating the site where
Muhammad is believed to have as-
cended to heaven.
Archaeological evidence indicates that
Jerusalem began in the Bronze Age as a
mere nine-acre settlement at the edge of
the Judaean desert. The Hebrew king
David made Jerusalem the capital of the
unified country of ancient Israel during
the early tenth century B.C.E. He ex-
tended the city limits, building towers
and battlements throughout. The city’s
most glorious years, however, occurred
during the reign of King Solomon,
David’s successor. Solomon built a mag-
nificent temple to house the holy Ark of
the Covenant. To this temple he attached
an equally magnificent palace while also
extending the city walls and further en-
larging its defenses.
Numerous times in its history,
Jerusalem has been captured or de-
stroyed. Alexander the Great took the
city without resistance in 332 B.C.E. In
250 B.C.E., Ptolemy the Great destroyed
the city walls. In 168 B.C.E., the Syrian
king Antiochus Epiphanes enslaved
Jerusalem’s inhabitants. The Roman
leader Pompey captured the city in the
first century B.C.E., and the Roman gen-
eral Titus crushed a rebellion a century
later, leveling the city in the process. A
thousand years later, the Crusaders con-
quered the city, taking it from the Mus-
lims, and leaving it little more than a
military outpost, dispersing those citi-
zens who were spared from death.
Muslims, Jews, and Christians all lay
claim to the Temple Mount, the site of

ata a ia
164 CHAPTER 6

FIGURE 6.5 Mosque, Cordova, begun 786, interior. Decoration in plaster and marble creates
an effect of delicacy and lightness, of the material made immaterial. Walls have not one plane
but many, and the layers of space overlap, becoming meshlike.

The tiles are often floral and polychromatic; ceramicists respite from the heat of southern Spain. Surrounded by
and architects worked together to create an effect gardens built in terraces, the palace is irregular in plan,
whereby visitors feel surrounded by gardens of luxurious with several courts and a number of towers added by suc-
flowers. cessive rulers.
Here, architectural function is obscured. Walls be-
The Alhambra Palace. The Alhambra Palace in come lacelike webs. Surfaces are decorated with intri-
Granada, Spain, is one of the finest examples of Islamic cate patterns that disguise and seem to dissolve material
architecture. A palace fortress, the Alhambra is the most substance. The solidity of stone is eclipsed as domes
remarkable legacy of the Nasirid dynasty, which ruled filled with designs seem to become floating lace
southern Spain from 1232 until the united armies of canopies. The dissolution of matter is a fundamental
Catholic Spain under the leadership of Ferdinand and Is- principle of Islamic art. This style is unlike any other in
abella chased the last Muslim rulers out of the country in the history of art.
1492. Decoration is made of tile and stucco, which is either
The Alhambra is built on top of a hill overlooking the modeled in low relief or is built up in layers that are then
city of Granada, providing spectacular views and a cool cut away to create the effect of stalactites. Surfaces are cov-
 ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION 165

eid ee ees = pA

FIGURE 6.6 Sinan, Mosque of Sultan Sulayman, Istanbul, 1550-57, exterior. Like Hagia
Sophia, built in the same city by the Christian Byzantines a millennium earlier (see fig. 5.16),
this Islamic mosque consists of a large central dome with abutting half domes and smaller semi
domes.

ered with a seemingly infinite variety of complex geomet- ligraphic designs, including decorative Cufic writing, flo-
ric patterns. Decoration is exquisite, achieving the height ral patterns, and purely abstract linear elements. Arabic
of sophistication, refinement, and richness. Ornament is calligraphy—fine handwriting—pervades Islamic art, ap-
profuse, yet the whole is controlled by a predilection for pearing not only in manuscripts, but also on buildings, tex-
symmetry and repeated rhythms. Much use is made of cal- tiles, pottery, and elsewhere. ‘The popularity of calligraphy
166 CHAPTER 6

of a fountain in the middle of the court. The Court of the

Lions is considered the quintessence of the Moorish style.
Slender columns surround the courtyard, arranged singly
or in pairs, and support a series of arches of fantastic
shapes.

Ceramics and Miniature Painting. Islamic pictorial

arts were curtailed by Muhammad’s opposition to idola-
try. The Quran’s view that statues are the work of the devil
largely eliminated sculpture. The lions in the Court of
the Lions at the Alhambra Palace are rare examples, and,
moreover, they serve a functional purpose, acting as sup-
ports for the water basin of the fountain. Although the
Quran does not mention painting or any other artistic
FiGuRE 6.7 Sinan, Mosque of Sultan Sulayman, Istanbul, medium, the argument against the portrayal of human
1550-57, interior. The interior of this Islamic mosque, with a figures or animals—or, indeed, anything living—is that
ring of windows at the base of the dome, is worthy of compari- only God can create life and the artist must not try to im-
son with the interiors of the Byzantine churches of Hagia itate God. Thus mosques contain no figurative represen-
Sophia and St. Mark’s (see figs. 5.18 and 5.20). tations; geometric and plant designs were preferred.
Nonetheless, Islamic art does include some images of liv-
ing things, but they are not large scale, nor made for pub-
is in part a result of traditional Muslim iconoclasm. Be- lic display. Instead, such images are usually restricted to
cause the figurative arts were discouraged, artists elabo- small-scale paintings or functional objects, such as tex-
rated the abstract beauty of handwriting. tiles and vessels (fig. 6.9). Thus, despite this ban on figu-
The Court of the Lions (fig. 6.8), built 1354-91 by Mo- rative images, a rich tradition of figurative miniature
hammed V, is probably the most famous part of the Al- painting extends from the thirteenth to the late seven-
hambra. It is named for the stone lions that form the base teenth century, depicting the hadith, or traditional leg-

FIGURE 6.8 Court of the Lions, Alhambra Palace, Granada, 1354-91. Rather than stressing
the supporting structure, emphasis is on the decorative surfaces, the slender columns, and the
extreme sophistication with which all surfaces are ornamented.

a
 ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION 167

Cross Currents-=—
PAPER: ISLAM’S GIFT over, it was through Islamic culture in beliefs—through many beautifully cal-
TO THE WEST North Africa that paper found its way to ligraphied versions of the Quran and
Europe during the early Middle Ages. Is- handsomely printed versions of the Bible,
he paper on which the words you are lamic civilization thus provides the link both of which reached a vast audience of
reading are printed owes a great deal between the invention of paper in ancient readers. And though digital images and
to Islamic civilization. Although paper was China and its extensive distribution after electronic transmission of information
invented in China during the first century the invention of printing in fifteenth- comprise the most recent mass commu-
C.E., it was Muslim merchants traveling century Germany. In both Islamic and nications technology, paper remains a vital
the Silk Road routes in the eighth century European civilizations, paper became an medium for communicating ideas and ex-
who first brought it to the west. More- effective medium for conveying religious pressing artistic visions.

ends appended to the Quran, as well as the poetry of reli- LITERATURE

gious mystics. For example, A Sheik Meditating in a Pavil-
ion (fig. 6.10) illustrates a scene from the poem Haft Aurang Arabic and Persian Poetry. Like English poetry, Ara-
(The Seven Thrones), written by the Persian poet JAMI bic poetry appeared in written form around 700 as Arab
[JJAR-me] (1414-1492). lexicographers and philologists began to collect and

FIGURE 6.10 A Sheik Meditating in a Pavilion, illustrating

FIGURE 6.9 Bowl, from Iran, twelfth or thirteenth century, the poem Haft Aurang (The Seven Thrones), by Jami, 1556-65,
ceramic, diameter 85” (21.7 cm), Khalili Collection, London. 13 aL x ue (34.3 X 23.9 cm). Courtesy of the Freer
The Naser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art (POT 12), Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
Photograph © NOUR Foundation. © Copyright The British The delicacy of the technique and the decoratively pat-
Museum. The figurative design showing a couple in a garden terned two-dimensional quality of Islamic painting is similar
was popular in the period. The decorative bands of script that to Chinese painting (see Chapter 8).
are around the rim of the plate repeat two words: “Glory” and
“Piety. ”
168 CHAPTER 6

record poems that had survived orally in various Arab

tribal traditions. These poems had long been chanted by
rawi, professional reciters, who kept the verse alive.
One of the oldest forms of Arabic poetry is the gasidah,
a highly formalized ode. The gasidah has three parts: (1) a
visit to an abandoned encampment to find the beloved,
whose departure the poet laments; (2) the poet’s journey to
find her, replete with descriptions of flowers and animals,
especially his camel, which he eulogizes; and (3) a eulogy
on a neighbor or tribe that often includes a tribute to the
poet’s own ancestry. The gasidah ranges from 30 to 120
lines in length, each line ending with the same rhyme.
Central to any qasidah is the image, or rather a series of
juxtaposed images, that vividly expresses what the poet has
observed.
When Arabs invaded and conquered Persia in 637 C.E.,
they brought with them Islam and their Arabic script,
which the Persians adopted in place of their complicated
ideograms. Many Arabic words passed into Persian and
some literary forms underwent modification. With the
adoption of the Arabic script came an explosion of Per-
sian poetry, including work by the early Persian poet FIR-
DAWSI [fear-DOW-see] (late tenth-early eleventh
century). Like other Persian poets of his time and later,
Firdawsi wrote in both Arabic and Persian, translating
poems readily from one language to the other. The first
major Persian poet and one of the greatest, Firdawsi wrote
the epic Shahnamah (Book of Kings), a work of sixty thou-
sand couplets (fig. 6.11).
One consequence of translating Persian poems into
FiGuRE 6.11 Persian, Safavid, page from a manuscript of the
Arabic was the introduction into Arabic poetry of the quat- Shabnama ofFirdawsi, Shiraz, Iran. 1562-83, opaque water-
rain (ruba’i, plural ruba’iyat), a Persian form of four lines color, ink, and gold on paper, 13” X 1843 (3 X 43 cm). Fran-
with rhyming pattern of AABA. The ruba’i is familiar to cis Bartlett Donation and Picture Fund (14.692). Reproduced
readers of English through Edward Fitzgerald’s transla- with permission. © 2005 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. All
tion of The Ruba’iyat of Omar Khayyam. The influence of Rights Reserved. Until recent times, every Muslim text began
the two poetic traditions, however, was reciprocal, and the with the phrase “In the name of Allah.” Called the bismillah,
Arabic qasidah was taken into Persian. The exchange of the phrase opens the Quran. Here it is at the top righthand
forms also includes the ghazal, a short Arabic love lyric of corner (Arabic texts read right to left). To write the bismillah as
five to fifteen couplets believed to be of Persian origin. beautifully as possible is the highest form
Persian poetry is almost always lyrical, and its most fre- of Islamic art.
quent subject is love. Common features include the
distraught lover, who, anguished over imagined slights, is
completely at the mercy of a haughty and indifferent
beloved. Some scholars have suggested the relationship of
sorrowful lover to paramour is a metaphor for the rela- A further characteristic of Persian poetry is its celebra-
tionship between the believer and God. In fact, there is a tion of spring, a time of renewal and hope. Seasonal cele-
school of Persian poetry, influenced by the mystical ideas bration has a prominence in Persian poetry for a number
of Sufism, that uses many of the same images as love po- of reasons. One reason has to do with the climate and to-
etry. The ambiguity of subject found in some Persian love pography of Persia, an area that is largely desert, in which
poetry can also be found in the biblical Song of Songs. In the blossoming of flowers in the spring is an especially
addition, the technique of using the language of physical welcome sight. Another is that, since Persians celebrate
love to describe the love of divinity is analogous to that of their solar New Year on March 21, the first day of spring,
certain Western poets, such as John Donne and Emily the season is associated with gift-giving and a renewal of
Dickinson. Persian writers, moreover, have a long history hope. In addition, Persian poets often celebrate the tran-
of using mysticism and symbolism to veil meaning in po- sience of the flowers of spring as emblems of the tran-
litically perilous times. sience of earthly joy.
 ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION

Connections

SUFISM, DANCING, AND MusIc dizziness. Music and dancing were dis-
approved of by some Muslims, but they
Sc attempted to achieve direct were nonetheless practiced by many Sufi
contact with God through mystical orders, for whom the dance may be seen
trance. One method of achieving trance as representing the soul’s movement to-
and thus connection with the divine was ward God.
through dance, especially the spinning
circular form of dance that became asso-
ciated with the “whirling dervishes.”
Dance provided the Sufi with an outlet
for emotion and an opportunity to
achieve ecstasy through psychic illumi-
nation in trance.
The music that accompanied such
dancing would probably have been pri-
marily percussive, for example, a drum
beat, that pounded out a steady rhythm,
or would perhaps have included wooden
flutes, tambourines, or even a stringed
instrument, such as an wd, or Arabic lute.
The painting reproduced here (fig.
6.12) appears in a Turkish manuscript FIGURE 6.12 Turkish miniature of
dating from the sixteenth century. The dervishes dancing, from a copy of the
dancers in the center raise their hands in Sessions of the Lovers, sixteenth century,
ecstatic celebration, while the figures in illuminated manuscript, ca. 9’6” (25.0
the foreground may have succumbed to 15.0 cm), Bodleian Library, Oxford.

Arabic Prose: The Thousand and One Nights. One of MusIc

the most famous of all Arabic works of literature is The
Thousand and One Nights, better known in the West as The During the period of the four orthodox caliphs, or rep-
Arabian Nights. Of Indo-Persian origin, the stories re- resentatives of Muhammad, who reigned from the
counted in The Thousand and One Nights were introduced prophet’s death in 632 until 661, music was classed as
into written Arabic some time during the tenth century one of the malahi, or forbidden pleasures. Associated
and subsequently embellished, polished, and expanded. with frivolity, sensuality, and luxury, it was deemed to
Different as their ethnic origins may be—Persian, Indian, be at odds with the religious values of Islam. With the
Arabic—the stories of The Thousand and One Nights be- advent of the Umayyad dynasty (661-750), however,
came assimilated to reflect the cultural and artistic history music began to find a favorable audience throughout the
of the Arabic Islamic tradition. Islamic world. The Umayyads held a lively court in
The stories cast a romantic glow of Eastern enchant- Damascus, one that encouraged the development of the
ment, and, although they do not chronicle the adventures arts and sciences.
of a single hero as do medieval narratives such as the Song Persian music had an influence on Arabic music, and
ofRoland or the Divine Comedy, they are linked by the de- vice versa. Moreover, in the same way that Islam influenced
vice of a single narrator, Shahrazad, the wife of the Persian poetry in southern Spain, so the Cordovan Islamic com-
king Shahrayar, who is entertained night after night by her munity supported the development of a new and distinctive
storytelling, which prolongs her life and cures his hatred musical style in Andalusian Spain. Music, especially Ara-
of women. The stories are remarkable for their blending bic music, flourished most, however, during the Abbasid
of the marvelous with the everyday. dynasty (750-1258), the period immediately following the
170 CHAPTER 6

Cultural Impact
uring the two centuries following larly in southern Spain in Andalusia. just the right size for an individual sup-
Muhammad’s death, Arab con- Examples of Moorish-style architec- plicant.
querors introduced Islam throughout ture can be found in southern Europe Finally, the tales in The Thousand and
Asia and North Africa, India, southern and in the southern United States, es- One Nights captured the imagination of
Spain, and the Mediterranean islands. pecially in Florida and Texas, where European readers from their first pub-
Diplomats, merchants, and other travel- Spanish influence is strong. Muslim lication. Although these tales did not
ers exchanged news and goods, and an artists also introduced the institution reach the West until after Chaucer and
extensive trade and communications net- of courtly love poetry and music, in Boccaccio had written their comic mas-
work emerged. As Islam spread, it en- which poets sang to their mistresses, terpieces, Chaucer’s “Squire’s Tale”
countered Hinduism, Judaism, and accompanied by a lute, tambourine, or from his Canterbury Tales and some of
Christianity, as well as with Greek phi- guitar. the tales from Boccaccio’s Decameron
losophy, science, and political thought. Islamic civilization also left us the were of Arabian origin. The exotic tales
Absorbing and adapting these and other tradition of the prayer rug, a small car- of The Thousand and One Nights con-
traditions, the Muslim empire prospered. pet or portion of a carpet used by de- tinue to delight today, both in their
One important legacy of Islamic vout Muslims when they pray. Each written form and in their cinematic
civilization is its architecture, particu- small rug or section of a larger carpet is transformations.

reign of the Umayyads. During the reign of the Abbasids,

who was influenced by Greek musical theory was
music became an obligatory accomplishment for every ed-
AL-KINDI [al-KIN-dee] (790-874), who, like his Greek
ucated person, much as it did later at the courts of Renais-
precursors, was interested in the effects of music on peo-
sance Europe. Yet with the collapse of the Abbasid dynasty ple’s feelings and behavior.
and the destruction of Baghdad by the Mongol armies in
Although much Islamic music was court music, which
1258, music declined during a period of general intellectual
served either as vocal entertainment or as an accompani-
and cultural stagnation.
ment for dancing by professional dancers in palaces and
Medieval Arabic music was influenced to a significant
private residences, religion also made use of music. Music
degree by ancient Greek musical theory, which reached
was, and still is, used in calling Muslims to prayer, in chant-
Near Eastern scholars in the ninth century when the works
ing verses of the Quran, in hymns for special occasions
of Ptolemy, Pythagoras, and other Greek theorists were
and holy days, and in the dhikr, in which music accompa-
translated into Arabic. One Arabic theorist in particular
nies the solemn repetition of the name of God.
 ISLAMIC CIVILIZATION 171

KEY TERMS
Surah Sufi minaret voussoirs
ayas mosque muezzin calligraphy
hadith mihrab

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

hitp://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/arab-y67s1 1 .html
(Islamic political philosophy: Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Averroes—good information for compari-
son.)
hitp://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.tcl@site_id=3005
(Sinan, Mosque of Sultan Sulayman, Instanbul, 1550-57. Click on thumbnail image to select
from five views of the mosque: interior, exterior, and detail.)

hitp://www.Aliterature.net/Firdawsi/Book_of_Kings_Epic_of_Kings_/
(Isfandiyar passing through the snowstorm Shah-nama [Firdawsi’s Book of Kings ] and other il-
lustrated texts from Firdawsi’s Book of Kings.)
(CHAPTER 7

HisTORY
co. 326 B.C.E. Alexander the Great invades north India
324-301 B.C. Chandragupta Maurya reigns
co. 250 B.CE. Sarnath Capital
(ove 269-232 B.C. Ashoka reigns
375-415 ce. Chandra Gupta II reigns
710 Ce. First Muslim invasion of India
ca. 12th century Ce. Mahadeviyakka active
1192 ce Delhi Sultanate, first Muslim kingdom Buddhism declines
1526 Mogul empire established

ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE

isl | co. 530 B.CE. Vishnu Narayana on the Cosmic Waters

3rd 8.C.£.—Ist century CE. Great Stupa at Sanchi
4th—5th century Ce. Standing Buddha
5th century CE. Ajanta cave paintings
1025-50 ce. Kandariya Mahadeo temple
11th—-12th century Ce. Shiva Nataraja
1630-48 ce. Taj Mahal

LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

1500 B.c.e. Hinduism evolves from Aryan religious beliefs

1500-1000 8.c.e. Vedas first recorded by Aryans
co. 550 B.C. Valmiki’s Ramayana first recorded
ca. 4th century B.C. Jataka tales
co. 260 B.C.E. Ashoka establishes Buddhism as state religion
ca. Ist century B.C.E. Bhagavad Gita
 &

Indian C ivl |ization

a
aie
Taj Mahal, Agra, 1630-48.

173
 ‘) Delhi Sultanate 1236
[2] Delhi Sultanate 1335 §}

ARABIAN

200 400 Miles

200 400 Kilometers

Map 7.1 Muslim India under the Delhi Sultanate.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

THE VEDIC PERIOD

Hinduism takes root

THE MAURYA PERIOD

Buddhism rises in political and religious prominence

THE KUSHAN ERA

Greco-Roman artistic influences meet Buddhism

THE GUPTA ERA

Flourishing culture and commerce

THE HINDU DYNASTIES

Southern Indian arts prosper despite constant war

174
 INDIAN CIVILIZATION 175

THE VEDIC PERIOD

ndia, as we know it today, is a distinct subcontinent
[forte on the north by the Himalayan mountains, on
the east by the Bay of Bengal, and on the west by the
Arabian Sea. The only land routes into or out of the coun-
try are the northwestern passes through the Hindu Kush,
the mountains separating India from Iran, and eastward
past the mouth of the Ganges River, through Burma into
China.
But despite its relative geographic isolation, India has
long been the center of trade between East and West, on
both land and sea. In his Geography, the ancient author
Ptolemy records the visits of Western traders to stations on
the Silk Road in the second century C.E. Between the fifth
and ninth centuries C.E., the Chinese regularly traveled
along Indian trade routes. In addition, maritime trade
routes up and down the Indian coast connected China to
the West long after Mongol hordes had laid waste the Silk
Road itself in the thirteenth century.
The first known indigenous people, from the Indus Val-
ley civilization (2500 B.c.E.—-1500 B.C.E.), were known as FIGURE 7.1 Indus Valley Seal with an image of a two-horned
the Dasas, or Pre-Aryan culture of India. The Indus Val- bull, India, Indus Valley period, 3000-1500 B.c.E. Steatite,
ley people developed an extremely advanced and sophis- i x lip 3.2 X 3.2 cm. The Cleveland Museum of Art,
ticated culture that covered a region roughly the size of Purchase from the J.H. Wade Fund, 1973. 160.
western Europe. The major Indus cities discovered so far
are Mohenjo-daro on the Indus River and Harappa in the
Punjab.
Mohenjo-daro had an estimated population of 35,000
to 40,000 people, larger than Pompei, which had 25,000. It would take over a thousand years for the Aryans and
Excavations of the site reveal a civilization of great organ- Dasas to become fully integrated. During this period, in re-
ization and centralization; cities were laid out in grid pat- sponse to the growing complexity and social rigidity of
terns, reflecting a high degree of civil planning. Moreover, Hinduism, various alternative religions emerged—most
a centralized drainage system ran through the city, and notably Buddhism and Jainism, both of which challenged
seven hundred wells supplied water to its inhabitants. the Hindu hereditary class structure.
Workshops for dyeing, pottery, and metalwork have also
been found.
Of the artifacts found, the most interesting are the more HINDUISM
than four thousand seals carved in intaglio (negative re- The origins of Hinduism are unknown, although they are
lief). These seals are about 1.5 inches square and reveal a believed to date to around the sixth century B.C.E., per-
variety of animal, vegetable, and human designs (fig. 7.1). haps even as early as 1500 B.c.E. The word Hindu derives
But more significantly, they reveal a written language that from Sindhu, the Sanskrit name for the Indus River. Like
has yet to be deciphered. the Ganges, another important Indian river, the Indus was
Sometime around 1500 B.c.E. light-skinned nomadic used for religious ceremonies, especially for rites of pu-
Aryan tribes from the Russian steppes and Central Asia rification.
brought horses and chariots and settled in northern India. Hindu worship focuses on a pantheon of gods who per-
In many ways they were much less advanced—technolog- sonify natural forces, not on a historical teacher or prophet.
ically and intellectually—than the native Indian popula- In Hinduism the ideal life has four basic goals: (1) dharma:
tion; however, they brought with them early forms of a the pursuit of human righteousness, duty, and cosmic
language—Sanskrit—and of a religion—Hinduism—that order; (2) artha: the accumulation of worldly success; (3)
would evolve to become very important to Indian cultural kama: pursuit of spiritual love; and (4) moksha: release from
life. This era is referred to as the vedic period (1500 empty pleasures and suffering in the world. Moksha is the
B.C.E.300 B.C.E.), named after the oldest surviving sacred most important goal; by breaking bonds with daily exis-
Indian writings, the Vedas, and represents a time of cul- tence and focusing on integrating the self with the uni-
tural assimilation that proved critical to India’s subsequent versal truth (Absolute Reality), one can escape the cycle
development. of birth and death.
176 CHAPTER 7

Hindu Gods. At the center of Hindu religious thought Ganesha (fig. 7.2) is one of the more lovable of the
is the idea of BRAHMAN [BRAH-man], the indivisible Hindu gods. The son of Shiva and Paravati, he is associ-
essence of all spiritual reality, the divine source of all being. ated with playfulness and prosperity. According to one leg-
In ancient Hinduism (sometimes called Brahmanism), end, his mother Paravati was taking a bath and created a
Brahman is the essence of the universe, manifesting itself boy from the dirt of her own body. She then asked the boy
in creation, preservation, and destruction. In later Hin- to stand guard while she finished bathing. In the mean-
duism, Brahman’s three functions are divided among three time, Shiva returned home to find a stranger blocking the
gods: BRAHMA [BRAH-mah], the creator (as distinct door to his wife’s room. Shiva became angry and cut off the
from Brahman, the ubiquitous spirit of the universe); boy’s head. Paravati, learning of this, was grief stricken. In
VISHNU [VISH-noo], the preserver; and SHIVA [SHE- order to console her, Shiva ordered his troops to fetch the
vah], the destroyer. head of anyone found sleeping with his head pointing
The most popular of the three gods, Vishnu, is the god north. The troops found an elephant sleeping and brought
of benevolence, forgiveness, and love. He enjoys games back its head. Shiva attached the elephant head to the body
and pranks. His consort, or companion, is LAKSHMI of the boy and revived him.
[LACK-shmee], with whom he is often depicted. Because
of his great love for humankind, Vishnu is said to have ap-
peared on earth many times in various forms, including FIGURE 7.2 Ganesha, Southern Deccan Karnataka, Hoyshala
that of a man. Among his avatars, or appearances in Period, ca. early 12th century. Gray chloritic schist. 33” x
205" X 10” (83.8 X 51.4 X 25.4 cm). The Nasli and Alice
earthly form, is his incarnation as KRISHNA [KRISH-
Heeramaneck Collection, gift of Paul Mellon. Katherine
nah], a charioteer who advises the warrior Arjuna about
Wetzel/Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond. Ganesha,
his military responsibilities. Krishna is also believed by god of properity, is among the most popular of Hindu gods.
some Hindus to have been reincarnated as the Buddha.
Shiva represents and reflects life’s processes and para-
doxes. He is both the creative and destructive flow of life:
motion and calm, male and female, dark and light, every-
thing and its opposite. Shiva is an ambivalent god who em-
bodies, defies, and reconciles himself with all aspects of
life. He is also the god of dance, an extremely important
aspect of Indian culture and expression. His most frequent
consort is Paravati, with whom he has several sons; the
most popular is Ganesha, the elephant-headed deity who
bestows prosperity. Paravati’s fierce, destructive manifes-
tation is KALI [KAH-lee], often depicted with a necklace
of human skulls. Because for Hindus, death is a prelude to
rebirth, Shiva and Kali are also gods of sexuality and re-
production. According to one tradition, there are 330 mil-
lion Hindu gods, and a single god can be worshipped under
a variety of manifestations. Hindus accept and worship nu-
merous gods because they are able to accept many varying
perspectives on existence. Gods and goddesses often are
depicted with multiple heads and arms as a way of con-
veying their immense power and ability to be all seeing.

Table 7-1 MAJOR HINDU GODS

AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
God Role or Function
Brahma Creator: source of being
Vishnu Preserver: benevolence, forgiveness, love
Shiva Destroyer: disease and death
Lakshmi Consort of Vishnu: sexuality and reproduction
Kali Consort of Shiva: sexuality and reproduction
 INDIAN CIVILIZATION 177

Ganesha is usually shown with his favorite round sweets Sanskrit it consists of a set of hymns known as The Vedas,
in his hand that represent the seeds of the universe and are which praise the Hindu gods. All later works ultimately de-
offered by other gods and devotees. He wears a snake tied rive from these Vedic songs, and most are a commentary on
around his middle because when riding on his rat vehicle them. Transmitted orally at first, The Vedas were chanted
one day, the rat tripped on a snake and Ganesha tumbled to during religious rituals, accompanied by various instru-
the ground. His belly ripped open in the process, and the ments. The Vedic religion and text emphasized social hi-
sweets he had already eaten fell out. The sweets were put erarchy and ritual sacrifice to obtain the favor of the gods.
back into his belly, which was then tied closed with the snake.
The Upanishads. The Upanishads, an anthology of philo-
Samsara. Both Hinduism and Buddhism, the two major sophical poems and discourses, were later added to The
religions that emerged in India, revolve around the idea Vedas. Although not as popular with ordinary people as the
of samsara, the transmigration of the soul, or reincarna- hymns and prayers of The Vedas, The Upanishads have been
tion. The goal of both religions is to escape the continu- influential in Indian philosophy. They contain discussion
ous cycle of death and rebirth through enlightenment and teachings that, although at odds with the polytheism
(nirvana in Buddhism, or moksha in Hinduism). of Vedic myth and legend, explain key Hindu ideas such as
maya (illusion) and karma (action). The Upanishads were
Karma. The idea of karma is central to Hindu thought. largely a reaction against the ritualistic, sacrificial religious
Karma (which means “action”) involves a kind of moral practices of the Vedics as well as the increasingly power-
cause and effect, in which people’s actions affect their moral ful priest group.
development. An individual's actions and the accumulation According to The Upanishads, human beings do not re-
of merit through these actions determine the form in which alize that what appears real to the senses is entirely illusory,
he or she will be reincarnated; it places responsibility for and that what counts eternally is the spiritual essence of life
one’s thoughts and actions on oneself. The law of karma (Brahman), of which they are a part. The idea of unity and
suggests that the present condition of a person’s life has oneness with the universe becomes central to Upanishad
been determined by actions in previous existences. thought.
Hindu Class Structure. ‘The social structure of ancient The Upanishads typically illustrate the idea of maya and
Indian society derives from and reflects these religious ignorance with a story about a tiger that had been or-
concepts and beliefs, and it is based on the division of so- phaned as a cub and raised among goats. Believing itself to
ciety into four distinct classes, or castes. be a goat, the cub ate grass and made goat noises. One day,
At the top of the social order, the Brahmins serve as another tiger came upon it and took the confused tiger to
Hindu society’s priests, leaders, seers, and religious au- a pool in which his tiger image was reflected. It was then
thorities. Next in rank are the Kshatriyas, who in ancient that the cub realized his true nature. In the same way,
times were Hindu society’s kings and aristocratic warriors, human beings need to realize their true nature, the divin-
but more recently have been its administrators, politicians, ity that resides within all.
and civil authorities. Beneath the Kshatriyas are the The Ramayana. ‘The oldest of Hindu epics, The Ra-
Vaishyas, the society’s entrepreneurs: in ancient times mer- mayana (The Way of Rama) by VALMIKI [val-MIH-kee]
chants and traders, in more recent times also its profes- (sixth century B.C.E.) is also the most popular work of In-
sionals, such as doctors, lawyers, and teachers. The dian literature, and arguably among the most influential lit-
Shudras are Hindu society’s laborers, its servant class. erary works in the world. The story of Prince Rama and
Outcastes, who fall outside the four main castes, are con- his queen, Sita, has its narrative origins in Indian folk tra-
sidered “untouchable” and therefore avoided by members ditions that go back to as early as the seventh century B.C.E.
of other castes. Outcastes are either non-Aryan by birth The Ramayana itself is dated approximately 550 B.C.E.,
or were originally members of the other castes but vio- when Valmiki, much like Homer in ancient Greece, gath-
lated caste laws, such as those regarding work or marriage. ered the various strands of the story into a cohesive work
This hierarchical model of society was later challenged of literature organized in seven kanda, or books.
by certain communities that were based on different reli- Blending historical sagas, myths, legends, and moral
gious ideals, such as the Jains and the Buddhists. The caste tales with religious and social teaching, The Ramayana has
system, however, has continued to be the governing prin- long been the single most important repository of Indian
ciple of Indian society for two thousand years. social, moral, and ethical values.
Devout Hindus believe Rama is one of the two most
important avatars, or incarnations, of the god Vishnu, who
LITERATURE: THE HINDU CLASSICS assumed human form to save humankind. Reading or wit-
The Vedas. The earliest Indian literature was composed nessing a performance of episodes from The Ramayana is
by the Aryans, the nomads who migrated to India around thus considered a religious exercise, as is repeating the
1500 B.c.E. Composed between 1500 and 1000 B.C.E. in name of Rama.
178 CHAPTER 7

Connections

THE LOGIC OF JAINISM the pleasures of life and the practice of cal faith emphasizing virtue, self-control,
ahimsa, not causing harm to any living and nonviolence against all life-forms.
ainism, which arose at the same time thing. Jainism has gained a wide following
as Buddhism, was also a reaction to The ultimate goal in Jainism is also in India, and today the Jains number
Hinduism, particularly the caste system release from the cycle of samsara, but about two million, with an especially
and the claims of the Brahmins to social more than any other Indian religion, it large community in Bombay, where
superiority. Its founder was MAHAVIRA emphasizes self-reliance and responsi- MAHATMA GANDHI [GAHN-dee]
[ma-ha-VEE-rah] (599-527 B.C.E.), which bility for one’s own fate. The individual (1869-1948), the great twentieth-cen-
means “Great Man.” His early life re- must control personal passions in order tury pacifist leader, was influenced by its
sembles that of Sakyamuni, the founder to purify and perfect the soul. The soul tenets. One of the most distinctive fea-
of Buddhism. Born a prince, who, as is hindered by karma, which to the Jains tures of the Jain philosophy is a special
legend has it, was attended by five is not actions, but imperceptible parti- sensitivity to the relativity of all things. A
nurses, “a wet-nurse, a nurse to bathe cles of matter that fill the whole cosmos. favorite Jain parable is the story of the
him, one to dress him, one to play with These bits of karma penetrate the soul six blind men, each of whom puts his
him, and one to carry him,” Mahavira through one’s actions of the mind, body, hands on a different part of an elephant
was raised in the lap of luxury. But as he and speech and wrap themselves around and describes what he feels in totally dif-
grew older, he tired of this life, and at the soul, which must be released from ferent terms—it is like a fan, a wall, a
the age of thirty he joined a band of this mass of particles by annihilating snake, a rope, and so on. In Jainist
monks who practiced an ascetic exis- both old and new karma. The individual thought, each description is satisfactory
tence. But even the monks had too in- can prevent the penetration of karma given each person’s limited knowledge of
dulgent a lifestyle for his taste, and so particles through total isolation, fasting, the whole of the elephant. In one sense,
Mahavira set out on his own, wander- meditation, self-control, and renuncia- an elephant is like a snake, but only in a
ing the Indian countryside entirely tion of the ego. Once free of karma par- very limited way. By extension, all knowl-
naked, maintaining that salvation is pos- ticles, the soul is released from the cycle edge is, from one point of view, true, and,
sible only through severe deprivation of of rebirth. Jainism is a profoundly ethi- from another, false or incomplete.

The Ramayana stands, moreover, as an enduring mon- ever, because Sita has dwelled in another man’s house,
ument and a living guide to political, social, and family life Rama must reject her. Once her innocence is proven, how-
in Vedic India. The behavior of its hero, Prince Rama, ever, Sita is hailed as the embodiment of chasity and fi-
serves as a model for the behavior of the ideal son, brother, delity. She represents the ideal Indian female beauty, and
husband, warrior, and king. Rama’s respect for his father Rama goes on to rule as a wise and compassionate king.
and love for his wife, along with his regal bearing and
self-control, represent the paradigm for Indian males to The Mahabharata. ‘The second great Indian epic is The
emulate. Rama’s behavior is also closely linked to the re- Mahabharata, which was composed over a period of more
ligious values embodied in the epic. His wife Sita loves, than eight hundred years, between 400 B.c.E. and 400 C.E.
honors, and serves her husband with absolute fidelity. In Unlike The Ramayana, which focuses on the adventures of
being governed by dharma (“truth” or “law”) rather than one central hero, The Mahabharata chronicles the story of
self-interest, Rama and Sita stand as models for Hindu life. a pair of rival warring families, the Pandavas and the Kau-
The story of The Ramayana is complex and intricate. ravas. ‘The warlike world of The Mahabharata is more akin
One of its central motifs concerns Rama’s disinheritance, to that of The Iliad, whereas the adventure-filled quest of
which is instigated by the jealous queen, Rama’s step- The Ramayana has more of the character of Homer’s other
mother Kaikeyi, who wants her own son, Bharatha, to be- great epic, The Odyssey. With its hundred thousand verses,
come king instead of Rama. The king, Rama’s father, The Mahabbarata is four times the length of The Ramayana,
reluctantly has his son exiled, but thereafter soon dies, des- and more than eight times that of The Iliad and The Odyssey
olate over Rama’s departure. With his wife, Sita, and his combined. What The Mahabharata lacks in unity and focus,
brother, Lakshmana, Rama lives in the wilderness of cen- however, it makes up for in multiplicity of incident,
tral India. After fourteen years of living in the jungle, Sita breadth of social panorama, and philosophical discursive-
is abducted by the king of the demons, Ravana, who holds ness.
Sita captive for several years before she is rescued by Rama Forming part of the sixth book of The Mahabharata is
with the help of Hanamun and his monkey army. How- the Bhagavad Gita, the section most familiar to Western
 INDIAN CIVILIZATION 179

readers. It is also the epic’s most important source of spir- and monuments to house the possessions and remains of
itual teaching. Written early in the first century B.C.E., the the Buddha.
Bhagavad Gita centers on the moral conflict experienced by
Arjuna, a warrior who struggles with his duty to kill his
kinsmen during the war between the Pandavas and Kau- BUDDHISM
ravas, a great battle that ends in the destruction of both
armies. The historical Buddha was born Siddhartha Gautama Sakya
When Arjuna sees his relatives ready to do battle against (ca. 563-483 B.C.E.), a prince in a kingdom in the foothills
one another, he puts down his weapons and refuses to fight. of the Himalayas, in present-day Nepal. He is also known
His charioteer, Krishna, an avatar of the god Vishnu, ex- as Sakyamuni, meaning “the sage or silent one of the
plains it is Arjuna’s duty to fight: Even though the Hindu Sakya.” At his birth, it was prophesied that Sakyamuni
religion generally prohibits killing, the sanction is lifted would be either a king or a world redeemer. He was raised
for members of Arjuna’s warrior class, the Kshatriyas. He in a princely household, and so as a young man was shel-
also tells Arjuna that fighting can break the karmic cycle tered from pain and suffering. Wanting to experience the
of samsara, the endless cycle of birth, death, and reincar- world beyond the palace walls, he asked his father to allow
nation to which mortal beings are subject, and move him him to see the city. His father arranged an excursion be-
toward spiritual liberation. Arjuna learns that the spirit in fitting the young prince. The king ordered that all com-
which an act is performed counts more than the act itself. moners and those afflicted with ailments be kept out of
Because Arjuna is not fighting to achieve any particular sight so as not to distress the prince. The sick, old, and
goal but only to fulfill his duty, his behavior is irreproach- maimed were also cleared from the prince’s path.
able. Seeing that the city was joyful and the people content,
the prince was delighted. But the gods, in an attempt to in-
cite the prince’s renunciation of the world, led him to an
THE MAURYA PERIOD old man, then a sick man, and then a corpse. Encounter-
ing all these conditions of human existence caused the
In ancient India, each region was politically autonomous. prince to meditate on his experiences. As he pondered what
These regions were governed by small dynasties that re- he had seen, a mendicant monk appeared and explained
mained relatively immune from outside influences and his life as an ascetic. Sakyamuni’s experiences with old age,
challenges. From time to time, however, the governments disease, death, and the monk are referred to as the Four
of individual regions would join together in loose federa- Encounters. The prince decided he would leave his fa-
tions to create empires. One of the earliest and most im- ther’s palace and live the life of an ascetic, searching for a
portant of these was the empire of the Maurya, which way to relieve human suffering.
emerged in response to a power vacuum created by Alexan- Upon leaving the palace, Sakyamuni wandered the
der the Great’s conquest of northern India around countryside and meditated with a group of ascetics for six
326 B.C.E. years. When he realized asceticism would not lead to sal-
CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA [MOW-ya], effec- vation, he rejected this path. Instead, he determined there
tively the first emperor of India, reigned from 324 to 301 must be some path to enlightenment that would not ex-
B.C.E. His empire extended from the Ganges River to the haust one’s body and mind. He sat under a pipal tree
Indus and into the northern mountains. After Chan- (known as the Bodhi tree or tree of wisdom) where he
dragupta’s death, and following the reign of his son vowed not to move until he attained enlightenment. Sakya-
Bindusara, came the most important of Mauryan emper- muni mediated for forty-nine days and nights and was sub-
ors, ASHOKA [a-SHOW-ka], who assumed the throne in ject to numerous distractions by Mara the Tempter, who
269 B.C.E. Lasting nearly forty years (269-232 B.C.E.), sought to destroy Sakyamuni’s concentration and resolve.
Ashoka’s reign marked a critical turning point in Indian Finally, on the night of the full moon, Sakyamuni
history—the emergence of Buddhism as a political force in achieved enlightenment. He then set out to help and ed-
India. Regretting the terrible destruction his armies had ucate others in this path. He gave his first sermon at Deer
wrought in a victorious battle with the armies of a neigh- Park in India, setting into motion the dharma (religious
boring region, Ashoka became a champion of nonviolence truth or law) represented in the Four Noble Truths and
and embraced Buddhism, which had begun to displace the Eightfold Path (listed later).
the more worldly Hinduism three centuries earlier. The Buddha also reiterated the importance of the
The connection between political power and religious Middle Path, rejecting the extremes of both asceticism,
idealism continued throughout Ashoka’s life and for half which only weakens the body and mind, and indulgence,
a century after his death. The emperor sent missionaries, which obstructs wisdom. After forty-five years of preach-
including his daughter and son, throughout India to ing and dedicating himself to others, the Buddha (a word
spread the Buddhist faith. He also had sites marked that derived from the name of the tree under which he first
were of religious and historical significance to Buddhists, achieved enlightenment—the Bo tree, short for Bodhi,
180 CHAPTER 7

meaning “wisdom” or “enlightenment”) died at the age of living according to the goals of Buddhism; right effort;
eighty. right thinking with an emphasis on self-awareness; and the
right use of meditation to achieve enlightenment.
Buddhism versus Hinduism.. Unlike Hinduism, which
developed over many centuries, Buddhism seemed to arise
overnight, even if it took many centuries for a political Maurya ART
leader to adopt it. Buddhists challenged Hindu religious The earliest large and significant body of Indian art ex-
practice in a number of ways. Sakyamuni’s followers ar-
tant today dates from the Maurya period, chiefly from the
gued that the caste of Brahmins was granted too much
reign of the emperor Ashoka. Much of this work was cre-
power and given too many privileges. The forms of ritual
ated to celebrate Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism. Ashoka
had become, they believed, devoid of meaning, and were
ordered the construction of numerous stupas, or memo-
debased by being linked with commercial transactions.
rial buildings, that enshrined relics of the Buddha, mark-
Hindu philosophical thought had become excessively in-
ing sites sacred to his memory. Many of the eighty
tricate and arcane, and consequently increasingly discon-
thousand or more stupas erected during Ashoka’s reign
nected from everyday spiritual life. Religious mystery had
were dedicated to the Buddha and his miracles. Later, stu-
degenerated into mystification and magic. Superstition
pas were used for burial of the remains of sacred monks.
and divination had replaced miracle and true mysticism.
Perhaps worst of all, too many people had come to believe The Sarnath Capital. Ashoka also had a large number of
their actions did not matter, that whatever they believed stone columns built to memorialize significant events in
they would be caught up in samsara, the endless cycle of the Buddha’s life. Carved into many of these, as well as
rebirth, from which escape was impossible. into rocks and caves, were edicts that promoted various
Buddhists responded to this by providing an alterna- aspects of the Buddhist creed. The stone pillars usually
tive religious practice in which each individual had to find had capitals, often carved in the forms of animals, usually
her or his own way to enlightenment. So devoid of the no- lions. One of the most magnificent of these is a beautifully
tion of higher authority is Buddhism that it was originally preserved lion capital (fig. 7.3) from a pillar at Sarnath that
a religion without a god. There is only enlightenment. dates from about 250 B.C.E.
Furthermore, ritual is an irrelevant diversion from the real The Sarnath capital consists of three elements. On top
work of achieving enlightenment. The Buddha taught that of a Persian-style fluted bell are four animals, bull, horse,
it need not take hundreds of lifetimes or thousands of rein- elephant, and lion, walking around in a clockwise direc-
carnations to break out of the round of existence. A de- tion, and four wheels carved in relief. The animals may
termined individual could achieve enlightenment in a have directional significance, and they appear to be keep-
single lifetime and so attain nirvana, that is, liberation ing the wheels in motion, turning around the pillar. Above
from the limitations of existence and rebirth in the cycle these elements are four lions carved back to back all the
of samsara. way around the capital. The stylization of the lions’ facial
As a result of these new objectives, early Buddhism had features and claws, along with the decorative handling of
few of the characteristics of traditional religions. It posited their manes and upper torsos, is similar to that of the lion
no creation or last judgment. It presented no revelation sculptures at Persepolis, a city destroyed by Alexander the
from a god. Instead, it emphasized the here and now. Great before his invasion of northern India. As described
in Chapter 3, Alexander’s forces made an enduring cul-
The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
tural impression on the region. It is highly likely there-
Buddhist thought is based on an analysis of the human
fore that either Persian sculptors or Persian-trained Greek
condition founded on four basic axioms or truths. These
sculptors created this capital, which marks a dramatic
principles have come to be known as the Four Noble
growth in the style, complexity, and beauty of Indian
Truths:
sculpture.
1. Life consists of suffering, impermanence, imperfec- The seven-foot sculpture was originally surmounted by
tion, incompleteness. a large stone wheel on the lions’ shoulders. This capital
2. The cause of life’s suffering is selfishness. (now used as the emblem of the modern Republic of India)
3. Suffering and selfishness can be brought to an end.
is highly symbolic. Hailing from a period during which
4. The answer to life’s problems of suffering is the
Eightfold Path. Buddhist art avoided representing the Buddha directly, the
Sarnath lion capital suggests his presence in other ways.
The Eightfold Path itself consists of knowledge of these The wheel symbolizes the wheel of the law (the dharma)
Four Noble Truths, the first step on the path, followed by and the Buddha’s sermon at Deer Park in Sarnath where
seven other steps: right aspiration toward the goal of en- this capital was located. The wheel is also a symbol of cos-
lightenment; right speech that is honest and charitable; mic order in Upanishad thought, representing the flow of
right conduct—no drinking, killing, lying, or lust; right life and all that is possible. The lion itself is the Persian
 INDIAN CIVILIZATION 181

symbol of royalty and may have been borrowed in this

The Great Stupa at Sanchi. Many of the stupas (burial
context to represent Ashoka. The lion is also a symbol of
mounds containing the relics of the Buddha) erected by
Sakyamuni’s clan, and the Buddha is often referred to as
Ashoka were enlarged by subsequent dynasties in the sec-
having a “lion’s roar.” Thus Ashoka’s edicts carved on the
ond and first centuries B.C.E. For instance, at Sanchi in
pillars, and the lions roaring, proclaim the Buddha’s words
central India, Ashoka had built a stupa sixty feet in diam-
concretely and symbolically.
eter and twenty-five feet high. The Andhras, who ruled in
the region toward the end of the first century B.C.E., dou-
FiGurRE 7.3 Lion capital of a pillar erected by Ashoka at Sar- bled its size (fig. 7.4). They replaced Ashoka’s wooden
nath, Mauryan, ca. 250 B.C.E., Chunar sandstone, height i: : railings with new stone ones nine feet high. A sixteen-
(2.15 m), Archaeological Magee Sarnath. This lion anal foot-high passage encircling the stupa was also added. At
reveres the lion as king of the animal world while honoring the the very top of the stupa are three umbrellas (chattras)
Buddha as king lion among religious teachers. that symbolize protection of the objects below. The um-
brellas are positioned on a central axis (yasti), which is the
most important symbol of the stupa because it represents
the world axis, a concept similar to Ashoka’s pillars.
However, the architectural glories of the Sanchi stupa
are four carved stone gates, each of which is more than
thirty feet high (fig. 7.5). Begun during the first century
B.C.E., but only completed during the first century C.E.,
the gates are adorned with symbols associated with the
Buddha, including the wheel of the law, stories from his
life, and tales of his animal incarnations. Additional fig-
ures include elephants, peacocks, and yakshis, or protec-
tive female earth spirits.
The Sanchi stupa symbolizes the cosmos, its four gates
ee Dew representing the four corners of the universe. Its umbrella
vn t@Hf main points toward the sky, linking heaven with earth and a life
of bliss with that of pain and suffering below. Entering the
eastern gate of the stupa, a visitor would move clockwise
in a circle around it on a path especially constructed for
that purpose. Even though the stupa can not be entered di-
rectly, like Hindu temples it invites worshipers to enter
into a spiritual state of mind.

MAURYAN TO BACTRIAN
TO KUSHAN
During its decline, the Mauryan empire suffered from
acute economic difficulties attributable to its large and
salaried core of administrators. By about 185 B.C.E., the
Mauryan empire had disappeared, and yet India’s local
rulers maintained order in various large regions of the In-
dian subcontinent. Among the most important of these
was the Bactrian kingdom of northwest India, which came
under the rule of the imperial heirs of Alexander of Mace-
don, who had blended with local populations and who had
invaded northern India in the early second century B.C.E.
Bactria was a vibrant center of trade that had commercial
links with China to the east and the Mediterranean to the
west. The northern region of Gandhara became a center
of both commercial and cultural exchange, promoting
cross-cultural East-West interaction.
FIGURE 7.4 Great Stupa, Sanchi, from the east, third century B.C.E.—early first century C.E.
For the increasing numbers of Buddhist faithful, the stupa became a central symbol of reli-
gious faith.

FIGURE 7.5 Gate of the Great Stupa, Sanchi, inner facade of

the north gate, third century B.C.E.— early first century C.E., stone,
height 34’ (10.35 m), Depicted on the columns and cross beams
of this large stone gate are events in the life of the Buddha and
stories from the Jataka tales.
182
 INDIAN CIVILIZATION 183

By the end of the first century B.C.E., nomadic con- bling Roman togas with deep ridges and their faces re-
querors from central Asia defeated the Indo-Greek king- vealing Apollo-like features. However, these early artists
dom in Bactria. Rule was established by the Kushan made sure these figures could be clearly identified as the
emperors, whose kingdom spread from modern-day Buddha. He can be distinguished by thirty-two physical
Pakhistan and Afghanistan, across northern India to Gu- characteristics (laksana), the three most identifiable being:
jurat and the central part of the Ganges River valley. Like
their Bactrian predecessors, the Kushan rulers contributed Ushnishna: the cranial protuberance signifying sym-
to the silk road commercial network, in large part by en- bolic omniscient power.
suring peace in the region between Persia and China. Urna: the round mark in the center of his forehead
As nomads, the Kushan had no artistic legacy of their symbolizing the power to illuminate the world.
own, so once they were settled in the northern frontier of Elongated ears: the result of the heavy earrings worn
Afghanistan they adopted foreign traditions, most notably during his princely days. The removal of the earrings
Greco-Roman forms of sculpture. As they gained power, symbolizes his renunciation of the material world.
they entered Northwest India and adopted Buddhism,
building monasteries and stupas. Most significantly, how- The Kushan are also credited with the creation of the
ever, they applied the Greco-Roman sculptural aesthetic to first bodhisattva figures. Bodhisattvas are regal, elegant
Buddhist imagery and they are often credited with com- beings with princely bearing who have attained enlight-
missioning the first iconic (anthropomorphic) images of enment but who choose to remain in this world in order
the Buddha (fig. 7.6). to help others on their path to enlightenment. Bodhisattvas
Instead of a spiritually inspirational mortal never de- represent fully compassionate beings. Popular mainly in
picted artistically in human form, the Buddha was now a northern India, this new Mahayana form of Buddhism
deity on which followers could focus their devotion. These spread rapidly to China, Japan, and Korea, along the trade
iconographic images appear as translations of Greco- routes that ran through India’s mountain passes.
Roman sculpture, their traditional monks’ robes resem-

THE GUPTA ERA

FIGURE 7.6 Seated Buddha, from Gandhara, Peshawar Dis-
trict (Pakistan), Kushan, second-third century C.E., dark gray Of the ancient Indian empires that developed from this
schist. 555” X 273" X 64" (89.53 X 68.67 X 15.88 cm). The period, the most important was that of the Gupta, which
Adolph D. and Wilkins C. Williams Fund. Katherine Wetzel/ lasted from the fourth to the sixth century C.E. During the
Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond. This Buddha figure reign of the Guptas, India flourished culturally and com-
exhibits grace, calm, and elegance. mercially. Significant scientific discoveries were made; im-
portant developments occurred in literature, music,
sculpture, and painting. In terms of Indian cultural
achievements, the Gupta era is comparable to Periklean
Athens, Han China, and Augustan Rome. It was during
the reign of Chandra Gupta II (r. 375-415 C.E.), for ex-
ample, that the cave paintings at Ajanta were undertaken.
The Gupta empire eventually collapsed under repeated
onslaughts by the Huns, who had previously invaded and
conquered the Roman world. Regional autonomy was
reestablished as the empire became increasingly fractured.
From early in the eighth century, Islamic influences began
to appear in India, culminating five hundred years later
when northern India and the Ganges area fell directly
under Turkish Islamic control. Buddhism was eclipsed to
a large extent, and as Hinduism gradually reasserted itself,
it became mixed with Muslim influences.

GuPTA ART
Gupta art has become associated with the deeply spiri-
tual figure of the Buddha, standing with equanimity, eyes
half closed in meditation. Whether standing or seated,
Buddhas sculpted in the Gupta Buddhist style appear
calm, their worldly cares replaced by an inner tranquil-
lity that suggests otherworldliness. Purely Indian ideals
184 CHAPTER 7

of spirituality were never more fully expressed than in

Gupta sculpture. India was no longer under the aesthetic
influence of the Roman empire, and native artists were
free to develop forms featuring native aesthetics and
spiritual richness. Gupta-period sculpture is described as
“classical” in terms of its perfection of beauty and expres-
sion. The spiritual ideals of the Buddha are now fully bal-
anced and harmonized with the physical manifestations of
the Buddha figure.
In the “Standing Buddha” (fig. 7.7), the heavy Greco-
Roman-style robe of the Kushan period piece, with its
deeply carved drapery folds, is replaced by a sheer robe
with drapery abstracted into thin strings cascading
rhythmically down the body. The face is softer, more
serene, and the compassion of the figure shows through
with a lightness and spiritual dignity indicative of Gupta
sculpture. There is also an emphasis on the body be-
neath the robe, which is a very Indian aesthetic, creating
a sense oflife breath (prana) that is important in Indian
culture.
As in all sculptural representations of the Buddha, the
hands are highly symbolic. Different hand gestures
(mudra) are used to convey different messages to the
viewer. This figure reaches forward with his right hand
(now missing) in the abhaya mudra, a sign of reassurance,
blessing, and protection. His left hand drops to his side in
the varada mudra, signifying charity and the fulfillment of
all wishes. Other mudra include the dharmachakra mudra,
a sign of teaching in which the hands make a circle with the
thumb and forefinger, a reference to the wheel of dharma
and the Buddha’s first sermon at Deer Park. The mudra
most familiar to Westerners is the dhyana mudra, in which
the hands rest on the Buddha’s lap, palms facing upward.
A gesture of meditation and harmony, it symbolizes the
path to enlightenment.
The political and cultural unity of the Gupta era gave
rise to a luxurious aristocratic culture that culminated in
the rich aesthetic at Ajanta, where a series of about thirty
caves were cut into the side of a 80-meter cliff running
from east to west for 600 meters. At Ajanta, the sensuous
physical beauty associated with Indian art now symbol-
izes spiritual beauty as well. The main cave was originally
covered with paintings, including the ceiling. The paint-
ings describe the various lives and incarnations of the Bud-
dha as narrated in the Jataka tales. The central Buddha
sculpture is flanked by two painted bodhisattva figures
forming a trinity. The facial features of the bodhisattvas
FIGURE 7.7 Standing Buddha, from Mathura, Gupta, late
Padmapani and Avalokitesvera are serene, reflecting the fourth-early fifth century C.E., red sandstone, height 73"
embodiment of compassion. Padmapani is shown hold- (2.17 m), National Museum, New Delhi. The elegance of this
ing a blue lotus and standing in the classic tribhanga standing figure, especially its calm serenity, characterizes the
sculptural pose (fig. 7.8), in which the figure stands, his Gupta Buddhist style of sculpture.
body in a slight S-curve, with his weight on one leg.
Gupta-period Buddhist images were to influence the de-
velopment of Buddhist art throughout Southeast Asia and
the Far East.
 INDIAN CIVILIZATION 185

This is quite different from the spirit and flavor of the

Pancatantra, in which the behavior of its animal heroes is
more self-serving and pragmatic. Pancatantra, which means
“the five strategies,” suggests the book’s pragmatic incli-
nation. Composed during the second or third century C.E.,
the stories are linked so one story is joined to another in
a continuous chain. This is similar to the connected sto-
ries of The Thousand and One Nights (see Chapter 6), which
may have been influenced by the Pancatantra. The authors
of the Jataka and the Pancatantra provide fast-moving ac-
tion, witty dialogue, and memorable counsel in stories that
entertain as they instruct, be that in Buddhist spirituality
or in more worldly wisdom.

HINDU DYNASTIES
la on © ml @)

Although Buddhism flourished during the Gupta era, the

Gupta monarchs themselves were increasingly attracted
to Hinduism. Temples and sculptures of Hindu gods began
to appear, and they continued to proliferate well into the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, when Muslim kings from
Persia took control of most of the subcontinent. Particu-
larly in the south, where the warring Hindu dynasties of
the Pallavas and the Cholas vied for power, a long period
of great artistic production was set in motion, marked both
by decorated temples, rich in stone sculpture, and by the
rise of bronze as a favored medium for sculpture.

FIGURE 7.8 Bodhisattva Padmapani, Ajanta caves, Gupta, late THE HINDU TEMPLE
fifth century C.E., wall painting. Oblivious to the figures that
The structures and designs of Hindu temples were estab-
surround him, this bodhisattva is encircled in an other-worldly
lished in the series of ancient texts called shastras. These
light, created by the burnishing of the painting’s outer coating
with a smooth stone. function as guides to many different activities, not just
temple building, and include advice on cooking, warfare,
love-making, poetry, and music. The guides to architec-
ture, especially those concerning temple architecture, do
not always concur in every detail with actual temple con-
struction.
THE JATAKA AND THE PANCATANTRA ‘Temples in the south are better preserved than north-
Ancient Indian literature contains many folktales and an- ern temples, since the Muslim incursion into India was
imal stories. One of the most important collections of early most destructive in the north. One of the most magnificent
stories is the Fataka, which means “the story of a birth,” and largest of medieval Hindu temples and one in an ex-
consisting of 547 tales that describe the lives the Buddha ceptional state of preservation is the Kandariya Mahadeo
passed through before achieving enlightenment. The temple at Khajuraho, dating from the eleventh century
Pancatantra is a group of didactic stories, designed with (fig. 7.9). As with many temples of that period, it forms
the practical aim of providing advice about getting on in part of a cluster of temples in the area.
the world. The Kandariya Mahadeo temple is situated on a high
One of the most famous tales of the fourth-century masonry platform that emphasizes height and verticality;
B.C.E., Jataka describes a hare who sacrifices itself to feed the sikhara (tower) rises over thirty meters from the base
a hungry brahmin. The tale’s action reveals the hare to be of the temple. The temple’s profile reveals its symbolism
a bodhisattva in the form of an animal. Like another Jataka as a mountain with intricate domelike roofs that rise in a
hero, a monkey who gives up his life for others, the hare crescendo of grandeur. Equally compelling is the vibrancy
displays the perfection of spiritual being in a completely and richness of their surface ornamentation. The richly
selfless act. decorated walls include over six hundred sculptures on the
186 CHAPTER 7

FIGURE 7.9 Kandariya Mahadeo temple, Khajuraho, Chandella, ca. 1025-50. This temple’s
tower soars more than a hundred feet into the air, its eighty-four subordinate towers providing
a visual display of majestic grandeur.

exterior and two hundred on the interior, dominating the of this icon exist—strict rules governing its production
overall aesthetic. Niches and screens, pillars and openings, have resulted in a remarkable consistency across individ-
pavilions and courtyards enhance the splendor of the ed- ual instances—and it continues to be produced in south-
ifice. Adorning the temple is a wealth of sculpture that de- ern India to this day. The icon depicts the dancing Shiva
picts historical and mythological subjects, such as the as creator and destroyer of the universe, symbolized by
monarchs who reigned during the temple’s construction; the ring of flames around him. With his hair flying out in
the Surasun-daris, or divine nymphs, in amatory poses; two directions, and his arms and legs seemingly in mo-
figures of dancers and musicians; mothers with children; tion, the dancing Shiva crushes Apasmarapurusha, the
lovers; women adjusting their hair; and a vast array of other demon of ignorance, promising relief from life’s illusori-
images. ness, and also offering reassurance and blessing in the
abhaya mudra of his front right hand. This dance is said to
herald the last night of the world, when all the stars fall
SCULPTURE from the sky and the universe is reduced to ashes. But the
dance promises the renewal of creation itself.
Bronze was the medium most favored by the southern In-
dian Chola dynasties from the tenth to the twelfth cen-
turies. Chola sculptors employed the cire perdue, or
HINDU LyrIc POETRY
lost-wax process. In this technique, a model of the sub-
ject was first made in wax, which is easy to mold. The wax The poetry of the twelfth-century mystic MAHADE-
model was then encased in clay and heated; the wax melted VIYAKKA [ma-ha-de-VEE-ha-ka], the foremost Indian
but the clay did not. Holes were made in the clay surround woman poet before the modern era, represents the quin-
before it was heated, however, to permit the wax to run tessential medieval genre of bhakti, or devotional religious
out. The hollow clay case was then filled with molten poetry. Bhakti poetry was part of a larger movement in
bronze. When the bronze cooled and hardened, the clay which the poets were recognized as saints and celebrated
was broken away, leaving a finished bronze cast. as models of religious devotion. Their poems honored the
The Shiva Nataraja (Lord ofthe Dance) (fig. 7.11) is per- chief Hindu gods Shiva and Vishnu, especially the latter’s
haps the most famous of Hindu icons. Numerous examples major avatars Krishna and Rama.
 INDIAN CIVILIZATION 187

oF hen & No:

MUSLIM INDIA many Indians to adopt the Islamic faith. pearl from the Indian Ocean were used
Especially around Delhi and Agra, where in its lavish detail. The landscape setting
Jslam arrived in India as early as the the Muslim rulers held sway, Islam took continues the formal concern with sym-
Jeighth century, but it was not until the firm hold and was responsible for creat- metry: The building is reflected in a long
twelfth century that it began to have a ing some of the greatest monuments of pool flanked by rows of small trees and
powerful impact on the subcontinent. In Indian culture. shrubs. The Taj Mahal is celebrated for
1192, the Afghan king Muhammad of The most famous building in India is its exquisite refinement and enchanting
Ghur, invading from the north by land, the Taj Mahal (fig. 7.10), in Agra, built elegance.
defeated the Hindus. After initial fight- 1630-48 by the Muslim Shah Jahan as a By the twentieth century, relations
ing, a spirit of peaceful coexistence lasted mausoleum for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. between India’s Hindus and Muslims had
for several centuries. But no two reli- Some 20,000 workers took nearly twenty reached crisis point, and in 1947, after a
gions could be more different than years to build the Taj, including trans- violent and bloody partition, the inde-
Hinduism and Islam. Hinduism is suffi- porting thousands of white marble pendent Muslim state of Pakistan was
ciently loose in its religious structure to blocks 120 miles. born, consisting of two separate areas:
allow great divergences in spiritual be- The Taj Mahal’s white marble walls West Pakistan, with its capital at Islam-
liefs and practices, whereas Islam con- are deeply cut with arched recesses that abad near the Khyber Pass on the Indus
trols almost every aspect of daily life. But catch shadows, creating a three-dimen- River, and East Pakistan (which seceded
where Hinduism is intellectually liberal sional facade. The building appears to be from the union in 1971 to become
and Islam conservative, the opposite is weightless, the dome floating like a bal- Bangladesh), with its capital at Dacca.
true socially. The social restrictions of loon. Decoration includes floral relief The fifty million Muslims who were left
Hinduism’s caste system, in contrast to carving and gray stone inlay. Jade and in India became an official minority with
the possibilities of social mobility and crystal from China, lapis lazuli from the right to be represented in the Indian
equality offered by Islam, may have led Afghanistan, and coral and mother of parliament.

FIGURE 7.10 Taj Mahal, Agra, 1630-48. This mausoleum

was built by Shah Jahan for his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The
white marble domes seem to reach heavenward while they are
reflected in the long pool of water.
188 CHAPTER 7

is first lost, then found, and serves, with the aid of gods
and sages, to reunite the lovers in a happy ending.
Like all Sanskrit plays, Sakuntala ends happily because
that is what the dramatic tradition requires. Ancient San-
skrit drama thus differs strongly from ancient Greek
drama, which often ends tragically. Tragedy, however, is
alien to the Hindu conception of the universe, in which
history is cyclical and in which human action is based on
karma rather than on character and destiny, as in Greek
drama.

MusIc
Indian music is essentially melodic. Harmony is present
only as a backdrop, in the form of the continuous sound-
ing of a single tone; the complex melody is elaborated over
the top. Indian music is rarely written out formally as a
score. This independence from notation offers performers
great interpretive latitude, allowing them the opportunity
to improvise creatively and develop the mood of the pieces
they play. The music is typically performed by a soloist,
who plays or sings the melody; a drummer, who supplies
the rhythm; and a third player, who provides the drone
chord, which is a single three-note chord sounded con-
FIGURE 7.11 Shiva Nataraja (Lord of the Dance), Chola, tinuously throughout the piece, usually on the lutelike
eleventh-twelfth centuries, bronze, height 32 3" (82 cm), Von tambura.
der Heydt Collection, Museum Rietherg, Zurich. The most Although also serving a purpose as entertainment, In-
famous of Hindu icons, the dancing Shiva is both the creator dian music is rich in religious associations. Hindu deities,
and destroyer of the universe.
for example, are frequently evoked in classical dance and
songs. Moreover, it is not uncommon for musicians to con-
sider their performance an act of religious devotion.
Bhakti devotional poetry is rooted in deeply felt emo- The most important instrument in the performance of
tion. As with the mystical and devotional poetry of other Indian music is the human voice. With its great flexibility
cultures, it uses colloquial language and draws on imagery and expressiveness, the voice provides a model for other in-
from everyday experience in an attempt to convey a sense struments. As in the Western classical tradition, singers of
of earthly longing for the divine. Like the poems of the Indian music are trained to perform an extensive range of
English Renaissance poet John Donne (see Chapter 14), vocal intricacies. These vocal acrobatics include modula-
those of Mahadeviyakka employ images of physical love tions of pitch involving many more tones than those of
and experience to convey a sense of spirituality. Mahade- standard Western musical scales.
viyakka’s poetry also exhibits a carefree, daredevil attitude The sitar is a lute-shaped instrument with an extended
that is, perhaps surprisingly, not at odds with a deep long- neck and movable frets that enable performers to produce
ing for communion with the godhead. an enormous number of tones. The standard sitar has five
melody strings, two drone strings, and a dozen or more
sympathetic strings beneath them. These lower strings are
not struck with the fingers or a plectrum like the others.
INDIAN DRAMA: KALIDASA’S SAKUNTALA
Instead, they vibrate in sympathy with those actually
Kalidasa (fourth to fifth centuries C.E.) is best known as played, lending the music an enriched shimmering sound.
the author of Sakuntala and the Ring ofRecollection, usually The sitar is the chief instrument used in playing ragas,
referred to by its short title, Sakuntala. Kalidasa flourished musical compositions based on one of the eight primary
during the classical era of the Guptas, between 390 and rasas—moods or flavors—of Indian aesthetics: love,
470. The plot of this most beloved of Indian plays was courage, hatred, anger, mirth, terror, pity, and surprise, all
adapted from the Mahabharata. The play tells the story of of which are balanced in tranquility. Ragas can also be ex-
the beautiful maiden Sakuntala, who is first seen in the pressed in painting and poetry. A raga, then, is a work of
woodland hermitage of the King Dusyanta, who falls in art that conveys a distinct impression (the word raga means
love with her. The ring of the title figures in the plot as it “passion” or “feeling”). Because of their highly specific
 INDIAN CIVILIZATION 189

Oram Cribad
hes

RAVI SHANKAR AND PHILIP GLASS hypnotic rhythmic style of his own. The
music he began to compose consisted of
Bx in Baltimore in 1937, American the rhythmic units he had heard in
composer Philip Glass was trained at Shankar’s work, with simple and appar-
the Julliard School of Music in New York. ently arbitrarily chosen notes or pitches
He was frustrated with the state of con- strung together in cyclical groups. The
temporary music until, in the 1960s, he repetitiveness of the musical form sug-
was hired to work on the soundtrack for gests the drone chord of the raga.
Chappaqua, a now-forgotten alternative The culmination of the Indian con-
film. His job was to take the improvised nection in Glass’s music was his opera
Indian ragas of Indian musician RAVI Satyagraha, first performed in Rotter-
SHANKAR [SHAN-kah] (b. 1920) (fig. dam, Holland, in 1980. The work con-
7.12) and transcribe them into Western sists of several stories from the life of the
musical notation, so Western musicians young Mahatma Gandhi, the great paci-
could perform them on the soundtrack. fist and political and spiritual leader who
Glass was particularly impressed with the led the campaign to free India from
background drone chord of the raga. He British rule. The work’s title, Satyagraba,
thought it was made up of units of two means “holding fast to the truth” and
and three notes that formed long chains refers to Gandhi’s nonviolent method of
FIGURE 7.12 Ravi Shankar playing the
of modular rhythmic patterns. He was in noncooperation and civil disobedience. sitar, Life magazine, 1958. The sitar is a
fact entirely wrong in terms of musicol- Slow and meditative in its rhythm, the lute-shaped instrument with an extended
ogy, but it led him, as misreadings so music evokes the image of Gandhi sit- neck and moveable frets that enable per-
often can, to invent his own distinct mu- ting in protest as he fasted and medi- formers to produce a wide range of scale
sical style. He traveled to India many tated, in full confidence that India would tones.
times and gradually developed an almost eventually triumph.

Critical Thinking
SACRED Cows example, the concept of social security, a to change these policies. What are some
system in which workers make monetary other sacred cows? You might think of
A ccording to Hinduism, cows are sa- contributions during their working lives social, political, economic, religious, or
cred and thus not to be killed for so that they can collect a modest monthly other cultural beliefs and behaviors that
their meat. Cows wander the streets of stipend when they retire, is considered a through tradition have become solidified
Indian towns and villages unharmed. The metaphorical sacred cow. In France, the such that it is difficult if not impossible
expression “a sacred cow” has come to idea of a guaranteed job from which it is to challenge or change them. What are
refer to an idea or concept in a culture almost impossible to be fired is another some benefits and drawbacks of such sa-
that is not permitted to be harmed or example of such a conceptual sacred cow. cred cows?
tampered with. In the United States, for Politicians in both countries are reluctant
190 CHAPTER 7

Cultural Impact
nlike the Chinese Tang and Song Like Islam, Hinduism emerged as an im- on the American transcendentalist writer
dynasties and the Islamic Umayyad portant popular religious faith within the Henry David Thoreau, who alludes to it
and Abbasid dynasties, India’s political or- Indian subcontinent. In addition, Indian in his book Walden. The Bhagavad Gita,
ganization was not centralized. India’s merchants helped establish not only Hin- moreover, has also served as inspiration
traditions, although centered on Hin- duism, but Buddhism and Islam as well for political and social action as well as a
duism, found room for other religious de- in Southeast Asia. stimulus for the practice of nonviolent
velopments such as Buddhism. Like other The most significant legacy of ancient resistance, made famous in the twenti-
societies, India experienced cultural India is its Hindu religious heritage. The eth century by Mahatma Gandhi in India
change, with Indian traditions influenc- Bhagavad Gita, for example, has become and by Martin Luther King, Jr., in the
ing and being influenced by cultural and famous well beyond the borders of India. United States during the civil rights
religious developments in other lands. This ancient text had a decisive influence struggle in the 1960's.

character, ragas are typically associated with a particular mally composed musical section for a solo instrument with
Hindu deity, a particular time of day or season of the year, a percussion accompaniment. The final section is an im-
or a particular religious festival. provisation on the composed music with many returns of
A standard musical raga form includes an improvised the theme, in a form loosely comparable to the rondo (or
prelude or introductory section called an alap, played in a returning theme) of Western music. Toward the end of a
free tempo. The purpose of the alap is to introduce the raga performance, the emphasis shifts from melodic elab-
spirit and mood of the raga. The alap is followed by a for- oration to a display of the performer’s own virtuosity.
 INDIAN CIVILIZATION 191

KEY TERMS
intaglio ~ samsara chattras Pancatantra
momad karma yasti shastras
Ramet Outcastes yakshis sikhara
Wedas maya laksana Surasun-daris
Poeda kanda ushnishna cire perdue/\ost-wax process
ho hinan Jainism urna bhakti
Wishaw Buddhism bodhisattva tambura
Pach Middle Path prana sitar
Avatar Bodhi mudra ragas
(eee nirvana Jataka rasas
Chive stupa tribhanga alap

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

hitp://www.gosai.com/links/india-links. html
(This is a good source for the Vedic culture, with many links.)
http://mcel.pacificu.edu/as/students/cgono/siddhartha.
html
(This site has an excellent history of Buddhism.)
http: //www.indiantravelportal.com/temples//index.html
(This site covers many general topics of all things Indian.)
 CHAPTER 8

ies,

a 2 ca. 1050-221 BCE Zhou dynasty

. 2 6048.c£ — Looziborn
f s 551-479 B.C. Confucius lives
a 2218.c& Qin dynasty (221-206 8.c..) first unites China
| 206-220. Han dynasty
3-AN a, 220-590 Ce _ Buddhism spreads
a e ca. 350 Ce. Six Dynasties
* “%; 460-70 c£. Buddha of Yun Kang
oth centuryGE Buddhism introduced to Japan from China
ees 6 8-907ce. ‘Tang dynasty
y i——907-60ce Civil war
Af a ss a Cs 7 960-1279 Song dynasty
: ss - eh asl271c£ Marco Polo arrives in Hangzhou
: ae imace,1281CE Mongol attacks under Kublai Khan

~ ‘=e Eieee ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE

sat th century ;C&. Fang ding
. ;ae ‘ 43308 Bronze bells
§ Jsa “{ Pas
oa. 970:ce. Zhu Jan, Seeking the Tao in the Autumn Mountains
ees ee 1072Ce Guo Xi, Early Spring
ae
‘ re i <i & LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY
we a i 7 ~ 6048.ce ——Tao Te Ching composed
\ Zz : 551-479 B.C. Analects composed
\‘ 3 “6thcentury B.C Book of Songs compiled
f ar 220-590 c£. Midnight Songs composed
: CS ; 365-427 ca. —-‘Tao Qian lives and writes poems
i: “4 em 699-761 ca. Wang Wei lives and writes poems
: > ——«* 701-762 co. —L Bai lives and writes poems
fe ee 712-770 co. —_—Du Fu lives and writes poems

e&
 +

Li Song, The Red Cliff, Southern Song dynasty (1127-1279). Album leaf mounted as a hanging scroll, ink and color on silk,
ivory roller. 93 x 103” (25 X 26 cm), Robert Newcombe/The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art. Kansas City, Missouri.

193
 1000 1500 Miles
[J Han Empire, ca. A.D. 2
000 1500 Kilometers — Silk Road
—— Other trade routes
| --=~ Great Wall of China ;

Lake ‘
Baikal

Lake
ARAL Balkash
SEA

Kokand
Samarkand

oe . (Le
Barbaricum 7ages
RR

at

4 PACIFIC
w OCEAN

INDIAN
OCEAN

Map 8.1 Han China and the Silk Road.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

THE EARLY DYNASTIES

THE EARLY DYNASTIES The ancient Shang people inhabited the central Yel-
low River Valley area of China and developed the most
THE SHANG AND ZHOU DYNASTIES advanced technology of the Chinese Bronze Age. The
ruler of the Shang state had a quasi-divine status, which
@ HINA IS THE WORLD’S OLDEST CIVILIZATION, tracing was honored by the people in ritual ceremonies and
: its roots back as far as the fifth millennium B.C.E., al- through serving the ruler in war. The talents of Shang
“—/ though the earliest of the Chinese eras for which craftworkers were also deployed in honoring their god-
archaeological evidence has been found is that of the Shang king rulers.
dynasty, dating from ca. 1600 B.c.E. The Shang dynasty it- Although the oldest Shang cities discovered so far were
self was long believed to be only legend and myth, until its at Erlitou (2000 B.C.E.) and ZHENGZHOU [Zheng-
existence was verified through twentieth-century excava- JOE] (1600 B.c.k.), it is the later city site of Anyang (ca.
tions. These have yielded not only ancient artifacts but also 1384-1111 B.c.E.) that has yielded the majority of Shang
the oldest examples of Chinese writing, utilizing a separate artifacts. At Anyang, archaeologists have found rich bur-
graph (character) for each word. This written language has ial sites, but no city walls or dwellings, leading them to
remained virtually unchanged for centuries, uniting a coun- believe Anyang may have been a royal burial site for an-
try about the size of the United States, where the spoken other city.
form of the language has varied so much that it cannot be The Shang kings ruled until about eleventh century
understood from region to region. B.C.E., when the Zhou people came from the northwest
194
 EARLY CHINESE CIVILIZATION 195

and conquered them. The new Zhou dynasty (ca. eleventh found hidden within the surface patterns of most Shang
century—221 B.C.E.) then introduced organized agricul- and Zhou period bronzes. The creature can most easily
ture, which replaced the Shang emphasis on hunting. The be found by locating its two eyes, then deciphering the
Zhou established a feudal society—in which land was rest of its facial features.
granted to someone by the king or an overlord in return Such bronze objects remained of great importance
for support in war and loyalty—with the Zhou king ruling throughout the Zhou period that followed. In addition to
as a “Tien,” or “Son of Heaven.” The principles of soci- being buried in graves, bronzes were now also used to
etal relationships that the Zhou formulated were to influ- honor the living, as inscriptions carved in their bases in-
ence later Chinese civilization, and they can be found in dicate. One indication of the great wealth of the Zhou
such Chinese classics as the Book of Odes and the Book of rulers is the monumental carillon, consisting of sixty-five
Ritual. Yet although the Zhou modified the social and re- bronze bells, discovered in the tomb of Marquis Yi of
ligious practices of the Shang, they adopted other aspects Zheng (fig. 8.2). Each of the bells, believed to have been
of Shang culture, in particular the Shang use of bronze used in rituals to communicate with the supernatural, pro-
casting and their decorative techniques. duces two quite distinct tones when struck near the cen-
ter or at the rim.
Shang and Zhou Bronzes. Although jade and glazed
pottery artifacts dating from the Shang dynasty have been
found, by far the most numerous and important Shang ar-
tifacts are made of bronze. These, buried with the dead, CHINESE PHILOSOPHY
were presumably meant to serve the king or nobleman in
CONFUCIANISM
his future life. The fang ding (fig. 8.1) was used for storing
food and wine for social and religious ceremonial func- ‘Toward the middle of the Zhou dynasty, the two great
tions. The emphasis on animal motifs, which is typical of philosophical and religious traditions indigenous to China
the intricate ornamental design found in Shang bronze ar- took hold: Confucianism and Taoism. Like Buddhism (see
tifacts, suggests the importance of hunting in Shang cul- Chapter 7), which would later have its own impact on
ture. The most important and numerous of these China, Confucianism is based on the teachings of one
mysterious motifs is the T’ao-t’ieh mask, which can be man. CONFUCIUS [con-FYOU-shus] (551-479 B.C.E.)
was the son of aristocratic parents who had lost their
wealth during the decline of feudalism in China. Confu-
cius’s father died before he was born, and he was raised by
FIGURE 8.1 Fang ding, Tomb 1004, Houjiazhang, Anyang, his mother in poverty. He received an education from the
Henan, Shang dynasty, bronze, twelfth century B.C.E., © The village tutor, studying poetry, history, music, hunting, fish-
British Museum. The ornate design on this square vessel was ing, and archery, the traditional educational disciplines of
typical for Shang bronze artifacts, suggesting both animals and
the time. After a brief stint as a government official, Con-
more mysterious forms of life.
fucius embarked on a career as a teacher. He wandered
from place to place, offering his services as an adviser on
human conduct and on government. After many years as
a successful and famous teacher, Confucius spent the last
part of his life quietly teaching at home.
After his death, Confucius’s sayings, along with those of
his followers, were collected together during the fifth cen-
tury in a volume called The Analects. Drawing on cultural
values anchored in ancient Chinese tradition, these emi-
nently practical sayings focus on this world rather than the
next. Although Confucius deeply respected the Chinese
cultural heritage, valuing its best aspects, he adapted an-
cient traditions to the circumstances of his own time. Liv-
ing in a period of political chaos and moral confusion,
Confucius emphasized the importance of the traditional
values of self-control, propriety, and filial piety to maintain
a productive and good society. It was through such virtues
that Confucius believed anarchy could be overcome and
social cohesion restored.
Confucius’s point of departure was the individual rather
than society. He believed that if each individual could be
virtuous, the family would live in harmony. Similarly, if
each family lived according to certain moral principles,
196 CHAPTER 8

Figure 8.2 Bronze bells, Zhou dynasty, 433 B.C.E., frame height 9’ (2.74 m), length 25’
(7.62 m), Hubei Provincial Museum, Wuhan. Not only a major feat of bronze casting, these
bells are also a musical marvel, with two different notes available from each bell.

the village would be harmonious. Village harmony, in turn, Jen, sometimes translated as benevolence, refers to the
would lead to a country focused on moral values, coupled ideal relationship that should exist between people. Based
with an aesthetic sensibility that would allow life to be on respect for oneself, jez extends this respect to others
lived to its fullest creative potential. and manifests itself in acts of charity and courtesy. Ac-
Four qualities in particular—ii, jen, te, and wen—were cording to the Confucian ideal, jen and /i together make for
valued in Confucian teaching. Li equates to propriety, cer- a superior human being.
emony, and civility, and it requires the development of Te refers to virtue. Originally it referred to the quality
proper attitudes and a due respect for established forms of of greatness that enabled an individual to subdue enemies,
conduct. At its heart are the four basic social rules of human inspire respect, and influence others. However, in Confu-
relationships: courtesy, politeness, good manners, and re- cian teaching it came to signify a different kind of power—
spect, especially a reverence for age. These are supple- that of moral example rather than that of physical strength
mented by a fifth rule or concept, that of yi, or duty, a sense or might. A strong leader who guides by example exhibits
of the obligation one has to others. These five key rules te. So do the forces of nature, as the following saying from
strongly underpin the centrality of the family in Chinese The Analects illustrates:
life. Children’s duty to their parents is the root from which
moral and social virtues grow. In talking to an older person, Asked by the ruler whether the lawless should be executed,
for example, the younger person responds only after the Confucius answered: “What need is there of the death
elder has spoken. The younger person also listens with due penalty in government? If you showed a sincere desire to
deference and does not interrupt or contradict. be good, your people would likewise be good. The virtue
 EARLY CHINESE CIVILIZATION 197

of the prince is like the wind; the virtue of the people is like specting one’s neighbors; polite, like a guest; yielding,
grass. It is the nature of grass to bend when the wind blows like ice about to melt; blank, like uncarved wood; open,
upon it.” like a valley; mixing freely, like muddy water. Calm the
muddy water, it becomes clear; move the inert, it comes
The final characteristic of Confucian tradition, wen, to life.
refers to the arts of peace, that is, to music, poetry, art, and
other cultural activities. Confucius considered the arts a Like Confucianism, ‘Taoism values te, or power: “Great
form of moral education. He saw music as especially con- te appears flowing from Tao.” In Taoism, however, te is
ducive to order and harmony, and he believed the great- the sense of essential identity and integrity. The charac-
est painting and poetry function in the same way as an teristic nature of each thing is its te; for a person it is in-
excellent leader, since they provide a model of excellence. tegrity or genuineness—one’s authentic self at its best.
Ultimately, Confucius was an empiricist, justifying the Instead of competition, te proposes cooperation; instead
value of his moral prescriptions by an appeal to experi- of insistent willfulness, patient attentiveness. “Knowing
ence. His teachings were designed to help his followers others is intelligent, knowing oneself is profound; there-
live a better individual and communal life in the present fore the sage desires no desires, prizes no prizes, but helps
rather than to achieve an eternal reward after death. all beings find their own nature.”
Morality, moreover, depended on context. There was no Along with te, Taoists encourage wu-wei (nonaction), a
inflexible “thou shalt not.” Instead, any moral decision was kind of creative calm without excessive purposefulness, in-
guided by the circumstances of a particular problem. volving relaxing the conscious mind. Like the Buddhist
and Hindu ascetic ideals, wuw-wei seeks the denial of the
personal and the dissolution of the conscious individual
TAOISM self. “Those highest in te take no action, and don’t need to
act. Those lowest in te take action, and do need to act.
Like Confucianism, TAOISM [DOW-ism] is principally
... lao bears them and te nurses them, rears them, sup-
concerned with morality and ethical behavior insofar as
ports them, shelters them, nurtures them, supports them,
they benefit people in the present world. Thus it is often
protects them.”
considered a philosophy rather than a religion. Its founder
‘Taoism further illustrates the concept of wu-wei with
was LAOZI [LOW-ZEE] (b. 604 B.cC.E.), whose name
examples from nature, especially water. Supple yet strong,
means “the Old Master.” Little is known about him, al-
water adapts itself to its surroundings, flowing over or fill-
though a number of legends exist to explain how he came
ing what it encounters. “Best to be like water, which ben-
to write the Tao Te Ching (The Way and Its Power), which
efits the ten thousand things and does not contend. It pools
summarizes Jaoist teaching. In the most popular of these
where humans disdain to dwell, close to the Tao.”
legends, Laozi, having retired from court life, was jour-
The Taoist ideal of p’u, which literally means “un-
neying out of China when a guard at a mountain pass rec-
painted wood,” stresses simplicity. The Taoist prefers un-
ognized him and insisted he write down the sum of his
varnished wood, and thus Taoist architecture employs
wisdom before leaving the country.
wood in its natural state, leaving gilt and lacquer to the
The Tao (or Dao) is the ultimate reality behind exis-
Confucians, along with ceremonialism and the intricate
tence, a transcendent and eternal spiritual essence. Mys-
forms and formulas of civilized life. Taoist painting uses
terious and mystical, it is finally impossible to define in
only simple lines, suggesting much in little. Human figures
words. As the Tao Te Ching states, “Tao called Tao is not
in such paintings are kept small in relation to the vastness
Tao, names can name no lasting name. .. . Tao is the mys-
of nature.
terious center of all things.”
‘Taoism and Confucianism together represent the yin
At the same time, however, the Tao is immanent, exist-
and yang of Chinese religious philosophy. They are com-
ing in nature and manifesting its ordering principle in the
plementary sides of a complex and intricate system of be-
cycle of the seasons, the flowing of rivers, and the singing
lief and behavior. The table below identifies the
of birds. In this sense, Tao is the governing order of life
contrasting yet complementary features of these two sys-
represented by the rhythm and force of nature. “Tao in tems of thought.
action: vague and intangible, shadowy and obscure, but
within it there is life, life so real that within it there is trust.
Look—you won’t see it; listen—you won’t hear it; use it— CONFUCIANISM AND TAOISM
you will never use it up.”
Confucianism represents the classical; Taoism represents the
Taoism is also a way of ordering one’s life so as to
romantic.
achieve peace and harmony with the rest of creation.
Confucianism stresses social responsibility; Taoism stresses
“The ancients who followed Tao were dark, wondrous, responsibility toward nature.
profound, penetrating, deep beyond knowing. Because Confucianism emphasizes humans; Taoism emphasizes nature.
they cannot be known, they can only be described: cau- Confucianism is practical; Taoism is mystical.
tious, like crossing a winter stream; hesitant, like re-
198 CHAPTER 8

The Chinese say that Confucius roams with society, written down in the sixth century B.C.E. in Confucius’s
whereas Laozi roams beyond it. They also tell a story about time. It is one of the five ancient Confucian classics, and
a Confucian and a Taoist that reflects the difference in some scholars have suggested that Confucius himself ed-
tone and style between the two approaches to life. ited the collection. The poems are variously concerned
The Taoist Zhuangzi and the Confucianist Huizi were with love and war, lamentation and celebration, and re-
walking together over a bridge when Zhuangzi said, “Look flect the perspectives of all strata of ancient Chinese soci-
how the minnows dart here and there at will. Such is the ety, from peasants to kings.
pleasure fish enjoy.” “You are not a fish,” retorted Huizi. As suggested by its title, The Book of Songs contains
“How do you know what pleasures fish experience?” “You poems meant to be accompanied by music. More than half
are not I,” responded Zhuangzi. “How do you know I do of the 305 poems are classified as folk songs; the remain-
not know what gives pleasure to fish?” der were either written for performance at court or as part
of a ritual. The individualism and occasional rebellious-
Yin and Yang. One of the best known of all Chinese im-
ness of the speakers in the poems sometimes make them
ages is that of the yin and yang (fig. 8.3). Yin and yang
seem at odds with the Confucian ideal. However, the depth
represent contrasting but complementary principles that
of feeling they express and the richness of the experience
sum up life’s basic opposing elements—pain and pleasure,
they draw on have ensured that The Book of Songs remains
good and evil, light and dark, male and female, and so on.
not only popular but also essential reading for educated
Instead of seeing these contrasting elements as contradic-
Chinese to the present day.
tory, the Chinese emphasize the way in which they inter-
act with and complement one another.
Music. During the time of Confucius and Laozi, music
Illustrating the philosophical ideal of harmonious inte-
was categorized according to its social functions. Particu-
gration, the two forms, yin and yang, coexist peacefully
lar types of music played on certain instruments in speci-
within a larger circle. Each form provides the border for
fied tonalities were designated for use in accompanying
its opposite, partly defining it. In the very center of each
the chanting of poetry, the worship of ancestors, as well
form, there is the defining aspect of the complementary
as at court banquets, country feasts, archery contests, mil-
form: The dark teardrop contains a spot of white; the white
itary parades, and the like. Confucius, like Plato, believed
teardrop includes a small dark circle. One cannot exist
music should be used to educate. Music was meant to dis-
without the other.
play the qualities of moderation and harmony, mirroring
Yin is the negative form, associated with earth, dark-
the emphasis that Confucius placed on those virtues in so-
ness, and passivity. Conversely, the yang form is positive
cial and political life. Certain dangerous aspects of music
and associated with heaven, light, and the constructive im-
were to be avoided, such as its ability to induce excited
pulse. Yin and yang represent the perpetual interplay and
states of emotion.
mutual relation of all things.
Lyric Poetry. Unlike most national literatures, which
typically have their origins in prose tales, epic poetry, or
other narrative forms, the earliest known Chinese litera-
EMPIRE: THE QIN AND HAN DYNASTIES
ture is lyric poetry. Lyrics are usually written to be set to Both Confucianism and Taoism developed in response to
music and are personal in nature. Educated Chinese were the political instability of the Zhou dynasty, which began
expected not only to understand and appreciate poetry, to be undermined by invasions from the west in 771 B.C.E.
but also to compose it. Political fragmentation continued until the QIN [CHIN—
The Book ofSongs, which contains material passed down the origin of the name China] dynasty (221-206 B.c.r.)
orally from as far back as the tenth century B.C.E., was first unified the country for the first time.
Although the Qin dynasty’s rule was brief, it introduced
many measures to ensure that the empire could be ruled
FIGURE 8.3. The yin/yang symbol. Yin and yang represent
the complementary negative and positive principles of the efficiently and would remain unified, which indeed it has
universe. been almost always to the present day. The Qin rulers es-
tablished a central bureaucracy, divided the country into
administrative units, and standardized the writing system,
as well as the currency, weights, and measures. All citizens
were made subject to Qin laws, and everyone had to pay
taxes to the Qin emperor.
The Qin initiated major building projects—networks
of roads and canals that would link the different parts of the
empire. It was also the Qin who created most of the 1,400-
mile-long Great Wall as a defense for their empire against
invaders from the northwest. The Great Wall was made in
 EARLY CHINESE CIVILIZATION 199

part by joining together the border walls of the formerly contained a model of the Qin universe, with representa-
independent regions, and it remains one of the world’s tions of rivers and constellations of stars and planets.
most remarkable structures, visible from high in space. With the advent of the Han dynasty (206 B.c.E.—-220
There was a downside to this great imperial ambition, C.E.), Chinese culture found its most characteristic and
however. In order to maintain control, the Qin suppressed defining forms. Han emperors restored Confucianism to
free speech, persecuting scholars and destroying classical favor, making it the state philosophy, established a national
literary and philosophical texts, which were only preserved academy to train civil servants, and reinvigorated classical
by the ingenuity of those who memorized and later re- learning by honoring scholars and employing them in the
constructed them. Confucianism was temporarily sup- national bureaucracy.
planted with a new philosophical system called Legalism It was under the Han dynasty that the Silk Road trade
created by Qin intellectuals. Reflecting a belief in the ab- route was established. It was along this route that goods
solute power of the emperor, Qin rule proved so harsh traveled from China to India, and on to Greece and finally
that rebellions soon broke out and the dynasty was over- Rome. It was also on the Silk Road that religious mis-
thrown after only fifteen years in power. sionaries from the West brought Christianity to India and
Some idea of the aspirations of grandeur of the Qin dy- Persia, and even more significantly, that Buddhism spread
nasty can be gained from viewing the tomb of the first Qin from India into China, where it soon flourished.
emperor, QIN SHI HUANG DI [CHIN-SHEE-
HUANG-DJ] (. 221-206 B.c.£.) (fig. 8.4). Excavators
THE SIX DYNASTIES
working in Shaanxi province inadvertently uncovered thou-
sands of lifesize terra cotta figures, that had been buried in Intrigue and rebellion led to political and social disunity
the emperor’s tomb to accompany and serve him in the af- during the period of the “Six Dynasties” (220-589 C.E.),
terlife. The emperor's burial ground was also richly stocked which followed the Han dynasty. Warring factions fought
with furniture, as well as with wooden chariots, and even for control of the country, with six successive dynasties

FiGure 8.4 ‘Tomb figures, from the mea ean of the first Qin emperor, Lintong, Shaanxi.
Qin dynasty, ca. 210 B.C.E., terra cotta, lifesize. This army of soldiers, found buried near the
mausoleum of the first Qin emperor, was meant to serve him in the afterlife.
200 CHAPTER 8

Then & Now

EAST/WEST TRADE The northwest coast of the United twenty years after the end of the Viet-
States trades vigorously with the Asian nam War.
= ia between Asia and the West has countries of the Pacific Rim. These in- Many U.S. and Western European
an ancient history, with the Silk clude but are not limited to China, companies anticipate a long and finan-
Road its earliest and most important Korea, Indonesia, and Japan. Western cially rewarding relationship as countries
route. In the early twenty-first century, Europe has long carried on significant such as China and Vietnam enter the
trade between East and West continues trade with Japan, and now with China’s world of telecommunications and com-
to flourish. Now, however, the goods membership in the World Trade Orga- puting. One thing is virtually certain. As
travel by boat and plane rather than by nization, with China as well. Through- long as political stability exists in Asia,
camel. Communication occurs via out the United States, trade with and as long as Asian governments are re-
phone, fax, and computer. And the in- Southeast Asia, especially Vietnam, has ceptive to open markets, trade between
ternational language of communication increased dramatically with the normal- East and West will increase dramatically
is, for the most part, English. ization of U.S.-Vietnamese relations in the twenty-first century.

gaining power for a brief time. From this period of politi- associated with Confucianism and Taoism. Du Fu is often
cal turmoil there survives a series of monumental stone described as a Confucian poet, since his poems stress the
sculptures cut into caves at Yun Kang (Yungang, Shanxi), importance of love of family and of harmonious social re-
testifying to the fervor with which many Chinese accepted lationships. They also celebrate the Confucian ideals of
Buddhism. The most colossal of these is a forty-five-foot- self-discipline and serenity.
high image of the Buddha (fig. 8.5), made around 460-470 The poems of Li Bai are written in a more open style
C.E. The statue is carved directly into the rock cave, in the and take greater liberties with the formal poetic conven-
manner of Indian monumental sculpture, from which the tions of the time than the poems of Du Fu. Li Bai (fig.
figure clearly derives (compare fig. 7.6). This earliest of Bud- 8.6) has been described as a poetic individualist and a pre-
dhist styles of sculpture in China has been termed “archaic,” cursor of the Western Romantic poets (see Chapter 18).
and, as in ancient Greece (see fig. 2.22), the figures charac- His verse has been profoundly influential in China and
teristically wear what has been called an “archaic smile.” also in Japan, where he is known as Rihaku. Through the
translations of Ezra Pound and the sinologist Arthur
Waley, he has also had a strong impact on modern Amer-
THE TANG DYNASTY ican poetry.
At the end of the Six Dynasties period, the Sui rulers
(581-618 C.E.) reunited China. The Sui, the last of the six
dynasties, were quickly overcome, however, by the Tang
THE SONG DYNASTY
dynasty, who went on to reestablish China as a world When the Tang dynasty came to an end in 907, China was
power during nearly three hundred years of prosperity and thrown into a half century of civil war. The empire was
cultural enrichment (618-907 C.E.). reunified in 960 under the Song rulers, who inaugurated
The ‘Tang emperors restored the Silk Road, which had a period of great technological advancement. During the
fallen into disuse during the Six Dynasties period, forging Song dynasty (960-1279), China saw within its borders
trade and cultural links with other countries, especially the invention of the navigational compass, paper currency,
Persia, India, and, by sea, Japan. During the Tang dynas- gunpowder, and printing, well before Gutenberg’s inven-
tic period, literature and the other arts were held in high tion of movable type in fifteenth-century Germany. The
esteem, with civil servants and gentry required to master rule of the Song emperors created two conditions neces-
calligraphy, as well as the Confucian classics, and to com- sary for artistic development: first, an abundance of leisure
pose poetry of their own. time, which allowed for intellectual pursuits, including a
Li Bai and Du Fu. Much early Chinese poetry was com- reformulation of Confucian ideals; second, the availability
posed according to ancient folk-song models. These poems of patronage, which helped bring about a resurgence in
were called shib. Two of the great practitioners of shih the art of painting and, with it, elaborations of art theory.
were Li Bai, previously known as Li Po (701-762) and DU Painting. ‘Vhe art of painting flourished during the Song
FU [DOO FOO] (712-770). Both poets have long been period. Seeking the Tao in the Autumn Mountains (fig. 8.8),
 EARLY CHINESE CIVILIZATION 201

FIGURE 8.5 Colossal Buddha, cave 20, Yungang, Shaanxi, 460-470 C.E., stone, height 45'
(13.72 m). Carved out of living rock, this huge image demonstrates the importance of Bud-
dhism in China during a time of nearly incessant warfare.

by ZHU JAN [JOO JAN] (active. ca. 960-980), is, as its passes almost unnoticed, so vast is the scale of the central
title suggests, representative of the ‘Taoist-influenced artis- mountain. Small figures can be identified in the lower
tic tradition. Huge mountains evoke a sense of the remote foreground on both the left and right, and in the middle
and the eternal; rising dramatically and powerfully in the distance on the right a village is tucked between the hills.
center of the painting, they suggest the modest position The mountain, representing nature, is a powerful symbol
of humanity in the grand scale of the natural world. of eternity that dwarfs human existence.
Neo-Confucianism, which developed during the Song A court painter during the reign of Emperor Shenzong
dynasty, unified Taoism and Buddhism into a single system (r. 1068-1085), Guo Xi was given the task of painting all the
of thought. Early Spring (fig. 8.9), by GUO XI [GOO-OH murals in the Forbidden City, the imperial compound in
SEE] (after 1000-ca. 1090), embodies the Confucian ideal Beijing that foreigners were prohibited from entering. His
of li, which is the principle at the heart of nature. As in ideas about painting were recorded by his son in a book
Zhu Jan’s painting, the human presence in this landscape entitled The Lofty Message of the Forests and Streams.
 202 CHAPTER 8

Connections

‘THE SEVEN SAGES OF THE members his seriousness as a youth and

BAMBOO GROVE comments that now “I mock myself for
my past gloom.” Liu Ling, another sage,
oh Cael to semi-legendary tradition, wrote the “Hymn to the Virtue of Wine”
arly in the Six Dynasties period and is notorious for having tricked his
seven Taoist poet-philosophers, seeking teetotaling wife by telling her he too had
relief from the formalities of Confucian- decided to give up alcohol and having
ism, began to hold meetings in a bamboo her prepare a feast for the gods, and then
grove. There, these “Seven Sages” gath- drinking all the wine intended for the
ered to consider the spiritual side of their gods himself.
life, write and discuss poetry, play musi- The Seven Sages inaugurated a tradi-
cal instruments, play chess, contemplate tion that would last for many centuries in
nature, and, perhaps above all, drink China. During the ‘Tang dynasty, the poet
wine. The latter, they felt, released the Li Bai took his followers on a similar re-
spirit from all constraint. As one famous treat to a garden of peach and plum trees
saying of the Sages had it, on a moonlit spring night. There, they
too drank wine and, having liberated
Brief indeed is a man’s life!
themselves from the constraints of their
So, let’s sing over our wine.
everyday lives, composed their poems.
Ruan Ji was said to have given up a Both the gathering of the Seven Sages in
high official post in order to live near a the bamboo grove and Li Bai’s conclave
brewery. In one of his famous poems, en- in the orchard would be a subject for
titled “Singing from My Heart,” he re- painters for generations to come (fig. 8.6).

FIGURE 8.6 Liang Kai, The Poet Li Bai Walking and Chanting a Poem, Southern Song
dynasty, ca. 1200, hanging scroll, ink on paper, 31” < 1132" (80.6 X 30.2 em), Tokyo
National Museum, Japan. This (penn of Li Bai, opusidered Zen in style, juxtaposes
the quick brushstrokes used to describe the robe with the precise and detailed work on
his face.

Critical Thinking
MARCO POLO on the authenticity of Marco Polo’s de- wildly imaginary) creatures. Others con-
scriptions. They argue, for example, that tend that much of the geography, history,
he most famous medieval West- he exaggerated what he saw to attract and anthropology included in Polo’s
erner believed to have contact with readers, and that his not mentioning per- book are authentic.
medieval China is Marco Polo (1254- haps one of the greatest and most awe- How would you go about deciding
1324) of Venice. His Travels describes his some of sights—the Great Wall of which of these scholars to believe? What
journey through China, Burma, and China—indicates that he may not have kinds of evidence would you look for to
Tibet, and include his description of the actually been in China at all. Suspicion confirm, refute, or qualify Marco Polo’s
city of Hangzhou, famed for its bridges about his book has arisen also because descriptions of what he saw.on his travels
and canals, as well as of the palace and Polo himself is absent from his Travels. through medieval China? And how might
kingdom of Kublai Khan in Mongolia. His book, some say, is more of a me- you explain his absence from the Travels
Some scholars, however, have cast doubt dieval bestiary that describes strange (and and his neglect of the Great Wall?
 EARLY CHINESE CIVILIZATION 203

FiGuRE 8.7 Liang King, Scholar of the Eastern Fence, China, shel

gs spurns ues © Nope ee aD FiGcure 8.8 Zhu Jan, Seeking the Tao in the Autumn Moun-
Republic of China. This portrait of the poet and scholar ‘Tao , : : ‘,
rota : : : tains, ca. 970, ink on silk, 61 X 30” (156.2 X 78.1 cm), Na-
Qian identifies him with the eastern fence of his property,
tional Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan. Long sweeping
against which his beloved chrysanthemums thrived. The poet-
brushstrokes complemented by carefully placed dots of dark
recluse is framed by pines, emblematic of consistency and in-
ink accentuate the mountain’s grandeur as they guide the
tegrity, and by red-leaved trees suggesting autumnal decline
viewer’s gaze upward.
and old age.
204 CHAPTER 8

themselves. For example, he wrote that his friend Wen

Tong (1018-1079), when he painted bamboo, “forgot him-
self and became a bamboo.”
In his two prose poems written in 1082 on the “Red
Cliff’ (fig. 8.10) where a famous battle had been fought
centuries earlier, Su Shi gave voice to fundamental literati
views of humans and nature, with a Buddhist sense of
human impermanence. He has been out boating with a
companion, and soon his friend becomes melancholy at
the fleeting nature of life and fame, saying, “we are no
more than the flies of summer, grains of millet on the
ocean vastness—it grieves me that life is so short.” Su
replies that the river flows and the moon waxes and wanes,
but they are always the same river and moon. “If we look
at things from the eyes of change, there’s not an instant of
stillness in the universe. But if we observe the changeless-
ness of things, then we, and all beings, have no end....
The clear breeze over the river, the bright moon over the
hills, these we may enjoy and they will never be exhausted.”

Ceramics. Among the most important of China’s con-

tributions is the development of a highly-refined art of ce-
ramics. For over 3000 years, Chinese potters have
produced masterpieces of ceramics in an amazing variety
of shapes, colors, and decorative styles. Among the best
known and most appreciated in the west are Tang porce-
lain pieces—tomb figures, horses, camels, soldiers, and
courtesans, among others. Equally prized are the fine de-

FIGURE 8.9 Guo Xi, Early Spring, Northern Song dynasty,

1072, hanging scroll, ink and slight color on silk, height 5’ FiGurRE 8.10 Li Song, The Red Cliff, Southern Song dynasty
(1.52 m), National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan. This land- (1127-1279). Album leaf mounted as a hanging scroll, ink and
scape represents the integration of three different forms of color on silk, ivory roller. 93 x 104" (24.76 X 26.03 cm).
perspective: high distance (looking up at the main peak), deep Robert Neucombe/The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art,
distance (looking down into valleys), and level distance (look- Kansas City, Missouri. The small but nevertheless significant
ing across marshes). figures, viewing the cliff from the boat, are a visualization of
the prose poetry of Su Shi, in which feelings of unity with na-
ture can dispel human unhappiness.

According to this interpretation, the central peak in Early

Spring symbolizes the emperor himself, its tall pines the
gentlemanly ideals of the court. Here Guo Xi has painted
the ideal Confucian and Buddhist world; the emperor, like
the Buddha surrounded by his bodhisattvas, gathers all
around him, just as in Early Spring the mountain, the trees,
and the hills suggest the proper order and rhythm of the
universe.
Another form of painting also began in the Song dy-
nasty, practiced by and for the scholar-poet-artists who
served as officials, and therefore could practice their art as
amateurs. This became known as the literati school, and
was to become the single most important tradition in Chi-
nese art in succeeding dynasties. One of the leading figures
in this movement was the poet-calligrapher Su Shi
(1036-1101), who wrote that painting merely to depict
outer reality was like the work of a child, and true painters
became so totally immersed that their art came from within
 EARLY CHINESE CIVILIZATION 205

Cross Currents

Marco PoLo’s HANGZHOU ers, protected the city against enemy at- their caps were adorned with buttons,
tack. Guards stationed strategically at the again signaling the officials’ importance.
ittle was known about China and the bridges to repulse invaders also served as Among the places people congregated
Far East in the West before the timekeepers, striking a gong and drum were parks and lakes, especially the great
nineteenth century. One of the most im- to mark the passing of the hours. West Lake, often filled with boats,
portant sources was the account written On the city’s streets, porters carried barges, and floating teahouses, from
by the Venetian traveler Marco Polo (ca. goods suspended from long poles in bas- which passengers could view the nu-
1254-1324). His description of the Song kets and jars. On its canals, boats and merous palaces, temples, pagodas, and
capital, Hangzhou, is particularly vivid. ships of many sizes transported food and pavilions that dotted the surrounding
Hangzhou, formerly called Kinsai, or building materials. Its markets, open landscape. On land, the wealthy congre-
the “City of Heaven,” might also have three days a week in the city’s squares, gated in clubs and centers to read poems,
been called the “City of Bridges,” since were crammed with food and spices, enjoy plays, song, and dance, as well as to
twelve thousand wood and stone bridges books and flowers, cloth and gemstones, practice calligraphy and painting. It was
cross its wide waterways. Described by in addition to a huge variety of meats and especially important for young men with
Polo, who arrived in the city in 1271, as, game. Dress, as in the West, was a mark the ambition to become scholar officials
“without doubt the finest and most of social and financial status for both to become well versed in the Chinese
splendid city in the world,” Hangzhou women and men. The rank of man- classics in preparation for the civil ser-
in the Song dynasty was an important darins (government officials) was indi- vice examinations. Young women were
commercial center as well as the impe- cated by robes and headgear. On special also expected to take lessons, with classes
rial capital of China. Its population—of occasions, these mandarins wore silk in music, dancing, spinning, embroidery,
more than a million people—was then robes embroidered with flowers, animals, and social etiquette preparing them for
the largest in the world. Thirty-foot- and symbols. Their belt buckles were the good marriages they hoped to con-
high crenelated walls, studded with tow- made of jade or rhinoceros horn, and tract.

signs of flowers and animals enlivened by special effects China the art of calligraphy has long enjoyed a high status
of “partridge feather,” “hare’s fur,” and “oil spot,” used on among the arts. At the heart of the higher forms of Chinese
white, ivory, willow, celadon and shades of blue porcelain culture and one of the three perfections or gentlemanly
produced during the Song dynasty. The Chinese were able arts, calligraphy is linked with its companion arts of poetry
to create such astonishing ceramic and porcelain works and painting. All three—poetry, painting, and calligraphy—
due to their understanding of how to control kiln tem- were considered aspects of the same aesthetic expression
peratures and to their extensive knowledge of glazes, in- since poems were written in calligraphy and paintings were
cluding how to mix them to create unusual effects of color. typically accompanied by such calligraphied poems. An ex-
Song ceramics are valued for their superb integration of ample by Su Shih (1036-1101) is seen in figure 8.12.
shape, glaze, and decoration, evidencing an outstanding Because writing and calligraphy were held in such high
command of the technical aspects of potting, firing, and esteem, the brushes used in their creation were highly val-
glazing techniques by Song ceramics masters. The shape ued, some considered works of art in their own right, much
of Song ceramic ware tends toward the simple and elegant as a violin bow might be so considered. In recording the
(fig. 8.11). Unlike Tang dynasty ceramic pieces, in which movements of hand, wrist, and arm, the calligraphy brush
a clear distinction is evident among the neck, body, and acts like a kind of seismograph, through which a person’s
foot, Song ceramic ware blends these three parts in a uni- calligraphy conveys something essential about the callig-
fied and flowing harmony. The glazes of Song ceramics rapher. In producing calligraphy according to the ancient
tend to be monochromatic and also done in a flat or matte rules and guidelines, the writer reveals his character and
finish rather than polished to a high glaze shine. When spirit as well as his or her intentions.
decoration is used (and it is used sparingly in Song ce- Finally, it should be remembered that Chinese art forms
ramics), it serves to enhance the form of the piece rather a continuum with religion, politics, philosophy, and every-
than to attract attention to itself. day life. Just as painting, poetry, and calligraphy are as-
pects of a single harmonious artistic whole, so too are the
Calligraphy and Writing. Unlike the West, where cal- related aspects of creating art, collecting it, studying it,
ligraphy, or beautiful writing, is considered a minor art, in and writing about its history and philosophy.
206 CHAPTER 8

Cultural Impact
mong the many legacies left by an- of a modernist literary aesthetic that em- Confucianism has influenced East Asian
ient Chinese culture has been the phasizes the importance of the image to thought over a long period of time, and
influence of its Tang dynasty poets, es- convey a poem’s meaning and feeling. remains today a dominant factor in Korea.
pecially Li Bai (Li Po). The American This Pound and other modernist poets Vietnam, and Japan, where it has shaped
modernist poet Ezra Pound, with the derived from their reading of Li Bai and moral thought and traditional cultural val-
help of the Asian scholar Ernest Fenel- ‘Tang dynasty poets. ues. In addition, Chinese commodities
losa, made a series of translations or The ethical and philosophical legacy of such as silk, porcelain, and lacquerware re-
adaptations of Li Bai’s poems, the most Confucianism remains a major influence, main highly prized. And, of course, the
famous of these is The River-Merchant’s particularly in its Neo-Confucianist form, Chinese inventions of gunpowder, paper,
Wife:A Letter. More important than any which incorporates Buddhist thought and the magnetic compass have had an
single poem, however, was the adoption within a Confucian value system. Neo- enormous impact throughout history.

FIGURE 8.12 Fragment of calligraphy by Su Shih

FIGuRE 8.11 Celadon vase. Height 11” (28 cm). China. (1036-1101) of his poem “Cold Provisions Day.” Su
Song dynasty. Song ceramics pieces were often glazed with Shih was a fine scholar, poet, and calligrapher, and a
various shades of green. noted painter of bamboo.
 EARLY CHINESE CIVILIZATION 207

KEY TERMS
Confucianism te pu Neo-Confucianism
hi wen yin and yang mandarins
yt ‘Taoism shih
jen Wwu-Wel

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

hitp://www.friesian.com/confuci.htm
(This is a worthwhile site on Confucian philosophy.)
http: //www.wsu.edu/~dee/CHIINRES.HTM #Philosophy
(Visit this site for a thorough explanation of yin and yang and Chinese philosophy.)
hitp:/ /www.chinavista.com/experience/shijing/shijing.html
(Shijing [The Book of Songs] is the earliest collection of Chinese poems including 305 poems of
the Zhou dynasty (1122-256 B.c.£.). The page has one of the poems in translation, but the
whole page can be converted to two forms of Chinese.)
 (CHAPTER 9

330-352 ce Yomoto rule (Warlords)

6th century Ce. Buddhism introduced into Japan from China
552-646 ce. Asuka born and dies
ee MTGE Kojiki, record of ancient matters
Bo. METIS Heian Period
ars Minamoto Yoritomo born and dies
gs 1185-1392. Kamakura Period
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HEEDa Minomoto Yoritomo declared 1" Shogun
1392-1523 Ashikaga Period
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6 z 7

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pipe Tori Busshi, Shaka Triad
se ae 670 ce.
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Horyu-ji, temple compound
ote ae Gt.) Hand scrolls
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‘15th century Tea ceremony
ee. aor oh! ea

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8th century Manyoshu, poetry collection

ES et ae ea
See | 409-100 Kokinoto no Hitomoro, poet active
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Ono no Komachi lives and writes poems

966-1017 ag oa
Sei Shonogan, Pillow Book
ca. 1021 Murasaki Shikibu, The Tale of Genji
1283-1350 Yoshida Kenko, Essays in Idleness
 Early Japanese Civil ization

Handscroll illustration for the Tale of Genji, late He ian per. iod ink and color on pape r, he ight
2

8’ (21 6 cm), Tokugawa Art Museum, Nagoya.

 Yellow
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Pacittc 0O.Ce@an

Map 9.1 Japan Before the Fifteenth Century.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

JAPAN BEFORE THE TWELFTH CENTURY

JAPAN FROM THE TWELFTH TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY

JAPAN BEFORE THE TWELFTH the tests, and since then they have debated how Japan
could have led the world in creating pottery.
CENTURY The general theory is that human societies can be
PREHISTORIC JAPAN grouped into the few basic divisions of hunting-gathering,
agricultural, and urban. These are most easily understood
I:1960, the field of archaeology was given a shock when by knowing where people obtain their food; they hunt or
scientific carbon dating showed that the world’s first find it, they grow it, or they buy it at the store. Pottery,
pottery was created in Japan. Recent tests have pushed being heavy and cumbersome, was not developed by hunt-
back the dating to 10,000 B.C.E., well before any other cul- ing-gathering peoples, who moved from place to place over
tures developed their own ceramic traditions. Because it the course of a year and did not store food for very long.
has generally been believed Japan followed the lead of When cultures developed to agricultural phases, however,
China in cultural development, scholars at first doubted people tended to stay in one place, needed to store food

210
 EARLY JAPANESE CIVILIZATION 211

from one harvest to the next, and also required vessels to

cook the different forms of grains they were growing.
This has been the theory, but the early inhabitants of
Japan created pottery twelve thousand years ago while still
in a hunting-gathering phase. How could this be? One ex-
planation is that from the traces of foodstuffs still remain-
ing in archaeological sites, it can be determined that the
early peoples had sufficient supplies of fish, seafood, and
plants to live year round in certain areas, rather than mi-
grating, and therefore they were able to make use of pot-
tery in their daily lives.
The early pots in Japan were simply constructed from
clay into various forms, especially large cooking and stor-
age vessels, and then fired in trenches, since kilns had not
been developed yet. In order to add strength to the pot-
tery as well as create attractive patterns on the surface, many
vessel walls were impressed with ropes or cords, and so the
era itself became known as Jomon, meaning “cord pat-
terned.” Over the course of centuries, these Jomon vessels
developed, were further embellished with coils and geo-
metric patterns, and eventually emerged as some of the FIGURE 9.1 Storage Vessel, Earthenware. Japan, Middle Jomon
most spectacular pottery ever created, with rim designs that period, ca. 2000 B.c.E. Height: 2’ (61 cm). © The Cleveland
went well beyond practicality and can only be described as Museum of Art, John L. Severenance Fund, 1984. 68. The
flamboyantly artistic. Because there are no written records geometric decorative patterns on the body resemble plates of
from this period, much of what we know about early Japan armor; the raised designs on the rim have a more organic ex-
comes from Jomon pottery (fig. 9.1), which exhibits a great pression, testifying to the dramatic artistic imagination of the
variety of both shape and decoration, suggesting a society prehistoric potter.
that was bold and confident in its way of life.
Around the year 300 C.E. a new wave of people came
from the Korean peninsula, bringing elements of culture living, who could view them atop the grave mounds from
that led to great changes in Japan. Agriculture, which had across the moats, and the dead, over whom they stood.
begun in a rudimentary way during the Jomon period, now The next major change in Japan took place beginning
was greatly advanced, particularly rice cultivation, which in the fifth and sixth centuries, when a new wave of influ-
meant that larger-scale groupings of people were now pos- ence came over from Korea and China. This brought
sible, leading to Japan’s first emperors. The Jomon people, many things that were to become vital parts of Japanese
who were racially Caucasian, were gradually pushed to the culture, including a writing system, Buddhism, advances in
north and formed the basis of the Ainu peoples, who still medicine, more complex governmental systems, new forms
live on the island of Hokkaido. of poetry, music and architecture, and the arts of brush
The new peoples, racially the same as present-day painting and calligraphy.
Japanese, built huge graves for their leaders, some with
artificial hills surrounded by moats. Upon these graves
RELIGION
they began to erect ceramic tubes, perhaps to help the
earth stay in place. Before long these cylinders, called Buddhism and Shinto. Of the influences Japan received
haniwa [hah-nee-wah], were decorated with models of from China and Korea, perhaps the most significant was
boats, houses, and animals. The final forms to emerge were Buddhism, which China had itself imported from India.
human figures (fig. 9.2), who were shown in many differ- After an initial reluctance, Japan embraced the new reli-
ent guises and activities. gion with great fervor, copying sacred texts (which was
There is some debate as to the purpose of these ceramic also a way to practice the written language that was now
haniwa. In China as in other early cultures, sculptures learned from China), building temples, and ordaining
were placed inside tombs to assist the dead in their next monastics—the first of whom were three women.
lives, but in Japan they were placed on top of the graves. Japan, however, already had its own religious practices,
Were these figures meant to be guardians? If so, why are later designated as Shinto to distinguish them from the im-
there birds and animals, mothers nursing babies, falconers, ported forms of Buddhism. Over many centuries, Shinto
shamans, and people doing ordinary everyday tasks? Again, developed from a kind of nature worship into a state religion
without written records, we can only speculate, but it of patriotic appreciation of the Japanese land. Shinto came
seems these haniwa formed some kind of link between the to require a commemoration of Japanese heroes and
Die CHAPTER 9

Asuka (552-646) Shaka Triad (ca. 623)

Nara (646-794) Horyi-ji temple (ca. 670), oldest
wooden temple in the world
Heian (794-1185) The Tale of Genji (ca. 1000)
Kamakura (1185-1392) Hand scrolls (twelfth century)
Ashikaga (1392-1523) Tea ceremony

COURTLY JAPAN: ASUKA

AND NARA PERIODS
Art and Architecture. ‘The earliest surviving wooden
Japanese sculptures and architecture, those of the Asuka
period, 552-646 C.E., are closely identified with Buddhism.
One of the best preserved and most important Japanese
temples is Horyu-ji, the oldest wooden temple in the world
(ca. 670) (fig. 9.3). Horyu-ji’s architectural design reveals
how Buddhist-inspired Chinese architecture influenced
early Japanese temple building, although its asymmetrical
relationship of structures is a typically Japanese aesthetic
trait.
Among the many treasures housed in the buildings of
Horyu-ji is a sculpture known as the Shaka Triad (fig. 9.4).
This triple image shows the Buddha, whose Japanese name
is Shaka or Shakyamuni, with attending bodhisattvas on
either side. The large figures, especially the Buddha sitting

FIGURE 9.3. Horyu-ji compound, with pagoda and Golden

FIGURE 9.2 Smiling Earthenware Haniwa Figure, from the Hall, Nara, Japan, ca. 670 C.E., aerial view. Visitors entering
Akabori Site, Gumma Prefecture, Japan, fourth—fifth centuries this temple compound move through the first building and
B.C.E. B64" (92 cm) tall, Tokyo National Museum. TNM then must take a turn to the right or the left rather than mov-
Image Archives. Source: http://TnmArchives.jp/. This figure ing in a straight line from one building to the next. This favor-
is believed to represent a farmer holding a plow blade on his ing of lateral over linear movement is a characteristic of
shoulder, evidence of the agricultural society that had devel- Japanese artistic style.
oped by this time in central Japan.

significant events from the nation’s history. Later Shinto

could also include earlier aspects of animism, nature wor-
ship, and ancestor worship, and Shinto rituals could be car-
ried out in private homes as well as in Shinto temples.
‘To some extent, the formal development of Shinto was
a reaction against Chinese religious and cultural influence.
In addition, during the seventh and eighth centuries, the
Japanese collected their native myths in the Kojiki, “Chron-
icles of Ancient Events.” In explaining the origin of Japan-
ese culture, the Kojiki describe the creation of the Japanese
islands by two Shinto kami, or gods, Izanagi and his con-
sort Izanami. All other gods descend from these two, of
whom the most important is Ameterasu, the sun goddess,
who is considered the ancestor of the Japanese emperors.
 EARLY JAPANESE CIVILIZATION 213

in the center, reveal the sculptor TORI BUSSHI’s deities, Izanagi and Izanami; it concludes with the period
[BOOSH-yi] awareness of the Chinese sculptural tradi- of Empress Suiko, Japan’s first empress, who reigned from
tion from the pre-Tang period, including the focus of at- 592-628 C.E.
tention on the large head and hands. The expert use of Divided into three major parts, the Kojiki contains
gilt bronze demonstrates how quickly and successfully the songs and poems along with myths and historical records.
international sculptural tradition was adopted in Japan. The myths and records are written in a mixture of Chinese
From the late seventh century on,Japanese rulers were and Japanese, whereas the songs are written strictly in Chi-
true monarchs, no longer merely aristocratic warlords. nese characters.
Around the same time, Nara became Japan’s first true cap- The first part of the Kojiki, the Kamitsumaki or “upper
ital. Although the rulers of ancient Japan are often referred roll,” focuses on the creation of the world and of various
to as emperors, these rulers are best thought of as sover- deities. The second part, the Nakatsumaki, or “middle
eigns. The distinction is important because it signals a shift roll,” covers the period between the first Japanese Em-
from the military authority of the earlier warlords to a gen- peror, Jimmu, and the 15th, Emperor Ojin. The third part,
uine pursuit of political and cultural cohesion. The pa- the Shimosutsumaki, or “lower roll,” covers the period
tronage of Buddhism became one of the most important from the 16th to the 33rd Emperors.
facets of court life, and many temples were built within The Nihongi, or Nihonshoki, or the “Chronicles of
and without the city of Nara that were much larger than Japan,” picks up where the Kojiki leaves off and catalogs
Horyu-ji and featured outpouring of sculptures and paint- the descent of the Yamato rulers through the end of the
ings of Buddhist dieties. seventh century. In combination with the Kojiki, the Ni-
hongi has been an influential document in Japan, includ-
Kojiki and Nibongi. Kojiki, or the Records of Ancient ing its naming of the country “Nippon.”
Matters, is the oldest volume of Japanese ancient history.
It begins with the creation of the world by the Kami, or
COURTLY JAPAN: THE HEIAN PERIOD
FiGuRE 9.4 ‘Tori Busshi, Shaka Triad, Nara Prefecture,
In 794, the Japanese capital was moved to Heian (now
Asuka period, 623, bronze, height 5’ 9 ' (1.76 m), Horyu-ji. Kyoto), which became one of the most densely populated
The Buddha, flanked by attendant bodhisattvas, sits on a cities in the world. The Heian period was a period of rich
simple throne against a decorative background that testifies productivity and peace, with the Japanese sovereign
to his sacred status. strongly supported by aristocratic families. Court culture
during the Heian era became extremely refined and ele-
gant, and the secular as well as sacred arts flourished.
Courtiers of both sexes, if they wanted to inspire re-
spect among their peers, were expected to be able to write
poetry in the classical five-line waka form, with syllables
of 5-7-5-7-7 (the haiku was later to develop from the first
three lines of a waka). Featuring mono no aware (“the emo-
tion of things” or “the sadness of things”), court poetry
expressed the feelings that lay under the surface of elegant
court life. For example, Lady Akazome Emon (eleventh
century) wrote this verse after her lover failed to appear:
I should not have waited—
it would have been wiser
to sleep and dream
than to see the night pass
and watch this moon slowly sink
Many waka were about romantic love, but one poem
by the ninth-century courtier Narihira might apply to any
of us at crucial moments of our lives:
I have always known
someday I must take this road—
but just yesterday
I did not realize that
it would be today
Although both men and women wrote classical poetry,
it was women who wrote most of the prose fiction of the
time, including the world’s first novel, The Tale of Genji
214 CHAPTER 9

(Genji Monogatari). The most enduring and influential of Chinese depictions of majestic mountains, replacing them
all works of Japanese literature, The Tale ofGenji is a sprawl- with representations of softer rolling hills, maple trees,
ing narrative of court life, spanning many generations and and cherry blossoms. In general, Japanese landscapes of
featuring the hero, Prince Genji, among a host of other this period are utilized as the backgrounds to narrative
characters. This novel was written by MURASAKI SHI- tales, which often evoke the sense of transience and
KIBU [moo-rah-sah-key] (ca. 976—ca. 1026), a member of poignant sadness also found in Japanese poetry.
the Japanese aristocracy. Her work is highly regarded for One of the most distinctive of secular Japanese painting
its psychological sublety and its rich portrayal of charac- style is exhibited in the painting of narrative hand scrolls,
ter, and it tells us a great deal about the exquisite refine- or emaki-mano, associated with religions or court life.
ment of court life during Japan’s most elegant era. Some of the most celebrated hand scrolls depict The Tale
The Heian era was a time of cultural sophistication, dur- of Genji (fig. 9.5). The oldest illustrations of this work, dat-
ing which Japanese painters and poets broke away from the ing from ca. 1120, survive only in self-contained sections,
Chinese aesthetic influence of previous periods. ‘Io some ex- along with short pieces of the handwritten text.
tent, the novel romanticizes courtly life as the author expe- The highly decorative Genji illustrations emphasize the
rienced it, although without idealizing the characters so much placement of figures, their costumes, and the use of color.
that they lose their credibility. According to an eighteenth- The artist breaks up the composition by using screens,
century Japanese scholar, Matoori Noringa, the greatness of walls, and the sliding panels found in traditional Japanese
The Tale of Genji lies in the way it conveys the sorrow of palaces. Figures are usually shown at an angle, with the
human existence as reflected in the behavior of its hero, viewpoint from above. Women are depicted in broadly
Genji. Although he sometimes violates the injunctions of draped garments that hide their figures, leaving only their
Confucianism and Buddhism, Genji nonetheless “combines heads and hands visible. They are engaged in calm activ-
in himself all good things.” Like the author who created him, ity, one combing another’s hair while others read and look
Genji exhibits great sensitivity to the people who cross his at picture scrolls. The overall effect is to convey a sense of
path, especially the many women who share his love. court life quietly, with little overt dramatic action, but the
figures placed in strong assymetrical compositions convey
Heian Hand Scrolls. The art of the Heian period in-
a sense of deep emotion.
cludes both religious and secular subjects, all done with
great refinement. The works of this era also reflect the de- Noh Theatre. Masked dance forms came into use in
velopment of more distinctively indigenous Japanese styles. Japan during the sixth century C.E., functioning as reli-
Landscape painting, for example, began to depart from gious and secular ritual and as entertainment. Noh masks

FIGURE 9.5 Illustration to the Azumaya chapter of The Tale of Genji, late Heian period,
twelfth century, hand scroll, ink and color on paper, height 8’ (21.6 cm), Tokugawa Art Mu-
seum, Nagoya. This hand scroll section illustrates a scene in which Prince Genji holds the baby
he knows is not his while his wife looks down in sadness. Despite their lofty positions, they are
unable to find happiness, as shown by the way they huddle into a corner of the painting.
 EARLY JAPANESE CIVILIZATION 215

Wehawas EL of

FIGURE 9.6 Noh Mask: Ko-omote. Japan. Ashikaga period, fifteenth century C.E.
Painted wood, height about 10” (25.4 cm). Kongo Family Collection, Tokyo. Mask
used in Noh dramas.

(fig 9.6) are smaller than those used for Bugaku, which legend, and magic. Traditionally performed in sets of five
reached its peak during the Heian period, and which was plays—a play each for a god, warrior, woman, and demon
performed initially at court and later at local shrines. Each followed by a contemporary or other miscellaneous play,
Bugaku dance had a mask associated with it. Noh dramas are performed with minimal props and
Noh plays are virtuoso performances that combine scenery. As with classical Greek tragedy, the audience for
chant, mime, and dance. They are accompanied by music, Noh plays usually already knows the plot. Costumes and
masks, and elaborate costumes. Influenced by Buddhist masks make the actors heroic and heighten the force of
spirituality, the Noh play’s subjects are taken from history, their gestures and words—much as in ancient Greek
216 CHAPTER 9

Connections
CourTSs, CULTURE, AND WOMEN tury collection of Japanese poems. The thus educated them well in Japanese
women who wrote these important literary script although writing in Chinese was
ne of the most unusual aspects of me- works were either situated at the imperial mostly reserved for men. When success-
dieval Japanese court culture was the court or were closely associated with it. ful, these women became the emperor's
importance and position it accorded Two major reasons account for the consorts or his empresses. Even when
women writers. The most renowned prominence of women writers in Japan not quite this successful, women like Sei
works of early Japanese literature were at this time. The first relates to the Shonogan and Murasaki Shikibu became
written by women: The Tale of Genji, The Japanese writing system. Fujiwara lead- ladies in waiting to aristocratic royalty
Pillowbook, The Sarashina Diary, and many ers engaged in competition to have their and wrote works that were highly valued
poems of the Manyoshu, an eighth-cen- daughters married to the emperor. They in circles of power and influence.

drama. The Noh actors’ anonymity contributes to the fectively controlled Japan while the court retained only its
play’s mystery and power. cultural and symbolic meaning.
The era from 1185 to 1333 is known as the Kamakura
period because the capital was now moved to Kamakura,
WARRIOR JAPAN: THE KAMAKURA PERIOD in part to escape the effete influence of the court. In a tra-
During the later Heian era, rulers began to see their power dition inaugurated by MINAMOTO YORITOMO [MI-
diminish at the hands of the samurai, regional warriors na-MO-to] (1147-99), these warriors began to give
in the service of the governing nobility. Because these war- themselves the title of shogun (general in chief) of the
riors were at the disposal of families competing for power, samurai. They continued to pay lip service to the official
they were instrumental in the change during the twelfth sovereign, but it was the shogun who exercised authority
century from court rule to that of military leaders who ef- until 1868, when imperial rule was restored. The shogun
and his samurai prided themselves on their self-reliance,
and they were particularly attracted to Zen, a form of Bud-
dhism that promoted self-sufficiency.
FIGURE 9.7 Minamoto no Yoritomo by Fujiwara Takanobu
(1142-1205). Twelfth century. Hanging scroll; ink, colour on
silk. The portrait of the Shogun Minamoto no Yoritomo is still Zen Buddhism. By the ninth century, Buddhism and
tinged with some Heian opacity and formality. Shinto had converged, to a certain extent, with the bound-
aries between the two religions becoming blurred. Shinto
kami and Buddhist deities, for example, gradually became
conflated, Buddhist priests used Shinto temples for med-
itation and worship, and Shinto temples assumed elements
of the Buddhist architectural style. New forms of Bud-
dhism, however, began to assume prominence, including
esoteric sects with a galaxy of deities and complex cere-
monies that appealed to courtiers, and in response, the
Pure Land sect, which became popular with everyday peo-
ple. In Pure Land Buddhism, the believer had only to
repeat the mantra “Namu Amida Butsu” (NAH-MOO-
AH-MEE-DAH-BOOT-TZU, Praise to Amida Buddha),
to be reborn in Amida’s Western Paradise.
In the Kamakura period, however, a new form of Bud-
dhism arrived from China that especially appealed to war-
riors for its focus on self-discipline and inner strength.
That form, known as Chan (Meditation) in China, in
Japan became Zen Buddhism. Although it had always
been a form of counterculture in China, for those who did
not feel satisfied with Confucian society, in Japan it be-
came a major religious and cultural force, with a strong
 EARLY JAPANESE CIVILIZATION 217

Cross Currents

JAPAN AND CHINA a major religion, Buddhism, which had ample), or Chinese characters for the
come to China from India. Japan also Chinese language (the Nihonji, for ex-
any main elements of Japanese cul- borrowed Chinese characters for writing ample). Yet while these and other areas of
ture derive from China, as do the until developing its own vernacular writ- Japanese culture, such as the tea cere-
central elements of other East Asian ing system, Kana, in the ninth century. mony and landscape painting, owe much
countries, including Korea and Vietnam. Prior to using the Kana system, Japan- to Chinese influence, the Japanese peo-
China has served for East Asian coun- ese literature and history were recorded ple over the centuries have made them
tries as cultural stimulus, source, and in- using Chinese characters to represent the their own, putting their distinctive cul-
spiration. From China, Japan inherited sounds ofJapanese (the Kojiki, for ex- tural stamp upon them.

influence on the aesthetics of various arts from ink paint- gested to him that by drinking tea in a small hut like that il-
ing to the tea ceremony. lustrated here, in the Katsura Palace gardens (fig. 9.8), with
Zen has been defined as “the art of seeing into the na- only a few companions, he could experience wabi, “lonely
ture of one’s own being.” It is less a religion or a philoso- seclusion.” This requires a heightened sense of awareness,
phy than a way of life, an attitude, an active stance toward in which the practitioner experiences, for instance, “the cold
everyday experience. A unique combination of Taoism and winter wind on his skin.” Murata also insisted in selfless-
Buddhism, Zen emphasizes meditation to discover the Bud- ness, writing that “nothing holds back the way of tea more
dha within each one of us. Nor is Zen concerned with the than attachment to oneself and feelings of self-satisfaction;
afterlife—with heaven or hell—or with the immortality of we must always be aware of our own shortcomings.”
the soul. Its focus instead is on living in the world around In the tea ceremony proper, the iron kettle, the pottery
us. When a Zen master was asked about life after death, he tea bowls made in China or, later, in local Japanese kilns,
replied, “Leave that to Buddha, it is no business of ours.” the small jars for holding powdered tea, and even the bam-
When another Zen master was questioned as to how one boo tea scoops were objects to be contemplated and ap-
could escape the reality of cold and heat, the pangs of hunger preciated for their humble practicality. In time, the most
and the parching of thirst, he answered, “In winter you shiver, celebrated of these items came to be worth astonishing
in summer you sweat. When you are hungry eat, and drink amounts of money and prestige, and were used as major
when you are thirsty.” One does not try to escape physical re- gifts between feudal lords, but they generally expressed a
ality. In Zen, one accepts it for what it is. Life is to be lived spirit of natural simplicity. The tea hut was decorated with
right here and now, attentively and appreciatively, and so a hanging scroll of a painting or calligraphy, preferably by
Zen meditation can permeate everything from getting a Chinese or Japanese Zen monk, and a flower arrange-
dressed and eating, to reading, working, and relaxing. ment appropriate for the time of year might also be dis-
played. The hut itself was built of natural materials in a
carefully designed garden through which visitors would
LATER WARRIOR JAPAN: arrive and later depart, clearing their minds of worldy con-
cerns. As Rikyu stated, in the act of drinking tea together,
THE ASHIKAGA PERIOD “here the Buddha-mind reveals itself.”
One great problem with warrior culture was that the samu- In most cultures, there has been a trend over the cen-
rai were in the service of feudal lords, rather than a cen- turies toward ever more refined and technically complex
tral government. The Kamakura period ended in civil war forms of art. InJapan this can be seen in the developments
in 1333, and insurrections of one kind or another contin- from the Asuka and Nara eras to the Heian period, as court
ued to plague Japan almost continuously until 1573. Dur- culture favored increasingly richly decorative styles and
ing this era, known as the Ashikaga period, Japan was ruled techniques in calligraphy, painting, architecture, and other
by shoguns and their samurai warriors, and as a result Zen arts. The tea ceremony, strongly influenced by Zen, turned
influence dominated Japanese culture. these aesthetics upside-down. Rikyu taught that in the tea-
Although started earlier, the tea ceremony rose to promi- room it is best if every object is less than perfect, and he saw
nence in the 1470s when the Ashikaga ruler Yoshimasa re- the beauty of utensils that had been broken or otherwise
treated from the conflicts that dominated urban life to damaged. Therefore in the wabi sensibility of Rikyu and his
collect Chinese paintings and ceramics at his villa on the is- followers, a rough pot from the Japanese countryside or a
land of Higashiyama. The Zen monk Murata Juko sug- mended Korean bowl could be as highly admired as a
 218 CHAPTER 9

Then & Now

SUMO WRESTLING the competition ring or to throw him down to a more basic attire, trunks or
down within it. Sumo wrestlers con- trunks and tank top for the Western
ne of Japan’s most distinctive sports front each other much like two football wrestler and loin cloth for their sumo
O: sumo, or Japanese wrestling, linemen trying to block each other or counterparts. Sumo involves more rit-
which originated during the Heian pe- knock each other off balance. One sim- ual, including the wrestlers tossing salt
riod, when it became a popular specta- ilarity between Western wrestling and to purify the ring, squatting across from
tor sport. Sumo differs from Western- sumo is the ritual in which the wrestlers and glaring at each other, and perform-
style wrestling, which originated in parade into the ring wearing, in the case ing a series of standardized gestures.
Greece. Unlike Western wrestling, of sumo wrestlers, long decorated skirts, Today some of these rituals have been
where the object is to pin one’s opponent and Western wrestlers, a kind of robe reduced, though they continue in at-
to the mat by his shoulders, in sumo the that bears the wrestler’s name. Both tenuated form to link Japanese sumo
object is to push one’s opponent out of Western and sumo wrestlers then strip past and present.

delicate Chinese porcelain, and unglazed ceramics were emony,” which developed during the Ashikaga period and
often preferred to, or mixed with, elaborately decorated not only has survived but flourishes to this day. According
ones. There were exceptions to this rule of modesty and to Rikyu, one of its founders, “The tea ceremony is noth-
sparseness; one Shogun even commissioned a tea hut cov- ing more than boiling water, making tea, and drinking it.”
ered with gold leaf. Nevertheless, the virtues of natural rus- But it has usually been a much more elaborate ceremony
ticity and unpretentious functionality as seen in the tea than Rikyu suggests, one that the Portuguese Jesuit priest
ceremony have continued to influence Japanese design and Joao Rodrigues (1562-1633) described after thirty years
taste to this day. of life in Japan as a ritual designed “to produce courtesy,
politeness, modesty, moderation, calmness, peace of body
Tea Ceremony. One of the major cultural institutions and soul, without pride or arrogance, fleeing from all os-
founded on Zen thinking is the cha-no-yu, or the “tea cer- tentation, pomp, external grandeur and magnificence.”

Cultural Impact
f ‘he influence of early Japanese civi- The impact of Zen on modern Japan- Herrigel’s book describes his attempt
lization on later periods and in coun- ese culture has been noted, but not to to learn archery Zen style while in Japan.
tries in both Asia and the West has been be overlooked is the influence of the Herrigel learned the Zen lessons of re-
considerable. Among the cultural legacies books by D.T: Suzuki, one of the world’s placing fear of failure with an expecta-
of ancient and medieval Japan are swords- most renowned scholar/practitioners of tion of fulfillment. He also learned how
manship, flower arranging, and the tea cer- Zen. His book Zen and Japanese Culture “not to shoot,” but to “let the shot fall
emony. Associated with the warrior culture reveals the extent to which Zen contin- from him,” like ripe fruit falling natu-
of the Japanese samurai, swordsmanship ues to pervade everyday life in Japan. rally from a tree. Pirsig’s book applies
and swordcraft, or the making of swords, Suzuki’s works have influenced and in- Zen principles to the author’s life as a
have continued well into the twentieth cen- spired others who have written their teacher and as a father who is develop-
tury, but exist today mostly as relics of a own accounts that reveal Zen’s influence ing a relationship with his teen-age son.
bygone era. Japanese flower arranging and in Germany through the art of Zen in Like Herrigel, Pirsig uses the skills as-
the tea ceremony, also of medieval origin, the Art of Archery by Eugene Herrigel sociated with a mechanical art, in his
retain their cultural significance not only and in the United States with Zen and case, motorcycle maintenance, to de-
in Japan, but in countries in which Japan the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance by a Zen values and ideals by which to
has had cultural contact. Robert Pirsig. ive.
 EARLY JAPANESE CIVILIZATION 219

.}

ZEN AND EVERYDAY LIFE cent-sized bookstore are the following: Why do you think Zen continues to
Zen Miracles: Find Peace in an Insane exert such an influence today—not only
A Ithough Zen is firmly linked with World; Zen Training; Zen Living; Zen in Japan, but in other countries, espe-
Lf Japanese culture, it has become a Commitments; Voices of Insight; Song of cially in the United States? What aspects
deeply entrenched U.S. cultural import. Mind; Waking Up to What You Do; The of the Zen approach to living do you
Among the numerous contemporary Companion of Zen; and Zen 24/7. think are particularly influential? Why?
books about Zen one might find in a de-

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FicurE 9.8 Shokintei (Pavilion of the Pine Lute), Katsura Palace gardens, near Kyoto, early
1660s. Named after the sound of wind in the pines that surround it, the pavilion is larger than
many tea huts, but its setting conveys the harmony with nature that is such an important fea-
ture of Japanese aesthetics.

KEY TERMS
Jomon kami shogun cha-no-yu
haniwa waka Pure Land Buddhism wabi
Shinto emaki-mano Chan
Kojiki samurai Zen Buddhism

www. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

http://www. japan-guide.com/e/e2055. html
(General information about Buddhism and its importation and development in Japan.
Important dates and names are hyperlinked to other sections.)
html
hitp://www.city.kasugai.aichi.jp/world/english/tofu.
(Tofu Ono [894-966] is one of the most best-known calligraphers in Japan. During the Heian
period there was a movement fo create culture indigenous to the Japanese people and not the
prevailing influence of Chinese. culture.)
CHAPTER 10

5000 a.c.e. Sedentary agriculture in West African savannahs

3000 B.C. Bantu Migration
eee ON BLE lron working in northern Tanzania
ae 500 B.ce. ron working in West Africa
rd century BCE. Jenne-Jeno and Gao settled in fertile inland delta of Niger river
IT st century B.CE. Traders from Mediterranean and India sail to East African coast
# early centuries CE. Romans unify Mediterranean region, including North Africa; Christianity spreads throughout region
ee eg orl laser Yax Moch Xoc rules over Tikal
eee 81 Bahlum Kuk founds Palenque
- 650-700 CE. Earthquake in Andes
ee, HOol ce, Defeat of Muslim forces by Christian Nubians at the battle of Dongala
Es 0. 750.CE. Teotihuacan sacked and burned
Sth century ce. Islamic state firmly entrenched in North Africa
Oth century ce. Igbo-Ukwu developed in forest region of Southeastern Nigeria

ee $000 Introduction of bananas from the Indian Ocean

y
13th centurCE. Benin, one of the largest and longest-lived forest states strengthens
ee aya Aztecs build city of Tenochtitlan
Sth century Ce. Portuguese establish trading posts at El Mina (modern day Ghana) and with Kongo Kingdom at Luenda
ca. 1502-20 ce. Moctezuma Ilreigns as Aztec emperor
ee Pg La) CE Cortés arrives in Mexico
ET Gs Pizarro encounters and overthrows Inca empire
18th century CE. Slave trade peaks at ca. 100,000 per year
et
ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE
ae ‘
eS
4 +
70,000 8.c.e.
;
Cave artifacts at Blombos in South Africa
a AROUB.CE Rock paintings in Sahara and South Africa regions
- ca, 900-500 B.C. Colossal Head
co,100 8.c£—-500 ce Moche Lord with a Feline
co. 150 Ce. Pyramid of the Sun
ee | AST ce. Coptic (Egyptian) and Nestorian (Middle Eastern) Christian churches break with Roman church
ca, 500 Ce. Huaca del Sol (Pyramid of the Sun)
7 th century ce. Temple of Inscriptions
tee Bth century CE. Benin region develops sophisticated state-sponsored art program built around the casting of bronze sculptures using “lost wax" casting
15th century ce. Coatlicue
oo 5 1450 Ce Machu Picchu built

LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

‘Voth century ce. Popol Vuh

Cantares Mexicanes
 Early Civil izations
of the Americas and Africa

Machu Picchu, Inca culture, Peru, ca. 1450.

 Gulf of Mexico

COZUMEL
1S:

CARIBBEAN

PACIFIC

OCEAN

200 Miles
ees Aztec Empire ca. 1520 |
Maya cultural area : 200 Kilometers

Map 10.1 Mesoamerica on the Eve of the Spanish Conquest.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

MESOAMERICA
“Middle America” Establishes Itself as a Cultural Mecca

THE CULTURES OF PERU

Geographical Constraints Fail to Hinder Civilizations Unique to the World

NORTH AMERICA
Vast Lands and Opportunities Provide the Basis for Rich Cultural Heritages from Coast to Coast

CIVILIZATION OF EARLY AFRICA

Multiple Cultures Thrive and Evolve

ometime between 30,000 and 12,000 years ago, at As the ice melted and the oceans rose at the close of the
the height of the Ice Age, tribal hunters began to Ice Age, the tribes in the Americas were cut off from Asia
migrate from Asia into the Americas across a land and Europe. This isolation lasted until October 12, 1492,
bridge that extended for perhaps a thousand miles south when Christopher Columbus landed on San Salvador in
of the present-day Bering Straits. This giant plain was the Bahamas. Thinking he was on the east coast of Asia,
rich in grass and animal life, and the tribes were natu- near India, Columbus called the people who met him “In-
rally drawn on further across it, and then on southward, dios,” Indians. These Native Americans seemed simple and
in pursuit of game. By 11,000 B.c.E., they had reached uncivilized to Columbus, but they were in fact the descen-
the tip of South America and the Atlantic coast of North dants of ancient and often quite magnificent civilizations,
America. some of which dated back to the first millennium B.C.E.
222
 EARLY CIVILIZATIONS OF THE AMERICAS AND AFRICA 223

MESOAM ‘, Fay. 2 WHET

Mesoamerica is a cultural area extending from central

Mexico to Honduras, and includes Belize and Guatemala.
The ancient Mesoamerican cultures include those of the
Olmecs (1300-600 B.c.E.), the Maya (250 B.c.E.-900 C.E.),
and the Toltecs (900-1200), precursors of the Aztecs
(1350-1521), along with the civilization of Teotihuacan
(100-800). The Mesoamericans spoke many languages.
Among these was the Nahua family of languages, which in-
cludes the language of the Aztecs and the Maya, dialects of
which survive to this day in southern Mexico and
Guatemala. The diverse early Mesoamerican civilizations
shared other cultural features, including hieroglyphic writ-
ing, an applied knowledge of astronomy, early cultivation
of maize, the use of calendars, and a form of monarchical
government intimately linked with religious ideas and
practices.
Prior to the arrival of Europeans in Mesoamerica, the
various complex civilizations that sprouted and withered
influenced one another and were interconnected. The high
level of interaction among these ancient Mesoamerican
societies included trading in raw materials, such as obsid-
ian, and products such as carved jade. Over the roughly
2,500 years from the rise of the Olmecs to the decline of
the Aztecs, ideas and inventions, such as writing and the
calendar, were exchanged along with the trade in goods.

THE OLMECS
The earliest Mesoamerican art dates from about 1300
B.C.E. when the Olmecs inhabited the southern coast of
the Gulf of Mexico, especially the area between Veracruz FiGuRE 10.1 Colossal Head, from La Venta, Mexico, Olmec
and ‘[abasco. There is some question whether the Olmecs culture, ca. 900-500 B.C.E., basalt, height 7’ 5’’ (2.26 m), La
were a distinct people and culture or whether the term Venta Park, Villahermosa, ‘Tabasco, Mexico. This example of a
“Olmec,” which derives from a word for rubber, refers to giant carved stone head represents the height of sculptural
an artistic style that prevailed throughout ancient Central achievement among the ancient Olmecs.
America.
Whoever they were, the Olmecs were outstanding stone
carvers. The most remarkable carvings that have survived
to the present day are a series of sixteen colossal stone
heads up to twelve feet high (fig. 10.1). Eight of these heads ceremonial ball game played throughout Mesoamerica.
were found in San Lorenzo, Veracruz, where they were Among other discoveries at San Lorenzo are stone fig-
placed facing outward on the circumference of a ceremo- urines of ball players and a ball court. (See Then & Now
nial area. They are carved of basalt. Because the nearest p. 348 and Figure 10.2.)
basalt quarry is fifty miles away in the Tuxtla Mountains,
the enormous stones from which the heads were carved
TEOTIHUACAN
had, apparently, to be dragged down from the mountains,
loaded onto rafts, floated down to the Gulf of Mexico, Among the most splendid of all Mesoamerican sites must
then up river to San Lorenzo, and finally dragged up and be the ancient city of TEOTIHUACAN [te-oh-te-wu-
positioned on the ceremonial plateau. KAN], which means “where one becomes a god.” Teoti-
Believed to be portraits of Olmec rulers, the heads share huacan (fig. 10.3) grew to dominance after 300 B.c.E. By
similar facial features, including flattened noses, thick lips, the time it reached the height of its political and cultural
and puffy cheeks. They all are capped with headgear sim- influence, between ca. 350-650 C.E., its population num-
ilar to old-style American football helmets. This is be- bered between 100,000 and 200,000, making it one of the
lieved to have served as protection in war and in a type of largest cities on earth at the time.
224 CHAPTER 10

Critical Thinking
Wuat Is A CIty? bate has centered on whether writing is do you think is most important in decid-
an essential characteristic. Other po- ing on whether a place might be defined
Se have debated the issue of what tential characteristics include formal or- as a city? Why? And what other traits
constitutes a “city,” or an urban cen- ganization, diverse populations, and could or should be considered as ele-
ter, in the ancient world. Much of the de- interdependence. Which of these traits ments that would qualify a site as a city?

The people of Teotihuacan were great pyramid builders. The overall design and layout of Teotihuacan suggests
The city is laid out in a grid pattern with a giant avenue its role as an astronomical and ritualistic center. The rela-
(the Avenue of the Dead) at its center. This central artery tion of the Pyramid of the Sun to the others suggests the
links two great pyramids, the Pyramids of the Moon and order of the universe, a cosmological order that influenced
of the Sun, which are the focal points of six hundred all aspects of life, including political organization, social
smaller pyramids, five hundred workshop areas, nearly two behavior, and religious ritual. Even time was represented.
thousand apartment compounds, numerous plazas, and a Each of the two staircases of the Pyramid of the Sun, for
giant market area. Built in about 150 C.E. over a natural example, contains 182 steps, which, when the platform at
cave (but only rediscovered in 1971), the Pyramid of the the apex is added, together total 365. This spatial repre-
Sun is oriented to mark the passage of the sun from east sentation of the solar calendar is echoed in the Temple of
to west and the rising of the stellar constellation the Quetzalcoatl, which has 364 serpent fangs.
Pleiades on the days of the equinox. Thus it links the un- By about 700, Teotihuacan’s influence had waned, and
derworld to the heavens, the forces of life and death. the city was sacked and burned in about 750. We can only
Along the Avenue of the Dead are a series of ziggurat- speculate about what finally led to its demise, but an eco-
like structures with numerous steps leading to an elevated logical explanation is possible. The surrounding country-
platform, which originally supported a temple. After the side had been pillaged to provide lime for the mortar used
Pyramids of the Sun and the Moon, the most important to build Teotihuacan. As the city’s population grew, ade-
structure in Teotihuacan was the Temple of Quetzalcoatl, quate provision of food became a problem. Coupled with
the god of priestly wisdom. This temple contains elaborate the effects of drought, the environmental catastrophe
relief carvings, which include the heads of feathered ser- wreaked on the countryside probably made it impossible
pents and fire serpents. to maintain a stable civilization.

FiGureE 10.2 An ancient ball court at Monte Alban in the Mexican valley of Oaxaca. ©
Danny Lehman/CORBIS, NY. All Rights Reserved. Various types of ball games were played
in Mexico for more than two thousand years.
 EARLY CIVILIZATIONS OF THE AMERICAS AND AFRICA 225

Then & Now

Si SOS
a er AR at te ABIES onat Aer = Me lh i AR AU RRA DU YN EO Si AR ARNE On Sa eo OeSa em Se 5 TSI N ih ASPs SBA SA PRL ABR

CHOCOLATE colored dogs were sacrificed. According to kings and aristocrats, and later, a popular
Hernando Cortez’s account of Aztec life, dessert treat for the masses (the Hershey
f Nhocolate has long been a popular food Montezuma’s court drank two thousand bar), prior to its more recent status as a lux-
Noehin the Americas and in Europe, espe- pitchers of chocolate a day. And when the ury item (the truffles of Godiva). Its pop-
cially in Belgium, France, Spain, and conquistadors searched his palace, looking ularity today remains unabated as a
Switzerland. The origins of chocolate go for gold and silver, they found enormous component of “sinful” desserts (what
deep into ancient Mesoamerica. Centuries quantities of cocoa beans instead. restaurant omits chocolate from its
before the Maya used chocolate as cur- The Maya were also chocolate lovers desserts?), as a hot drink for adults when
rency and the Aztecs consumed it in and served a spicy, bittersweet fermented mixed with coffee in café mocha, as a cold
unsweetened liquid form, chocolate seeds drink made from the seeds of cocoa beans sweetened drink for children, as a supposed
of the Theobroma cacao tree were trans- and mixed with maize and chili peppers. aphrodisiac, as a stimulus with purported
formed into an edible treat. The Aztecs With the Spanish conquest of the Maya in medical benefits, and, of course, as the
declared «xocaltl, or chocolate, to be a gift central America, chocolate was introduced main ingredient in the most decadent of
from their god Quetzalcoatl and served it into Europe, where its bitterness was tem- desserts, including the chocolate bombe
as a drink to members of the court. The pered by mixing in sugar and vanilla, and and a mousse called Chocolate Suicide of-
‘Toltecs staged rituals in which chocolate- where it became the stimulating drink of fered by a restaurant in St. Louis.

FiGurRE 10.3. ‘Teotihuacan, Mexico, Teotihuacdan culture, 350-650 C.E. The city of Teoti-’
huacdan covered an area nine miles square and contained between 100,000 and 200,000 people,
an enormous scale and population for a culture of its time.
226 CHAPTER 10

Connections

MAYAN WRITING AND WALL that pushes back the date of a developed analyze the murals seeking clues to
PAINTING writing system hundreds of years. One breaking the code of the ancient pre-
problem, however, is that the archaeolo- classical period writing. They will also
|Deine archaeologists have made a gists have had great difficulty translating use Mayan writing of a millennium later
umber of stunning discoveries these newly discovered hieroglyphs. to find connections with the earlier hi-
amidst ancient ruins in San Barto, They are expected to be helped, though, eroglyphs. In addition, the discovery of
Guatemala. Among the most important by another discovery nearby of murals in additional examples of the ancient writ-
of these finds is the earliest known vivid colors depicting the Mayan myth ing at other sites is also expected to aid in
Mayan writing, a column of hieroglyphs of creation and kingship. Scholars will their decoding efforts.

MAYAN CULTURE tion, since the sun rose there, and its color was red. North
was the direction of the dead, and its color was white. The
The ancient Maya inhabited the Yucatan peninsula, which king was the personification of the Wacah Chan. When
extends into Belize and Guatemala, parts of the Mexican he stood at the top of a pyramid in ritual activity, he was
states of Chiapas and Tabasco, and the western part of seen to link the three layers of the universe in his own per-
Honduras and EI Salvador. The culture appears to have son. During such rituals, the king would let his own blood
lasted from about 250 B.C.E. to 900 C.E. Although the Maya in order to give sustenance to the spiritual world. Although
possessed their own form of hieroglyphic writing, they ritual bloodletting seems to many people to be a barbaric
shared with other Mesoamerican peoples the use of books or at least an exotic practice, we should remember that
made of fig-bark paper or deerskin that unfolded into Christians symbolically drink the blood of Jesus when they
screens. celebrate Holy Communion. The role of blood in Mayan
The ancient Maya are set apart from their ancient ritual is similar.
Mesoamerican neighbors, however, in their arithmetical To the Maya, time was not linear, as we conceive it, but
and astronomical knowledge, which rivaled that of the an- cyclical. They used two calendars. The first was a 365-day
cient Babylonians. The Maya possessed a profound un- farming calendar that consisted of eighteen “months” of
derstanding of the regularity and continuity of the twenty days each and one short month of just five days.
heavenly bodies, which they saw as a metaphor for the The second was a sacred calendar of 260 days, which prob-
ruler’s consistent safeguarding of his people. ably relates to the average length of human gestation from
Mayan writing is the most expressive and complex in the first missed menstrual flow to birth (actually 266 days).
the Native American world. Mayan writing survived in It is clear that this second calendar possesses a close con-
part because it was carved into stone and thus was able to nection to Mayan bloodletting rituals. The Mayans com-
withstand destruction and decay. Mayan writing falls into bined the two calendars to create a long cycle of fifty-two
two main categories: (1) dynastic records, including the years, or 18,980 days (a particular day in one calendar will
genealogies of rulers and records of their victories, sacri- fall on the same day in the other calendar every fifty-two
fices, and communion with their ancestors; (2) astronom- years), at the end of which time repeated itself.
ical records and priestly timekeeping records. Interestingly
and paradoxically, the Mayan writing system was designed Mayan Literature and Myth. The great work of Mayan
less to communicate than to keep information secret, one myth and literature is the Popol Vub, an epic narrative that
reason that its esoteric code took so long for scholars to describes the creation of the world. Written in the Quiche
crack and interpret. language around 1500, but regarded as extant during the
The Mayan Universe. For the Maya, the universe con- Mayan classic era, the Popol Vuh outlines traditional Mayan
sisted of three layers—the Upperworld of the heavens, the views on human beings as well as the origins of the world.
Middleworld of human civilization, and the Underworld According to the story, the gods wished to create intelli-
below—linked by a great tree, the Wacan Chan which gent beings who would praise them. They made three un-
grew from the center of the Middleworld and from which successful attempts, using mud, wood, and animals as
the cardinal directions flowed. Each direction possessed materials, before they decided to use water and maize, crit-
its own symbolic significance and was represented by its ically important substances in Mesoamerican culture. Like
own color, bird, and gods. East was the principal direc- the Homeric epics for ancient Greece and the Mahab-
 EARLY CIVILIZATIONS OF THE AMERICAS AND AFRICA 227

harata of ancient India, the Popol Vuh serves Mesoamerica adapt to every environment, hunting with equal facility on
as a repository of its cultural ideals and values. land, in water, and even in the Upperworld of the trees.
That it hunts at night, with eyesight that penetrates the
Tikal. Among the most important sites of classic Mayan darkness, suggests its magical powers.
culture is that of TIKAL [te-KAL], in present-day
Guatemala. There, one of the great “ancestors” of Mayan The Jaguar Kings of Palenque. ‘The Jaguar God is
civilization, Yax Moch Xoc (r. 219-38 C.E.), ruled over a common to all Mesoamerican cultures, from the Olmecs
city that contained in an area of just over six square miles to the Aztecs. At Palenque, the Mayan kings called them-
six giant temple-pyramids used for the celebration of re- selves Bahlum, “Jaguar,” and their history is recorded on
ligious rituals of the kind just described. the ‘Temple of Inscriptions (fig. 10.5). According to king
The meticulously ordered layout of Teotihuacan is not lists carved in the temple’s corridors, the first king was
characteristic of Mayan cities. Tikal and other Mayan Bahlum Kuk (“Jaguar Quetzal”), who founded the city on
urban centers seem instead to have grown by accretion, March 11, 431 C.E.
undergoing rebuilding and modification over centuries. These king lists, which record a dynasty of some twelve
Most striking among the remains of Tikal’s buildings are kings, were commissioned by two rulers: Pacal (“Shield”)
six enormous temple-pyramids (fig. 10.4). Two of these and his oldest son Chan Bahlum (“Snake Jaguar”). Pacal
are unusually steep, rising to a height of nearly 230 feet, ruled for sixty-seven years, beginning in 615, and the Tem-
and face each other across a large grassy square. Each is ple of Inscriptions was erected as his tomb. In 1952, the
topped by an extension that resembles the comb of a roos- Mexican archaeologist Alberto Ruz discovered a hidden
ter, called a roof comb, and gives the impression of an el- staircase at the heart of the temple, and at its bottom
evated throne on an enormously high dais. Pacal’s body, adorned with a jade collar and green head-
War dominated Tikal life. For two hundred years after band, lying in a red-painted stone sarcophagus. The out-
300 c.E., Tikal exercised power over the southeastern re- side of the sarcophagus is decorated with a magnificent
gion of Mesoamerica. Its patron and protector was the stone relief carving (fig. 10.6), which depicts Pacal’s fall
Jaguar God, whose strength and hunting ability were down the Wacah Chan, the great tree at the center of the
likened to the power of the king himself and the warlike fe- world. Pacal lands at the bottom on an altarlike image that
rocity of the Tikal people. Like the king, the jaguar can represents the setting sun.

FicurE 10.4 Tikal, Guatemala, Mayan culture, ca. 700 C.E. University of Pennsylvania Mu-
seum. Because Mayan rituals were conducted in the open air, temple architecture atop pyra-
mids emphasized external features.
228 CHAPTER 10

FiGurE 10.5 ‘Temple of Inscriptions, Palenque, Mexico, Mayan culture, seventh century C.E.
Rising in nine steps, like the temples at Tikal, the temple is inscribed with the history of the
Palenque kings and rests over the grave of Pacal, one of its greatest leaders.

FIGURE 10.6 Sarcophagus lid, tomb of Pacal, Temple of In-

THE TOLTECS AND AZTECS
scriptions, Palenque, Mexico, Mayan culture, ca. 683 C.E.,
limestone, ca. 12’ 6'’ X 7'(3.80 X 2.14 m). The lid represents Among the best known of the Mesoamerican civilizations
Pacal’s fall in death from the sacred tree of the Maya, whose is that of the Aztecs (or Mexica, as they referred to them-
roots are in the earth and whose branches are in the heavens. selves). This civilization flourished relatively late, after ap-
proximately 1350, and continued until it was overcome by
the Spaniards in 1521.
The greatest Aztec families claimed descent from the
Toltecs, who were said to have invented the calendar and
who were the mightiest of warriors. The Toltecs came to
power in Tula in Hidalgo Province around 900 C.£. after
‘Teotihuacan’s power had diminished. In the twelfth cen-
tury, the militaristic Toltecs carne to a violent end, when
Tula was burned and its inhabitants scattered. Among the
escaping tribes were the Mexica, who wandered into the
Valley of Mexico around 1325 and built a village on
the shores of Lake Texcoco. There they dug canals, drain-
ing high areas of the lake and converting them into fertile
fields, and also built the magnificent city of Tenochtitlan.
By 1440, when MOCTEZUMA ILHUICAMINA [muck-
tay-ZOO-mah] (r. 1440-86) assumed power, they consid-
ered themselves masters of the entire world.
Perhaps the most frequently cited aspect of Aztec cul-
ture is human sacrifice, which was linked with religious
ritual. As in Mayan culture, the shedding of human blood
was seen as necessary for the continuance of the earth’s
fertility. The sun, moon, earth, and vegetation gods re-
quired human blood for their sustenance and the contin-
uance of human life. During the reign of Moctezuma
Ihuicamina’s successor, Ahuitzotl (r. 1486-15 01), no fewer
than twenty thousand captives were sacrificed in the city.
The central activity of the Aztec state was war, with the
primary goal to secure enough captives for sacrifice. Young
 EARLY CIVILIZATIONS OF THE AMERICAS AND AFRICA 229

Then & Now

THE Maya intimidating sticks, and practice a stern, daykeepers learn to interpret these trem-
mystical brand of Catholicism that blings and eventually become the head
ee Pacal himself, Palenque and the blends Mayan interest in the spirit world mother-fathers, or priest-shamans, of
other Mayan states would eventually of animals with a part-Christian, part- their respective families.
fall. Some time in the ninth century, the Mayan sense of self-sacrifice. Blood also continues to play a signifi-
Maya abandoned their cities and re- Many traditional Mayan practices cant role in contemporary Mayan culture.
turned to the countryside to farm, where survive in contemporary culture. Not Throughout Guatemala and Chiapas,
their descendants work the fields to this only do the beautiful embroidery and blood is still considered an animate ob-
day. Scattered across the southern Mex- weaving of the contemporary Mayans ject, capable of speaking. Shamans can
ican state of Chiapas and throughout contain references to ancient Mayan hi- receive messages from a patient’s blood
Guatemala, the contemporary Mayans eroglyphics, but Mayan women still as- by “pulsing,” or touching a patient’s body
speak twenty different dialects of their sociate giving birth with the ancient at various pressure points. An ancient
original language and engage in dis- 260-day calendar. In fact, children born poem, which continues to be recited
tinctly different cultural practices, some- on particular days are still esteemed by among contemporary Mayan peoples
times in villages separated by no more contemporary Mayans as daykeepers, who no longer practice the ritual, de-
than ten or twelve miles. In Chiapas, for persons able to receive messages from scribes the dance of the bowman, who
instance, the Mayan inhabitants of the the external world, both natural and su- sharpens his arrows and dances around
village of Zinacantan characteristically pernatural, through their bodies. These the victims in preparation for their sac-
dress in bright red and purple and cele- daykeepers describe a sensation in their rifice. The song recalls and memorializes
brate fiestas with loud bands and fire- bodies as if air were rapidly moving over the staging of the sacrificial action, and
works; in nearby Chamula the men wear it in a flickering manner, similar to sheet testifies to the importance of memory as
white or black wool serapes, carry large, lightning moving over a lake at night. The an aspect of Mayan culture.

men were prepared for war from their birth. A newborn goddess of the earth, shows a face with two serpent heads
male was greeted with war cries by his midwife, who took set on a thick powerful body. The serpents may represent
him from the mother and dedicated him to the sun and to blood jetting from the heads of ritually sacrificed women.
battle. His umbilical cord was buried by a veteran warrior Coatlicue’s necklace is made up of human hearts and
in a place of battle. Following soon upon birth was the hands, with a human skull dangling at its base. Her skirt,
naming ceremony, during which the baby boy’s hand was which consists of writhing snakes, suggests sexual activity
closed around a tiny bow, arrows, and shield. Shortly after and its aftermath, birth.
this ceremony, priests fitted the child with the decorative Coatlicue is said to embody the Aztecs’ belief in the
lip plug worn by Aztec warriors. creative principle, an attitude reflected in their love of po-
At puberty most commoner (i.e., nonroyal) boys, with etry. For the Aztecs, poetic speech, chanted or sung, was
the exception of those destined to become priests, were a creative force, one that not only conveyed their vision
placed under the jurisdiction of the youth house, which of the world but simultaneously enacted it. This power of
was associated with a local warrior house. Although young the poetic spoken word was further displayed in the Aztec
boys were trained for war, they were also taught various emphasis on systematic memorizing of poems and songs to
horticultural, mercantile, hunting, and fishing skills. preserve Aztec cultural traditions. Poetry was called flower
Nonetheless, the way a young man secured prestige and song. In Aztec painted scrolls, poetry is represented as a
fame was in war rather than in the pursuit of a vocation, flowered scroll emanating from an open mouth. This use
with success measured in the number of enemy captured of images—of flower and song together—was character-
alive for later ritual killing on ceremonial occasions. istic of Nahuatl metaphor, standing for poetry specifically,
For Aztec men, dying in battle was considered a great and more generally for the symbolic dimension of art.
honor, as is evident in the following Nahuatl song:
Aztec Gods. Among the most important Aztec gods are
There is nothing like death in war, Huitzilopochtli and Quetzalcoatl. To a considerable de-
nothing like the flowery death gree, the Aztec predilection for human sacrifice derived
so precious to Him who gives life: from their devotion to Huitzilopochtli. Warriors took the
far off I see it: my heart yearns for it!
god as their patron deity when conquering neighboring
Aztec art typically reflects the fierceness of the culture. A peoples. When Aztec wars were successful, the god’s priests
colossal statue of Coatlicue; the “Serpent Skirt” (fig. 10.7), demanded human sacrificial victims for his appeasement.
230 CHAPTER 10

Then & Now

MESOAMERICAN BALL GAMES Ancient Mesoamerican ball games cult, since use of the hands was not al-
were rituals of religious significance. lowed.
A ncient Americans played a variety of They were also a matter of life and A more serious difference between
ames using balls of various sizes. In death. The Mayan epic Popol Vub de- contemporary basketball and the ancient
one of them the Hachtli players tried to scribes a ball game in which Hero version is that modern players, when
shoot a rubber ball through a stone ring. Twins descend into the underworld to they fail at a crucial shot at game’s end,
The Olmecs left ball courts made around defeat the Lords of Death and thereby come back to play another day, whereas
1500 B.c.E., and colossal Olmec stone save humanity. members of losing teams in ancient
heads are sometimes shown wearing hel- Unlike modern-day _ basketball, Mesoamerica often found themselves of-
mets presumed to have been used in which tends to be a high-scoring affair, fered as a ritual sacrifice.
their ancient ball games. with many baskets made by both teams,
Much more than a mere sport, in ancient ball games were rough defen-
which onlookers sometimes made bets, sive contests in which scoring was diffi-

At the dedication of a large temple honoring

Huitzilopochtli, the god’s priests are reputed to have sac-
rificed eighty thousand victims, some of whom were Aztec
criminals, while others were neighboring peoples who had
come under Aztec subjugation.
Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent god, was honored
under different names by earlier Mesoamerican peoples,
including those of Teotihuacan. A more peaceful god than
Huitzilopochtli and Coatlicue, Quetzalcoatl was honored
as patron of agriculture as well as patron of arts and crafts.
Images of Quetzalcoatl can be found in Aztec codices,
sheets of parchment that could be folded into long strips
in book-like form (fig. 10.8).

The Aztec Language. ‘The primary Aztec language dur-

ing the time of the Spanish conquest in the sixteenth cen-
tury was Nahuatl (NA-watl). Nahuatl continues to be
spoken by nearly two million Nahua-Mexicans who live
in a broad swath of central Mexico. Referred to today as
“Mexicano,” Nahuatl, which exists in two dozen dialect
variants, is among the more than fifty native Indian lan-
guages of Mexico that are in danger of disappearing.
Nahuatl is an agglutinative language, one that strings
together prefixes, word roots, and suffixes into very long
words. Among them is an eighteen-syllable Nahuatl word
that reputedly means “you honorable people might have
come along banging your noses, so as to make them bleed,
FiGuRE 10.7 Coatlicue, Aztec, fifteenth century, stone, but in fact, you didn’t.” Other words are simple, such as
height 8’ 6” (2.65 m), Museo Nacional de Antropologia, Mex- “chocolatl” and “tomatl,” from which English has derived
ico City. With her two rattlesnake heads and her skirt of ser- “chocolate” and “tomato.” Efforts to preserve Nahuatl,
pents, along with large serpent fangs and necklace of human along with other Native Mexican Indian languages, are
body parts, this Aztec deity induces awe in some and amaze- underway with the building of new dictionaries to sup-
ment in others who stand in her presence. plant those made by missionaries centuries ago. Among
 EARLY CIVILIZATIONS OF THE AMERICAS AND AFRICA 231

{+ »

FIGURE 10.8 Aztec peoples, Mictlantecuhth and Quetzalcoatl. Manuscript illumination.

Vatican Library, Rome. Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana.

the techniques being used is having elder Nahuatl native THE MOCHE
speakers recite traditional stories, which are then scoured
for words to include in the dictionary. Among the early cultures to develop in Peru was that of
the Moche, who controlled the area along the Peruvian
north coast from 200 to 700 c.E. They lived around great
huacas, pyramids made of sun-dried bricks, that rose high
THE CULTURES OF PERU above the river floodplains. The largest was Huaca del Sol,
Peru is a land of dramatic geographical contrasts. Along the Pyramid of the Sun (fig. 10.9), which is 135 feet high—
the Pacific coast is one of the driest deserts in the world, about two-thirds the height of the Pyramid of the Sun at
where the rivers that descend out of the Andes mountains ‘Teotihuac4n. Its truncated summit, however, is much vaster
to the east form strips of oases. The Andes themselves are than Teotihuacan’s. At least two-thirds of the pyramid was
mammoth mountains, steep and high. Beyond them, to destroyed in the seventeenth century when Spanish
the east, lies the jungle, the tropical rain forest of the Ama- colonists, searching for gold, diverted the Moche River into
zon basin. These various terrains were home to a series of it and used the river’s fast current to erode the mound. The
cultures, in particular the Moche and the Inca, before the colonists did indeed discover many gold artifacts buried
arrival of Spanish colonists. with the dead in the sides of the structure. Unfortunately,
232 CHAPTER 10

FicurE 10.9 Huaca del Sol (Pyramid of the Sun), Moche culture, Moche Valley, Peru, ca.
500 c.E., height 135’ (41.1 m). Destroyed by Spanish colonizers seeking gold, this giant pyra-
mid was built of more than 143 million sun-dried bricks.

they melted these artifacts down for bullion. What they quake rattled the Andes, causing massive landslides, fill-
left, however, is a record of the pyramid’s construction. The ing the rivers with debris, and blocking the normal chan-
sliced-away mound reveals at least eight stages of con- nels to the ocean. As the sand washed ashore, huge dunes
struction, and we can extrapolate to conclude that around were formed, and the coastal plain was suddenly subject
143 million bricks, made in rectangular molds from river to vast, blinding sandstorms. It seems clear as well that El
silt, were used to build it. Nino, the warm current that slides up and down the Pa-
The Moche were gifted metalsmiths, and they employed
the same lost-wax technique used by the Romans. They
adorned their copper sculptures with gold by binding liq-
FIGURE 10.10 Moche Lord with a Feline, Moche culture, Moche
uid gold to the copper surface at temperatures reaching as
valley, Peru, ca. 100 B.c.E.-500 C.E., painted ceramic, height 7 =
high as 1472°F (800°C). Further decorated with turquoise
(19 cm), Buckingham Fund, 1955. 2281. Photograph © 2005,
and shells, the results were often astonishingly beautiful. Art Institute of Chicago, All Rights Reserved. Vessels such as this
But the Moche were, above all, the most gifted ceramic one were buried in large quantities with people of high rank.
artists in the Americas. In addition to working with pot-
ter’s wheels, they also produced clay objects from molds, al-
lowing them to reproduce the same objects again and again.
Their most distinctive designs are found on bottles with
stirrup-shaped spouts that curve out from the body of the
vessel. Bottles might be decorated with images of anything
from the king or high official—as illustrated here (fig.
10.10), in ceremonial headdress and stroking a jaguar cub—
to strange part-animal/part-human deities, and to every-
day scenes such as a design for a typical Moche house.
Warriors do battle on some of the vessels, prisoners are de-
capitated and dismembered on others, and on another fa-
mous example, a ruler in a giant feather headdress looks
on as a line of naked prisoners passes before him.
Around 800, Moche society vanished. Evidence sug-
gests that some time between 650 and 700 a great earth-
 EARLY CIVILIZATIONS OF THE AMERICAS AND AFRICA 233

cific coast of the Americas, changed the climate, destroy- around 1450. Located high in the Andes mountains,
ing the fisheries and bringing torrential floods to the nor- Machu Picchu was built perhaps as a refuge for Inca mon-
mally dry desert plain. It was all apparently too much, and archs, perhaps as a place of religious retreat. Terraced fields
the Moche disappeared. adorn the slopes of the mountain that rises from the val-
ley thousands of feet below. The stones for the walls and
buildings were hoisted without benefit of carts or any
THE INCA wheeled contrivance, because the wheel was not used in
Roughly contemporaneous with the rise of the Aztecs in either the Andes or Mesoamerica before the arrival of the
Tenochtitlan was the emergence of the Inca civilization in Spaniards. ‘Tools used for fitting the stones together snugly
Peru around 1300. The Incas inhabited the central Andes were primitive—mostly stone hammers, since neither the
in what is today primarily Bolivia and Peru. They became Andean nor Mesoamerican civilizations had developed
a dominant military force around 1500 and appear also to metal implements at this time.
have developed an organizational capacity to rival the en- Machu Picchu was abandoned shortly after the arrival
gineering genius of the Romans. The Inca capital was at of Francisco Pizarro and the Spanish conquistadores. The
Cuzco, a city of 100,000 inhabitants at its height, built on Spaniards destroyed Inca civilization with technologically
a broad open valley between the Andes mountains north advanced weapons by enlisting the allied assistance of Inca
of Lake Titicaca. They called their empire Tawantinsuyu, enemies, and through the agency of contagious diseases,
“Land of Four Quarters,” and, in fact, four highways em- especially smallpox. Just a dozen years after Moctezuma
anated from Cuzco’s central plaza, dividing the kingdom and the Aztecs had been defeated by the Spanish under
into quadrants. The 19,000 miles of roads and tracks that Hernan Cortés, the Andean Inca civilization suffered an
extended throughout their empire provide some indication equally ignoble demise. Machu Picchu was overlooked by
of their engineering skill. The Incas understood the need the Spaniards, perhaps in part because it was a small village
for a functional communications system in a territory as of five hundred inhabitants. ‘To this day it remains one of
large as theirs. Along these roadways, official runners could the architectural wonders of the world.
carry messages as far as 125 to 150 miles per day. And along
them as well llamas carried goods and products for trade. Inca Society and Religion. Inca society was organized
One of the most impressive of all Inca accomplishments into four main classes: rulers, aristocrats, priests, and peas-
is the fortified town of Machu Picchu (fig. 10.11), built ants. The Incas honored their chief rulers as deities

FIGURE 10.11 Machu Picchu, Inca culture, Peru, ca. 1450. This beautiful mountain habita-
tion escaped destruction when the Spaniards overwhelmed the Inca civilization in 1532, partly
because of its remote location high in the Andes mountains, and partly because it was not a
large city like the Inca capital of Cuzco.
234 CHAPTER 10

Connections

THE MYSTERY OF THE NAZCA henge had helped reveal its astronomi- are called, are actually depictions of giant
LINES cal relations, but he was unable to link gods whose job it is to guarantee both
many of the lines to the configuration of the availability of water and the fertility
erhaps no phenomenon better un- the heavens in the Nazca period. In the of the Nazca valleys. This theory is sup-
derscores the intimate connection early 1970s, Erich von Daniken theo- ported by the fact that in several sites,
between art, archaeology, and science rized that the lines were guidance pat- the straight lines point, not at aspects on
than the mystery of the famous Nazca terns for alien spacecraft, a proposal that the horizon, but directly at natural
lines. These are giant drawings made on soon gained a wide and vocal following. springs and water sources.
the plains of the south Peruvian coast More recently, archaeologists have
where the earth is covered by a topsoil proposed that these geogylphs, as they
of fine sand and pebbles that, when dug
away, reveals white alluvium. A culture
that traded with the Moche to the north
and thrived from 100 B.c.E. to 700 C.E.,
the Nazca dug away this top soil to cre-
ate a web of lines, some running straight
for as long as five miles, others forming
complex geometric designs in the shape,
for instance, of a monkey with a coiled
tail or, as illustrated here, a humming-
bird (fig. 10.12).
Ever since the German-born mathe-
matician and astronomer Maria Reiche
became obsessed by the lines in 1932,
they have been the center of controversy.
Reiche single-handedly surveyed all of
the lines over the course of her career
and concluded that the straight lines
point to celestial activity on the horizon
and the animals represent ancient con- FiGurE 10.12 Earth drawing of a hummingbird, Nazca Plain, southwest Peru,
stellations. In 1963, Nazca was visited by Nazca culture, ca. 200 B.c.E.-200 C.E., length ca. 450’ (138 m), wingspan ca. 200’
Gerald Hawkins of Boston University, (60.5 m). Aerial photographs and satellite images have revealed not only figurative
whose computer calculations of Stone- designs such as this one, but over eight hundred miles of straight lines.

descended from the sun. Their rule was absolute, and they
retained their exalted position after death. Royal remains,
which were mummified, were considered sacred, as dead
rulers were believed to serve as intermediaries with the Olmec —-1300 8.c.£.-600 B.c.£. Colossal heads
gods. On certain festivals, rulers would dress the remains
Mayan 250 B.c.£.-1000 c.e. Tikal pyramids/Cyclical
of their ancestors, adorn them with jewelry, and present
calendars
them with food and drink both to honor them and to re-
main on good terms with them. Nazca 200 8.¢.£.-200 c.. Hummingbird earth
Inca rulers, who technically owned everything in the drawing
realm, including the land, supervised the aristocrats, who Moche 200 8.c.£.-700 c.e. Sun-dried brick pyramids
allocated land for the peasants to cultivate. Like the priests, Toltec 900 c.£.-1200 c.E. Aztec ancestors
aristocrats led privileged lives, including the right to wear Inca 1300 c.£.-1537 cE. Machu Picchu
large ear spools, which created “big ears.” The priests, who Aztec 1350 c.£.-1521 c.E. Coatlicue, the “Serpent
descended from royal and aristocratic families, were well Skirt”
educated and influenced Inca society through their over- ee
Se ee
 EARLY CIVILIZATIONS OF THE AMERICAS AND AERICA 235

sight of religious ritual, which included veneration of the

sun god, Inti, as well as other astral deities. In Cuzco alone,
four thousand priests and attendants served Inti, whose
temple attracted pilgrims from the farthest reaches of the
Inca empire.

NORTH AMERICA
The Native American populations in North America were
far less densely concentrated than those in Meso- and
South America. The peoples of the region lived primarily
nomadic lives, hunting and fishing, until around 1200
B.C.E., when the production of maize spread from Mexico
into the southwest region of the present-day United States,
inaugurating agricultural production in the north thou-
sands of years after its introduction in the south. The cli-
mate of North America was not, in fact, conducive to
raising corn, and the practice was slow to take hold. As a
result, the organized and complex civilizations that have FiGurE 10.13. Haida mortuary poles and house frontal poles
usually accompanied agricultural development were also at Skedans Village, British Columbia, 1878, National Archives,
Canada. Totem poles were traditionally carved to honor the
slow to form. Indeed, down to the time of the European
leader of a clan upon his death, and they also stood in front of
colonization of the region at the end of the fifteenth cen- homes, serving a spiritual function.
tury, many native peoples continued to-live as they had
since the time of the extinction of the vast herds of mam-
moth, mastodon, and other species that inhabited the con- by the chief. Guests arrived in ceremonial dress, formal
tinent at the end of the Ice Age, ca. 6000 B.C.E. speeches of welcome followed, and gifts were distributed.
Then dancing would follow long into the night. The pot-
latch was intended to confirm the chief’s authority and en-
THE NORTHWEST COAST sure the loyalty of his tribal group.
One of the oldest cultures of the north developed along the
northwest coast of the continent, in present-day Oregon,
THE SOUTHWEST
Washington State, British Columbia, and Alaska. Reach-
ing back to approximately 3500 B.C.E., when the world’s The native populations of the desert southwest faced se-
oceans had more or less stabilized at their current levels, vere difficulties in adapting to conditions following the
rich fishing grounds developed in the region, with vast end of the Ice Age. Like the Moche in Peru who lived in
quantities of salmon and steelhead migrating inland up the similar desert conditions, tribes gathered around rivers,
rivers annually to spawn. One of the richest habitats on streams, and springs that brought precious water from the
earth in natural resources, the northwest was home to over mountains. However, water in the North American desert
three hundred edible animal species. was far less abundant than in the South American river
Here the native peoples—among them the Tlingit, the oases. Nonetheless, the inhabitants of the region, called
Haida, and the Kwakiutl—gathered wild berries and nuts, the Anasazi (meaning “ancient ones”), slowly learned to
fished the streams and inlets, and hunted game. In the win- recognize good moisture-bearing soil, to plant on north-
ters, they came together in plank houses, made with wood and east-facing slopes protected from the direct sunlight
from the abundant forests, and engaged in a rich ceremo- of late day, and to take advantage of the natural irrigation
nial life. By 450 B.C.E., they had become expert woodwork- of floodplains.
ers, not only building their winter homes out of timber and Small farming communities developed in the canyons
rough-sawn planks, but also carving out canoes and making and on the mesas of the region. In the thirty-two square
elaborate decorative sculpture. The most famous form of miles of Chaco Canyon, in the northeastern region of pres-
this decorative sculpture is the so-called totem pole (fig. ent-day Arizona, thirteen separate towns, centered around
10.13). These mortuary poles, erected to memorialize dead circular underground ceremonial rooms called kivas, had
chiefs, consist of animal and spirit emblems or totems begun to take shape by 700 C.£. In the kiva, the community
stacked one upon the other, for which the poles are named. celebrated its connection to the earth, from which all things
The kinship ties of the extended family tribe were cel- were said to emanate and to which all things return—not
ebrated at elaborate ceremonies called potlatches, hosted just humans, but, importantly, water as well. Connected to
236 CHAPTER 10

Cross Currents
By 1900, there were only 20,000 Native The whites have caused us great suffering.
CONQUEST AND DISEASE
Americans in the region. Along the east- Dr. Whitman many years ago made a
journey to the east to get a bottle of poi-
he end of the great buffalo herds ern seaboard of the United States,
son for us. He was gone about a year, and
was not the only devastation the through the Ohio Valley and the Mid- after he came back, strong and terrible dis-
conquering Europeans brought with west, entire populations were extermi- eases broke out among us. The Indians
them. In 1519, in Veracruz, Mexico, one nated by disease. In the matter of a killed Dr. Whitman, but it was too late.
of the invading Spanish soldiers came month or two, an entire village might He had uncorked his bottle and all the air
ashore with smallpox. The Native Amer- lose 90 percent of its people. was poisoned. Before there was little sick-
icans had no natural immunity. Of the The destruction of Native American ness among us, but since then many of us
approximately 11 million people living peoples, and with them their traditions have died. I have had children and grand-
in Mexico before the arrival of the and cultures, is movingly stated by the children, but they are all dead... . We are
Spaniards, only 6.4 million remained by Wanapum prophet Smohalla, many of now so few and weak that we can offer no
1540. By 1607, perhaps 2 million in- whose people died not long after the resistance, and their preachers have per-
suaded them to let a few of us live, so as to
digenous people remained. When the 1844 arrival of Marcus Whitman to es-
claim credit with the Great Spirit for
Spanish arrived in California in 1679, the tablish a mission in the Walla Walla Val- being generous and humane.
population was approximately 310,000. ley of Washington State:

other sites in the area by a network of wide straight roads, Ficure 10.14 Spruce Tree House, Mesa Verde, Colorado,
the largest of these towns was Pueblo Benito, which was Anasazi culture, 1200-1300 C.E. Visible in front of the build-
constructed between 900 and 1250. Shaped like a massive ings to the right are three round kivas. Originally, these would
letter “D,” its outer perimeter was 1,300 feet long. At the have been roofed, and the roofs would have formed a common
center of the “D” was a giant plaza, built on top of the two plaza in front of the buildings. The Anasazi farmed on the
mesatop above.
largest kivas (there are thirty other kivas at Pueblo Benito).
Perhaps the most famous Anasazi site is Mesa Verde
(fig. 10.14) in southwestern Colorado, near the Four Cor-
ners where Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico all
meet. Discovered in 1888 by two cowboys, Richard
Wetherill and Richard Morgan, searching for stray cattle,
Mesa Verde consists of a series of cliff dwellings built into
the cavelike overhangs of the small canyons and arroyos
that descend from the mesa top. As many as 30,000 peo-
ple lived in the Montezuma Valley below, but probably no
more than 2,500 people ever lived on the mesa itself. On
the mesa these inhabitants developed an elaborate irriga-
tion system consisting of a series of small ditches that filled
a mesatop reservoir capable of holding nearly half a mil-
lion gallons of water.
In about 1150, severe drought struck the Four Corners
region, and the Anasazi at both Chaco and Mesa Verde
abandoned their communities. They migrated into the Rio
Grande Valley of New Mexico, where they were absorbed
into the later native societies of the southwest, particularly
the Hopi and the Zuni.

THE MOUNDBUILDERS
Throughout the Mississippi and Ohio River basins, be-
ginning in about 1000 B.c.E. with the arrival of maize from
Mesoamerica, small farming villages began building mon-
 EARLY CIVILIZATIONS OF THE AMERICAS AND AFRICA 237

umental earthworks in which to bury their dead. By far Hunting it became the chief occupation of the peoples
the largest of these was at Cahokia, in present-day East who inhabited the region.
St. Louis, Illinois, where as many as 30,000 people lived Archaeological evidence suggests that as many as 8,500
between 1050 and 1250 c.£. The so-called Monk’s Mound, years ago a group of Native Americans who lived southeast
the biggest earthwork ever constructed in North Amer- of Kit Carson, Colorado, stampeded an entire herd of buf-
ica, rises in four stages to a height of nearly one hundred falo off a cliff. The fall killed about 152 of the animals, and
feet and extends over sixteen acres. they were butchered where they lay for their hides and meat.
The moundbuilders had begun by burying their dead The practice of stampeding continued, essentially unchanged,
in low ridges overlooking river valleys. The sites were ap- down to the time of the Spanish conquest, when horses were
parently sacred, and as more and more burials were added, reintroduced to the Americas—the native variety had grown
the mounds became increasingly large, especially as large extinct by 600 C.E.—and with the horse, the rifle.
burial chambers started to be constructed, at about the But perhaps the most devastating change as far as the
time ofJesus, to contain important tribal leaders. Sheets of buffalo were concerned was the coming of the Europeans
mica, copper ornaments, and carved stone pipes were themselves. The great herds that roamed the continent
buried with these chiefs and shamans, and the mounds be- quickly disappeared. Between 1830 and 1870, the buffalo
came increasingly elaborate. One of the most famous is population in the West dropped from around thirty mil-
the Great Serpent Mound (fig. 10.15), built by the Adena lion to an estimated eight million. Between 1872 and 1874,
culture between 600 B.C.E. and 200 C.E. Overlooking a hunters killed an estimated 4,374,000 buffalo on the Great
small stream, it rises from its coiled tail as if to strike a Plains. As the railroad builder Granville Dodge reported
giant oval form which its mouth has already encircled. in the late summer of 1873: “The vast plain, which only a
What it symbolizes is as mysterious as the forms of the short twelvemonth before teemed with animal life, was a
Nazca lines in Peru. dead, solitary, putrid desert.” The Crow warrior, Two
Legs, put it this way: “Nothing happened after that. We
just lived. There were no more war parties, no capturing
THE BUFFALO HUNTERS horses from the Piegan and the Sioux, no buffalo to hunt.
It remains unclear what led to the extinction of the great There is nothing more to tell.”
game species at the end of the Ice Age—perhaps a combi-
nation of over hunting and climatic change. But one large
pre-extinction mammal continued to thrive—the bison, AFRICA
commonly known as the buffalo. The species survived be-
cause it learned to eat the grasses that soon spread across To discuss the diversity of African art and culture in a small
the Great Plains of North America, where it roamed. space is a great challenge for a variety of reasons. First,
Africa is a big place, much bigger than you might think
just from looking at a map. Indeed, the continent is more
than three times as large as the continental United States.
Ficure 10.15 Great Serpent Mound, Adams County, Ohio, The Sahara desert alone is nearly as large as the United
Adena culture, 600 B.C.E.-200 C.E., length ca. 1254'5” (382.5 States. Further, Africa is home to a multitude of societies
m). Although the Great Serpent Mound in Adams County is and cultures. Complementing such cultural diversity is
perhaps the most spectacular example, there are between three also a wide range of economic and political variation. As
and five hundred such mounds in the Ohio Valley alone. such, it is difficult to talk about groups as different as the
Hausa (a West African people famous for large cities and
long-distance trade) and the San (South African hunter-
gatherers) in the same breath. Finally, there is the unfor-
tunate reality that most Americans grow up unconsciously
accepting a great variety of stereotypes and myths about
Africans. For example, despite what we might gather from
a host of nature shows, most Africans have never even seen
an elephant. Moreover, stereotypes of African so-called
primitivism lead many to underestimate the complexity
and quality of African achievements.

THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

The African continent contains a variety of ecological and
physical environments. Africa is neither a giant desert nor
a huge jungle. Africa has both of these, of course, and a
238 CHAPTER 10

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

to Iran
and India
baka
of
DARFUR

@ Kano
eR:
a pet

Ubang; p ‘
I GAMERO® (ep

oR GS ~} Mogadishu
© E quator
Equator
0 ‘\ Ss

\ Biot Victoria
Mombasa
Cy
ake
tangata INDIAN
ap a

OCEAN

ATLANTIC to Iran
Lake and India
y Nyasa
OCEAN S,. 4
LR. a

KALAHARI rn
DESERT R 9
Sy
&
Ne
orange R wv

e Ancient town/city site

KUSH Ancient kingdom
= ron smelting site
~<— Spread of iron smelting Caton
~<a Bantu migrations 0) 250 500 750 1000 Miles

~€— Trade routes 0 500 1000 Kilometers

Map 10.2. Africa before 1300 C.E.

 EARLY CIVILIZATIONS OF THE AMERICAS AND AFRICA 239

number of other climates as well. The southern tip of EARLY AFRICAN CULTURES
Africa, for example, is home to penguins, and Mount Kil-
imanjaro, in Tanzania, is capped with a permanent gla-
AND INNOVATIONS
cier. Africa’s climates center on the equator, which runs As indicated in Chapter 1, Africans in Egypt helped found
roughly through the middle of the continent. Here, in one of the world’s most impressive and long-lasting cul-
the region known as the Congo Basin, is found one of the tures. The remarkable achievements of Egypt, however,
world’s largest rain forests. The rain forests also extend are complemented by other impressive developments else-
along much of the West African coast, stretching west- where on the continent. Indeed, the fertility provided by
ward to Guinea. North and south of these rain forests the the Nile floods made Egypt a fairly easy place to create a
weather becomes increasingly dry. The rain forests give state. Hunting and gathering societies (which predated an-
way to more typical forests, then to savannah grasslands, cient Egypt) not only succeeded in flourishing in the West
and eventually to deserts, with the Sahara in the north African savannahs, but also in the forests and southern sa-
and the Kalahari and Namib in the south. The weather in vannahs (which were for a time geographically isolated
all these regions is determined by what is known as the from agricultural innovations in the north and east).
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), a climatic Hunters and gatherers relied on a complex and thorough
border where the cool wet air of the south Atlantic meets understanding of their physical floral and faunal sur-
the warm dry air from the Sahara Desert. The ITCZ roundings to survive. Indeed, many today might envy the
moves north from roughly May to September and south quality of life of such early societies. Hunters and gather-
from roughly October to April—taking rain to wherever ers, it turns out, have to work only a few hours a day to
it goes. Rather than having four seasons, these regions of provide a nutritious diet. Such a situation left them ample
Africa have only two: wet and dry. In the wet season it free time to undertake crafts such as stone working (for
may well rain every day, but in the dry season rain is ab- tools) and even artwork. Although artworks of wood or
sent for months on end. Such weather patterns have had other perishables do not remain, areas of Africa such as
significant impact on African agricultural practices. How- the Sahara and southern Africa are home to numerous rock
ever, in the northern and southern extremes of the con- paintings remarkable not only for their artistic qualities,
tinent, the weather is what is often described as but also for the wealth of information they provide us
“Mediterranean,” with four distinct seasons and a fairly about the ancient environment. It is how we know that the
cool wet winter. Sahara was once wet, and what species of plants and ani-
Also important to African history and culture is the na- mals lived there (fig. 10.16).
ture of the soil itself. Geologically speaking, Africa is what Not all Africans remained hunters and gatherers, how-
is known as a shield surface. It has been exposed to the el- ever. As early as 5000 B.C.E., sedentary agriculture was
ements, with very little volcanic, glacial, or otherwise sig- also being developed in the West African savannahs—
nificant geological activity for millions of years. This is built around the farming of millet and sorghum, two
critical because it means African soils have had little chance grains well adapted to the region’s drought-prone climate.
to be renewed or replenished. As a result, most African Rice also became important along the inland delta of the
soils are lateritic: high in salt and iron content and noto- Niger River. Similarly, agriculture also developed in the
riously short on nutrients and vulnerable to erosion. Com-
pounding this problem is the general warmth of the
regions between the Mediterranean climates of the north FicurE 10.16 A rock painting from Tassili, in the central
and south. It is often thought that warm weather is good Sahara. Dating to around 10,000 B.c.£., this painting reflects
for agriculture, but it really is not. The year-round warmth both a keen artistic eye and a remarkable knowledge of the
means that decomposition continues even in the dry sea- environment.
son when nothing can be grown, resulting in an absence of
humus, the nutrient-rich decaying matter that enriches
the soil. Agriculture in Africa is not impossible, but it is
much more difficult than in temperate zones. There is a
very good reason that North America and Eurasia are the
world’s breadbaskets and that Africa, South America, and
Australia are not. Notably, the exception to this rule is the
rift valley of East Africa. Running from Ethiopia to Zim-
babwe, this chain of volcanic mountains is one of the
world’s richest farming areas, producing some of the
world’s best coffee as a result. The wealth of the Nile, dis-
cussed in Chapter 1, is the result of these rich soils being
carried from the Ethiopian highlands to the floodplains of
ancient Egypt.
240 CHAPTER 10

highlands of Ethiopia, where local crops such as t’eff but decided they did not want them. Stateless societies be-
(among the world’s smallest grains) allowed early farm- came less common over time, however, as many African
ers to take advantage of rich soils but also harsh high-el- societies and states expanded to the point where more cen-
evation weather. Elsewhere in the savannahs and desert tralized systems of authority and bureaucracy became nec-
fringes, many Africans developed complex pastoralist life- essary.
ways around the herding of cattle, goats, and camels. Such Religious authority, too, played an important part in
animals could feed on plants inedible to humans. By ex- African community life. Although possibly thousands of
tracting food from the animals in the form of meat, blood, indigenous African religious systems exist, certain com-
and milk, humans were able to live in the otherwise in- monalities provide an introduction to these complex sys-
hospitable environments. tems of cosmology and belief. Perhaps one of the key
Beginning from the region of modern-day eastern characteristics of African religions is the concept of pan-
Nigeria and western Cameroun, perhaps as early as 3000 theism. Thus, rather than seeing a single all-powerful God
B.C.E. the Bantu migration occurred. This migration, (such as in Judaism or Islam), African religions tend to see
which was to continue over the next four thousand years, divine power as diffuse. There may be a single High God,
saw the introduction of sedentary agriculture into the but that divine being is both too distant and incompre-
forests of central Africa—largely thanks to two forest hensible for humans to interact with. Rather, this High
crops: the oil palm and the yam (not the sweet potato). God has myriad manifestations (all sharing the single di-
Bantu is itself a word that means “the people” in a sub- vine spirit) that are more accessible to human needs. For
family of the Niger-Congo language group. Although once example, among the Yoruba (who have inhabited the
the Bantu migrations were thought to be a rapid conquest southwestern region of what is now Nigeria for at least
by superior iron-wielding agriculturalists, who displaced one thousand years) the High God OLUDUMARE (oh-
inferior hunters and gatherers, it is increasingly apparent lu-DU-mah-ray) created the world and humanity, but nu-
that the process was slow and relatively peaceful. Linguis- merous “lesser” gods, known as the ORISA (ohr-ISH-ah),
tic and archaeological evidence suggests that Bantu speak- interact with humans. For example, OGUN (oh-GOON),
ers learned many critical skills not only from forest peoples the orisa of iron, has long served as the patron of soldiers
such as the Batwa (pygmies), but also from Cushitic- and has more recently become the patron of auto me-
speaking savannah agriculturalists millennia later. Iron- chanics. Notably, most African traditional religions have
working does seem to have been a factor, but it came fairly little or no notion of the sort of conflict between good and
late in the game (around 500 B.C.E. in West Africa). Sim- evil that so permeates religions originating from the Mid-
ilarly, archaeological evidence suggests that ironworking dle East. Similarly, African religions generally do not have
was developed independently in the region of northern a concept of an end to time, in the form of a judgment day
‘Tanzania around 700 B.C.E. or apocalypse.
The diffuse nature of political and religious authority in
many African societies is also reflected in the nature of
EARLY AFRICAN POLITICAL artistic expression. Art was not something that belonged
only to the rich. Even the most mundane of items could be
AND RELIGIOUS CULTURE
lavishly decorated. Similarly, African musical traditions
Although there are a great variety of African political and make little distinction between performers and audience.
religious systems, many African societies, especially in the Rather than politely sitting and listening, the audience is
ancient era, lived in what are often termed stateless societies. as much a part of the performance as the musicians them-
Such communities, often pastoralists or forest dwellers, selves, expected to clap, sing, and dance right along with
had no single individual or group (such as a king or aris- the professionals.
tocracy) whose job it was to tell other people what to do.
This does not mean, however, that such societies lacked
authority. Rather, institutions of kinship and seniority, and REGIONAL DEVELOPMENTS
the recognition of knowledge and personal achievement,
provided certain individuals with influence. Similarly, the
IN AFRICA BEFORE 1800
relatively small size of local communities allowed groups North and Northeastern Africa. From very early on,
to discuss problems and develop solutions through debate North and northeastern Africans interacted closely with
and consensus. Such a system is very similar to our mod- populations in the Mediterranean and Arabia. This should
ern notion of democracy, in that power rests in the entire hardly be a surprise, since it is often easier for long-dis-
community rather than with a few privileged individuals. tance trade to take place across oceans and seas than across
Further, such societies were often quite aware of other land. As such, the ancient Egyptians interacted extensively
political alternatives. The Igbo of southeastern Nigeria, with populations in Mesopotamia and, later, Greece—just
for example, have long had a motto that states “the Igbo as they carried on extensive relations with Nubia and
have no kings.” Clearly, the Igbo knew what kings were, Ethiopia via the Nile River. Culture is always a two-way
 EARLY CIVILIZATIONS OF THE AMERICAS AND AFRICA 241

street, and these interactions led to mutual influence and

exchange. Herodotus, the Greek father of history, for ex-
ample, credited the Egyptians as the source of mathemat-
ics and Greek religion. Contacts with the wider
Mediterranean world and Red Sea worlds would be a con-
stant source of influence for North and northeastern
Africa. The Phoenician settlement at Carthage intermin-
gled with local Berber-speaking populations to create a
unique culture known as Punic and grew as a trading
power that would dominate the western Mediterranean
until the rise of Rome (discussed in Chapter 4). The uni-
fication of the circum-Mediterranean world under the
Roman empire in the early centuries C.E. encouraged an
increased level of interaction around the region (although
often unwillingly for those who chafed at Roman rule). FicureE 10.17 A rock-hewn church in Ethiopia. Constructed
Latin and Greek became languages of government and in the twelfth century C.E., these churches are a testimony to
high society. the power of the Ethiopian church and state.
Following Roman lines of trade and communication,
Christianity spread rapidly from the Middle East into
North Africa and also into Europe. The new religion
spread not only as a unique message of salvation that ap-
lenges from Islam and local religions to survive into the
pealed to the poor and powerless, but also as a rejection of
modern era.
Roman authority. Early Christians drew the ire of the
The rise of Islam in the seventh century also had a sub-
Roman state largely because they refused tomake sacrifices
stantial impact in North Africa. The Islamic state spread
to the emperor, who was considered a god. Notably, North
rapidly across the North African coast, although the defeat
Africa and the Nile Valley stretching through Nubia to
of Muslim forces by Christian Nubians at the Battle of
Ethiopia would become influential parts of the expanding
Dongala in 651 greatly slowed the expansion of Islam in
Christian world. Alexandria in Egypt was home to one of
the upper Nile region. In North Africa, a woman named
the first Christian catechetical schools, called the Didas-
Al-Kahina (the Soothsayer) led a spirited Berber resist-
calia. Here early Christian texts were collected, discussed,
ance to Islamic armies until her defeat in 698. Despite such
and translated. Saint Jerome, who first translated the Bible
opposition, by the early eighth century, the Islamic state
into Latin, is believed to have first studied at the Didas-
was firmly entrenched in North Africa, although the bulk
calia. North African Christians would play a central role in
of the population would not convert to Islam until the
debating and defining exactly what it meant to be Christ-
tenth and eleventh centuries. Notably, however, North
ian. Debates over Neo-Platonism and Gnosticism (dis-
Africa became a refuge for Muslims, particularly Shi’ites
cussed in Chapter 5) and Arianism and Monophysitism
and KHARIJITES (Car-IH-jites), who were at doctrinal
took place among North African Christians. Arianism,
odds with Sunni orthodoxy. In the tenth century, the
named for Arius, a priest from Alexandria, argued that
Shi’ites would found the Fatimid dynasty, expanding from
Jesus is not the son of God, but rather an angel-like cre-
modern Tunisia to a capital in Egypt. This state would
ation sent to provide a new gospel. Arianism would later
dominate the region for over two centuries, and at times
be spread by missionaries to the Germanic tribes of Eu-
challenge the Baghdad-based Abbasid Caliphate for lead-
rope. Thus the first western European Christians had doc-
ership of the Islamic world. Despite such internal con-
trinal roots in Egyptian Arianism. The Monophysite
flicts, the expansion of Islam encouraged trade and cultural
position, held by the Coptic (Egyptian) and Nestorian
exchange between North Africa and the Middle East.
(Middle Eastern) churches, was that Jesus’ divinity out-
From poetry to architecture, Islamic artistic elements be-
weighed his humanity, which was an anathema to the
came deeply entrenched in North Africa.
Roman church’s claim that Jesus possesses both human
and divine characters in equal measure. In 451, these Savannabs and Forests of Western and Central Africa.
churches broke with the Roman church. The Coptic The West African savannahs and forests were home not
church would continue to grow and thrive in the Nile Val- only to important human innovations in agriculture, such
ley, eventually developing a close relationship with the as the domestication of millet and oil palms, respectively,
Ethiopian state. In the twelfth century, King Lalibela of but also to complex urban societies and states. Beginning
Ethiopia commissioned the creation of churches that were perhaps as early as the third century B.C.E., cities such as
hewn from solid rock, a unique feat in Christian architec- Jenne-Jeno and Gao began to be settled in the fertile in-
ture (fig. 10.17). Like the churches themselves, Ethiopian land delta of the Niger River. Several factors encouraged
Christianity would prove very durable, weathering chal- this development. The savannahs themselves were fertile,
 242 CHAPTER 10

and the growing of rice, millet, and sorghum produced a Each such sculpture (some of which could be quite large)
large surplus of grain for trade both into the desert to the was unique (fig. 10.18). Similar metalworking techniques
north and the forests to the south. In exchange, the savan- would later be adopted in ASANTE (Ah-SHAHN-tay), a
nah cities received forest products, such as ivory, palm oil, state that would rise up in the early eighteenth century in
kola nuts, and gold, and desert products, such as salt and what is modern-day Ghana. Asante grew wealthy in part
cloth, from North Africa. The position as intermediaries as a major producer of gold. The Asantehene (king) of As-
between the forests and North Africa allowed the residents ante and his royal court carried and wore a stunning
of the savannah cities to grow wealthy not only from pro- amount of gold during public appearances. The “throne”
duction, but also from the taxation of trade moving across of Asante was the Golden Stool, which reputedly appeared
their boundaries. From the early period C.E. to the six- from heaven to show the divine support of the first Asan-
teenth century, this volume of trade continued to increase, tehene, Osei Tutu (fig. 10.19).
and savannah states such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai grew
rich from control over the trade. Close economic ties to East and South Africa. ast Africa is in part unique be-
North Africa also led to a gradual conversion of these states’ cause of its connection to the Indian Ocean. Unlike the
rulers and traders to Islam, although rural and agricultural Atlantic to the west, the Indian Ocean is friendly to sail-
populations would continue to practice traditional African ing voyages and greatly facilitated long-distance trade. As
religions well into the nineteenth century. Mali and Song- early as the first century B.C.E. it is clear that traders from
hai were among the richest empires of the era. When the Mediterranean and India were sailing to the East
MANSA MUSA (MAHN-sah MOO-sah), a Muslim ruler African coast. As such, East Africa was from ancient days
of Mali, performed the Hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca in 1324 very cosmopolitan. In this setting developed a unique cul-
and 1325, he spent so much gold during a stopover in ture known as the Swahili, (which translates as “people of
Alexandria that the local economy was temporarily debased the coast”). The Swahili language reflects both African
by inflation. Such images convinced Europeans of the time and Middle Eastern linguistic elements, and the Swahili
that Africa was a land of great wealth and achievement.
Timbuktu has long been a center of the Muslim religion
in west Africa. Settled in 1087 by the Tuareg, its fame as FicurE 10.18 Head of an Oba, Edo, Court of Benin, Nige-
a center of trade in gold spread as far as Europe. Under the ria, eighteenth century, brass, iron, height 13 # (33 cm), gift
Songhai emperor Mohammed Askia I (ca. 1494-1527), the of Klaus G. Perls, 1991. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
Muslim university of Sankore reached its height and pre- York. All Oba heads include representations of broad coral-
served an extensive library of native African literature. bead necklaces which cover the entire neck—a part of the royal
The forests of West and Central Africa proved a greater costume to this day.
challenge to the creation of cities and states. By the end of
the first millennium C.E., Africans in the region had de-
veloped technological, social, and political frameworks that
allowed for the creation of larger-scale societies in the
forests. As early as the ninth century C.E., a state devel-
oped in the forest region of what is now southeastern
Nigeria. Named Igbo-Ukwu after a nearby modern town,
archaeological evidence from the site shows not only a
concentration of wealth and authority in the hands of a
kinglike figure, but also bronze-working technology. This
is significant not only as a sign of metal-working, but also
in that it shows Igbo-Ukwu was involved in long-distance
trade deep into the Saharan desert, which was the nearest
source of copper. Just to the west in south-central Nige-
ria would develop Benin, one of the largest and longest
lived forest states. Growing in power by the thirteenth
century, Benin is a testimony to the ability of humans to
develop complex economic and political systems despite
environmental challenges. Benin not only dominated the
region, but also developed a sophisticated state-sponsored
art program built around the casting of bronze sculptures.
By using a sophisticated system called lost wax casting,
full-size models of sculptures were made of beeswax, and
then a ceramic mold was built around them. Then molten
bronze was poured into the mold, melting away the wax.
 EARLY CIVILIZATIONS OF THE AMERICAS AND AFRICA 243

FIGURE 10.20 A view of the inside wall of the stone enclo-

sure at Great Zimbabwe. Constructed around the thirteenth
century, this structure is remarkable in that it was built without
the use of mortar in a technique known as drystone architecture.
FiGureE 10.19 This collection of Asante gold weights (used to
measure quantities of gold dust), reflects not only the products
of lost-wax casting, but also the African tendency to imbue even
mundane objects with artistic quality. David Garner/Exeter City modern-day Ghana) and with the Kongo Kingdom at Lu-
Museums & Art Gallery, Royal Albert Memorial Museum. anda in the fifteenth century, for example. Trade in these
early decades focused on items such as ivory, gold, and
spices. However, as profits from sugar plantations in the
themselves reflect genetic and cultural ties that are more
Atlantic islands and Brazil grew in significance, the nature
Indian Ocean than purely African or Arab. As intermedi-
of trade between Africans and Europeans began to change.
aries in a highly valuable trade, the Swahili grew wealthy,
Africans possessed both a resistance to Old World infec-
especially as the growth of Islamic states in the Middle
tious diseases and tropical parasitic diseases, which allowed
East and India fostered even greater demand for trade.
them to somewhat better endure the harsh conditions of
Swahili towns featured multistory homes built of coral
plantation labor than Native Americans and Europeans.
blocks. Although the outsides were austere, the interiors
Whereas the life expectancy of European or Native Amer-
were lavishly decorated with trade goods from Africa, the
ican slaves on sugar plantations was often less than a year,
Middle East, and Asia. Interestingly, however, as Islam be- enslaved Africans might live as long as seven. Further,
came increasingly influential among the Swahili during Africans often possessed a knowledge of tropical crops and
the ninth and tenth centuries, it did not spread into the soils that could enhance the productivity of the plantations.
interior of East Africa. Thus, although Islam followed Ironically, for Africans it was strengths, not weaknesses,
trade routes into West Africa, it did not do so in the east. that made them the victims of the Atlantic slave trade.
One key source of trade goods for the Swahili was Great Thus, as the value of Africans as slaves increased, so did
Zimbabwe. Located in the modern country that shares its European demand for slave labor from Africa. Over the
name, this state grew to prominence during the thirteenth course of the next three centuries, the slave trade would
and fourteenth centuries. Although gold was a major good grow from a few thousand individuals per year to a peak of
traded east to the coast, most of Zimbabwe’s wealth seems
nearly 100,000 per year in the latter eighteenth century.
to have been based in a mixed farming and cattle-herding Overall, some eleven million enslaved Africans would be
economy. The capital city’s huge drystone walls stand even exported to the New World, and millions more would die
today (fig. 10.20). either in wars of conquest fought to acquire captives in
Africa or during the torturous continental passage to the
AFRICA AND THE TRANSATLANTIC coast and middle passage to the Americas. European and
African slave traders grew wealthy from this human trade,
SLAVE TRADE as did plantation owners and factory owners in the Amer-
When advances in European maritime transport first began icas and Europe, who benefited from cheap slave labor. In
to facilitate increased interaction between Africans and Eu- Africa, wars to capture slaves and the increasing role of
ropeans, the initial exchanges tended to be peaceful. The slave trading as a source of wealth likely served to disrupt
Portuguese established trading posts at El] Mina (in local economies and systems of political legitimacy.
244 CHAPTER 10

Cultural Impact
See African societies entered religious traditions, long before they had neers, cowboys, cooks, and household
into commercial relationships with contact with European and other peoples. servants. They often had a far greater de-
Muslim peoples in Southwest Asia and The Aztecs and Incas, in particular, built gree of cultural influence than they are
in North Africa. The states that the powerful imperial states organized around generally given credit for. In particular,
African peoples established in West agricultural production in widely varying African foods, notions of religion, and
Africa and coastal East Africa extended climactic conditions. styles of music and artwork made deep
the influence of the sub-Saharan African Native American peoples of the impressions on the societies of the Amer-
peoples through extensive trade, partic- northwest coast and the midwest and ican South, Latin America, and the Car-
ularly in gold, ivory, and slaves. Trade fa- southwest have left legacies of various ribean. Gumbo, deep-fried foods, and
cilitated the introduction of Islam into kinds. The peoples of the northwest have barbeque are examples of African con-
African society. Mosques were built, as left a respect for the waters and have tributions to the cuisines of the Ameri-
were Islamic schools. By around 1500 handed down their skills in canoe build- cas. Similarly, we need only listen to the
C.E., African traditions had blended with ing and in fishing. Peoples of the south- music of these regions to hear the sig-
Islamic institutions in sub-Saharan west have long had a tradition of nificant African influence. Finally,
African societies. outstanding textile weaving, which they African notions of the divine syncretized
The original inhabitants of Mesoamer- share with the Andean peoples. In addi- with Catholicism in many regions to
ica lived in smaller societies than those in tion, Native Americans of the southwest form new religions such as Voudou, Can-
India, China, and Japan. Ancient Ameri- remain expert in creating pottery and domble, Santeria, and Macumba. Thus,
can peoples lacked an advanced trans- jewelry, particularly with semi-precious even what we tend to characterize as
portation technology that facilitated an stones and gold and silver. The tech- “American” or “Latin American” is in
extensive trade and communications net- niques they developed for hammering, many ways African as well. The impact
work among peoples of the Eastern embossing, soldering, welding, casting, of these African cultural elements in the
Hemisphere. This, however, did not pre- and gilding remain in use today. Americas is discussed in greater detail in
vent them from developing complex so- Africans worked not only as agricul- Chapter 22.
cieties with sophisticated cultural and tural laborers, but also as mining engi-
 EARLY CIVILIZATIONS OF THE AMERICAS AND AFRICA 245

KEY TERMS
Mesoamerica Tawantinsuyu lateritic orisa
Teotihuacin Nazca lines humus Ogun
Wacah Chan geoglyphs rift valley Punic
roof comb totem pole rock paintings Didascalia
Bahlum potlach t’eff Arianism
daykeepers kiva Bantu Coptic
mother-fathers maize Batwa Shiites
flower song moundbilder Cushitic Swahili
Nahuatl Intertropical Convergence —_pantheism
huacas Zone (IT'CZ) Oludumare
EI Nifio

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

http://www.mesoweb.com/welcome.html
(MesoWeb is a site with several components and can be viewed either in html or with anima-
tions using Shockwave Flash plugin. It has many images and descriptions of Mesoamerican
cultures.)
hitp://www.raingod.com/angus/Gallery/Photos/SouthAmerica/Peru/IncaTrail/MachuPicchu
1.html
(Several images of Machu Picchu, Inca culture, ca. 1450.)
http://www. civilization.ca/aborig/haida/hvske01 e.html
(An extensive discussion of Northwest Native American Indian cultures such as the Skedans.)
hitp://www-learning. berkeley.edu/wciv/ugis55a/readings/earlyafrica.
html
(A good introductory site for early African cultures.)
http://witcombe.sbc.edu/ARTHafrica.html#africa
(Art history resources on the web by Chris Witcombe; a good site for early African art.)
 CHAPTER 11

4 th century Pope Gregory the Great

" 768-814 ~— Charlemagne rules as king of the Franks
: : 2 a: Pope Leo Ill crowns Charlemagne emperor creating Holy Roman Empire
pace 843 _ Treaty of Verdun breaks up the Carolingian Empire
. in < 987-1328 ——Capetians rule in France
——-11th-13th centuries Crusades
1066. = Norman conquest of England
i . beca, 1140-1 170 — “Court of Love” established in Poitiers
a 4900 University of Paris granted royal charter
BCS, = Magna Cori
ee eee
a
i . ie 792-805 Palatine Chapel, Aachen
799 Church of Saint-Riquier, Abbeville
; F wee “ca. 817-20 Plan for ideal monastery
1025 Guido D’Arezzo, musical notation
<a ca. 1066-82 Bayeux “tapestry”
: begun co.1070 or 1077 Saint-Sernin, Toulouse
eae i 1120-32 Sainte-Madeleine, Vézelay
: fe te fa 1120-32 Mission of the Apostles, Sainte-Madeleine, Vézelay
a, 1120-35 Gislebertus, Last Judgment, cathedral, Autun
Ss a. 1140-70 Hildegard of Bingen, liturgical music
BS ap begun 1174 Bonanno Pisano, campanile, Pisa
\ es tage 118) Nicholas of Verdun, Klosterneuburg Abbey altarpiece
oe, a

gi ——————-700-—_Lindisfarne Gospels
) ss Bth century = Beowulf
>. ~ «a.800-10 Gospel Book of Charlemagne
: — mid-I1thcentury Song of Roland
} - 1170-74 —Cappelanus, Art of Courtly Love
= ~~ % 1405 Christine de Pizan, Book of the City of Ladies
TE.

ii f

j es
 Early M iddle Ages
and the Romanesque

[rN
Per
ener
& As
Se
wana

St. John, ornamental folio from the Book ofKells, ca. 800, manuscript illumination,
BEL? ly 2
(33 X 24.1 cm), Trinity College Library, Dubl
 Frankish control
Temporary Frankish control
Py Muslim lands

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

s Tarragona

500 Miles

500 Kilometers

MapP 11.1 The Carolingian world, ca. 814.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

EARLY MEDIEVAL CULTURE

Charlemagne and Pope Gregory exert their influence on politics and culture

ROMANESQUE CULTURE
The rise of France and England along with their church architecture and sculpture

EARLY MEDIEVAL CULTURE from the sixth to the eighth century, and can be considered
“dark” only in that so few documents survive to shed light
“THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES GENERALLY refers to cul- on this era. The Early Middle Ages were a period of
ture in western Europe from ca. 500 to ca. 1000— tremendous cultural accomplishment. The fifteenth-cen-
that is, the second half of the first millenium C.E. tury flowering of Western civilization that we call the Re-
The period referred to as the “Dark Ages” stretched only naissance, or “rebirth,” was only possible because of what

248
 EARLY MIDDLE AGES AND THE ROMANESQUE 249

took place in the thousand years that preceded it. The be-
ginning of this period was marked by the collision of two
very different cultural forces: the Christian Church, which
gradually spread northward from Rome, and the Germanic
tribes and other barbarian groups, who controlled civic
and social life in northern Europe. Their mutual cultural
assimilation would come to shape early medieval life.

THE MERGING OF CHRISTIAN

AND CELTO-GERMANIC TRADITIONS
In the first half of the fifth century c.F., Anglo-Saxons in-
vaded Britain from northeastern Europe as part of the vast
migration of Germanic tribes into the former territories of
the Roman empire. The Anglo-Saxons were actually three
different tribes, the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, who, FiGuRE 11.1 Purse cover, from the burial ship found at Sut-
though distinct, shared the same ancestors, traditions, and ton Hoo, England, 625-33, gold, garnets, and enamel (back-
language. In Britain, they quickly suppressed the indige- ground restored), length 8” (20.3 cm), British Museum,
nous Christian inhabitants, the Celts. By 550, Christian- London. This and other exquisite objects show how inappro-
ity had disappeared from all but the most remote corners priate it is to call the era during which they were created the
of Britain, and the culture of the country had become dis- “Dark Ages.” Working with the highest technical skill, artists
tinctly Germanic. Although by 675 Britain was again pre- created symmetrical patterns from animal shapes.
dominantly Christian, there is little trace of Christianity in
some of the earliest artifacts from this period.
The Animal Style. Some of the finest examples of the art
Mark, Luke, and John. The paintings show the Christian
of these Germanic tribes are the exquisite objects discov-
assimilation of the Anglo-Saxon animal style.
ered in the rich burial ship of an East Anglian king, dated
A cross page, also referred to as a carpet page, in the
between 625 and 633, at Sutton Hoo in Suffolk, England.
Lindisfarne Gospels, ca. 700 (fig. 11.2), is entirely covered
As part of the king’s funeral rite, the ship was lifted out of
with a symmetrical geometric pattern filled with curvilin-
the water, dragged some distance inland, and then buried.
ear shapes made up of “animal interlace”—birds and ani-
The site was excavated in 1939. Among the artifacts dis-
mals so elongated and intertwined that they look like
covered was a purse cover (fig. 11.1) made of gold, garnet,
ribbons. The page is decorated much as a piece of pre-
and enamel (the background has been restored) with a
cious jewelry might be.
clasp made of enamel on gold. This animal style pattern
The Book of Kells, the finest gospel book of the Early
consists of distorted creatures, their bodies twisted and
Middle Ages still in existence, was written and decorated
stretched. Some are made up of parts from different ani-
by Irish monks, probably around 800, but the exact date
mals. Interlaced with these bestial forms are purely ab-
and place of origin are uncertain. It contains the texts of
stract patterns. But this is by no means wild, undisciplined
the four gospels in Latin. As is clear from the ornamental
design. On the contrary, the symmetrical compositions are
folio depicting St. John (fig. 11.3), perfection is sought on
meticulously compiled of smaller units that are, in them-
the smallest scale humanly possible. The fine technical ex-
selves, symmetrical. The unifying aesthetic suggests a pref-
ecution is accompanied by a lack of concern for the accu-
erence for vigorous, ornamental patterns. The swirling
rate representation of the human body. John is seen from
lines and animal interlace seen here are the two basic forms
the front yet appears flat, no more three dimensional than
that later appear in Irish Anglo-Saxon manuscript illumi-
the surface on which he is painted. The intentionally styl-
nation.
ized human figure is treated as a pattern of lines. The
Christian Gospel Books. ‘The only paintings that survive curvilinear drapery falls in impossible folds, forming a two-
in good condition from the early medieval era are in illu- dimensional decorative design that gives little hint of a
minated manuscripts produced in monasteries in north- solid body beneath. This Celtic style of manuscript illu-
ern England and Ireland after the mid-seventh century. mination, like its Byzantine counterpart (see Chapter 5),
Illuminated manuscripts are books written by hand on takes us far from nature and the Classical tradition’s alle-
parchment (animal skin; the finest quality is called giance to portraying the visible world. Such a move from
vellum) and elaborately decorated with paintings. Each the physical to the spiritual reflects a shift in a patronage
separate pageis referred to as a folio. Early examples are from secular to religious and the growing power of the
usually copies of the four Christian gospels of Matthew, medieval Church.
250 CHAPTER 11

FIGURE 11.2 Cross page from the Lindisfarne Gospels, ca. Ficure 11.3 St. John, ornamental folio from the Book ofKells,
700, manuscript illumination, 135 x 93" (34.3 X 23.5 cm), ca. 800, manuscript illumination, 13 x 9s” (33 X 24.1 cm),
British Library, London. This dense, intricate work is created Trinity College Library, Dublin. The human body is treated as
by interlacing ribbonlike animals, organized by an underlying if it is as flat as the folio’s surface and is incorporated into the
cross pattern. The care lavished on the decoration of a manu- two-dimensional design. The past Classical tradition of realism
script was intended to indicate the importance accorded the and pictorial illusionism is not identifiable here. Do not over-
words of the text. look the “footnotes” at the “foot of the page.”

The Beowulf Epic and the Christian Poem. ‘The great- ward is the pagan form of immortality—the celebration
est of the Anglo-Saxon Germanic epics is Beowulf. It was of his memory in the poem itself.
probably composed in the first half of the eighth century, In contrast to Beowulf, the short Caedmon’s Hymn, the
although the only version of it that survives dates from the oldest extant Old English poem, composed between 658
tenth century, and much of the poem has been lost. and 680, employs the language of Anglo-Saxon heroic
Beowulf is an almost completely Germanic tale. Set in verse in an explicitly Christian context. Like a heroic king,
Denmark, its action exemplifies the values of a warrior so- God is referred to as the Weard, or Guardian, of his king-
ciety. As a good king Beowulf is referred to as “ring giver,” dom.
or “dispenser of treasure,” and his duty is to take care of
his loyal thanes or noblemen. Yet the act of giving has a
spiritual side as well—out of generosity, unity and broth-
erhood emerge. This bonding, called comitatus, is balanced CHARLEMAGNE AND THE CAROLINGIAN ERA
by the omnipresent threat of death. The convergence of Christian and Germanic cultures,
There are hints of a Christian perspective in Beowulf, which occurred long before the eighth century, culminates
though these are submerged and are supplied by the nar- in the rule of Charles the Great or CHARLEMAGNE
rator, rather than the characters. Jesus is never mentioned [SHAR-lu-main] (742-814), king of the Franks. His rule
(there are no allusions to the New Testament at all), and is generally considered to have inaugurated a period of
Beowulf’s funeral, in a burial ship like that found at Sut- cultural reawakening in western Europe. Accordingly, this
ton Hoo, is entirely pagan. The immortality that is his re- _ period is known as the Carolingian era. Often credited
 EARLY MIDDLE AGES AND THE ROMANESQUE 251

with the major achievements of the so-called Carolingian

Renaissance, Charlemagne saw himself as a successor to
the great Roman emperors, and his court at Aachen was a
focal point for the promotion of literacy.
Feudal Society. Charlemagne’s government was essen-
tially an early version of feudalism, a legal and social sys-
tem that developed in western Europe in the eighth
century. Under feudalism a lord would offer protection
and land to his vassals, or servants, in return for an oath of
fealty, or loyalty, and military support. Charlemagne di-
vided his enormous empire into approximately three hun-
dred counties, each governed by a count who was given
authority to rule over it. Such a land grant was called a
feudum, a fief, from which the term “feudal” derives. A
fiefdom was hereditary, that is, passed on at the death of the
vassal to his heir.
Feudalism involved a provision or grant of land for mil-
itary service. In exchange of the fief or property, a vassal
owed his lord a certain number of military service days.
The feudal system included other reciprocal obligations
of lords and vassals, such as hospitality. Aristocratic vas-
sals were known as chevaliers in France and as knights in
Germany and England. Much medieval literature features
their exploits, from the French Song ofRoland to the Ger-
man Tristan and Iseult and the English Canterbury Tales,
which includes a tale told by a knight.
Architecture. ‘Yo match his imperial ambitions, Charle-
magne created at Aachen in Germany a sumptuous palace Ficure 11.4 Odo of Metz, Palatine Chapel, Aachen, Ger-
and a magnificent royal chapel (fig. 11.4), designed by many, 792-805. © Achim Bednorz, Koln. Charlemagne was
ODO OF METZ [OH-doh]. Apart from this chapel, lit- determined to make his chapel worthy of his piety, and so had
tle Carolingian architecture has survived. Nonetheless, it materials brought from Rome and Ravenna to enrich it. The
is clear that Carolingian ideas influenced later medieval massive proportions and semicircular arches recall the archi-
styles. An important example of this is provided by the tecture of ancient Rome.
church of Saint-Riquier in Abbeville, France (fig. 11.5),
consecrated in 799, the greatest basilica church of its time.
Literature: The Song of Roland. One of the most fa- a warm and affectionate friend, whose behavior is gov-
mous of all early medieval French literary works is the erned by a Christian sense of moral rectitude.
Song of Roland, a chanson de geste, or “song of deeds,”
which dates from the mid-eleventh century in Brittany. It
MONASTICISM
consists of more than four thousand lines, which are given
their regularity and shape by the use of assonance, or the Monasticism, a term derived from the Greek word zmonos,
repetition of vowel and consonantal sounds, rather than meaning “alone,” had been an integral part of Christian
by pure rhyme. The poem is based on a historical incident life since the third century. During the Middle Ages,
from the year 778, and tells the story of the Christian army monasticism developed rapidly, resulting in an increasing
of Charlemagne doing battle against the Muslim Saracens. number of monasteries and religious orders of monks and
The poem is noted for its clarity and for the elegance nuns. However, the observance of rules was anything but
of its language, the simplicity of its narrative, and the mas- strict, and the lifestyle enjoyed in many monasteries was
terful precision of its detail. The feudal code of honor often quite relaxed. Among the earliest monastic guide-
serves as a foundation for, and standard against which to lines were those provided by St. Benedict (480-543), who
measure, the actions of its major characters. Celebrating established a monastery at Monte Cassino, south of Rome,
loyalty over treachery, courage over cowardice, good judg- and created the Benedictine order. Dividing their day into
ment over foolishness, the Song of Roland exemplifies the organized periods of prayer, work, and study, the Bene-
values of French feudal society. Roland is at once a valiant dictines had a life that was summed up in the motto “Pray
warrior, an obedient and faithful servant of his king, and and work.” Their lives were based on four vows: They
252 CHAPTER 11

o
ARIA Ee Sem
oat Re
[MMA
ACM AMAA
BRONME
bits

SES Ss
REE SA wee

aa ante t ae i
FiGuRE 11.6 Plan for a monastery, ca. 817-20, red ink on
ae
parchment, 2'4 X 37g in (71.1 X 112.1 cm), Stiftsbibliothek,
Figure 11.5. Church of Saint-Riquier, Abbeville, conse- St. Gallen, Switzerland. This plan for a prototype monastery
crated 799, now destroyed, engraving made in 1612 from an was intended to be adopted and adapted to the specific needs
eleventh-century manuscript illumination, Bibliotheque Na- of each monastic community—no monastery was ever built
tionale, Paris. Although this church no longer exists, certain that precisely matched its layout. However, the drawing illus-
features here became standard in church architecture: a mas- trates the basic ideal, which was that the monastery should
sive entryway, two transepts, multiple towers with staircases, provide for all the monks’ needs.
and a choir.

were to possess nothing (poverty); live in one place their The Monastery. ‘The original plan for an ideal Car-
entire life (stability); follow the abbot’s direction (obedi- olingian monastery that was never built (fig. 11.6) gives a
ence); and remain unmarried (chastity). good idea of what a medieval monastery was like. The
Another order, established at Cluny, France, instead monastery was intended to be self-contained and self-suf-
fostered art and music. The Cluniacs soon spread beyond ficient. The largest building is the church. To the south
their original monastery to establish monastic houses of the church is the cloister, which is a standard part of the
throughout Europe. The Cistercian order rebelled against medieval monastery. The cloister is a square or rectan-
the wealth and luxury of the Cluniacs. Established at gular space, open to the sky, usually with a source of water
Citeaux in 1098, the Cistercian was a far more ascetic order such as a fountain or well in the center, surrounded on all
than the Benedictines. For example, they simplified their four sides by covered walkways. In the cloister garden, or
religious services, stripping them of elaborate ceremony garth, the monks might read, study, meditate, talk, and
and complex ritual, as well as removing much religious art have contact with nature within the confines of the clois-
from their surroundings. The Cistercians also fasted and tered life. Also on the south side are the refectory, where
prayed longer and more frequently than the Benedictines. meals were taken, the dormitory, baths, latrines, and var-
 EARLY MIDDLE AGES AND THE ROMANESQUE 253

Cross Currents

THE VIKINGS The Vikings, who sailed in sleek ves- The more peaceful Viking seafarers
sels often decorated with a dragon- developed a trade network with other Eu-
A ‘he term Viking was used originally headed prow, were the first to establish ropeans. The more militant Vikings
for seafarers who raided the British settlements in Scandinavia, Russia, and pushed the British ruler King Alfred
Isles from Vik in southern Norway. Ireland. In 1000 c.k. they established a (r. 871-899) to establish fortified king-
Later, Viking referred to Norse raiders colony in Newfoundland in modern doms for protection and then merge those
of Eastern Europe and the Mediter- Canada and others as far south as Maine. kingdoms into a larger realm of England
ranean. Still later, Viking came to refer to Although some of the Viking settlements and Scotland. The Vikings also influenced
all medieval Scandinavian seafarers, were short lived, others remained for the future history of England and France
whether or not they plundered. centuries. by creating the duchy of Normandy.

ious workshops. ‘To the west are places where animals short distance from the cemetery. The plan shows several
could be kept. ‘To the north are the guest house, school kitchens, located throughout the monastery. It is worth
(monasteries played an important part in the revival of noting that the plan includes more than one building for
learning, for it was here that education was available), and servants. However, little if any heating was part of the
abbot’s house. ‘To the east are the physician’s quarters (with plan, and winters must have been extremely difficult to
bloodletting mentioned on the plan), and the infirmary, a endure.
a

Connections

"THE MYSTERY PLAYS people, set wages, supervised contracts, connected with its own trade. The ship-
AND THE GUILDS and approved new businesses. They built wrights’ guild might present the story of
guild halls around the central square of Noah’s Ark, for instance, and the bankers
Bes the years 1000 and 1300, the the town, usually in front of the church. the story of Jesus and the moneylenders.
population of Europe nearly dou- They also provided insurance and burial These dramas were performed in the
bled (to roughly seventy million), and services for their members. open air at different places around the
urban areas began to grow as people The guilds actively participated in the town. In some towns, each guild would
gathered together in the interest of trade presentation of the so-called mystery have its own wagon that served as a stage,
and commerce. The populations of plays—an early English corruption of and the wagons would proceed from one
these newly developing towns, which the Latin word ministerium, or “occupa- location to another, with the actors per-
tended to form around old Roman set- tion,” referring to the guilds—a form of forming at each stop, so the audience
tlements, along trade routes, and near liturgical drama that began to develop in could see the whole cycle without mov-
the castles of great landowners, were, at the ninth century. The mystery plays ing. In other towns, the plays were prob-
least to a degree, free of feudal control, were dramatizations of narratives in the ably acted out on a single stage or
a fact that made them also free of or- Old and New Testaments, usually com- platform in the main city square.
ganized government. posed in cycles containing as many as The mystery plays were performed
One of the chief means of establishing forty-eight individual plays. ‘Typically, every summer, either at Whitsuntide, the
order in the growing towns and cities they would begin with the Creation, then week following the seventh Sunday after
was the guild system. Guilds were asso- recount the Fall of Adam and Eve, the Easter, or at Corpus Christi, a week later.
ciations of artisans and crafts-people (and Flood and Noah’s Ark, David and Go- They served as both entertainment and
soon merchants and bankers too) that liath, and so on, through the Old ‘Testa- education for their largely illiterate au-
regulated the quality of work produced ment to the Nativity, the events of Jesus’s dience. They also functioned as festive
in their own trade and the prices that an life, the Crucifixion, and the Last Judg- celebrations that brought together every
individual shopkeeper or tradesperson ment. aspect of medieval life—social, political,
could charge. The guilds also controlled Each guild was responsible for an economic, and religious—for the entire
the training of apprentices and crafts- individual play, which was sometimes community.
254 CHAPTER 11

visual arts. An image of St. John (fig. 11.8) is included in

the Gospel Book of Charlemagne, also known as the
Coronation Gospels, dated ca. 800-810. The manuscript 1s
said to have been found in Charlemagne’s tomb at his court
in Aachen. St. John is portrayed in the Roman tradition—
the style is similar to wall paintings found at Pompeii and
Herculaneum (see figs. 4.24-4.27). A frame has been
painted onto the vellum folio, creating the impression that
the viewer is looking through a window to see John out-
side. The legs of John’s footstool overlap the frame, as if
the frame were genuinely three dimensional. The pro-
portions of John’s body are accurate and he wears a gar-
ment much like a Roman toga.
Music: Gregorian Chant. Music, which in the Middle
Ages was largely linked to religion, was a particular passion
of Charlemagne’s, who brought monks to his kingdom
from Rome to standardize ecclesiastical music. In church
services for the laity (nonclergy) and in worship in the
monasteries, the predominant form of music was plain-

rec pl S

Figure 11.7 Cover of the Lindau Gospels, ca. 870, gold,

pearls, and semiprecious stones, 13 x 1027 (34.9 X 26.4 cm),
Pierpont Morgan Library, New York. This lavish and carefully
handcrafted book cover can be contrasted with today’s mass-
produced paperback books. The stones are treated as cabo-
chons—smoothed and polished rather than cut in facets as is
now customary.

Manuscript Iumination. Much of the work carried out

by the monks consisted of revising, copying, and illustrat-
ing liturgical books. Medieval manuscripts were more
often than not lavishly bound—it was felt the cover en-
closing the words of God should be as splendid as possi-
ble. Among the most sumptuous of all book covers ever
created is that of the Lindau Gospels (fig. 11.7), made in
about 870, out of gold, pearls, and semiprecious stones. In
the Middle Ages, gemstones were smoothed and rounded
into what are known as cabochons, like the ones on the
Lindau Gospels cover. The cabochons are not set into the
gold, but raised up on little feet, some by almost an inch,
so that light can pass through them, enhancing their bril-
liance. A rich variety of colors, shapes, and patterns is cre-
ated by the cross, the heavily jeweled border, and the four
jeweled medallions between the arms of the cross. Jesus is
not depicted here as suffering. He simply appears to be
FicurE 11.8 St. John, from the Gospel Book of Charlemagne
standing. It seems as if he is speaking, in triumph over
(Coronation Gospels), ca. 800-810, manuscript illumination,
death. The figure ofJesus, as well as the eight tiny figures,
Ze x gin (32.4 X 25.1 cm), Schatzkammer, Kunsthistorisches
are created in repoussé (hammered out from the back),
Museum, Vienna. Emperor Charlemagne encouraged a revival
against a plain background. of the antique—in part for political purposes. The impact of the
Due to the classical revival encouraged by Charle- antique is evident in this depiction of St. John, which is more re-
magne, the human figure again became important in the alistic than that in the Book ofKells (see fig. 11.3).
 EARLY MIDDLE AGES AND THE ROMANESQUE- 255

chant, in which Latin liturgical texts were sung to a sin- ROMANESQUE CULTURE
gle melody line (monophony) without harmonic instru-
mental accompaniment. After Charlemagne’s death in 814, the personal bonds that
The monks from Rome brought with them a particu- held the Holy Roman Empire together weakened. After
lar tradition of Church music. This was Gregorian chant, two centuries of political fragmentation, however, around
which took its name from Pope Gregory the Great the year 1000, a few powerful feudal families began to ex-
(540-604), who by legend is connected with the develop- tend their influence, conquering weaker feudal rulers and
ment of this form of music. A distinctly Frankish chant re- cementing their gains by intermarriage. These families
mained popular in Charlemagne’s time too. During the soon developed into full-fledged monarchies. Two in par-
centuries that followed, many new types of chant were ticular—in France and in England—rose to real and last-
composed, some of which were elaborated with tropes, ing prominence.
or turns, in which other texts or melodies were introduced.
Chants became more complex as the development of
polyphony took place, in which two or more voice lines
THE FEUDAL MONARCHS
are sung simultaneously. The Capetians. When HUGH CAPET [CA-pay]
The basic chants have a serene, otherworldly quality (ca. 938-996) ascended to the French throne, he established
with their flexible rhythms and melodic lines that typically a dynasty of kings that would rule for nearly 350 years. Be-
move in tandem within a narrow range of pitch. Part of cause of the strategic location of his barony—it was the
this quality comes from the use of church modes rather best place to position defenses against invading Viking
than major-minor scales. It also derives from the lack of forces—he was accepted by the feudal lords of France as
harmonic accompaniment, as well as from the large res- their king in 987. Throughout the subsequent CAPE-
onating space of the cathedrals or monastery churches in ‘TIAN [ca-PEA-shun] era, the dukes of Normandy quar-
which chants are frequently sung. The free-floating reled with their king. Nevertheless, the Capetian monarchs
rhythms of the chant, with a lack of a steady beat or pattern gradually consolidated power around themselves, and Paris
of rhythmic accents, contribute to its solemnity, so much so became the political and intellectual center of Europe.
that chant is sometimes described as “prayer on pitch.”
The Norman Conquest. Although servants to the Capet-
During the reign of Charlemagne, Gregorian chants,
ian kings in France, the dukes of Normandy claimed Eng-
which had formerly been passed down orally, were codified
land for themselves and ruled as kings in their own right.
and written down in a rudimentary form of musical nota-
The story of their conquest of England is recounted in the
tion that used small curved strokes called neumes to in-
Bayeux Tapestry, dated ca. 1066-82 (fig. 11.9). The tapes-
dicate the up-and-down movement of the chant melody.
try (actually a giant embroidery) tells how William, duke
This early notation scheme was ill suited to indicate ac-
of Normandy (ca. 1027-87), conquered King Harold of
tual melodies of tropes, which were ornamental in struc-
England in 1066 and was crowned king of England.
ture and often elaborate in their melodic contours. In the
William became the first Norman king of England and
eleventh century, an Italian monk, GUIDO D’AREZZO
was known thereafter as William the Conqueror.
[da-RET-zoh] (ca. 997-1050), created a musical graph, or
William divided England up into fiefs for his Norman
set of lines, on which to mark the various chanted musical
barons, ruling as a feudal monarch. And although he main-
pitches. Guido colored the lines to set a “relative pitch”
tained some Anglo-Saxon customs and laws, Norman culture
for each color; eventually the lines and spaces between
proved influential in England. For instance, the Latin-in-
grew in number as melodies evolved to meet composers’
fluenced French language spoken by the Norman invaders
desires for expression. Used primarily for sacred music,
gradually began to mix with the native Anglo-Saxon, and the
this Guidonian graph used colored lines to make the rep-
English language as we know it today started to emerge.
resentation of the musical pitches easy to read. It took two
more centuries for the musical staff to develop, and until Magna Carta. Relations between the rulers of England
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries before notes were and France remained difficult. In 1199, King Philip Au-
written in the rounded forms common today. gustus (r. 1180-1223) succeeded in expelling the English
Problems of rhythmic notation were not solved until from France north of the Loire River. The English barons,
Franco of Cologne explained in his treatise, Ars Cantus outraged at the expense of King John’s continued cam-
Mensurabilis, that different note shapes could be used to paign against France, drew up a list of demands that John
give different rhythmic values to those pitches previously was forced to sign on June 15, 1215. Called the Magna
notated in the square-note style of the Gregorian chant. Carta, or “Great Charter,” the document was among the
Although there were only four basic shapes, Franco’s sys- first to set a limit on royal authority. It also gave freemen
tem gave a definite relationship of time to each note. It certain rights, such as trial by jury. The Magna Carta is
was this musical notation that gave both order of per- often seen as a crucial political document that paved the
formance and freedom of expression to musicians of the way for constitutional monarchy and the development of
Middle Ages. democracy in western Europe.
256 CHAPTER 11

Tiree ae Ben F

FiGuRE 11.9 King Edward Sends Harold of Wessex to Normandy, detail of the Bayeux ‘Tapestry,
ca. 1066-82, wool embroidery on linen, height approximately eee (49.5 cm), total length ca.
231’ (70.41 m), Centre Guillaume le Conquérant, Bayeux, France. The entire story of the in-
vasion of England by William of Normandy, thereafter known as William the Conqueror, is
told on this so-called tapestry. A document of military tactics and weaponry, the various parts
of the narrative show the soldiers in battle, preparing for combat, traveling, and eating.

The Crusades. The term crusade derived from the Latin missionaries encountered Muslim philosophers and the-
word crux, meaning cross, refers to a holy war. The cru- ologians, and Muslim merchants traded with their Euro-
saders, who organized a series of military expeditions to pean counterparts. The extensive exchange of goods, ideas,
recover the Holy Land in Palestine from Muslim occu- and technologies greatly influenced European development.
piers, wore strips of cloth in the form of a cross on the
backs of their garments. In doing so, they were allying
ROMANESQUE ARCHITECTURE
themselves with Jesus, who was executed by the Roman
authorities, who had him nailed to a wooden cross. Pilgrimages and the Church. Pilgrimages were a social
The first Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban phenomenon of medieval life. Their chief purpose was to
II, who called for Christian knights to seize from the Turks worship relics (objects believed to be associated with saints
the holy city of Jerusalem. The response to the Pope’s call and especially with Jesus and Mary, or parts of their bod-
was enthusiastic, as an army of peasants and knights set ies), especially relics that were claimed to have miraculous
out shortly afterward for Palestine, though without ade- powers. Pilgrimages were an important expression of re-
quate planning, weapons, or discipline. ligious faith, but they also represented a social opportu-
After the first crusade experienced disastrous results nity to meet people from different cultures, having
with few crusaders reaching the Holy Land and fewer still different customs.
returning to Europe, French and Norman nobles organ- For the many people who traveled great distances along
ized a better planned and armed second crusade, which the pilgrimage routes, facilities were available at abbeys,
succeeded in capturing Jerusalem in 1099. This military priories, monasteries, and hospices. Some of these were
success, along with others that followed, spurred ‘Turks, built specifically for pilgrims at intervals of twenty or so
Egyptians, and others to settle their differences and expel miles, not a difficult distance to cover in a day. People slept
the Christian invaders. Under the Muslim leader Saladin, in big open halls, and there were special chapels for reli-
the Turks recaptured Jerusalem in 1187. gious services. Charities were set up to aid the sick and the
Other crusades followed, crusades which were largely destitute and to take care of the dead.
failures militarily, religiously, and politically. But the cru- Churches visited in this way by medieval pilgrims are
sades did aid in stimulating East-West trade and in accel- referred to as “pilgrimage churches.” All have the same
erating the exchange of ideas. European scholars and basic plan and certain similarities of construction. Their
 EARLY MIDDLE AGES AND THE ROMANESQUE 257

| Eel Western Christendom 1090

[| Muslim lands 1090

Ey Byzantine Empire 1090

=== borders of Western Christendom ca. 1200 e

=== borders of Byzantine Empire ca. 1200
| ——© main crusader routes

Atlantic
Ocean

ati
— 2 la ge eee
A Be©a

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Map 11.2 The Crusades.

style is called Romanesque, and indeed the architecture the interior plan. Each chapel is seen as a separate bulge
relies on the basic Roman elements of the basilica plan from the outside; above the ambulatory, the apse pro-
(see fig. 5.4), employing rounded arches, vaulted ceilings, trudes; and the levels build up to the crossing tower. Each
piers and columns for support, and thick, sturdy walls. space is separate, as is typical of Romanesque architecture.
However, the style is not called Romanesque for this rea- Saint-Sernin, like the other great pilgrimage churches,
son but because it was associated with the romance lan- has a Latin-cross plan (fig. 11.11)—with one long arm—
guages. All pilgrimage churches had large naves with as opposed to the Greek-cross plan, which has four arms
flanking aisles, a transept, choir, ambulatory, and radiating of equal length. The proportions of Saint-Sernin are math-
chapels on the east end. ematically determined: The aisles are composed of a series
of square bays that serve as the basic unit; the nave and
Saint-Sernin, Toulouse. Among the most important transept bays are twice as large; the crossing tower is four
buildings constructed in the eleventh century is Saint- times the basic unit, as are the bases of the intended fa-
Sernin in Toulouse (fig. 11.10), the best known of the great cade towers. Certain ancient Greek temples had similar
pilgrimage churches. Saint-Sernin was started ca. 1070 or numerical ratios between their different parts.
1077 but never finished. The west facade, which under- The nave of Saint-Sernin (fig. 11.12) is typically Ro-
went restoration in 1855, has been generously described as manesque, with thick walls, closely spaced piers, engaged
an “awkward bulk.” The builders’ original intent (and the columns on the walls, and a stone vault. The barrel vault
Romanesque norm) was to have two facade towers, but (also called a tunnel vault) covering the nave is a structural
they were never completed. The apse end was completed system that offers several advantages. Here, the acoustics
by about 1098, with many different roof levels that reflect are superb, with voices reverberating through the vaulted
258 CHAPTER 11

qs SNAP a 1s cif A) = a = icici

FiGurE 11.10 Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, begun ca. 1070 or

1077, aerial view from the southwest. The exterior of the
building reflects the interior. Each section of space is clearly
defined and neatly separated, unlike the flowing spaces that
will characterize Gothic architecture.

FiGure 11.11 Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, begun ca. 1070 or

1077, plan. This Latin-cross plan with ambulatory and radiat-
ing chapels is typical of churches located along the pilgrimage
route leading to Santiago de Compostela. In the many chapels,
pilgrims venerated relics, especially if a relic were believed to
be able to create miracles.

nave looking toward altar. Romanesque masons experimented

with various vaulting methods, using most frequently the barrel
(tunnel) vault based on the semicircular arch. Advantages of this
stone vault, compared to the wooden ceiling of the Early Christ-
ian basilica, include superb acoustics and minimized risk of fire;
disadvantages include lack of direct light into the nave.

space. The threat of fire is reduced—a constant danger in

the Middle Ages, especially to structures with wooden ceil-
ings. The large interior is open, free of the intrusive posts
necessary to the post and lintel system. Yet the barrel vault
also has its disadvantages. An extension of the arch prin-
ciple, it exerts a constant lateral thrust that must be but-
tressed. This is accomplished largely by the great thickness
of the walls, which means any opening in the supporting
walls weakens the system. Consequently the windows in
 EARLY MIDDLE AGES AND THE ROMANESQUE 259

Romanesque churches are few and small, and the interiors

are often very dark.
Sainte-Madeleine, Vézelay. ‘The pilgrimage church of
Sainte-Madeleine in Vézelay was built between 1096 and
1132. At its peak, Vézelay had eight hundred monks and
lay brothers living in its monastery.
The nave (fig. 11.13), built between 1120 and 1132, is
very light for a Romanesque church. It is also very har-
monious, as simple mathematics determine the propor-
tions of the interior. The alternating light and dark
voussoirs (wedge-shaped blocks of stone that make up the
arches) are inconsistent in size, resulting in irregular
stripes. The supports are massive. The nave elevation is
two stories high, as at Saint-Sernin, which is customary
for pilgrimage churches. At Vézelay, however, the upper
level is a clerestory with a row of windows. This is made
possible because the nave bays are covered by cross vaults
(also called groin vaults)—two tunnel (barrel) vaults in-
tersecting at right angles, which automatically create a flat
space on the wall where a window can be constructed.
Vézelay’s interior therefore offers a solution to the prob-
lem of obtaining direct light in the nave. However, the
structure was neither well built nor adequately but-
tressed—problems developed and the walls began to lean.
Flying buttresses were added in the Gothic era and then
rebuilt in the nineteenth century. The walls now lean out-
ward by about twenty inches.
FiGurRE 11.13 Sainte-Madeleine, Vézelay, nave looking to- Cathedral Group, Pisa. Of all the Romanesque cathe-
ward altar, built 1120-32. A solution to the problem of obtain- drals constructed outside the pilgrimage routes, perhaps
ing direct light in the nave is found in the use of cross (groin) one of the most striking is that in Pisa, Italy. The “cathe-
vaults, which provide a space for windows on the nave walls.
dral group” in Pisa (fig. 11.14) consists of the cathedral,

FiGureE 11.14 Cathedral

group, Pisa: baptistery, begun
1153; cathedral, begun 1063;
campanile, begun 1174. In addi-
tion to marble incrustation, the
architecture of Romanesque
Pisa is characterized by tiers of
arcades. The “leaning tower of
Pisa” owes its fame to founda-
tions that were not made prop-
erly.
260 CHAPTER 11

Ora Gibeuse:

THE PISA GRIFFIN said to guard the gold of India, and the ical ends, where it came to signify the
Greeks believed these creatures watched dual nature of Jesus, his divinity (the
rom 1100 until 1828, a three and over the gold of the Scythians. For Mus- eagle) and his humanity (the lion).
half-foot-high Islamic bronze griffin lims, the eaglelike qualities of the beast
(fig. 11.15) (a mythological creature, half signified vigilance, and its lionlike qual-
eagle, half lion) stood on top of the ities, courage. By the time it was placed
cathedral in Pisa. This griffin may have on Pisa cathedral, Christians had appro-
originally been a fountain spout, but how priated the beast to their own iconolog-
it came to Pisa is unknown. Scholars
have suggested that its provenance might
be Persia, in the east, or perhaps Spain,
in the west. But whatever its origins,
placed on top of the cathedral that was it-
self built to celebrate Pisa’s 1063 victory
over Muslim forces in the western FiGure 11.15 Griffin, from the Isla-
Mediterranean, it soon came to symbol- mic Mediterranean, eleventh century,
bronze, height 3’6;” (1.07 m), Museo
ize the city’s place at the very center of
dell’Opera del Duomo, Pisa. The griffin,
Mediterranean trade.
an invention of ancient mytology created
The griffin is decorated with incised by amalgamating a lion and an eagle, has
feathers on its wings, and the carving of been interpreted symbolically by various
its back suggests silk drapery, linking it cultures. This griffin stood atop Pisa
with Asia. A favorite symbol of both the cathedral until it was moved to the cathe-
Assyrians and Persians, the griffin was dral museum in 1828.

begun in 1063; the baptistery, begun in 1153; and the Ages leaned, but rarely to this degree. The tower is 179
campanile (the bell tower), of 1174, the famous “leaning feet tall and is now approximately sixteen feet out of plumb.
tower of Pisa.” All three buildings are covered in white
marble, inlaid with dark green marble, a technique used by
the ancient Romans. SCULPTURE
The baptistery is circular and domed. The first two The vast majority of people living in western Europe dur-
floors are Romanesque, with marble panels and arcades. ing the Middle Ages were illiterate—a portion of the clergy
The pointy gables are fourteenth-century Gothic. The ar-
included. Sermons were therefore, literally, carved in stone,
chitect of the cathedral was Buscheto, although the facade
with sculptors creating the equivalent of picture books for
was designed by Rainaldo. The marble arcades are a Pisan those who could not read.
hallmark. Blind arcades create a lacy effect, with colorful Romanesque architectural sculpture is concentrated on
light and shade patterns. The five stories of arcades on the church portals, especially on tympana (the tympanum is
facade match the interior: The bottom corresponds to the the semicircular section above the doorway, with a hori-
nave arcade; the first open arcade reflects the galleries; zontal lintel at the bottom, supported by a central
the second open arcade the roof of the galleries; the third trumeau, or post) and column capitals. This kind of sculp-
the clerestory; and the last the roof. Simple mathematical
ture was once painted with bright colors.
ratios determine the dimensions, for the blind arcade is
The typical Romanesque tympanum has a figure of
one-third the height of the facade, whereas each open ar- Jesus in the center, in majesty. He is surrounded by a
cade is one-sixth the height.
mandorla, a glory of light in the shape of a pointed oval.
Pisa’s most famous monument is undoubtedly the “lean-
Outside the mandorla, the subjects of different tympana
ing tower.” ‘The bell tower is usually a separate building in
vary.
Italy, whereas in other countries there are normally two
bell towers on the facade of a Romanesque church. The The Vézelay Mission of the Apostles. An extraordinary
designer of the campanile was Bonanno Pisano. The cam- tympanum can be found in the narthex of the church of
panile leans because the foundations were poorly laid and Sainte-Madeleine in Vézelay (fig. 11.16), carved 1120-32.
offer uneven resistance. Most Italian towers of the Middle The subject depicted here is the Mission ofthe Apostles, pre-
 EARLY MIDDLE AGES AND THE ROMANESQUE 261

FIGURE 11.16 Mission of the Apostles, tympa-

num, Sainte-Madeleine, Vézelay, 1120-32. This
tympanum (the semicircle above the entry) con-
tains relief sculpture that is simultaneously deco-
rative and didactic. The message is that Jesus’s
ideas, shown to travel from his fingertips to the
heads of the apostles, are to be conveyed to all
parts of the world at all times of the year, as rep-
resented symbolically around the tympanum by
the signs of the zodiac.

sented as an allegory of the congregation’s own mission to dieval depictions of the Last Judgment the soul literally
spread the Christian message continually to all the peo- hung in the balance between heaven and hell. On the
ples of the earth. To show Jesus’s thoughts passing into the right side of Autun’s tympanum the Weighing of the
minds of the apostles, rays emanate from Jesus’s hands as Souls is represented literally. An angel tugs at the basket
he touches the head of each of them. To show that the and a devil actually hangs from the balance bar. Thus
message must be spread at all times, the second archivolt angel and devil both cheat! The angel wins this particu-
(arch above the tympanum) depicts the signs of the zodiac lar soul; other saved souls already cling to the angel. An
and the labors of the months. The innermost archivolt and angel conducts the saved souls to heaven. But what about
the lintel depict the various types of people believed to in- the damned? Down on the lintel, these unfortunate souls
habit the distant regions of the earth. Shown there, as de- can be seen rising fearfully from the grave. The wicked
scribed in fanciful travelers’ tales of the time, are people cringe in agony. A serpent gnaws at the breasts of Un-
with dog heads, who communicate by barking—the Cyno- chastity. Intemperance scrapes an empty dish. The claws
cephali—and a pig-snouted tribe. Such figures continue of the devil close on the head of a sinner. Such visual in-
on the lintel where the different races approach Peter and timidation was intended to scare people who might oth-
Paul. Last are the Panotii, whose ears are so large they can erwise go astray.
be used to envelop the body like a blanket if it is cold, or
to fly away if their owner is in danger. The diminutive
stature of the pygmies is indicated by their use of ladders DECORATIVE ARTS
to mount their horses. Vézelay’s tympanum provides the
Reliquaries and Enamels. ‘The relics venerated by pil-
modern visitor with a revealing insight into the twelfth-
grims were kept in containers called reliquaries. The reli-
century view of the world, which was based largely on an-
quary coffer shown in figure 11.18 was made in the French
cient literary sources, rather than on contemporary and
city of Limoges in the twelfth century. Limoges was one
accurate accounts of actual travel and contact with other of the two major areas in western Europe where enamel
peoples. work was manufactured, the other being the Mosan area,
The Autun Last Judgment. Closely related in time and today part of Belgium. An example of Mosan work is
style to the sculpture at Vézelay is that at nearby Autun Nicholas of Verdun’s masterpiece, the altarpiece at
Cathedral. The monumental tympanum on the west fa- Klosterneuburg Abbey, near Vienna. The original altar-
cade, carved between 1120 and 1135, is signed “Gislebertus piece had forty-five plaques, each depicting a different
boc fecit” (Gislebertus made it)—a rare example of a signa- scene, the figures engraved and gilded on separate enamel
ture in medieval art. As in other Romanesque tympana, plaques. The Birth offesus (fig. 11.19) shows the infant on
there is a huge figure of Jesus in the center, surrounded an altar, a reference to his future sacrifice. He is wrapped
by a mandorla. Flanking Jesus are scenes arranged in dif- in swaddling clothes, as babies customarily were in the
ferent sections. The entire surface is densely covered with Middle Ages. The ox and the ass are traditional inclusions,
figures. : derived from Isaiah, intended to indicate that even these
The tympanum at Autun portrays the Last Judgment humble animals recognized Jesus’s divinity. There is a sense
(fig. 11.17), a popular subject in Romanesque art. In me- of a three-dimensional body beneath the drapery, a return
262 CHAPTER 11

Ficure 11.17 Gislebertus, Last Judgment, tympanum, cathedral Saint-Lazare, Autun, ca.
1120-35. Medieval Christians were told, as depicted on the right, that on the day of judgment
one’s soul literally “hung in the balance.” On the left, the Saved ascend to heaven while, on the
right, the Damned are consigned to the tortures of hell.

to the classical manner of depicting the relationship be- stern courage and valiant warfare was displaced in favor
tween the figure and the fabric that covers it. Artistic rep- of more genteel and refined patterns of behavior.
resentation changed after the mid—twelfth century to
accommodate a growing interest in the human figure, in The Troubadours. Among the most influential propo-
nature, and in the world in general. The art of Nicholas of nents of this new chivalric code were the troubadours,
Verdun, located at this turning point, is moving out of the poet-musicians who were active in the area of Provence
Romanesque era and into the Gothic. in southern France. Writing in Occitan, the language of
southern France at that time, they wrote words to sing to
original melodies (as opposed to church composers, who
THE CHIVALRIC TRADITION IN LITERATURE
used chant melodies handed down from the past). Trou-
With their men off fighting in the crusades, medieval badours were especially active in aristocratic circles, and
women began to play a powerful role in everyday life. they sometimes had kings and queens as their patrons.
Many women of the noble class ran their family estates in Members of the court themselves composed works too.
their husbands’ absence, and, though they had little offi- The chivalric values were promoted especially by
cial or legal status, they promoted a chivalric ideal in which Eleanor of Aquitaine, her daughter Marie of Champagne,
their own position was elevated and the feudal code of and her granddaughter Blanche of Castille. Eleanor was
 EARLY MIDDLE AGES AND THE ROMANESQUE 263

FIGURE 11.18 Reliquary coffer, twelfth century, enamel,

French, Limoges, now in Saint-Sernin, Toulouse. Elaborate
coffers such as this were used to house precious relics such as a
piece ofJesus’s cross, a piece of silk worn by his mother Mary,
a drop of her milk, or a strand of a saint’s hair. Some relics ee

were thought to be endowed with magical powers. FicureE 11.19 Nicholas of Verdun, Birth ofFesus, detail of
the Klosterneuburg Abbey Altarpiece, 1181, enamel on gold,
height of each plaque 5 5" (14 cm), Klosterneuburg Abbey,
Austria. By the late twelfth century, the Romanesque was being
superseded by the Gothic, and evidence of greater interest in
recording the visible world appeared. The drapery now reveals
the form beneath, clinging and seemingly wet—unlike the flat
folds unrelated to the body found in earlier Romanesque art.

Table 11-1 SYMBOLS IN MEDIEVAL CHRISTIAN ART: ANIMALS

Medieval art makes extensive use of symbols. Virtually every animal, object, color, or number conveyed a meaning. The interpreta-
tion of the symbols may vary depending on the context in which they appear.
Ape / monkey Symbol of sin, lust, and the devil. Monkeys are known for their ability to ape human behavior.
Bee Symbol of industry, as in “busy as a bee.”
Cat Symbol of laziness and lust.
Centaur A composite creature invented in antiquity, having the head of a man and the body of a horse, thus combining the
humans intelligence with the horse’s strength and lust; fond of wine and women.
Dog Symbol of fidelity.
Dragon In Western art, the dragon symbolizes the devil, sin, and evil in general; in Eastern art, in contrast, the dragon has
positive connotations.
Fish Because the initial letters of “Jesus Christ, God’s son, savior” in Greek spell “fish,” the fish is a symbol of Jesus.
Lamb A sacrificial animal and therefore a symbol of Jesus.
Lion Usually a symbol of Jesus, long regarded as “king of the beasts.”
Unicorn A composite creature invented in antiquity. Unicorns have white fur and the form of a small horse with a single
horn in the middle of the forehead. The unicorn can be caught only by a virgin woman and is thus a symbol both
of Jesus and of purity.
 264 CHAPTER 11

Critical Thinking
THE ART OF LOVE 5. There is no savour in anything 19. If love grows less, its decline is
obtained by the lover against the swift and it seldom recovers.
n the ancient Rome of the Latin poet beloved’s will. 20. A man in love is always fearful.
Ovid, love and sex were synonymous, 6. It is not customary for a man to 21. True jealousy always increases
and the goal of a man was the seduction love before puberty. love’s ardour.
of the beloved. As a counter to this pagan 7. It is right that the lover should 22. A suspicion concerning the
emphasis on the physical aspects of love, remain unmarried for two years beloved increases jealousy and
Christians emphasized spiritual love after the death of the beloved. love’s ardour.
based on sacrifice for the beloved. In the 8. No one should be deprived of his 23. Aman perturbed by thoughts of
Middle Ages, a period in which religion love without very good reason. love sleeps and eats less.
governed every aspect of life, court poets 9. No one can love unless driven on 24. The beloved’s every act ends in
had to find ways to come to terms with by the prospect of love. thoughts of the lover.
both the physical and spiritual dimen- 10. Love is always banished from the 25. The true lover esteems nothing
sions of love the following advice in the home of avarice. good except what he thinks will
form of a list is offered by Andreas Capel- 11. Itis not right to love women one please the beloved.
lanus from his medieval book The Art of would be ashamed to take to 26. Love can deny nothing to love.
Courtly Love. ‘Yo what extent do you think wife. 27. The lover cannot be sated with
that Capellanus has been successful in ac- 12. A love divulged rarely lasts. the solace of the lover alone.
commodating love’s physical and spiri- 13. The true lover desires no em- 28. A slight presumption forces the
tual dimensions? Does Capellanus braces from any other than the lover to suspect the worst of the
introduce any other important aspects of beloved. beloved.
love? To what extent do you think his 14. An easy conquest makes love 29. He who is fired by too much
ideas are relevant today? Explain. worthless; a difficult one gives it lust is not likely to love.
value. 30. The true lover is at all times
1. The pretext of marriage is no 15. Every lover grows pale at the continually absorbed in imagin-
proper excuse against love. sight of the beloved. ing the beloved.
2. No one who is not jealous can 16. At the sudden sight of the 31. Nothing prevents a woman
love. beloved, the lover’s heart quakes. from being loved by two men or
Bea oronelemibave two lovesiat 17. Anew love drives out the old. a man from being loved by two
ence: 18. Honesty alone makes a person women.
4. Love is always growing or di- worthy of love.
minishing.

herself the granddaughter of one of the first such poets, cerning romantic love. A number of her /ais concern the
Duke William IX of Aquitaine, and together with Marie stories of Arthurian legend, including that of Sir Launfal.
she established a “Court of Love” in Poitiers in 1170. The Marie’s treatment of the action is less heroic than it is ro-
court was governed by a code of etiquette, which was given mantic, the characters less noble than human, the plot less
written form in The Art of Courtly Love (1170-74) by An- concerned with grave matters of history and state than
dreas Cappelanus. Marie commissioned Cappelanus to with the intimate affairs and feelings of a few people.
write, and she clearly intended the book to be an accurate One of Eleanor’s most gifted troubadour poets was
portrayal of life in Eleanor’s court. BERNART DE VENTADORN [VEN-tuh-DOR]
In fact, the court of love was first developed by Eleanor (d. 1195). The following stanza, from a poem apparently
in England before she left Henry II to live with her daugh- addressed to Eleanor herself, gives the modern reader
ter in Poitiers. Among the poets who wrote for her in Eng- some idea of the freedom of expression the troubadour
land, evidence suggests, was Marie de France (twelfth poet was given:
century), the first woman to write verse in French. Marie
de France is best known for her Jais (lays), narratives of
Evil she is if she doesn’t call me
moderate length, which typically involve one or more ‘To come where she undresses alone
miraculous or marvelous incidents and adventures con-
So that I can wait her bidding
 EARLY MIDDLE AGES AND THE ROMANESQUE 265

Then & Now

CHANT
Chant suffered a first challenge to its At the end of the twentieth century,
ie most of its history, chant was the authority as the dominant liturgical mu- however, chant had a surprising resur-
official music of the Catholic Church, sical form in the Reformation of the six- gence, less as a form of Catholic liturgy
just as Latin was its official language. teenth century. Then it was supplanted than as a reflection of popular musical
With the Vatican reforms of 1965, how- in Protestant worship by hymns and can- taste. In the mid-1990s the CDs Chant
ever, both the Church’s official language tatas such as those composed by J.S. and Chant II exhibited crossover power
and its official music were changed. Bach (see Chapters 14 and 15). Catholic by heading both the popular and clas-
The earliest chants were transmitted church music during the same time de- sical music charts. Sung by Spanish
orally; they were first written down in veloped a rich tradition of polyphony monks from the Benedictine abbey of
the ninth century. One explanation for that coexisted with monophonic chant. Solesmes, Chant inangurated and re-
the consistency of these early melodies In the 1960s, chant gave way, even in flected a renewed interest in spiritual-
is that they were the responsibility of a Catholic worship, to alternative forms of ity. The mystical otherworldly character
single individual—St. Gregory, who was music, including melodies and hymn of this early music has brought a bit of
often depicted with a dove (symbol of di- tunes in popular styles, such as gospel the Middle Ages into the contemporary
vine inspiration) on his shoulder. and folk music. world.

Beside the bed, along the edge, MusIc

Where I can pull off her close-fitting shoes
Down on my knees, my head bent down: Hildegard of Bingen. Only relatively few women, those
If only she’ll offer me her foot. of the nobility, could enjoy the pleasures of the court of
love. Most women worked the fields alongside their hus-
There is no direct reference to sexual consummation, bands. Women who did not marry and thus could not hope
though it is implied. Adultery was strictly forbidden by the to inherit property from their husbands often became nuns
chivalric code, and though the passions expressed here are and lived in convents.
strong, they are carefully controlled. Even if in actual court The head of one such convent was Hildegard of Bingen
life nobles succumbed to temptation, in poetry at least the (1098-1179). Born to noble parents, Hildegard had a mys-
notion of courtoisie, “courtesy,” was always upheld. In the tical vision at the age of five, and when she was eight was
end, much of the pleasure of the poetry of courtly love is put into the care of a small community of nuns attached to
derived from the clever word play. The poetry celebrates, the Benedictine monastery outside Bingen, near Frank-
in its purest form, the ennobling power of friendship be- furt, Germany. She became a playwright and poet, and
tween man and woman. composed a cycle of seventy-seven songs in plainchant.
Chrétien de Troyes. An especially popular literary form She also wrote a book on medicine, and a book of vision-
depicting the chivalric relations between knights and their ary writings.
ladies was the romance, a long narrative form taking its Hildegard of Bingen’s music was written for perform-
subject matter generally from stories surrounding King ance by the nuns of her convent. Her major work, The
Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. Among the Symphony of the Harmony of Celestial Revelations, which oc-
very first writers to popularize the romance was CHRE- cupied her for much of her creative life, contains some of
TIEN DE TROYES [CRE-tee-EN] (ca. 1148-ca. 1190), her finest work. One of her most beautiful compositions,
whose account of the legend of Lancelot and his adulter- O Ecclesia, celebrates St. Ursula who, according to legend,
ous affair with King Arthur’s wife Guinevere became a par- was martyred with eleven thousand virgins at Cologne.
ticular favorite. Called “the perfect romance,” his Chevalier Like Hildegard, Ursula had led a company of women and
de la Charette expresses the doctrines of courtly love in had devoted her life to God. The music for three sopranos
their most refined form. Identifying Lancelot with Jesus, is accompanied by an instrumental drone, which serves as
Chrétien goes so far as to equate Lancelot’s noble suffer- a sustained bass over which the voices weave their flowing
ing with Jesus’s passion, and undulating chantlike melody.
266 CHAPTER 11

Cultural Impact
e cross page from the Lindisfarne the Romanesque era, the human body is ing most frequently used during the Ro-
Gaspels, ca. 700, in which an underly- represented symbolically, as in the manesque era. The same form reappears
ing geometric plan organizes the composi- overtly distorted figures ofJesus at Véze- in the nineteenth century’s Crystal
tion (fig. 11.2), exemplifies the emphasis on lay and Autun (figs. 11.16 and 11.17). Palace (fig. 17.15), designed by Joseph
abstraction and ornamentation in the paint- Artists of the Renaissance and for several Paxton to display the new architectural
ing of the early Middle Ages. In the centuries centuries thereafter preferred a high materials (cast iron and glass) of the
to come, artists emphasized observation and degree of anatomical accuracy. The time—the effect very different! The mas-
greater realism, but in the twentieth century twentieth century saw the return to ab- sive stone forms of the Romanesque
the pendulum of artistic taste swung back in straction and distortion in sculptures were used especially by the American ar-
the direction of abstraction. Thus Piet Mon- such as Henry Moore’s Recumbent Figure chitect Henry Hobson Richardson
drian’s Composition in Red, Yellow, and Blue of of 1938 (fig. 21.20). (1838-86), himself a man of comparably
1920 (fig. 21.17) stresses the two dimen- Romanesque church architecture em- generous proportions. Richardson is per-
sionality of the picture plane the pattern cre- phasizes massive dimensions, thick walls, haps best known for ‘Trinity Church in
ated of horizontal and vertical lines is as flat semicircular arches, and barrel vaults; the Boston, built 1873-77, which revives the
as the surface on which it is painted. barrel vault at Saint-Sernin in Toulouse, solid dimensions, semicircular arches,
The same history is found in sculp- begun in the later twelfth century (fig. and barrel vaults of Romanesque archi-
ture. During the early Middle Ages and 11.12), represents the form of nave vault- tecture.

KEY TERMS
animal style refectory tapestry campanile
illuminated manuscript guild crusade blind arcade
parchment mystery play pilgrimage tympanum
vellum cabochons relic trumeau
folio repoussé Romanesque mandorla
cross page (carpet page) plainchant basilica archivolt
feudalism monophony facade reliquaries
chanson de geste Gregorian chant bay troubadours
assonance tropes barrel vault (tunnel vault) lais
cloister polyphony voussoirs romance
garth neumes cross vault (groin vault)
 EARLY MIDDLE AGES AND THE ROMANESQUE 267

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

http://www.uky.edu/%7Ekieman/eBeowulf/guide.htm
(An in-depth discussion on Beowulf, edited by Kevin Kiernan.)
http: //www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook.html
(The Internet Medieval Sourcebook is an excellent site with many links regarding all aspects of
medieval society.)
http://www.mayo-ireland.ie/Mayo/Towns/MayAbbey/HistWAbb/Alcuin.htm
(A site focusing on Alcuin of York, the chief architect of educational reform on the continent
under Charlemagne.)
hitp://users.aol.com/butrousch/augustine/gregory.htm
(Visit this site for a biography of Pope Gregory the Great, with relevant websites and his writ-
ings.)
hitp://www.medieval.org/
(The Medieval Music and Arts Foundation has many pertinent links and a wealth of informa-
tion regarding medieval music.)
 ay
Bi : a ae

History
1152 Louis VII marries Eleanor of Aquitaine
1180-1223 Philip Augustus reigns
1189-99 Richard the Lionhearted reigns
1215 Magna Carta
1226-70 Louis IX reigns
1285-1314 Philip the Fair reigns
1327-77 —_—_Edward Ill reigns
1337-1453 Hundred Years’ War
1348 Worst outbreak of bubonic plague in western Europe
1358 Etienne Marcel revolts against crown
1364-80 Charles V reigns
ca.1550 Gothic era ends in France, aspects continue in Germany and England

1140-45 Saint-Denis, choir and ambulatory

1145-55 Column figures of Royal Portals, cathedral, Chartres
1145-1220 Notre-Dame Cathedral, Chartres
begun 1163 — Notre-Dame Cathedral, Paris
co. 1175 Leonin, chant composer active
ca. 1200 Perotin, chant composer active
1220-66/70 —_ Nicholas of Ely et al., cathedral, Salisbury
1243-48 —Sainte-Chapelle, Paris
1259-60; 1302-10 Nicholas and Giovanni Pisano depictions of the Nativity
ca.1260 —Psalter of St. Louis, illuminated manuscript
begun 1296 — cathedral, Florence
1300-77 Machaut, ars nova composer
1305-06 Giotto, Arena Chapel
1308-1] Duccio, Madonna and Child Enthroned
1346 Machaut, Mass of Notre Dame
late 14th century —-Milan Cathedral
1413-16 —_Limbourg brothers, Les Trés Riches Heures
co. 1500 Unicorn tapestries
Pe = EB
1503-19 Robert and William Vertue, Chapel of Henry VII, Westminster Abbey, London an

LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

1181-1226 Francis of Assisi Sates ok pe
1265-74 —_St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica
1320 Dante, Divine Comedy
1349-5] Boccaccio, Decameron
1386-1400 Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales
 ae)
psn

=
Goth iddle Ages

2ce
co=

SS
ae

Cathedral of Notre ? Amiens b begun 1220.

 ATLANTIC

OCEAN

England and English

possessions, 1430
Venetian Empire
| BY Genoese Empire a
| |(89) Holy Roman Empire
: Muslim states

Map 12.1 Europe during the Hundred Years’ War, 1337-1453.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

THE GOTHIC ERA

The age of the great cathedrals of western Europe, richly embellished

TOWARD THE RENAISSANCE

The trends toward naturalism and realism in painting and sculpture

THE GOTHIC ERA Louis) (r. 1226-70). The monarchy had not enjoyed such
power and respect since the time of Charlemagne. Louis
PARIS IN THE LATER MIDDLE AGES made a determined effort to be a king to all his people,
sending royal commissioners into the countryside to mon-
‘Y 0 city dominated the later middle ages more than itor the administration of local government and to ensure
| Paris. Home to a revival in learning at the newly justice for all. He outlawed private warfare and granted
founded university, Paris was also the seat of the his subjects the right to appeal to higher courts. Further-
French government, overseen by King Louis IX (later St. more, he became something of a peacekeeper among the

270
 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES 271

Then & Now

THE LOUVRE an arsenal, a mint, a granary, a county seat, most every architectural style in the his-
a publishing house, a ministry, the Insti- tory of the West. A Romanesque fortress
he Louvre today is one of the most tute for Advanced Studies, a telegraph sta- forms its basis, and outward from it
famous museums in the world. It is tion, a shopping arcade, a tavern, and a spread two Gothic and two Renaissance
also the largest royal palace in the world, hotel for visiting heads of state. ‘The ex- wings. Baroque and Rococo ornamenta-
a building that has undergone more re- pansive and open plan of the Louvre today, tion can be found throughout, and the
development through the ages than any with its two great arms extending from the closed-off end is Neoclassical. In this
other building in Europe. The first original building west to the Tuileries gar- spirit of heterogeneity and plurality, ar-
building on the site was a fortress, dens, is the result of later additions. In the chitect I. M. Pei designed a glass pyra-
erected in 1200 by Philip Augustus, with latter part of the sixteenth century, Henry mid to serve as the museum’s new
a keep, the symbol of royal power, sur- IV added the Grand Galleries, initially entrance in 1988. Set above a network of
rounded by a moat. Today, remnants of conceived as a covered walkway connect- underground rooms and walkways, Pei’s
the moat and keep can be viewed on the ing the palace to the garden. In the seven- pyramid is 61 feet high and 108 feet wide
bottom floor of the museum. teenth century, Louis XIV closed off the at the base, constructed of 105 tons of
Charles V used the building as a royal east end, forming the Cour Carrée. glass. Beside it are flat triangular pools
residence, but over the years its galleries The result of these additions and al- that reflect the walls of the surrounding
and arcades have also served as a prison, terations is a building that represents al- palace.

other European powers, and he was in most matters more Romanesque buildings seem to be bound to the earth. In
influential than the pope. In short, he became associated contrast, Gothic buildings have a soaring quality, for the
with fairness and justice, and France consolidated itself as vertical is constantly emphasized and the walls are thin.
a nation around him, with Paris as its focal point. Soon all Small Romanesque windows give way in Gothic architec-
roads led to Paris, as they had once led to Rome. ture to vast windows of stained glass.
Gothic architecture was confident and daring. The
tremendous height of the buildings was a reflection of re-
GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE ligious ideals and enthusiasm, of inspiration and aspira-
tion. The vast naves of the Gothic cathedrals create an
The term Gothic refers to the style of visual arts and cul-
extraordinary atmosphere of spirituality. The chants sung
ture that first developed, beginning about 1140, in the Ile-
here reverberated from the high vaults.
de-France, and reached its zenith in the thirteenth century.
The structural innovations (fig. 12.1) that character-
From the mid-thirteenth through the mid-fourteenth cen-
ized this new style include the following:
tury, Paris was an important source of artistic inspiration
for the rest of France, Germany, and England; Italy re- 1. Pointed arches and vaults that exert less lateral
mained quite separate aesthetically. By the middle of the thrust than the semicircular Romanesque arches and
sixteenth century, the Gothic style was at an end in France, vaults. The pointed ribbed vault can be constructed
although aspects of it continued to influence artists in Ger- in a variety of floor plans and, in theory, built to any
height.
many and England until the seventeenth century. 2. Ribs that serve to concentrate the weight of the
What is now called “Gothic art” was originally called vault at certain points, making it possible to elimi-
the “French style,” and referred to architecture. Architec- nate the wall between these points.
ture, in fact, dominates the era for this is the age of the 3. Flying buttresses that were introduced in re-
great cathedrals of northern Europe. However, it was the sponse to the problem created by the lateral thrust
Italians who gave the style its name; preferring the classi- exerted by a true vault. The idea of a buttress, a
cal style, the Italians thought the Gothic barbaric and iden- solid mass of masonry used to reinforce a wall, was
tified it with the most notorious of the barbarian tribes, an old one. But the “flying” part, the exterior arch,
the Goths. Thus the style was labeled “Gothic,” with a de- was an invention of the Gothic era. Flying but-
tresses project outward on the exterior of the build-
cidedly derogatory intent.
ing and cannot be seen from the inside through the
The Gothic style developed out of the Romanesque.
stained glass windows.
Romanesque buildings are broad and massive, character-
ized by semicircular arches, thick walls, and closely spaced Royal Abbey, Saint-Denis. “The Gothic style began at
supports that create a feeling of security. Solid and heavy, the royal abbey of Saint-Denis, located just north of Paris.
IDA CHAPTER 12

Ficure 12.1 The principal features of a Gothic church in-

clude (1) the nave; (2) gallery/triforium; (3) clerestory window;
(4) buttress; (5) gargoyle; (6) flying buttresses; (7) architectural
rib; (8) vault; (9) pinnacles; and (10) pointed arch.

The first church on the site was erected in 475 in honor of

St. Denis, who went to Paris around 250 C.E. to convert the FIGURE 12.2 Royal Abbey, Saint-Denis. Ambulatory,
Gauls and was rewarded for his efforts by being tortured 1140-44. The eccentric and egocentric Abbot Suger initiated
on a hot grill and then decapitated. St. Denis is said to the Gothic style of architecture, characterized by a new light-
have picked up his head and walked north to the site where ness of proportion and sense of flowing space. The pointed
the abbey was subsequently buiit. Gothic arches exert less lateral thrust than the Romanesque
The parts of the abbey of Saint-Denis that herald the semicircular arches, and the ribs reinforce the vaults.
beginning of the Gothic were built under Abbot SUGER
[SOO-zjay] (1081-1151) around 1140. A Benedictine
monk, Suger advised successive kings of France and was
even regent of the country during the Second Crusade.
He regarded the church as symbolic of the kingdom of window (a circular window with tracery radiating from its
God on earth and was intent on making Saint-Denis as center to form a roselike symmetrical pattern), rows of fig-
magnificent as possible. Suger rebuilt the facade, the ures representing Jesus’s biblical ancestors, and column
narthex, and the east end of Saint-Denis. He commis- figures on the jambs all became standard features of later
sioned a golden altar, jeweled crosses, chalices, vases, and Gothic cathedrals. ‘Today, the ambulatory and the seven
ewers made of precious materials. This richness was in chapels of the ambulatory remain as they were in Suger’s
honor of God, France, and possibly also Suger. At a time day (fig. 12.2).
when humble anonymity was the norm, Suger had himself In Suger’s plan, the divisions between the chapels are al-
depicted in stained glass and sculpture and his name in- most eliminated. Each chapel has two large windows. This
cluded in inscriptions. introduction of light was a new concept. The space is not
The first large and truly Gothic building, Saint-Denis divided into distinct units, as in Romanesque architecture.
served as the prototype for other Gothic structures. The Instead, without the solid walls and massive supports of
facade of Saint-Denis was the first to synthesize monu- the Romanesque, Gothic space flows freely and areas
mental sculpture and architecture. Its two towers, rose merge with each other.
 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES 273

fe

bal
coe SSS eee, —— ee

FIGURE 12.3. Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, west facade, FiGuRE 12.4 Cathedfal of Notre-Dame, Paris, 1163-ca.
1163—ca. 1250, mostly first half of thirteenth century. This 1250, apse, flying buttresses added in the 1180s. Exterior wall
celebrated cathedral is an example of the first phase of the buttresses have a long history; innovative are the arch-shaped
Gothic, referred to as Early Gothic. In Romanesque archi- flying buttresses, used especially on large multistoried build-
tecture horizontals dominated; here horizontals and verticals ings to absorb the lateral thrust exerted by the vaulting. The
balance; soon the verticals will dominate. solid walls of Romanesque architecture were replaced by the
characteristically Gothic flying buttresses.

Notre-Dame, Paris. ‘The cathedral of Notre-Dame-de- The facade’s equilibrium of horizontals and verticals creates
Paris (Our Lady of Paris) (fig. 12.3), is located in the heart a masterpiece of balance. Based on a sequence of squares,
of Paris on the Ile-de-la-Cité, an island in the Seine river. one inside another, the entire facade is one large square,
The historical center of the city, Gallo-Roman ramparts 142 feet on each side. The towers are one-half the height
once fortified the site, and earlier churches had been built of the whole solid area—a simple, satisfying geometry.
there as well. Bishop Maurice of Sully, founder of the In the 1180s, the first flying buttresses (see fig. 12.4)
cathedral, had these removed, however. were added at Notre-Dame to stabilize its great height.
Construction of Notre-Dame started in 1163. Work The buttresses are in two parts: The outer buttress is ex-
began with the choir—the construction of a church or posed; the inner buttress is hidden under the roof of the
cathedral usually commences at the choir end. With few inner aisle. From this time forward, flying buttresses would
exceptions the Christian altar is oriented to the east, the play an important structural and visual role in Gothic ar-
church entrance toward the west. Notre-Dame was first chitecture.
finished in 1235. Reconstruction began almost immedi-
ately. The vaulting of the choir was redone; almost all the Notre-Dame, Chartres. The cathedral of Notre-Dame
clerestory windows were enlarged; the flying buttresses in Chartres (fig. 12.5), a spectacular structure with splen-
were doubled; the transepts were rebuilt; and work was did sculpture and sparkling stained glass, begins the High
carried out on over forty chapels. All this remodeling took Gothic.
several decades. Chartres cathedral was intended to be a “terrestrial
The facade (fig. 12.3) dates, for the most part, from the palace” for Jesus’s mother Mary, built on the highest part
first half of the thirteenth century. Large amounts of wall of the city in order to bring it closer to heaven. This cathe-
are still evident, a holdover from the Romanesque period. dral possesses an important relic of Mary. Known as the
274 CHAPTER 12

é rH 5 iH] GG) les ee Seon Meise LEA gS

FiGurE 12.5 Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Chartres, rebuilding 1145-1220; north spire

1507-13. This cathedral dominates the surrounding landscape and is visible for miles around;
Gothic cathedrals were routinely built on the highest site available. The typical French Gothic
facade has one rose (wheel) window, two towers, and three entry portals.

sancta camisia, it is a piece of cloth, said to have been worn immediately and, by 1024, a new crypt was finished.
by Mary when Jesus was born. Chartres was believed to Known as “Fulbert’s Crypt,” it is still the largest crypt in
be protected by Mary and became an extremely popular France. A Romanesque cathedral was then constructed on
pilgrimage site. Although it was believed to have produced the site, but in 1134 fire destroyed the town, and the build-
many miracles, the relic could not fend off fire, constant ing was damaged. The Royal Portals and the stained glass
enemy of churches during the Middle Ages and the cause windows on the west facade were made 1145-55. In 1194,
of the cathedral’s destruction in 1020. Rebuilding began there was yet another fire in which the cathedral suffered
 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES 275

NUMEROLOGY AT CHARTRES The architecture of Chartres is re- The number nine, associated with
plete with threes—on the exterior a Jesus’s mother Mary, is also of special im-
A t the cathedral school at Chartres, three-story facade is matched by three portance. The cathedral, which houses
\Plato’s theory of the correspondence corresponding interior levels, culminat- fabric said to be part of her veil from the
between visual and musical proportions ing in the colored light of the clerestory. Nativity, celebrates her number. Mary is,
and the beauty of the cosmos was care- There are three semicircular chapels off as Dante said, “the square of the Trinity.”
fully studied. The number three, also im- the apse, and each clerestory window Chartres has nine entrance portals—three
portant in Christian theology, assumed consists of one rose and two lancet win- times three—and in its original plan it was
special importance for the builders at dows. The six-petaled rose in the mosaic to have nine towers, two on the facade,
Chartres. It symbolized the Holy Trinity in the center of the nave represents the two on each of the transepts, two flanking
and Plato’s secular trinity of truth, sum of one, two, and three. the apse, and one rising over the crossing.
beauty, and goodness.

FIGURE 12.6 Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Chartres, nave

great damage. Little more than Fulbert’s Crypt and the looking toward altar, rebuilding begun 1145, vault finished by
Royal Portals and windows survived. 1220. The first architectural masterpiece of the second phase
Mary’s cloth, safe in the crypt, did survive the fire of of the Gothic, known as the High Gothic, Chartres Cathedral
1194. Taken as a sign to build a yet more magnificent mon- was designed from the start to have flying buttresses. In this
three-story nave elevation, large clerestory windows allow light
ument, the people of Chartres gave money, labor, and time,
to enter directly into the nave, the deep colors of stained glass
all social classes participating, from the high nobility to
creating an atmosphere of multicolored light.
the humble peasantry. Rough limestone was brought from
five miles away in carts, an activity referred to as the “cult
of the carts.” By 1220, the main structure and the vaults
were finished, built with great speed and in a consistent
style. In 1260, the cathedral was dedicated. Like the fa-
cade of Notre-Dame in Paris, Chartres has four buttresses,
three portals, two towers, and one rose window. Yet, at
Chartres, the two facade towers are strikingly dissimilar.
The south spire is 344 feet high, built at the same time as
the rest of the upper facade. But the north steeple of the
early sixteenth century, built in a much more Flamboyant
Gothic style, rises 377 feet. Each tower was constructed in
the style popular at the time of its construction.
Chartres is the first masterpiece of the High Gothic,
the first cathedral to be planned with flying buttresses (at
Notre-Dame in Paris they are later additions), and to use
them for the entire cathedral. The buttresses at Chartres
are designed as an integral part of the structure. They join
the wall at the critical point of thrust, between the
clerestory windows, where there is a minimum of stone
and a maximum of glass.
The nave (fig. 12.6) is soaring, open, and airy. Whereas
the nave at Notre-Dame in Paris is just over 108 feet high,
Chartres’s is 121 feet high and 422 feet long. The three-
story elevation consists of the arcade, the triforium, and
the clerestory. The clerestory windows are tall and narrow,
emphasizing the vertical rather than the horizontal. A vast
amount of window area is permitted by the exterior but-
tressing, yet this does not produce a brightly lit interior.
Instead, stained glass provides colored and changing light
276 GHAPITER, 1/2

MIS eh
EST mu
PPT ><P IDG
ISS

FIGURE 12.7 Robert de Luzarches, Thomas de Cormont, and

Renaud de Cormont, Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Amiens,
1220-70, plan. When building with pointed arches, ribbed vault-
ing, and flying buttresses, in theory, there is no limit to the
height attainable. Soaring heavenward, the nave of Notre-Dame
at Paris rises over 108 feet; at Chartres 121 feet; and at Amiens
139 feet. Yet Beauvais Cathedral, at 158 feet, after it collapsed
and was rebuilt, demonstrated the practical limits of the
FIGURE 12.8 Robert de Luzarches, Thomas de Cormont,
structural system.
and Renaud de Cormont, Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Amiens,
west facade, begun 1220. Buildings became ever more delicate
in the windows themselves and flickering light over the during the Gothic era, stone seemingly turned into lace. The
stone interior. height of a city’s cathedral was a matter of civic pride—similar
to the twentieth-century battle in Manhattan between the ar-
chitects of the Chrysler Building and those of the Empire State
Notre-Dame, Amiens. ‘The cathedral of Notre-Dame in
Building to erect “the tallest building in the world.”
Amiens (fig. 12.7) represents the climax of the High Gothic
style. Building began in 1220 and was almost finished by
1270; only the tops of the towers above the rose window
ing sense of harmony and the gradual substitution of win-
date from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The fa-
cade (fig. 12.8) has five parts: (1) the usual three portals on dow for wall. In this Rayonnant style, stone tracery divi-
the ground floor, which are exceptionally deep; (2) the sions between the areas of glass in rose windows were made
thinner and ever more intricate.
gallery; (3) the gallery of kings—twenty-two figures, each
Paris under King Louis IX was the center for the Rayon-
fifteen feet high, representing the Kings of Judah, each
nant style. Louis acquired a portion of Jesus’s crown of thorns
holding a rod of the Tree ofJesse; (4) the rose window, with
and many other relics, including a piece of Jesus’s cross, iron
sixteenth-century glass; and (5) above this, the fourteenth-
fragments of the holy spear that pierced his side, the holy
and fifteenth-century work. The great height achieved by
sponge, the robe, the shroud ofJesus, a nail from the cruci-
medieval masons was a matter of civic pride and a symbol
fixion, and part of the skull of St. John the Baptist. Louis had
of strength. Each town tried to outdo the others in terms
these relics placed in an ornate shrine in the Sainte-Chapelle.
of height. When a conquering army took a defeated city,
Rich and refined, the Sainte-Chapelle looks like an
they destroyed its church or cathedral spire; to lop off the
enormous reliquary. Its architectural importance is not due
top of the tower was the sign of the city’s submission.
to great scale; when compared to other Gothic buildings,
Sainte-Chapelle, Paris. By the middle of the thirteenth the Sainte-"Chapeles is extremely small—the interior is a
century, a new Rayonnant style of Gothic architecture mere 108 feet long, and 35 feet wide. Divided into a lower
had begun to emerge. ‘The name “Rayonnant” comes from and an upper chapel, the lower is only a little under 22 feet
the French rayonner, which means “to shine” or “to radi- high, and the upper only just over 67 feet. The upper
ate.” The move to this new phase was the result of a chang- chapel (fig. 12.9) was dedicated to the Holy Crown of
 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES 277

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chapel, when sunlight streams through the stained-glass windows, it is as if one is standing
inside a sparkling, multicolored, multifaceted jewel.
278 CHAPTER 12

Pierre Robin, although the facade was probably designed

by Ambroise Havel. Its most striking feature is the porch,
which is faceted into three planes and thus bows outward.
Called Flamboyant because of the flamelike curving
stone tracery (flamboyant is the French for “flaming”), this
style is characterized more by ornament than by structure.
Delighting in delicacy and complexity, the masons cov-
ered the church in lace-like fantasy. Indeed, the ornament
obscures the structure beneath it. Exuberant and interlac-
ing, the steeply pitched openwork gables form a surface
tangle that is animated by light and shadow as the sun
moves.

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE OUTSIDE FRANCE

Salisbury Cathedral. "The French Gothic spread out-
side France, each country modifying it to its own tastes. In
England, the Early Gothic was relatively understated, but
FiGurE 12.10 Pierre Robin, Saint-Maclou, Rouen, designed the Late Gothic reached extremes of eccentricity beyond
1434, west facade designed by Ambroise Havel (?) 1500-21. The
anything found in France.
finest example of the fourth and final phase of the Gothic, the
Flamboyant or Late Gothic, this small building has enough dec-
Early English Gothic is represented by Salisbury Cathe-
oration to equal that of a huge cathedral. The lacy stone tracery dral (fig. 12.11). The choir, Lady Chapel, transepts, and
is “flamboyant”—flamelike—with its undulating curves. nave were built between 1220 and 1258 by Nicholas of
Ely and work was finally completed by 1270. The expan-
sive structure, which measures 473 by 230 feet, lacks a
Thorns and the Holy Cross. The plan is simple, consist- rounded apse, ambulatory, and radiating chapels found in
ing of only the nave of four rectangular bays and a seven- France, having instead, as is typical of English Gothic, a
sided apse. The walls disappear. The lines soar. The square east end. The nave has ten bays instead of the seven
windows are shafts of light. A cage of glass and stone, the usually found in France.
Sainte-Chapelle appears to defy the laws of gravity. All the The facade of Salisbury Cathedral, although begun in
space between the piers is given over to huge windows, the same year as Amiens Cathedral, has very different pro-
with more than three-quarters of the walls actually stained portions. Salisbury is low and wide, as if stretched hori-
glass. The piers project inward over three feet, but their zontally, with no particular emphasis on height. The facade
bulk is masked by groups of nine colonettes. All other sup- is wider, in fact, than the church and is treated as a screen,
ports are placed outside, leaving the interior a continuous divided into horizontal bands with emphasis placed on the
uninterrupted space. In 1323, Master Jean de Jandun de- sculpture, not on the portals. English cathedrals are usu-
scribed his experience of the chapel in the following way: ally entered by a porch on the side of the nave or on the
“On entering, one would think oneself transported to transept. Flying buttresses, so characteristic of French
heaven and one might with reason imagine oneself taken Gothic, were used only sparingly in England.
into one of the most beautiful mansions of paradise.” Westminster Abbey, London. After English Gothic ar-
The program of the upper chapel glass relates to the chitects had thoroughly mastered initial structural prob-
relics kept there. The central apse window shows Jesus’s lems, they refined and enriched their forms. Vaulting
passion, introduced by the Old Testament stories in the became progressively more adventurous. The ultimate ex-
nave. The cycle begins on the north side with the Book of ample of English vaulting is in Westminster Abbey, Lon-
Genesis and concludes on the south side with the story of
don, culminating in the fantastic chapel of Henry VII (fig.
the relics of the passion, especially the crown of thorns,
12.12), by the architects Robert and William Vertue. The
and their arrival in Paris. The French king is depicted
tomb of Henry VII is behind a grill at the back of the altar.
alongside kings David and Solomon. The windows of the
William Vertue replaced the axial chapel, originally built
Sainte-Chapelle include a great number of coronation
in 1220, with this one, built 1503-19. The most remark-
scenes—twenty plus that of Jesus, seemingly linking
able feature is the ceiling, an example of fan vaulting, thus
French royalty and biblical royalty.
called because the ribs radiate in a manner similar to those
Saint-Maclou, Rouen. Saint-Maclou in Rouen (fig. on a fan. But here the idea is carried to an extreme, to be-
12.10), a small parish church, is the paradigm of the Flam- come pendant vaults hanging down in knobs, apparently
boyant Gothic style, the final phase in the development of denying both logic and gravity. Describing the chapel, one
Gothic architecture. The church was designed in 1434 by historian noted, “Its extraordinary, petrified foliage gives
 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES 279

Figure 12.11 Nicholas of Ely, Cathedral, Salisbury, west facade, 1220-70. Typical of early
English Gothic, Salisbury is sprawling in plan, surrounded by a green lawn, and makes little
use of flying buttresses—as opposed to French Gothic cathedrals, which are typically compact
in plan, located in the city center, and rely on flying buttresses for structural support.

the impression of some fantastic, luminous grotto en- wall surfaces with emphasis on the horizontal, as is evident
crusted with stalactites.” Elaborate designs cover the en- in the landmarks of the city of Florence—its cathedral
tire surface, an indication of the English inclination toward (duomo), bell tower (campanile), and baptistery (fig. 12.13).
the architectural extreme, the eccentric, the intricate, and The single most important construction work carried
the opulent. out during the Gothic era in Florence was that done on the
cathedral. There had been an older church on the site, but
Florence Cathedral. Italy was little affected by the Gothic in 1296, Arnolfo di Cambio began to build a new cathedral.
style. Instead of the elaborate buttress systems and large win- Work started atypically at the west (entrance) end and pro-
dows popular in the north, Italian architects favored large ceeded quickly, until Arnolfo’s death in 1302. Work
280 CHAPTER 12

; a . : \; i ia

FiGuRE 12.12 Robert and William Vertue, Chapel of Henry VII, Westminster Abbey, Lon-
don, 1503-19, interior. The radiating ribs of fan vaulting are taken to an extreme here, becom-
ing pendant vaults that actually hang down into the space of the chapel. The surface dissolves
in this late and extreme example of English architectural eccentricity.
 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES’ 281

FiGurRE 12.13. Arnolfo di Cambio, Francesco Talenti, Andrea Pisano, and others, Cathedral,
Florence, begun 1296; redesigned 1357 and 1366, drum and dome 1420-36; campanile de-
signed by Giotto, built ca. 1334-50. The dome of the cathedral could not be built as originally
designed. It was only in the early part of the Renaissance that Filippo Brunelleschi would solve
the engineering problems that had prevented its earlier construction (see Chapter 13).

gradually continued over a long period of time, with var- only the first floor of the tower was finished. Work was
ious architects involved. The cathedral is distinctive for continued by Andrea Pisano among others, and finished by
its flat, colorful marble incrustation. Francesco Talenti in a somewhat different design around
In 1334, Giotto was appointed architect-in-chief of the 1350-60. The interior of the tower consists of a series of
building of Florence Cathedral. Giotto, however, was a rooms connected by staircases.
painter who knew little about architectural structure and The campanile is referred to as “Giotto’s Tower.” Al-
was to design only the campanile. His original drawing of though the freestanding campanile is typically Italian, it is
it survives, from which it is known that he intended the not an invention of the Italian Gothic; the campanile of
tower to be topped by a spire. When Giotto died in 1337, Pisa, the famous “leaning tower,” was built in the
282 CHAPTER 12

FicureE 12.14 Cathedral, Milan, east end, begun 1386. With

its plethora of pinnacles and delicate decoration, Milan Cathe-
dral is the most Gothic example—in the French sense—of
cathedral architecture in Italy. Architects came from northern et Yas
0
“4
eros
At

Europe to work on this northern Italian cathedral. Figure 12.15 Column figures, flanking the Royal Portals,
west facade, Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Chartres, ca. 1145-55,
stone. Early Gothic figures perpetuate the distortion seen in
Romanesque figures, but no longer have their agitated anima-
Romanesque era (see fig. 11.14). The richly ornamented tion. Instead, these stiff elongated figures maintain the shape
Gothic campanile of Florence, with its multicolored mar- of the column to which they are attached, emphasizing their
ble incrustation and sculpture, served not only as the bell architectural function.
tower but also as a symbol of the sovereignty of the Flo-
rence commune.

Milan Cathedral. ‘The most Gothic of Italian cathedrals three triple portals, on the west facade and the north and
is Milan Cathedral (fig. 12.14), consecrated in 1386 by the south transepts, all richly adorned with sculpture. On the
ruler of Milan, Gian Galeazzo Visconti. Occupying an im- west are the Royal Portals (fig. 12.15), from the early
pressive site before an enormous piazza, the cathedral was Gothic era, dated ca. 1145-55. All the sculpture was once
built with the support of all classes of Milanese society. painted and gilded, but now only beige stone remains.
Different guilds performed different tasks, each one trying Each of the three entrances of the Royal Portal is flanked
to outdo the others in their contributions. The exterior is by statues. Symmetrical, ordered, and clear, Gothic com-
covered in Rayonnant ornament, the result of architects positions can typically be grasped at a glance, whereas the
from the north coming to Milan to give advice on the Romanesque preferred greater complexity. These jamb fig-
cathedral’s construction. The building has been said to ures form what is known as a “precursor portal,” of a type
have an “overabundance” of ornament, all of which seems first seen at Saint-Denis and perhaps started by Abbot Suger.
to compete for the visitor’s attention. The visitor passes by Old Testament figures to enter the
church. Those without crowns are the prophets, priests, and
SCULPTURE patriarchs of the Old Testament, Jesus’s spiritual precursors.
Those with crowns are the kings and queens of Judah—
Notre-Dame, Chartres. ‘The logical place to find the ear- Jesus and Mary’s physical ancestors. Medieval iconography
liest Gothic sculpture would be Saint-Denis, but the work is complex, with layered meanings, permitting multiple in-
there has been badly damaged. Fortunately, the sculpture terpretations. Thus, in addition to being the royal ances-
at Chartres Cathedral has fared better. The cathedral has tors of Mary and Jesus, the kings and queens of Judah are
 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES 283

a = a Sa.

FIGURE 12.16 Annunciation and Visitation, west facade, Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Reims,
ca. 1230-45, stone. Descendants of column figures, these High Gothic sculptures dominate
their architectural setting and have little to do with the columns behind. Characteristic of the
increased realism and idealism of the Gothic era, the proportions and movements of these fig-
ures are now normal, and they even turn toward one another as if conversing. '

also associated with the kings and queens of France, joining of the extraordinary news she has just received, Mary
together religious and secular authority. Further, the church shows little response. She is severe, standing erect, her
was an earthly version of the heavenly Jerusalem, and these heavy drapery falling in broad sharp folds to completely
portals were regarded as the “gates of heaven,” through obscure her legs. But Gabriel is different. He holds his
which Christians could enter a symbolic journey through drapery so it falls diagonally, his slender body forms an S
biblical history to arrive at Jesus in the present. curve and he moves gracefully, with a relaxed elegance.
Such jamb figures are also called “column figures,” as And he gives a Gothic grin! The new interest in emotion
the shape of the figure follows that of the column. Sculp- is a characteristic of the Gothic era.
ture here is very closely tied to architecture. Unlike their The Visitation shows the meeting of Mary, now preg-
energetic Romanesque forerunners, these figures are calm nant with Jesus, and her cousin Elizabeth, pregnant with
and serene, with a noble dignity. There is no twisting, turn- John the Baptist, as they exchange their happy news. Ac-
ing, or bending; they do not interact with one another or cording to the story, Elizabeth is older, and this is shown
with the viewer. The drapery, of many linear folds that fall by the sculptor. Both figures form an S curve—a revival
to perfect zigzag hems, looks much like the fluting of a of the contrapposto pose of antiquity—so that they seem to
column, stressing the architectural role of these figures. move in space. Many small drapery folds run on diagonals
Only slightly wider than their columns, the figures are not and horizontals, the creases following the outlines of the
bodies with weight, but immaterial beings, seemingly hov- body.
ering as their feet dangle. Notre-Dame-de-Paris. Medieval art includes many im-
Notre-Dame, Reims. ‘The High Gothic figures who act ages of Mary and the infant Jesus. From the late eleventh
out the Annunciation and Visitation (fig. 12.16) on the west century on, popular devotion to the Virgin Mary was great;
facade of Reims Cathedral, dated to the 1230s or early many churches, cathedrals, religious orders, and brother-
1240s, are descendants of the column figures at Chartres. hoods were dedicated to Mary. She was portrayed as the ideal
Yet at Reims, rather than standing unaware of the next fig- woman, the second Eve. As religion became more human-
ure’s presence, they interact. Moreover, the columns from ized, the Church intentionally appealed to the tenderer emo-
which they extend are less noticeable. tions. Additionally, Mary was seen as able to intercede on
The Annunciation depicts the moment when the angel behalf of sinners on Judgment Day. People appealed to Mary
Gabriel tells Mary that she will give birth to Jesus. In view for help as the Madonna of Mercy. Members of all levels of
284 CHAPTER 12

* a

Figure 12.18 Gargoyle, west facade, Cathedral of Saint-

Pierre, Poitiers, thirteenth century, stone. Gargoyles, which
reached their peak of popularity during the Gothic era, are
glorified gutters, typically carved to look like monstrous
creatures, the water usually issuing from the mouth. When
carving for the gargoyles’ aerial realm, sculptors seem to
have been exempt from the usual iconographic restraints
of medieval art.

FIGURE 12.17 Notre-Dame-de-Paris, French, in the crossing

cating the form beneath. Rather than a pattern of parallel
of the Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, early fourteenth cen- pleats, the drapery now has broader sweeping folds. The
tury, marble. Gracefully swaying in space, with Jesus on her silhouette is broken and animated. The infant Jesus plays
hip, this image of Mary is very different from the stiff images with his mother’s clothing and is portrayed with the bodily
of her created during the Romanesque era. Mary is now shown proportions of a baby, looking quite different from his por-
as an elegant French princess. trayal as a little man in the Romanesque era.
Gargoyles. A multitude of gargoyles (fig. 12.18) glower
from the roof lines of medieval buildings. The true gar-
society participated in the Cult of the Virgin. Images of Mary goyle, a characteristic feature of Romanesque and espe-
were commissioned by those who could barely afford a cially Gothic buildings, is a waterspout, a functional
humble work, and by those who could have a work made necessity turned into a decorative fantasy.
in gold by the finest metalworkers and set with glittering Often located on churches and cathedrals, gargoyles
gems. By the fourteenth century, Mary was often shown are surprisingly irreverent. The rainwater may issue from
being crowned byJesus and was given comparable status. a barrel held by a gargoyle in the form of a person, but
A devotional image of Mary known as Notre-Dame-de- more often the figure appears to vomit, and some even
Paris (Our Lady of Paris) (fig. 12.17), a marble statue that defecate. Animals, such as dogs or pigs, and more exotic
dates from the early fourteenth century, stands in the cross- ones like lions or monkeys, as well as human figures, serve
ing of the Cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris. Graceful as gargoyles, grotesque inventions of the fertile medieval
and elegant, Mary pulls a garment across her body, indi- imagination.
 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES 285

FIGURE 12.19 Joshua Bidding the Sun to Stand Still, from the
Psalter of St. Louis, French, ca. 1260, manuscript illumination,
5.x 35° (13.6 X 8.7 cm), Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. Man-
uscript illumination reached a high point during the Gothic
era, with the finest manuscripts produced in Paris. The ele-
gant, animated, modeled figures are not in scale with the FIGURE 12.20 Limbourg brothers, January, from Les Tres
building they enter, and contrast with the flat patterned back- Riches Heures of the duke of Berry, French, 1413-16, manu-
ground, which is based on contemporary architecture. script illumination, 115 x age (29.2 X 21 cm), Musée Condé,
Chateau of Chantilly. This manuscript includes twelve folios,
one for each month of the year, that record how the upper and
the lower classes lived, including pleasures and hardships.

ed eo

Manuscript Ulumination. Manuscript illumination (The Very Rich Hours) of the duke of Berry, which dates
reached a peak in the Gothic period. Books were written from 1413-16. It is the work of the Limbourg brothers,
in finer lettering than ever before, and the size of the books Pol, Herman, and Jean, who were probably German or
was reduced. Stained glass affected painting after the mid- Flemish but worked in France for the duke of Berry,
thirteenth century, for reds and blues dominate, the figures brother of the French king Charles V, and a patron of the
are outlined in black, and the effect is ornamental and flat. arts. Les Tres Riches Heures is a book of hours or private
A good example is Joshua Bidding the Sun to Stand Still (fig. prayer book. It contains a series of illuminations, one for
12.19), a folio in the Psalter of St. Louis, made ca. 1260 for each calendar month. June includes a depiction of the
King Louis IX of France. Gothic architecture, including Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, and October shows the Louvre.
rose windows and pinnacles, forms the background in this In both, women and men are shown working in the fields.
miniature. The two-dimensional buildings contrast with A different level of society is portrayed in Fanuary (fig.
the long, thin, three-dimensional, modeled figures. 12.20), one of several scenes of aristocratic life. The duke
In the years just before and following 1400, a single of Berry is hosting a banquet, perhaps in celebration of
style of painting was popular throughout Europe. Typical the Twelfth Night, the day the magi, following the star of
of this International Style are bright contrasting colors, Bethlehem, arrived to present gifts to the infant Jesus. The
decorative flowing lines, elongated figures, surface pat- duke sits in front of a large fireplace that creates a halo
terns, a crowded quality, and opulent elegance. A prime around him. Above the head of the man behind him—
example is the manuscript known as Les Tres Riches Heures some think this is a portrait of Pol de Limbourg—are the
286 CHAPTER 12

words aproche, aproche, “come in, come in,” signifying the are depicted carving royal figures and show us just how
duke’s hospitality. The manuscript is an extraordinary Chartres’s sculptures themselves were created.
record detailing the customs, costumes, and consumption
Tapestry. Also characteristic of the Gothic era, tapestries
that characterized medieval life. were a form of insulation as well as decoration, for these
Stained Glass. Gothic architecture offered new possi- woven wall hangings helped keep the cold air from seeping
bilities for glass. The solid walls of the Romanesque period through the stone walls to the interior living space. ‘Tapes-
were covered with murals simultaneously decorative and tries were luxury items, to be coveted and collected.
instructive. In the Gothic period the dual functions passed To produce a tapestry, the artist first makes a small-scale
to stained-glass windows. To create colored glass, various color drawing. This is then copied and enlarged on paper
metallic oxides are added while the glass is still in a molten to the dimensions intended for the tapestry. This enlarged
state. A stained-glass window is made of many small pieces design is called the cartoon. Next, the weavers translate
of colored glass held together by lead strips. From the ex- the cartoon into tapestry. A tapestry is woven on a loom,
terior of the building there is little to see in a stained-glass which is worked by several people sitting side by side. Ifa
window, for stained glass is interior decoration, intended set of tapestries was to be produced, as was often the case,
to be seen illuminated from behind by sunlight. several looms were employed. The loom is strung with
The colored light that floods the interior of Gothic warp threads of tightly twisted wool. The number of warp
buildings through their stained-glass windows had special threads per inch determines how fine the tapestry will be.
importance in the Middle Ages. Light was believed to have The warp threads will be hidden by the weft threads of
mystical qualities as an attribute of divinity. John the Evan- wool, silk, and even silver and gold. Tapestries are woven
gelist saw Jesus as “the true light” and as “the light of the from the back; the finished image is an inversion of the
world who came into the darkness.” St. Augustine called artist’s original design. When the design is woven, every
God “light” and distinguished between types of physical change of color requires a change of thread; the weaving
and spiritual light. of a tapestry is a slow tedious process.
In addition to the twelfth-century rose window and The Unicorn Tapestries, made in Brussels around 1500,
three lancets on the west facade (fig. 12.21), Chartres tell the story of the hunt, capture, and murder of the uni-
Cathedral has over 150 early thirteenth-century stained- corn. The first and the last tapestry (fig. 12.22) are in the
glass windows. Local merchants donated forty-two win- millefleurs (“thousands of flowers”) style, which is charac-
dows, which include over a hundred depictions of their terized by dense backgrounds of plants. These plants are
occupations. These windows document medieval tools, meticulously observed and many can be identified, yet they
materials, and working methods. The masons, for instance, represent an unreal realm, in which plants from different

table f2
Ce
Colors
Black symbol of mourning, death
Blue symbol of heaven, truth, fidelity—“true blue”
Green symbol of fertility, springtime growth
Red symbol of passion, of both love and hate
White symbol of purity, innocence
Yellow/gold symbol of God, of the sun, of truth, yet also of deceit and cowardice

Objects
Globe/orb symbol of the world
Grapes used to make wine, a symbol of Jesus’s blood
Hourglass symbol of the shortness of life
Keys identifying attribute of St. Peter because Jesus is said to have given him the keys to heaven
Lamp symbol of intelligence
Pomegranate due to the fruits many seeds, a symbol of the unity of the church; hope for resurrection
Scallop shell worn by pilgrims to Santiago de Compostela, Spain
Ship
SS
symbol
eal
of the Christian
rhe eee
church
 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES 287

FIGURE 12.22 The Unicorn in Captivity, from the Unicorn Ta-

pestries, Franco-Flemish, made in Brussels, ca. 1500, wool and
silk tapestry, 12’ 1” x 8’ 3” (3.68 X 2.51 m). Gift of John D.
Rockefeller, Jr., 1937. Cloisters Collection, Metropolitan Mu-
seum of Art, New York. During the Middle Ages, people be-
lieved in the existence of the unicorn, a fabulous animal said to
have a single horn in the center of its forehead. When a tapes-
try is made, the picture is formed as the fabric is woven from
colored threads. This type of tapestry is known as millefleurs—
“thousands of flowers,” shown scattered over the background.

geographic areas and climates all bloom simultaneously,

the weavers accomplishing what nature could not.
These tapestries may have been made as a wedding gift.
According to religious interpretation, the unicorn repre-
sents Jesus at the Resurrection, in a heavenly garden. Ac-
FIGURE 12.21 — Life ofJesus, west facade, Cathedral of Notre- cording to secular interpretation, the unicorn represents
Dame, Chartres, ca. 1150, stained glass, central lancet window. the lover, now wearing the chaine d’amour (chain of love)
Stained glass reached its peak during the Gothic era, filling the around his neck and surrounded by a fence, perhaps tamed
huge windows permitted by the skeletal architectural system, and domesticated by obtaining his lady’s affection. Red
creating constantly changing patterns of colored light flicker- juice falls on the unicorn’s white fur from the pomegran-
ing over the interiors. Narratives that had been told in paint- ates above. Like the unicorn, the pomegranate can be read
ings on walls and vaults were now told in stained-glass in both religious and secular terms. Taken from a religious
windows. point of view, the many seeds of the pomegranate represent
288 CHAPTER 12

Ore Gee asha-

Spain became a multicultural country the books of the Mohammadans. . . . They
MUSLIM SPAIN
like no other, with Jews, Islamic Moors, can even make poems, every line ending
and Christians working together in a with the same letter, which display high
he Gothic cathedrals of northern
flights of beauty and more skill in handling
Europe are contemporaneous with spirit of convivencia, “coexistence.” ‘The
meter than the Gentiles themselves pos-
one of Spain’s most beautiful Islamic population consisted of six groups: (1) sess.
buildings, the Alhambra in Granada (see Mozdrabes, Christians who had adopted
fig. 6.8). Spain was the most multicul- Muslim culture; (2) Mudéjares, Moors The odes of the Islamic poets that the
tural country in Europe, a legacy of the who were vassals of Christians; (3) Mu/- Christian youth were imitating began
arrival of the first Muslim conquerors in adies, Christians who had adopted the Is- with an erotic prelude, then moved
Spain in 711. Spain had been controlled lamic faith; (4) Tornadizos, Moors who through a series of conventional themes
since 589 by Visigoth kings, but by the had turned Christian; (5) Enaciados, those such as descriptions of camels and
turn of the eighth century most who sat on the fence between both Islam horses, hunting scenes, and battles, and
Spaniards were unwilling to serve in the and Christianity, and who pretended to then culminated in the praise of a valiant
Visigoth army, a duty required of all free be one or the other as the occasion war- chieftain. The odes soon developed into
men. Furthermore, until 650, Jews had ranted; and (6) the large Jewish commu- independent love songs and drinking
controlled most of the commerce in nity. songs, and it was out of this tradition that
Spain, but in 694, the Visigoth kings, The cultures invigorated each other. the troubadour poets sprang.
who had become Christian, enslaved An older Christian man, writing in 854, Moorish influence on medieval and
Jews who would not accept Christian lamented the acceptance of Muslim ways Renaissance Europe extended beyond
baptism. Thus Spaniards greeted the by the Christian youth, but his protest this. For instance, Arab scholars passed
Muslim army in 711 as liberators. reveals much of the culture’s vitality: back much classical learning into Eu-
And liberators they were. Both the rope (see Chapter 6). Nonetheless, by
Our Christian young men, with their ele-
Jews and the Christians were tolerated gant airs and fluent speech, are showy in 1492, the last traces of this happy co-
as “protected” groups. They paid taxes their dress and carriage, and are famed for habitation were erased when Ferdinand
to the Muslim lords, but they were free the learning of the Gentiles; intoxicated and Isabella of Aragon reclaimed
to practice their own religion and to en- with Arab eloquence, they greedily han- Granada for Christianity and expelled
gage in business as they pleased. Thus dle, eagerly devour and zealously discuss the Moors and Jews.

the unity of the church and hope for the resurrection. In and translation by Muslim scholars of Aristotle’s writings,
a secular light, the crownlike finial represents royalty, and which passed back into Christian Europe in the twelfth
the many seeds, fertility. The iconography of medieval art and thirteenth centuries. This new perspective was com-
is often multi-layered in meaning. plemented by the rise of the universities, which were evolv-
ing into major centers of learning. The University of Paris
was the result of the expansion of the cathedral school at
SCHOLASTICISM Notre-Dame. In turn, the University of Paris gave rise to
As the Middle Ages progressed, the attitude of the Roman institutions like Oxford and Cambridge in England, the
Catholic Church toward secular learning and the wisdom former founded by teachers and students who had left
Paris, the latter created by a group disenchanted with the
of ancient writers began to change. More often than not,
Oxford curriculum. Debate about what should be studied
the church incorporated into its own teaching the learn-
led to the foundation of more and more universities. Soon
ing it acquired from other cultures, including the literature
universities in Spain, Portugal, and Germany joined the
and philosophy of ancient Greece and Rome, along with
approximately eighty institutions of higher learning that
the Byzantine and Islamic religious and philosophical tra-
ditions. In this intellectual climate, forms of learning that
existed by the end of the Middle Ages.
The university curriculum consisted of seven “liberal
derived from observation of the natural world rather than
arts”: the trivium (grammar, logic, and rhetoric) and the
the written word of scripture were no longer at odds with
quadrivium (arithmetic, astronomy, geometry, and music).
a Christian perspective. Such natural knowledge was seen
Soon degrees were awarded in both civil and canonical
as a foundation for the more advanced states of religious
contemplation. law, in medicine, and in theology.
Prior to the thirteenth century, medieval philosophy
The Growth of the University. ‘The shift in the church’s had centered on demonstrating the truths of religious faith
intellectual perspective was stimulated by the preservation through reason. But now a focus on the empirical obser-
 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES’ 289

Connections

Scholasticism and Gothic toward a unity of truth. The grandness of ness and distinctness. Analogously, in
Architecture both enterprises, their vastness and in- their overall structure and design, the
clusivity manifest an all-encompassing cathedrals revealed a rational order. The
uring the Middle Ages, from about belief centered on the divine creation of Gothic cathedral—in every element of
1130 to 1270 the philosophy of the world, the Incarnation and divinity its construction, from its portals to its
Scholasticism reached its culmination in of Jesus, the mystery of the trinity, and apse, its sculpture to its architectural de-
the grand Summa Theologica of St. the role of faith in achieving salvation. sign, its stained glass windows to its gar-
Thomas Aquinas, and Gothic architec- In Aquinas and in the cathedrals, the goyles—collectively embodied the whole
ture reached its zenith in the cathedrals sacred doctrine was clarified through the of Christian knowledge. The cathedral
in and around Paris. use of human reason. Aquinas’s Summa exemplified a visual structure analogous
Scholastic philosophy and Gothic ar- manifested reason in the careful order- to the logical organization of Scholastic
chitecture both embody the aspiration ing of its parts in their comprehensive- thought.

vation of the natural world began to emerge, divorced from philosophical thought, including that of Thomas Aquinas,
the service of Christian belief. Tensions between faith and he is better known as the teacher and then lover of his bril-
reason resulted. liant student Heloise. Abelard was hired by Heloise’s uncle
as a guardian and tutor. He fell in love with Heloise and
Peter Abelard. Peter Abelard (1079-1144) was one of secretly married her. Her uncle hired a group of thugs to
the first to wield the twin powers of logic and language attach and punish Abelard by castrating him. He became
in a philosophical approach called dialectic, a razor sharp a monk, and Heloise entered a convent. The letters they
form of logic. The most able student of the renowned wrote during their years of solitude are among the richest
William of Champeaux (Sham POE) of the Cathedral reflections on love ever written.
school of Paris, Abelard renounced Champeaux’s philo-
sophical approach as he challenged church authorities in The Synthesis of St. Thomas Aquinas. Using Aristotle’s
his Sic et Non (Yes and No) by calling attention to appar- focus on the natural world to explain how God’s wisdom
ently contradictory statements they made. Abelard sug- is revealed, the Dominican friar ST. THOMAS
gested that such conflicting statements could be resolved AQUINAS [a-KWHY-ness] (1225-74) effected a synthe-
by analyzing their language to see if the same words were sis of Aristotelian philosophy and Catholic religious
being used in differing ways. Believing that most theo- thought. Aquinas, like Aristotle, began with empirical
logical and philosophical confusion resulted from con- knowledge. Unlike Aristotle, however, Aquinas then
fusion about language, Abelard argued that words signify moved from the physical, rational, and intelligible to the
or refer only to individual things rather than to general divine. Aquinas claimed that the order of nature, a beau-
concepts. tiful harmonious structure in its own right, reflected the
At stake for Abelard and for many medieval philoso- mind of God.
phers was a debate about “universals” that had its origin in Aquinas saw no conflict between the demands of reason
the Greek philosophy of Aristotle and Plato. The issue de- and the claims of faith. Nor did he see a conflict between
bated was whether general concepts, or universals, actually the requirements of belief and the inducements of inde-
exist. The realists believed that they do—and that, for ex- pendent thought. For Aquinas, the exercise of intellectual
ample, goodness actually exists irrespective of its manifes- freedom was granted by God according to the divine plan.
tation in particular good individuals. The nominalists, led This freedom not only makes a person human, but also
by Abelard, denied the existence of such concepts as real presents the opportunity for every individual to choose or
entities, arguing that no such thing as goodness, redness, deny God by using the tools of reason.
or catness actually exists, but only particular examples of Unlike his forebears Plato and Augustine, for whom
good men, red objects, or of actual cats. Abelard did not physical reality and material circumstance were not as real
deny that the concepts existed; he argued that they exist or important as spiritual essences or qualities, Aquinas ar-
only as mental words signifying an abstract concept, which gued, much like Aristotle, that the soul and body are in-
itself has none other than mental existence. extricable. The body needs the soul to live; the soul needs
Although Abelard is known in philosophical circles as the body’s experience. Each completes the other in a unity.
a gifted logician who exerted an influence on subsequent According to Aquinas, spiritual knowledge and theological
290 CHAPTER 12

understanding require a grounding in the body’s experi- from the elaborate and subtle explanations of the scholas-
ence and observation of the world. tic philosophers or “schoolmen,” whose ideas had domi-
In this integration, Aquinas showed that philosophy and nated medieval philosophical thinking. In doing so,
theology need not conflict, that they could coexist. Nev- Ockham helped prepare the ground for the developments
ertheless, with the introduction of rational analysis into of Cartesian rationalism and Baconian empiricism.
theological speculation, and the acceptance of empirical
evidence as elements of philosophical truth, critics of Francis of Assisi. The intellectualism of scholars was
Aquinas began to question the validity of his unification of challenged by the life and teachings of Giovanni
faith and reason. Bernadone (1181-1226), nicknamed “Francesco” by his
father, who was born in the Italian town of Assisi. Cap-
Duns Scotus and William of Ockham. Two who refused tured as a youth in a battle against the neighboring town
to accept Aquinas’s grand synthesis were Duns Scotus of Perugia and held in solitary confinement, Francis of As-
(1265-1308) and William of Ockham (1285-1349), both sisi (fig. 12.23), decided in prison that real freedom de-
of whom were Franciscan friars. Scotus was a Scotsman manded complete poverty. On his release, he gave up all
who had studied at Oxford and Paris; Ockham was an Eng- worldly goods and, identifying closely with Jesus, began
lishman, who had also studied at Oxford, and who wound to lead the life of a wandering preacher. St. Francis’s iden-
up vilified and excommunicated for what were perceived tification with the passion was so strong that his body was
as heretical views. Duns Scotus, known as “the subtle doc- said to bear the crucifixion marks, or stigmata, of Jesus.
tor,” reacted against the theological views of both Aquinas Best known for his love of birds and animals, Francis’s
and Augustine. In place of Augustine’s divine illumination lifestyle made him wholly dependent on the generosity of
and Aquinas's integration of faith and reason, Scotus posited others. His many followers, who came to be known as
the central importance of will, emphasizing the freedom Franciscans, were already a powerful monastic order of
of individuals in their actions. Scotus believed that a per- the church by the time of his death in 1226.
son’s will is guided on the one hand by what is good for the
individual, and on the other by what is good for all, the two
LITERATURE
being modulated according to a sense of justice.
Scotus also rejected Aquinas’s notion that the identity Dante’s Divine Comedy. ‘The most celebrated literary
of an individual thing depends on its matter, while sharing work of the Middle Ages is the epic poem The Divine Com-
its form with all other things of the same kind. For Scotus, edy by the Italian poet DANTE ALIGHIERI [DAHN-
the individual identity of a thing is part of its form, as dis- tay] (1265-1321) (fig. 12.24). Born in Florence in 1265,
tinguished between a thing’s “common nature” (its guiddity Dante was involved in politics as well as literature. When
or whatness) and its individualizing difference, a notion a rival party seized power in 1302, Dante was exiled from
that inspired the Jesuit priest-poet Gerard Manley his home city, never to return. The Divine Comedy was com-
Hopkins who celebrated Scotus in his poem Duns Scotus at pleted in Ravenna shortly before Dante’s death. In the
Oxford. Such philosophical hairsplitting among scholastic poem, Dante makes numerous references to the politics
philosophers gave rise to the criticism that such subtleties of his day, especially to the rivalry between the Guelphs
had little, if anything, to do with faith and everyday liv- and the Ghibellines, two opposing Florentine political par-
ing. Ironically, though, Scotus came to emphasize faith as ties.
superior to reason and to argue that philosophy and reli- The Divine Comedy is divided into three parts: Inferno
gion should be separated because they have different tasks. (Hell), Purgatorio (Purgatory), and Paradiso (Heaven). These
William of Ockham went beyond Scotus by denying the are the three different places in medieval theology to which
existence of any correspondence between concrete indi- the soul can be sent after death. In the poem Dante as-
vidual beings or things. Like Peter Abelnd, he eschewed the cends through Hell and Purgatory to Heaven, guided in
notion of universals except as mental concepts. Similarities the first stages by the pagan poet Virgil, who represents
among individual human beings, or, say, particular dogs or human reason, and at the end by his beloved, Beatrice,
trees, exist strictly in the mind as mental abstractions, as who represents divine revelation. Though indebted to the
ideas rather than as real things. For Ockham, the issue of the classical poetic tradition, The Divine Comedy is an explic-
universal existing beyond the physical was a matter for the- itly Christian poem.
ology or for logic rather than a concern of philosophy. Thus The poem contains one hundred cantos equally divided
he rejected Aquinas’s notion that the human mind possessed among the three sections, with the opening canto of the
a divine light that guided the intellect toward a proper un- prologue prefacing the Inferno. Dante’s attention to or-
derstanding of reality, and he severed the link between faith ganization, especially structural symmetry, is apparent in
and reason that Aquinas had so carefully established. With every aspect, particularly in the use of terza rima, a suc-
“Ockham’s razor,” his principle that the best explanation cession of three-line stanzas that rhyme ABA, BCB, CDC,
is the simplest and most direct, Ockham also broke away and so on, in which the unrhymed line ending in each
 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES 291

stanza is picked up in the following stanza, where it be-

comes the principal rhyme. Dante employs this pattern of
interlocked rhyme through the entire work.
One of the most notable features of Dante’s Inferno is
the law of symbolic retribution, which suggests how a pun-
ishment should fit a sin. In depicting opportunists, for ex-
ample, Dante positions them outside of Hell proper, in a
kind of vestibule. Because they were unwilling to take firm
positions in life, they are not completely in or out of Hell
after death. And as they were swayed by winds of change
and fashion, their eternal punishment is to follow a wav-
ing banner that continually changes direction.
Other punishments that seem particularly well suited
to their corresponding sins include those who have com-
mitted carnal offenses, who in life were swayed by sexual
passion and in death are swept up in a fiercely swirling
wind. Murderers are punished by being immersed in a
river of boiling blood, the degree of their immersion de-
termined by the degree of their bloodlust in life. Gluttons
are punished by being made to lie in the filthy slush of a
garbage dump while the giant threeheaded dog, Cerberus,
tears at their flesh with claws and teeth. The souls of those
who committed suicide are imprisoned in trees, whose
limbs are torn and eaten by giant ugly birds, the fearful
Harpies.
This law of symbolic retribution is complemented by
another—that the most grievous and heinous of sinners
are punished more severely than those who committed less
odious crimes in life. Dante’s poem is a synthesis of all the
learning of his day—astronomy, history, natural science,
philosophy—and this differentiation among sinners is in-
debted to the theology of Thomas Aquinas. Dante follows
Aquinas, for example, in suggesting that sins of the flesh,
such as lust, are not as serious as those of malice or fraud.
Thus lust, gluttony, and anger are punished in the upper
portion of Hell, where the punishments are less painful;
sins of violence and fraud are punished in the deeper re-
cesses of the Inferno.
Because deceit and treachery are, for Dante, the most
pernicious of sins, these are punished at the very bottom
of hell. Dante’s scheme is so carefully worked out that he
even divides the betrayers into categories—betrayers of
their kin, of their country, of their guests and hosts, and,
finally, those who betrayed their masters. This last and
worst kind of sin Dante represents by the crimes of Bru-
tus and Cassius, who betrayed Julius Caesar; by Judas Is-
cariot, the betrayer of Jesus; and, worst of all, by Satan,
Figure 12.23 St. Francis ofAssisi, thirteenth century, fresco, who betrayed God. These sinners are the furthest from
Sacro Speco, Subiaco, Italy. The earliest known portrait of St. God, deep in the cold dark center of Hell. Satan, a three-
Francis, this fresco may have been executed during his lifetime. headed monster, lies encased in ice; in his three mouths
St. Francis founded his own monastic order, the Franciscan he chews incessantly on the bodies of Brutus, Cassius, and
order, in 1209, and it had already grown to be a powerful Judas. Many of Dante’s political enemies in Florence are
movement within the medieval church by the time-of his death discovered by the poet suffering the torments of Hell.
in 1226. One of the most important features of the order was Just as Dante’s Inferno reflects the type and degree of
its imposition of poverty on its members. sinners’ guilt, so his Purgatorio reflects a concern for justice.
 292 CHAPTER 12

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SIN AND ERROR idea reflects medieval religious thought, punishment—of whatever type—is the
especially that of Thomas Aquinas, in appropriate response to “sin” and to
|[nn his Inferno, Dante punishes sinners some attenuated sense, perhaps, it re- “crime”? To what extent are contem-
|
according to the type of sin they mains alive today in the criminal jus- porary attitudes toward punishment for
committed during life and according to tice system, in which “crimes” rather crimes similar to medieval ideas re-
the degree of their guilt, making the than “sins” are prosecuted and pun- garding punishment for “sin”? How do
punishment fit the crime. Although this ished. To what extent do you think that they differ?

PSO
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Dante’s Purgatory is a mountain that is also an island. The Dante’s Paradiso is based on the seven planets of me-
mountain is arranged in tiers, with the worst sins punished dieval astronomy—the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun,
at the bottom, since the sinners punished there are fur- Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. Just as the Inferno and the Purg-
thest from the Garden of Eden and from the heavens. In atorio describe the subject’s movement through hell and
ascending order, the sins punished on the mountain of the purgatorial mountain, Dante’s Paradiso also describes
Purgatory are pride, envy, anger, sloth, avarice, gluttony, a journey, this one celestial, from planet to planet and be-
and lust—roughly the reverse of their positions in the yond, to the Empyrean, the heavenly abode of God and his
Inferno. saints.

FiGurRE 12.24 Domenico di Michelino, Dante and His Poem, 1465, fresco, Cathedral,
Florence. Dante stands holding his poem. To his right is the Inferno, behind him Mount Pur-
gatory, and to his left, representing Paradise, is Florence Cathedral itself, with its newly fin-
ished dome by Brunelleschi.
 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES 293

Table 12-2
Hell
THE STRUCTU
eae
DE
qa
OF DANTE'S COMEDY. shape of its vocal melody and the concentrated focus of its
single melodic line suit the devotional quality of the liturgy.
In the ninth and tenth centuries, however, chants began to
The Anteroom of the Neutrals be composed with multiple voice lines. Those with two
Circle 1: The Virtuous Pagans (Limbo) voice lines an interval of a fourth, fifth, or octave apart were
Circle 2: The Lascivious known as a parallel organum, the simplest kind of poly-
Circle 3: The Gluttonous phonic, or multivoiced, musical practice. In parallel or-
Circle 4: The Greedy and the Wasteful ganum, the two melodic lines move together, note for note,
parallel, and with identical rhythmic patterns. The lower,
Circle 5: The Wrathful
or bottom, line is the main melody, or cantus firmus, above
Circle 6: The Heretics which the second line is composed. By the eleventh century,
Circle 7: The Violent Against Others, Self, God/Nature/ and the organum developed from the entrance of a second voice
Art into music moving in parallel, oblique, and contrary mo-
Circle 8: The Fraudulent (subdivided into ten classes, each of tion. The harmonies were random and, although the two
which dwells in a separate ditch) singers were on the same note when starting, intervals be-
Circle 9: The Lake of the Treacherous against kindred, country, tween the notes would sound to our modern ears dissonant
guests, lords and benefactors. Satan is imprisoned at and hollow. The original chant, which was sung as the bot-
the center of this frozen lake. tom line of the organum, could not be varied and provided
the polyphonic basis to the upper voice, which began to
Purgatory expand movement and range.
Ante-Purgatory: The Excommunicated/The Lazy/The As polyphonic music became standard in church ritual,
Unabsolved/Negligent Rulers the organum grew to three, four, or as many as five sepa-
The Terraces of the Mount of Purgatory rate voice parts. Moreover, the melodies above the cantus
1. The Proud firmus began to change with each of the voice lines, thus
imparting an independent quality absent in simpler forms
2. The Envious
of parallel-voiced polyphony.
3. The Wrathful The two most prominent chant composers of the
4. The Slothful twelfth century, LEONIN [LAY-oh-nan] (ca. 1135-ca.
5. The Avaricious 1200) and PEROTIN [PEAR-oh-tan] (ca. 1170-ca. 1236),
6. The Gluttonous were associated with the cathedral of Notre-Dame in Paris.
7. The Lascivious Though the church was not completed until the 1220s,
during the 1180s an altar was consecrated and services
The Earthly Paradise were held. Léonin, who was active around 1175, favored
a chant for two voices called organum duplum, in which the
Paradise lower cantus firmus spread slowly over long held notes
while a second voice, scored higher, moved more quickly
1. The Moon: The Faithful who were inconstant
and with many more notes through the text. This top line
2. Mercury: Service marred by ambition was called the duplum and the bottom cantus firmus line
3. Venus: Love marred by lust the tenor, from the Latin tenere, which means “to hold.”
4. The Sun: Wisdom; the theologians (This “tenor” has nothing to do with the later develop-
5. Mars: Courage; the just warriors ment of “tenor,” referring to one of the voice ranges, as in
6. Jupiter: Justice; the great rulers soprano, alto, tenor, and bass.)
Working a generation later, at the turn of the thirteenth
7. Saturn: Temperance; the contemplatives and mystics
century, Pérotin was Léonin’s most notable successor in
8. The Fixed Stars: The Church Triumphant composing polyphonic chants. Pérotin wrote mostly three-
9. The Primum Mobile: The Order of Angels or four-voiced chants called respectively organum triplum
10. The Empyrean Heavens: Angels, Saints, the Virgin, and the and organum quadruplum. Pérotin’s more complex
Holy Trinity polyphony still used the cantus firmus tenor voice, but
over it were placed two or three lively voice parts, which
the tenor imitated from time to time. An additional dis-
tinguishing feature of the polyphonic chants of Léonin
MusICc and Pérotin was their use of measured rhythm. Unlike the
The Notre-Dame School. One of the more elegant fea- free unmeasured rhythms of plainchant, the polyphonic
tures of Gregorian plainchant is the way its single melodic chants of Léonin and Pérotin had a clearly defined meter
line molds itself to the words of the Latin text. The rounded with precise time values for each note. Initially, the
294 CHAPTER 12

rhythmic notations for the music were restricted to only shortages, which fed social unrest exacerbated by the con-
certain patterns of notes, with the beat subdivided into flicting interests of landlords and workers. In addition to
threes to acknowledge the Trinity. Later, however, these the social and economic consequences there were religious
rules were loosened, and polyphonic chant became even effects. Boccaccio describes how many Florentines aban-
freer in structure and more richly textured. doned funeral rites and burial rituals, as they feared con-
Probably the most viable result from the addition of tagion from infected victims. People also wondered about
rhythm by the Notre Dame school was that music fit a world that could include such a horrifying form of death
melody to the rhythm of words. The result was more form for so many people and a God who allowed such a calamity
in music, liturgy became easier to memorize and the rhyth- to occur. Lack of understanding of the causes of the Black
mic flow lent a steady pulse to the movement of clerics in Death and absence of information about its transmission
procession. The extemporaneous lines of the upper voice, created fear and confusion. This, in turn, gave rise to a
which was sometimes left to the improvisation of the per- greater preoccupation with death, which resulted in vari-
former, provided the basis for new musical forms—both sa- ous artistic renderings, such as the danse macabre, or the
cred and secular. Dance of Death, portrayed by skeletons and by cadavers
It has been suggested that the metrical regularity of leading the living to their graves.
Léonin’s and Pérotin’s chants are especially suited to the
Gothic cathedral. The repeating and answering patterns of
THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR
polyphonic chant music have their architectural counter-
part in the Gothic cathedral’s repetitive patterns of arches, To the horrors of the Black Death, which raged through-
windows, columns, and buttresses, and its visual rhythms. out the second half of the fourteenth century, were added
the blood and gore of more than a hundred years of war
between France and England. The Hundred Years’ War,
which lasted from 1337 to 1453, was fought completely
MEDIEVAL CALAMITIES on French soil. Although the proximate cause of the war
was the English claim to the French throne upon the death
THE BLACK DEATH of Charles IV in 1328, the major and longer contributing
cause was the English claim to French lands, a claim dat-
Among the most devastating calamities to befall Europe
ing from the time of the Norman Conquest, when English
during the Middle Ages was the plague, which caused the
kings held land in France.
deaths of more than a third of Europe’s seventy million
Although French soldiers greatly outnumbered the
people. There were many outbreaks of the plague, which
English invaders, the English won most of the battles, in-
was carried over sea and land trade routes to most parts
cluding those of Poitiers and Agincourt, which Shake-
of Europe. The carriers of the plague bacillus were fleas
speare immortalized in his play Henry V. Although the
that had bitten infected rats, and which then bit other rats
battles themselves were deadly, with foot soldiers and
and humans. Three forms of the plague existed: bubonic,
archers slaughtering one another with improved weapons
or infected lymph nodes; pneumonic, or infected lungs;
such as the English longbow, the time between battles also
and septicemic, or infected blood. These forms of the
brought destruction, as mercenaries roamed the country-
plague were so virulent that death would result within a
side pillaging and killing. And even though the English
few days and sometimes within hours. The symptoms of
those afflicted were painful and horrifying. Abscesses, or were consistently victorious in the battles of the Hundred
buboes, appeared in the armpits or groin lymph nodes, fill- Years’ War, they suffered serious financial losses due to
ing them with pus and turning the body black—hence the the cost of waging war abroad and maintaining garrisons
term by which the disease is best known, the “Black there. The war depleted the French aristocracy and ren-
Death.” dered obsolete the institution of knighthood and feudal
vassalage.
References to the Black Death appear in the Decameron,
a collection of linked short stories, by Giovanni Boccaccio,
who lived through the plague. Boccaccio set his collection
of stories in the hills around Florence, to which the stories’
TOWARD THE RENAISSANCE
narrators flee to escape the ravages of the disease. In the We begin to detect the seeds of scientific inquiry, an in-
introduction to the Decameron, Boccaccio noted both the creasing urge to know the world in its every detail. Life,
physical and psychological consequences of the pestilence, more and more people believed, should be a quest for
as he describes the despair of the citizens of Florence. “truth.” And the realization of visual and literary truth—
The plague disrupted societies and economies through- the depiction of things in a manner “true to nature”—
out Europe and into Asia and North Africa, where the began to seem more urgent. Scholars increasingly found
plague had spread by travelers and merchants plying land what seemed to be the “truth” in the writings of antiquity
and sea trade routes. The disease caused massive labor and artifacts of the classical past.
 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES 295

NATURALISM IN ART gressive Florence, however, represented by the artist

Giotto, displayed a greater concern for depiction of the
The Pisanos. Sculpture in Italy differs from that of the physical world and three-dimensional space and mass. This
rest of Gothic Europe. NICOLA PISANO [pea-SAH- is the more naturalistic style that Europe would follow for
noh] (ca. 1220/25 or before—1284) reintroduced a classical the next several centuries.
style, as demonstrated by the marble pulpit he made for the DUCCIO [DOOCH-chee-OH] (ca. 1255—before 1319)
baptistery in Pisa, 1259-60. He may have studied the an- is frequently mentioned in the Sienese archives, not only for
cient Roman sarcophagi preserved in Pisa, for in the panel his art but also for disturbing the peace, for his many wine
that portrays the Nativity (fig. 12.25) he has carved classi- bills, and for having debts. His most famous work, the Maesta
cal figures and faces. Included are three separate events: the Altarpiece, 1308-11, on the front of which is the Madonna
Annunciation on the left; the Nativity itself in the middle; and Child Enthroned (fig. 12.28) (the Italian word maesta refers
and the Adoration at the top right. Mary appears twice in to the “majesty” of the Madonna), was made for the high
the center of the composition, once with the angel Gabriel altar of the cathedral of Siena. It was painted entirely by Duc-
at the Annunciation, and directly below, lying prostrate at cio (the contract has survived), although the usual practice at
the Nativity. She is recognizably the same individual in this time was for the artist to employ assistants. When the
each instance, although her expression changes. Deeply painting was finished a feast day was proclaimed in Siena.
undercut, solid and massive, the forms bulge outward from In this rigidly symmetrical composition, Mary and the
the background. The crowding is typically Gothic, but the infant Jesus are enthroned, surrounded by tiers of saints
naturalism and classicism of the figures looks forward to and angels. Still in the medieval manner, much larger than
the Renaissance. any of the other figures, Mary is elongated, ethereal, and
Nicola’s son Giovanni Pisano (ca. 1240/45—after 1314) immaterial. Her drapery has a linear quality emphasized by
also carved a Nativity for Pisa, this time for the cathedral the gold edging. Outline and silhouette play a major role;
(fig. 12.26). Executed between 1302 and 1310, the figures the effect of shading is minor. The faces are wistful and
are slimmer than his father’s, and the Mary seems more a melancholic, and the angels look tenderly at Mary. The
young woman than the matronly figure in the earlier work. throne appears to splay outwards, is not rendered with sci-
Her drapery is more flowing, her body almost substantial entific perspective, and does not suggest depth. Duccio
beneath its folds. The composition is not as crowded as represents the culmination of the old Byzantine style rather
Nicola’s, the effect more energetic than serene. Each fig- than the start of a new one.
ure now has a logical amount of space, and the viewer GIOTTO [JOT-toh] (1267?-1336/7) was Duccio’s
seems to look down from above, thereby making the com- contemporary. Giotto’s naturalism is apparent if we com-
position clearer. Giovanni includes more landscape and pare his Madonna and Child Enthroned (fig. 12.29) to Duc-
setting in his depiction than his father, creating a greater cio’s. Although Duccio’s Madonna seems like an icon,
sense of depth, and in his sculpting uses even deeper un- insubstantial and elongated, Giotto’s Mary appears more
dercutting for a greater play of light and shade. realistic. Not only does she appear to sit in actual physical
space, but it is as if real bones lie beneath her skin.
Cimabue, Duccio, and Giotto. Cenni di Pepi (ca.
Giotto’s most famous work is the extensive fresco cycle
1250-ca. 1302), known as CIMABUE [chee-muh-BU-ee], portraying the lives of Mary and Jesus in the Arena Chapel
painted the unusually large Madonna and Child Enthroned (Scrovegni Chapel) in Padua, painted 1305-06. In the
(fig. 12.27) for the altar of the church of Santa ‘Trinita in scene of the Lamentation over the Body ofFesus (fig. 12.30),
Florence. Cimabue is a link between the older Byzantine the composition is used to emphasize the sadness of the
Greek style and the new progressive style soon to develop subject. Here, the focus of attention is low and off center.
in Florence. Looking back to the Byzantine style are the Figures bend down to the dead Jesus. The diagonal of the
linear gold highlights on Mary’s drapery, her abnormally hill leads down to the heads of Mary and Jesus. The fig-
elongated proportions, and the disparity in scale between ures form a circle around Jesus, leaving a space for one
enormous Mary and the notably smaller prophets below. more person—the viewer, who thereby joins in their griev-
Looking forward are the large size of the panel, the im- ing. Emphasis is on mass rather than line, figures are three-
plication of space created by the overlapping angels, and dimensional, solid, and bulky, and seen to occupy the actual
the individualized faces and varied poses of the prophets. space of the landscape. Most important of all, the mourn-
Cimabue is believed to have been the teacher of the highly ers convey emotion, a tangible sense of grief and loss.
innovative Florentine artist Giotto.
At the end of the thirteenth and beginning of the four-
teenth century, two trends emerged in Italian painting, REALISM IN LITERATURE
associated with the rival cities of Siena and Florence. Con-
servative Siena, represented by the artist Duccio, clung to Boccaccio’s Decameron. If the visual arts were becoming
the medieval and Byzantine traditions, favoring abstract more and more naturalistic by the end of the fourteenth
patterns, gold backgrounds, and emphasis on line. Pro- century, literature achieved something of the same effect
296 CHAPTER 12

FIGURE 12.25 Nicola Pisano, Nativity, panel on pulpit, Baptistery, Pisa, Italy, 1259-60, mar-
ble, 335 x 444" (85.1 X 113 cm). Important interests in antiquity and in reviving Italy’s cul-
tural te, Shick were to lead to the Renaissance, are already evident in the sculpture of Nicola
Pisano. Ancient Roman sarcophagi reliefs provided inspiration for the classical type of figures.

FIGURE 12.26 Giovanni Pisano, Nativity, panel on pulpit, Cathedral, Pisa, Italy, 1302-10,
marble, 343 x 43” (87.2 X 109.2 cm). The greater naturalism of Nicola Pisano’s son, Gio-
vanni, when carving the same subject half a century later, is evidenced in his work by less
crowding, a greater sense of space, and increased attention to the RR

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 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES 297

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FIGURE 12.27 Cimabue, Madonna and Child Enthroned, ca. 1280, egg tempera and gold on
wooden panel, 12’ 7 1/2'’ X 7’ 4’ 3.9 x 2.2 cm), Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence. Cimabue’s
painting is transitional between the old Byzantine style and the progressive Florentine style of
painting represented by Giotto.
298 CHAPTER 12

_, ae ISERISL :
FIGURE 12.28 Duccio, Madonna and Child Enthroned, main panel of the Maesta Altarpiece,
1308-11, egg tempera and gold on wooden panel, 7’ x 13 lone (2.13 X 4.12 m), Museo dell’-
Opera del Duomo, Siena. The paintings by Duccio were the final flowering of the medieval
Byzantine tradition in Italy. The Maesta, which means “majesty” of the Madonna, portrays
Mary as extremely elongated, enormous in size, flanked by angels and saints, as if she were a
feudal queen holding court. Bright color and flowing outline are stressed rather than three-di-
mensionality of solid forms in space.

by forsaking Latin for the spoken language, the vernacu- Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales. As a well-educated me-
lar, of the day. This is especially true of the work of GIO- dieval intellectual, the English poet GEOFFREY
VANNI BOCCACCIO [bo-CAH-choh] (1313-75). His CHAUCER [CHAW-ser] (ca. 1342-1400) was, like Boc-
most famous prose work, the Decameron, has similarities caccio, familiar with Latin literature, history, and philos-
with Dante’s Divine Comedy, on which Boccaccio wrote a ophy. He read Ovid and Virgil in their original language,
commentary. Furthermore, his interest in classical antiq- and was familiar with Greek myth, literature, and history
uity, his translations of ancient Greek texts, his Latin writ- through his knowledge of the Latin writers.
ings, and his search for lost Roman works make him an The most important influence on Chaucer’s work, how-
early Italian Renaissance figure. ever, was not Latin but Italian. Chaucer’s trip to Italy in
Boccaccio spent much of his youth in Naples, where his 1372 immersed him in Italian literature, especially the
father was a merchant and attorney. ‘Trained in banking him- works of Dante and Boccaccio. A number of Chaucer’s
self, Boccaccio nonetheless preferred literature, and spent Canterbury Tales, as well as the basic narrative structure,
most of his adult life in Florence pursuing a literary career. derive from Boccaccio’s Decameron.
The Decameron is a collection of a hundred novelle, or short Unfinished at the time of his death in 1400, Chaucer
stories, told by ten Florentines, seven women and three had been working on The Canterbury Tales, a collection of
men, who leave plague-infested Florence for the neighbor- stories told by a group of pilgrims traveling from London
ing hill town of Fiesole. Written in the vernacular Tuscan, to Canterbury, for nearly fifteen years. The tales depict me-
their tales center on the lives and fortunes of ordinary peo- dieval figures from the highest to the lowest social classes.
ple, who are given a voice for the first time in Western lit- Chaucer had originally planned to write 120 tales (or so
erature. An eye for detail, convincing characters, wit, the Host of the tavern where the pilgrims all first gather
frankness, and worldly cynicism make Boccacio a lively read. tells us in the General Prologue), two for each of his thirty
 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES 299

FIGURE 12.29 Giotto, Madonna and Child Enthroned, 1310, egg tempera and gold on
wooden panel, 10’8” 6'84" (3.53 X 2.05 m), Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence. In contrast to
Duccio’s slender Mary, Giotto’s is solid and appears to sit within the space implied by her
throne.
300 CHAPTER 12

x ee ee

FiGuRE 12.30 Giotto, Lamentation over the Body ofJesus, Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel, Padua,
1305-06, fresco, 6'62" x 6" (2.00 X 1.85 m). The profound grief of this subject is mag-
nified by the way in which it is depicted by Giotto. The center of attention, usually in the
physical center of the composition, is instead low on the left, emotionally “down,” and the
barren background leads the viewer’s eyes down to the heads of Jesus and his mother Mary.

pilgrims to tell on the pilgrimage to Canterbury, and two tween the supposed ideals of certain characters and the less
on the return trip. However, Chaucer only completed admirable qualities they embody.
twenty-two tales and composed fragments of two others. Chaucer employs irony as an instrument of satire. His
He also composed a General Prologue, which provides a wit and observation—evident throughout the work,
pretext for the tales—the pilgrimage to the shrine of St. though perhaps most clearly in the General Prologue—
Thomas a Becket at Canterbury introduces the characters, reveal a zest for life from its lowest and bawdiest to its
who later narrate their own tales. Chaucer further reveals most elegant and spiritual manifestations.
the characterizations of these narrators through the tales
they tell and the manner in which they tell them. Christine de Pizan. One of the outstanding writers of
Chaucer’s attitude toward the characters in the General the later Middle Ages, CHRISTINE DE PIZAN [PEA-
Prologue varies. Some, such as the Clerk and the Knight, zan] (1364—ca. 1431) was a scholar and court adviser, as
he depicts as models, whose behavior is to be emulated; well as a poet and writer of prose pieces (fig. 12.31). Born
others, such as the Monk and the Pardoner, he portrays in Venice, Christine de Pizan moved with her father to
negatively, with their warts (both literal and figurative) France, where he served as court astrologer to the French
showing. The ironic and satiric portraits of the other pil- monarch Charles V. There she learned to write French
grims are constructed through the voice of Chaucer’s nar- and Italian as well as to read Latin, an unusual accom-
rator. Yet this narrator himself is slightly naive. The “naive” plishment for a woman at the time.
narrator sometimes fails to discriminate between good and At the age of fifteen, she married a court notary, Eu-
evil manifestations of human behavior or to distinguish be- gene of Castal, who died four years later in an epidemic.
 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES 301

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FIGURE 12.31 Christine de Pizan Presenting Her Poems to Isabel ofBavaria, manuscript illumi-
nation, British Library, London. The illumination shows the world of women that Christine
celebrates in her writing.

As a widow with three young children, she began writing claris (Concerning Famous Women). For example, in response
to support her family. Before long she was a recognized to the charge that women are greedy, she states that what
literary luminary, an accomplished poet and the officially appears as greed in women is a prudent and sensible re-
sanctioned biographer of Charles V. In her works, she con- sponse to male profligacy. Because men squander, women
sistently argued for the recognition of women’s status and have to protect themselves against such destructive be-
abilities. havior. She counterattacks by arguing that women are fun-
Among her many works are a poem about Joan of Arc; damentally generous.
a set of letters challenging the depiction of women in the Even as she argued for opportunities for women, Chris-
influential medieval poem The Romance of the Rose; a book tine de Pizan echoed the ideals of Christian life as espoused
of moral proverbs; a dream vision; a collection of a hun- in church teaching. She supported the goals of Christian
dred brief narratives accompanied by their own commen- marriage, in which a commitment between spouses enables
tary; a manual of instruction for knights; an admonitory them to advance in grace and spirituality while fulfilling
essay on the art of prudence, The Book ofFeats ofArms and their roles as husband and wife. To a large extent, she ap-
Chivalry; and her best known work, The Book of the City of pears to have been an idealist, one who aspired to achieve
Ladies. A universal history of women, The Book of the City the highest values articulated in her religious tradition while
ofLadies includes discussion of pagan as well as Christian ridding it of its entrenched bias against women.
women, of those long deceased as well as those of her own While urging women to accept their place in the hier-
time, and of fictional characters as well as actual people. archy of the time, she also encouraged them to fulfill their
Throughout the book, she attempts to alter the reader’s potential—intellectually, socially, and spiritually—by de-
perceptions of women. It is this desire to represent women veloping nobility of soul, whatever their particular social
from a woman’s point of view that makes the writing of status or individual circumstances. Nobility, for Christine
Christine de Pizan unique. Her book is a refutation of de Pizan, was a matter of mind, heart, and spirit, rather
misogynistic images of women constructed by male writ- than of birthright. She believed that through patient and
ers of the past. In particular, she rebuts the images of persistent striving, women of her time could become em-
women portrayed in Giovanni Boccaccio’s De mulieribus bodiments of the highest ideals of heart and mind.
302 CHAPTER 12

Cultural Impact
undamental structural and aesthetic great volume in factories. Slender skele- trays a fashionable young French mother
changes occurred in architecture tal constructions with glass walls are a and her endearing child. In the same
during the Gothic period. The support- characteristic of modern urban life, as years, the painter Giotto portrayed Mary
ing role of the thick walls and the small seen in Mies van der Rohe’s Lake Shore as a real Italian mother holding her son.
windows of Romanesque architecture Drive Apartment Houses, Chicago, In more recent years, images of ma-
were superceded by exterior flying but- 1950-52 (fig. 23.8), and the sweeping ternal love and devotion may be cre-
tresses and vast stained-glass windows in space and colored glass of Gothic ated for reasons connected with
Gothic architecture (Chartres Cathedral, churches reappear occasionally in mod- political/social problems rather than
figsel 2.55 12.6, 12.24): ern variation, such as Corbusier’s Notre- with religion. Thus Kathe Kollwitz’s
In modern times, rather than flying Dame-du-Haut, Ronchamp, France, The Mothers, a lithograph of 1919,
buttresses of hand-hewn stone, architec- 1950-55 (fig. 23.9). refers to the plight of widowed German
ture employs modern materials and tech- The interest in human emotions and mothers in the aftermath of World War
niques, such as skeletal steel supports, everyday life increased in the art of the I, and Dorothea Lange’s photograph of
reinforced concrete, and cantilevered Gothic period, as evidenced in numer- 1936 of a widowed Migrant Mother with
construction. Rather than windows of ous images of Mary and the infant Jesus. several of her children comments on
meticulously assembled stained glass, Notre-Dame-de-Paris, sculpted in the the Great Depression in the United
modern windows are mass produced in early fourteenth century (fig. 12.17), por- States.

SECULAR SONG an identified composer. As the liturgy’s most important mu-

sical form, the mass, which reenacts the last supper of
Guillaume de Machaut. In the fourteenth century, me- Christ, became a foundation for many other multimove-
dieval music underwent significant changes, including the ment musical forms that followed.
rise of secular music along with church music. Drinking Machaut spent most of his life at court. Born in the
songs and music that drew on the everyday began to be French province of Champagne, he traveled throughout
composed and performed as often as devotional music in- Europe and spent his later years in Reims. During his
spired by religious faith. In addition, a new system of mu- many travels, he presented carefully written and decorated
sical notation had developed by the fourteenth century so copies of his music and poems to court patrons and foreign
composers were now able to spell out the rhythmic values nobility. The great care he took in making these copies
as well as the melodic pitches of notes. Other changes in has ensured their survival.
musical style, such as the use of syncopation (which em-
phasizes notes off the regular beat), became so significant English Song. ‘The English song “Sumer Is Icumen In”
that theorists referred to the new music as ars nova (new is unlike anything else that has survived from the thir-
art) to distinguish it from the ars antiqua (ancient or old art) teenth century in providing a foretaste of musical tenden-
of previous centuries. cies and techniques that were to emerge over a century
One composer who wrote both sacred and secular music and a half later, in the works of Renaissance madrigalists
in the ars nova style was GUILLAUME DE MACHAUT such as Thomas Weelkes and Thomas Morley (see
[ghee-OHM duh mash-OH] (1300-77), the foremost Chapter 1,4). The words of the text were composed in
French composer of the time and one of France’s leading English, not Latin, and they celebrate nature rather than
poets. Like Giotto in painting, Machaut helped usher in religion, the physical life of earth rather than the spiritual
the Renaissance by breaking away from the older medieval joys of heaven. The composer set the words to a lively
style. Machaut wrote the first complete polyphonic setting tune, which is sung by all four voice parts in a canon, or
of a mass, called La Messe de Nostre Dame (Our Lady’s Mass). round. Each voice enters before the others have finished
Until this time, the mass was a collection of Gregorian so all four sing simultaneously, although they are at dif-
chants by anonymous composers; Machaut’s was the first by ferent places in the music at any given time.
 GOTHIC AND LATE MIDDLE AGES 303

KEY TERMS
Gothic Flamboyant Gothic International Style naturalism
cathedral Rayonnant Gothic cartoon vernacular
flying buttress fan vaulting organum novelle
rose window jamb cantus firmus ars nova
High Gothic gargoyle tenor

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

http://www.elore.com/Gothic/Glossary/components.htm
(A good site on Gothic architecture, with a glossary and links.)
http://web.kyoto-inet.or.jp/org/orion/eng/hst/gothic.html
(Visit many of the greatest Gothic cathedrals on this site.)
http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/collection.asp
(This site discusses the seven individual tapestries known as the “Unicorn Tapestries,” some of
the most beautiful and complex works of the late Middle Ages.)
hitp://w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/cmp/machaut.html
(This site has a brief but thorough discussion on Machaut, one of the most important Gothic
composers.)
http://worldart.sjsu.edu/prt31*1$596
(This site covers select sculptural works of the Gothic era found on and in French cathedrals.)
 1494 First French invasion of Italy
ca. 1495 Savonaroia takes control of Florence
1494-1512 Medici exiled from Florence
1516-23 Leo X controls Florence
1519 Charles V becomes Holy Roman Emperor
1523-27 Clement Vil controls Florence
1527 Sack of Rome
1553-63 Council of Trent

ca. 1425—30s Donatello, David

1427-28 Masaccio, Trinity
1425-52 Ghiberti, Gates of Paradise
1430 Dufay Alma Redemptoris Mater
1436 Brunelleschi finishes dome for Florence Cathedral; Dufay, “II Duomo”
1453-55 Donatello, Mary Magdalene
1438-45 Fra Angelico, Annunciation
1445-ca. 1452 Michelozzo, Palazzo Medici-Riccardi
ca. 1484-86 Botticelli, Birth of Venus
ca. 1499 Michelangelo, Pieta
1502 Josquin des Pres, “Ave Maria . . . virgo serena”
ca. 1503 Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa
1508-12 Michelangelo, ceiling of Sistine Chapel
1510-11 Raphael, School of Athens
co. 1520 Properzia de Rossi, Joseph and Potiphar's Wife
1524-59 Laurentian Library
1534-40 Parmigianino, Madonna with the Long Neck
1543-54 Cellini, Perseus
ca. 1559 Sofonisha Anguissola, Portrait of the Artist's Sister Minerva
1565 Palestrina, Pope Marcellus Mass

LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

1327-72 Petrarch, Canzonieri

1429 Bruni finishes History of Florence
1435-50 Alberti, De pictura/De re aedificatoria
co. 1455 Gutenberg and the printing press
1462 Platonic Academy of Philosophy
ca. 1484-86 Ficino, Theologia Platonica
1486 Pico, Oration on the Dignity of Man
1524-59 Castiglione, Book of the Courtier
1534-40 Machiavelli, The Prince
1550 Vasari, Lives
1553-63 Cellini, Autobiography
 The Renaissance
and Mannerism in Italy

eM ye en ae :
Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper, refectory, Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan, 1495-98, tempera and oil on plaster, 15'2” x
28'10” (4.60 X 8.80 m). Scala/Art Resource, NY.

305
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MEDITERRANEAN SEA
50 100 Kilometers

Map 13.1 The division of Italy into city-states at the end of the fifteenth century.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
THE EARLY RENAISSANCE
Rebirth of interest in antiquity, the individual, and nature

THE HIGH RENAISSANCE

The maturation of the arts

MANNERISM
Moving away from the classical ideal

306
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 307

THE EARLY RENAISSANCE The French word Renaissance, meaning “rebirth,” was
first employed in the nineteenth century to describe the
“the transition from the Middle Ages to the Renais- period from the early fifteenth century to the middle of
sance was gradual. The intense religiosity of the the next. The Italians of the time believed this period
4. Middle Ages persisted into the Renaissance, though marked a radical break from the past and a reinvention of
it came to coexist with a more worldly philosophy and a the civilization and ideals of classical Greece and Rome.
more secular outlook. A number of important broad The Renaissance was characterized by—in addition to
changes developed during the Renaissance, such as the de- this interest in classical art, literature, law, and ideals—an
velopment of nation states, the advent of commercial cap- interest in the individual person, now emerging from the
italism, the emergence of the middle class, and the rise of anonimity of the Middle Ages, as well as a new fascination
rationalist thought. European exploration of the Ameri- with nature and the physical world. A number of Italian
cas was abetted by scientific and technological develop- city-states had grown powerful in Italy—the kingdom of
ments, especially in navigation. And the invention of Naples in the south, the church states around Rome, and
movable type, which allowed for printing, expanded the in the north, the duchy of Milan and the republics of
world of learning. Venice and Florence. Located on the main road connect-
Of particular importance in Europe, originally in Italy, ing Rome with the north, Florence had become the cen-
was a reinvigoration of classical learning based on the liter- ter of trade, and European banking had been established
ary and philosophical writings of the Greeks and Romans. with credit operations available to support and spur on an
This development, called “classical humanism,” was a defin- increase in trade (fig. 13.1).
ing Renaissance intellectual preoccupation. The influence Florence itself was ruled by its guilds, or arti. The seven
of Greco-Roman antiquity on Renaissance Europe was per- major guilds, which were controlled by bankers, lawyers,
vasive, and included an impact on social, political, and diplo- and exporters, originally ran the civic government, but by
matic life, as well as upon education and the arts. Of great the middle of the fourteenth century all the guilds, even
importance is the part played by Arab scholars in preserving the lesser guilds of middle-ranking tradesmen, had
ancient Greek scholarship, which enabled European schol- achieved some measure of political voice, and the city
ars like Petrarch and Boccaccio to benefit from their labors. prided itself on its “representative” government and its
In Italy, changes were developing across the social, po- status as a republic. Still, the long-standing division be-
litical, and economic spectrums. Italy underwent signifi- tween those who favored the Holy Roman Emperor and
cant urbanization, increased political stability, and those who favored the popes continued unabated. Such
economic expansion, along with increasing contact with civil strife, sometimes marked by street battles, had one
other societies. Venice, for example, was a crossroads for inevitable result. By the fifteenth century, what Florence
East-West commercial exchanges, and also for exchange needed most was a leader with enough political skill,
of customs and ideas. power, and wealth to stop the feuding.

FicureE 13.1 A map of Florence in 1490.

308 CHAPTER 13

THE MEDICIS’ FLORENCE

A single family, the Medici, led Florence to its unrivaled
position as the cultural center of Renaissance Europe in
the fifteenth century. The family had begun to accumulate
its fortune by lending money to other Florentines out of
income derived from its two wool workshops. GIO-
VANNI DI BICCI DE’ MEDICI [geo-VAHN-nee dee
BEE-chee deh MED-uh-chee] (1360-1429) multiplied
this fortune by setting up branch banks in major Italian
cities and creating close financial allegiances with the pa-
pacy in Rome, allegiances that tended to switch the balance
of power, making secular concerns more important than
religious ones to the Vatican.
Cosimo de’ Medici. COSIMO [CAH-zee-moh] (1389-
1464), the son of Giovanni Di Bicci, led the family to a
position of unquestioned preeminence, not only in Flo-
rence but, as branches of the Medici banks opened else-
where, throughout Europe. Although never the official
leader of the city, Cosimo ruled from behind the scenes. By
1458, Pope Pius II said of Cosimo that “He is King in
everything but name.”
Cosimo’s power was based on calculated acts of discre-
tion and benevolence. Cosimo built the first public library
since ancient times and stocked it with ancient manuscripts
and books, chiefly Greek and Roman, with a special eye to- FiGurRE 13.2 Giorgio Vasari, Posthumous Portrait of Lorenzo
ward the works of Plato and Aristotle. At some point, the Magnificent, oil on canvas, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.
Cosimo employed virtually every major Italian artist, ar- SCALA/Art Resource, NY. The impressive presence of
chitect, writer, philosopher, or scholar of the day. Lorenzo, as well as his broken nose, are recorded in this paint-
In many ways, Cosimo’s largesse simply solidified what ing by Vasari, author of the Lives of the Most Eminent Sculptors,
Painters, and Architects.
was already fact—Florence had been a cultural center since
the middle of the fourteenth century (see Chapter 12).
The growing wealth of the city itself, together with the
Medici family at the age of twenty in 1469, inaugurating
peace brought by Cosimo’s leadership, created an atmos-
twenty-three years of influence. Lorenzo’s father, PIERO
phere in which the arts could prosper, and this in turn con-
[pea-AIR-oh] (1416-1469), cursed with ill health, had
tributed to the increasing sophistication of its citizenry.
ruled for only five years after Cosimo before his own death,
Lorenzo the Magnificent. ‘The city’s dream of achiev- but he had raised Lorenzo in Cosimo’s image, and Lorenzo
ing the status of the Golden Age of Athens was fully real- quickly established himself as a force to be reckoned with.
ized by LORENZO [LOR-enn-zoh] (1449-1492), “Lorenzo the Magnificent” he was called (fig. 13.2), and he
Cosimo’s grandson, who assumed his place as head of the lived with a sense of grandeur. He was one of the leading

The Catholic popes of the fifteenth and sixteen

Boniface IX 1389-1404 Innocent VIII 1484-1492 Paul IV 1555-1559
Innocent VII 1404-1406 Alexander VI 1492-1503 Pius IV 1559-1565
Gregory XIl 1406-1415 Pius Ill 1503 St. Pius V 1566-1572
Martin V 1417-1431 Julius II 1503-1513 Gregory XIll 1572-1585
Eugene IV 1431-1447 Leo X 1513-1521 Sixtus V 1585-1590
Nicholas V 1447-1455 Adrian VI 1522-1523 Urban VII 1590
Callistus Ill 1455-1458 Clement VII 1523-1534 Gregory XIV 1590-1591
Pius Il 1458-1464 Paul Ill 1534-1549 Innocent IX 1591
Paul II 1464-1471 Julius Ill 1550-1555 Clement VIII 1592-1605
Sixtus IV
hee
1471-1484 Marcellus II $555
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 309

Cross Currents

MONTEZUMA’S TENOCHTITLAN lated Spanish commentary. It was com-

piled under the supervision of Spanish
ile Florence stood as the center friars and at the request of the Spanish
of the Early Renaissance world, crown in about 1541 to aid in their colo-
in the other hemisphere stood a city of nial expansion.
equal grandeur, one that the Europeans As depicted by Aztec scribes, the city
did not know existed until Hernan is represented by the eagle on the cac-
Cortés invaded Mexico in 1519. It was tus, the shield and arrows symbolizing
called Tenochtitlan, and it was the capi- war, and the waterways dividing the city
tal of Montezuma’s Aztec empire. into equal quadrants. At the heart of the
The Aztecs, who founded the city, be- city was the Great Pyramid, imaged by
lieved they had been ordered by their the scribes in the temple at the top.
god Huitzilopochtli to wander until they Here, the Aztecs worshiped both
saw an eagle perched upon a prickly pear, Huitzilopochtli, god of the sun and of
or tenochtli. They finally encountered warfare, and Tlaloc, god of rain and fer-
such a vision in 1325 on an island in the tility, and here they engaged in ritual
marshes of Lake Texcoco in the Valley human sacrifice to both gods by cutting
of Mexico. There they built their city, out the still-beating hearts of their vic-
jane anne

connecting it to the mainland by four tims, then decapitating them. FiGurE 13.3. The Founding of Tenochtitlan,
causeways. By the end of the fifteenth As the cultural center of the Aztec civ- page from the Codex Mendoza, Aztec, six-
century, it was a metropolis inhabited by ilization, Tenochtitlan was magnificent, teenth century, ink and color on paper,
150,000 to 200,000 people and ruled by grander in fact than anything in Europe 8175 x 123” (21.5 x 31.5 cm), The
a priest and emperor, Montezuma. at the time. In the words of one of Bodleian Library, Oxford. The skull rack
The Codex Mendoza (fig. 13.3) is the Cortés’s soldiers: “When we saw . . . that just to the right of center is one of the very
fullest account that we have of early six- straight and level causeway going towards few images in the Codex that openly ac-
teenth-century Aztec life. It consists of ‘Tenochtitlan, we were amazed. ... Some knowledges the practice of human sacrifice
seventy-two annotated pictorial pages to- of our soldiers even asked whether the in Aztec life.
gether with sixty-three more pages of re- things that we saw were not a dream.”

poets of his day, as well as an accomplished musician, play- Medici (1573-1642) was queen consort to Henry IV of
ing the lute and composing dances. He surrounded him- France.
self with scholars, built palaces and parks, sponsored
festivals and pageants, all the while dipping deeply into
the city’s coffers, which he controlled, as well as his own.
THE HUMANIST SPIRIT
He commissioned little in the way of painting, preferring
instead to spend money on gemstones and ancient vases, Cosimo, Piero, and Lorenzo de’ Medici were all human-
which he believed to be better investments. Many of the ists—they believed in the worth and dignity of the indi-
precious stones in his collection, for example, were valued vidual. Celebrating human reason, spirit, and physical
at over a thousand florins (the coin of the day), whereas a beauty, the humanists echoed the Greek philosopher Pro-
painting by Botticelli might be bought for as little as a tagorus in seeing human beings as the measure of all
hundred florins. Spend Lorenzo did, and by the time of things. Seeking to discover what was best about humanity,
his death in 1492, the Medici bank was in financial trou- they turned to the culture of classical antiquity. In the lit-
ble and Florence itself was verging on bankruptcy. erature, history, rhetoric, and philosophy of ancient Greece
Although the Medici ruled Florence with minor inter- and Rome, they discovered what the Latin scholar and
ruptions until 1737, they never again held the same power poet PETRARCH [PEH-trark] (1304-72) a century be-
and authority as Cosimo and Lorenzo. Outside Florence, fore had called a “golden wisdom.” Cosimo and Lorenzo
the most important patron of the Renaissance in Rome worked to make Florence the humanist capital of the
would be Lorenzo’s son, Pope Leo X. In generations to world, a place where the golden wisdom of the ancients
come, several female Medici descendants would marry the might flourish.
most powerful figures in Europe—Catherine de’ Medici Petrarch is often called the father of humanism, and in
(1519-89) was queen to Henry II of France, and Marie de’ many ways he determined its high moral tone. He believed
310 CHAPTER 13

that learning was the key to living a virtuous life, and that world as God’s means of making himself manifest to hu-
life should be an eternal quest for truth. Every individual mankind. The contemplation and study of beauty in na-
leading a virtuous life in the pursuit of knowledge and truth ture—and in all things—was a form of worship, a
would provide a basis for improving humanity’s lot. He manifestation of divine or spiritual love, and Plato’s ideas
encouraged an appreciation of beauty, in nature and in about love were central to Ficino’s philosophy. Like erotic
human endeavor, which he thought to be a manifestation love, spiritual love is inspired by physical beauty, but spir-
of the divine. For Petrarch, reading the ancients was like itual love moves beyond the physical to an intellectual
having conversations with them, and he took to writing plane and, eventually, to such an elevated spiritual level
letters to the ancients as if they were personal friends, even that it results in the soul’s union with God. Thus, in Neo-
family. He called the poet Virgil his brother and Cicero platonic terms, Lorenzo’s fondness for gems was a type of
his father. In the writings of the ancients, Petrarch sensed spiritual love, as was Petrarch’s love for Laura, celebrated
their uniquely human (noble and ignoble) qualities. in his sonnets, and so was the painter Botticelli’s love of the
In the middle of the fourteenth century, Petrarch’s friend, human form (both discussed later in this chapter). If in
the writer Boccaccio, was one of the first men to study real things one could discover the divine, realism became,
Greek since the classical age itself. During the next fifty in Neoplatonic terms, a form of idealism. In fact, Ficino
years, humanist scholars combed monastery libraries for saw “Platonic love,” the love of beauty, as a kind of spiri-
long-ignored ancient Greek texts and translated them into tual bond on which the strongest kind of community could
Latin and Italian. By 1400, the works of Homer, Aeschy- be constructed. In this way, Neoplatonism even had po-
lus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Herodotus, Thucy- litical implications. The Neoplatonists even had political
dides, and all of Plato’s dialogues were available. In addition, implications. The Neoplatonists envisioned Florence as a
after the fall of Constantinople to the Muslim forces of the city whose citizenry was spiritually bound together in a
Ottoman Turks in 1453, ending the already weakening common love of the beautiful.
Byzantine Empire, Greek scholars flooded into Italy. Greek
learning spread with the rapid rise of printing in Italy fol-
lowing Johann Gutenberg’s invention of printing with mov- Pico della Mirandola. Another great Neoplatonic
able type in 1455. Between 1456 and 1500, more books were philosopher at the academy was PICO DELLA MIRAN-
published than had been copied by manuscript scribes in DOLA [PEA-coh DELL-ah mee-RAN-doh-lah]
the previous thousand years. Many of these were in ver- (1463-94), whose religious devotion, intense scholarship,
nacular (or native) Italian, which contributed to the grow- and boundless optimism attracted many followers. His
ing literacy of the middle class. By the sixteenth century, Oration on the Dignity ofMan (1486) encapsulates one of the
many educated persons owned the complete works of Plato. central impulses of the Renaissance: humankind serving
as a link between the lower orders of nature, including an-
imals, and the higher spiritual orders, of which angels are
THE PLATONIC ACADEMY OF PHILOSOPHY a part. For Pico, human beings possess free will; they can
make of themselves what they wish. Though linked with
The center of humanist study was the Platonic Academy
the lower order of matter, they are capable of rising to the
of Philosophy in Florence, founded by Cosimo de’ Medici
in 1462 and supported with special enthusiasm by Lorenzo higher realm of spirit and ultimately being united with
the Magnificent. The academy sponsored Neoplatonism, God. Each person’s destiny is thus a matter of individual
choice.
or a “new Platonism,” which sought to revive Platonic
ideals in contemporary culture, especially as espoused by In the Oration, Pico presents God speaking to Adam,
the Roman philosopher PLOTINUS [Ploh-TINE-us]
telling him that “in conformity with thy free judgment in
whose hands I have placed thee, thou art confined by no
(205-270 C.E.). The Platonic Academy was an important
bonds, and constrained by no limits.” God also tells Adam
example of the shift of interest from Aristotle during the
directly that he is “the molder and maker” of himself, who
Middle Ages to Plato during the Renaissance.
“canst grow downward into the lower natures which are
Marsilio Ficino. At the head of the academy was MAR- brutes” or “upward from the mind’s reason into the higher
SILIO FICINO [fi-CHEE-noh] (1433-99), who trans- natures which are divine.” This central tenet of humanist
lated both Plato and Plotinus into Latin and wrote the philosophy is often misunderstood to mean that an em-
Theologia Platonica (1482). Ficino’s Neoplatonism was a phasis on the individual results in or implies a rejection of
conscious rereading of Plato (see Chapter 3), particularly God. Although Pico, and humanists in general, place the
his dualistic vision of the psyche (roughly equivalent to responsibility for human action squarely on humans and
the soul or spirit) trapped in the body, but Ficino thought not on the Almighty, Pico also believed the human mind—
we could glimpse the higher world of forms or ideas with its ability to reason and imagine—could conceive of
through study and learning, and so he looked to Plotinus. and move toward the divine. It follows that individual ge-
Plotinus argued that the material and spiritual worlds could nius, which was allowed to flower in Renaissance Italy as
be united through ecstatic, or mystical, vision. Following never before in Western culture, is the worldly manifesta-
Plotinus, Ficino conceived of beauty in the things of this tion of divine truth.
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 311

ARCHITECTURE Florence Cathedral does not look like the hemispherical

dome of the ancient Roman Pantheon. Using the basic
Renaissance architecture reflects a renewed interest in an- structural principles perfected in the pointed arches of
cient Roman models for mathematically derived propor- Gothic cathedrals, Brunelleschi produced a dome with less
tions as well as logic of construction. outward thrust than a hemispherical one. Because his pred-
ecessor, Arnolfo di Cambio, had designed the base of the
Filippo Brunelleschi. ‘The greatest architect of the Early dome to be extraordinarily wide, Brunelleschi flanked his
Renaissance was FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI [brew- octagonal dome with three half domes to buttress it.
nuh-LESS-key] (1377-1446), whose triumph is the dome Brunelleschi used stone at the bottom of the dome; for
of Florence Cathedral (fig. 13.4). Measuring 138} feet the upper portion, he used brick. The heavier material at
wide and 367 feet high, it was the largest dome since the the bottom produced a self-buttressing system, an idea
Pantheon built in 125 C.E. (see Chapter 4). Although in- seen in the Pantheon. Brunelleschi’s innovation was to
fluenced by antique architecture, the octagonal dome of build a double dome with an inner and an outer shell—a

Figure 13.4 Filippo Brunelleschi, Florence Cathedral, dome, 1420-36; lantern completed
1471. Brunelleschi managed to erect this enormous double-shell pointed dome without the
use of temporary scaffolding. It is the major landmark of Florence.
312 CHAPTER 13

dome within a dome that was much lighter than the solid
concrete dome of the Pantheon. The octagonal dome is re-
inforced by eight major ribs, visible on the exterior, plus
three minor ribs between every two major ribs (fig. 13.5).
Finally, Michelozzo added an open structure to crown the
roof, a lantern. The metal lantern’s weight stabilized the
whole, its downward pressure keeping the ribs from
spreading apart at the top.
Leon Battista Alberti. ‘The other great architect of the
day, LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI [al-BEAR-tee]
(1404-72), was celebrated both as an architect and as an au-
thor. He was the first to detail the principles of linear per-
spective in his treatise De pictura (On Painting), written in
1434-35. His ten books on architecture, De re aedificatoria,
completed about 1450, were inspired by the late-first-cen-
tury B.C.E. Roman writer Vitruvius, who had himself writ-
ten an encyclopedic ten-volume survey of classical
architecture.
Alberti worked to create beauty in architecture that de-
rived from harmony among all parts, using mathematics to
determine the proportions of his buildings. A prime ex-
ample is the church of Sant’ Andrea in Mantua (fig. 13.6),
designed in 1470 and completed after his death. Ham-
pered by an older building on the site, Alberti had to adapt
his ideal design for the church to the preexisting sur-
roundings. His solution exemplifies Renaissance theory.
For the facade he combined the triangular pediment of a
classical temple with the arches characteristic of ancient FIGURE 13.6 Leon Battista Alberti, Sant’ Andrea, Mantua,
Roman triumphal arches—one large central arch flanked facade, designed 1470. An ideal demonstration of the Early
by two smaller arches. The facade balances horizontals Renaissance devotion to the antique, the design of this facade
combines the form of an ancient temple with that of an ancient
and verticals, with the height of the facade equaling the
triumphal arch.

FicurE 13.5 Line drawing of Brunelleschi’s dome for Flo- width. Four colossal Corinthian pilasters paired with small
rence Cathedral, indicating the double-shell construction. pilasters visually unite the stories of the facade. Large and
small pilasters of the same dimensions appear in the nave,
linking the exterior and interior in a harmonious whole.
Michelozzo di Bartolommeo. In fifteenth-century Flo-
rence, wealthy families customarily hired architects to
build fortresslike palaces, emblematic of their power. The
Palazzo Medici-Riccardi (fig. 13.7), designed by MICHE-
LOZZO DI BARTOLOMMEO [MEE-kel-LOTZ-oh]
(1396-1472), was begun in 1445 and probably completed
by 1452. Although built for Cosimo de’ Medici, the Ric-
cardi family acquired the palazzo in the seventeenth cen-
tury. Located on a corner of the Via Larga, the widest
street in Florence, it is an imposing residence, dignified
yet grand, that heralded its resident—the city’s most pow-
erful person—literally and metaphorically at the center of
the city’s cultural and political life.
Michelozzo created an austere three-story stone build-
ing. ‘The stonework, beginning with a ground level of rus-
ticated stone (the same rough-hewn masonry used in
fortifications), becomes increasingly smoother from bot-
tom story to top. Michelozzo further differentiated the
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 313

The first story provided offices and storage rooms for the
Medici business; the family’s living quarters were on the
second level.
The rooms of the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi are arranged
around a central colonnaded courtyard, a typical Floren-
tine system in which the palace is turned in on itself, os-
tensibly for protection but also for privacy and quiet.
Whereas the plain exterior reflected the original owner’s
public posture as a careful, even conservative man, the in-
side, especially the second floor, or piano nobile (the grand
and “noble” family rooms of the palace), displayed osten-
tatious grandeur.

SCULPTURE
Renaissance culture promoted the notion of individual ge-
nius by encouraging competitions among artists for pres-
tigious public and religious commissions. In 1401, the
Florentine humanist historian Leonardo Bruni sponsored
a competition to determine who would make the doors of
Florence Cathedral’s octagonal baptistery, the small struc-
ture seen in the left foreground in fig 12.13, separate from
the main church, where baptisms are performed. Seven
sculptors were asked to submit depictions of the sacrifice
of Isaac.

Lorenzo Ghiberti. ‘The winner of the competition was

the young sculptor LORENZO GHIBERTI [ghee-BAIR-
tee] (1378-1455), and his reaction typifies the heightened
sense of self-worth that Renaissance artists felt about their
FiGurE 13.7. Michelozzo di Bartolommeo, Palazzo Medici- artistic abilities and accomplishments: “To me was con-
Riccardi, Florence, exterior, begun 1445, probably completed ceded the palm of victory by all the experts. ... To me the
by 1452; ground-floor windows by Michelangelo, ca. 1517.
honor was conceded universally and with no exception. To
Typical of Early Renaissance palazzi, the facades of this mas-
all it seemed that I had at that time surpassed the others.”
sive city residence, built for Cosimo de’ Medici the Elder, are
neatly divided into three stories with evenly spaced windows.
So well were these doors received that as soon as they
were completed Ghiberti was commissioned to make a
second set for the east side of the baptistery. These, de-
levels visually by successively diminishing the height of picting ten stories from the Old Testament, were com-
each, although they all remain over twenty feet high. ‘Typ- pleted in 1452. Impressed by their beauty, Michelangelo
ical of the Renaissance, the division of the stories is neat called them the “gates of paradise,” and the name stuck.
and clear, and the divisions are formed by classical mold- The Gates of Paradise face the cathedral facade, occupying
ings. the most prominent position on the baptistery.
The Renaissance interest in orderliness is seen also in The panels are fewer in number and larger in size;
the even spacing of the windows. The form of window scenes are set in simple square formats, and this time the
used—two arched openings within an overriding arch— whole square is gilded rather than just the raised areas.
was already popular in the Middle Ages. At the top of the Each panel includes several scenes. The first, The Creation
palazzo, a heavy projecting cornice fulfills both aesthetic (fig. 13.8), portrays five scenes from Genesis. At the top,
and architectural roles. The cornice serves visually to frame God creates the heavens and earth. At the bottom left,
and conclude the architectural composition; it also sent Adam is created from the earth. The central scene depicts
the rainwater wide of the wall. The Medici coat of arms Eve being created from Adam’s rib. To the left and behind,
with its seven balls appears on the corners of the second Adam and Eve are tempted by Satan in the guise of a ser-
story. What are now its ground-level windows were orig- pent. And to the right, Adam and Eve are expelled from the
inally arches that opened onto the street creating a /oggia, Garden of Eden. This is simultaneous presentation of
or covered gallery. (The arches were filled.and the win- events that took place sequentially, a technique called con-
dows added in the sixteenth century by Michelangelo.) tinuous narration.
314 CHAPTER 13

py eee

Ficure 13.9 Donatello, Feast of Herod, relief panel from

baptismal font, Baptistery, Siena, ca. 1423-27, gilt bronze,
FiGurE 13.8 Lorenzo Ghiberti, The Creation ofAdam and Eve,
Fe x 233" (59.7 X 59.7 cm). Donatello’s harsh drama
relief panel from the Gates ofParadise, east doors, Baptistery,
Florence, 1425-52, gilt bronze, a x oie! (79.4 X 79.4 cm), contrasts with Ghiberti’s fluid charm.
now in the Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence. Because of
their beauty, Michelangelo referred to these doors as the “Gates
Indeed, the Feast ofHerod possesses a dramatic force never
of Paradise.”
before seen in Italian sculpture. The composition is split
down the middle so there are two competing centers of
Donatello. Ghiberti’s interest in correct perspective, attention, an unusual device. John the Baptist’s head is
proper proportions, and the accurate representation of brought on a platter to Herod on the left, and Salome
nature was shared by DONATELLO [don-ah-TELL- dances seductively on the right. This split adds to the emo-
oh] (1386-1466). His Feast of Herod (fig. 13.9), a gilded tional impact and tension of the composition.
bronze relief made ca. 1423-27 for the font in the bap- Donatello depicted a very different subject, one popu-
tistery of Siena Cathedral, is a triumph in the creation of lar in the Early Renaissance, the shepherd boy David (fig.
perspectival space. Although perspective had been em- 13.10) who slew the giant, Goliath, with a stone from his
ployed by the ancient Romans in their murals, the prin- slingshot. In Donatello’s David (ca. 1425—30s), the stone is
ciples of Renaissance linear perspective are believed to still in David’s sling, although Goliath’s head lies beneath
have been developed by Filippo Brunelleschi, whom David's foot. By depicting David both before and after the
Ghiberti had defeated in the original competition for the conflict, Donatello provides a condensed version of the
Florentine baptistery doors. These principles were later story. With the first large-scale nude created since Roman
codified by the architect Leon Battista Alberti in his De antiquity, Donatello portrays his hero as an adolescent
pictura (On Painting). In the simplest terms, perspective al- male wearing only a hat and boots. According to the Bible,
lows the picture plane (or surface of the picture) to func- David casts off only his armor as too cumbersome for bat-
tion as a window through which a scene is presented to the tle. To depict David in the nude is to link him to heroic
viewer. nudes of antiquity. In addition, David adopts the antique
The effectiveness of linear perspective in organizing a contrapposto posture, in which the weight of the body rests
composition and in creating the illusion of pictorial space on one leg, elevating the hip and the opposite shoulder,
cannot be overstated. The actual physical space of Do- putting the spine into an S curve.
natello’s Feast of Herod is shallow, but perspective creates Between 1453 and 1455, Donatello carved his poly-
the illusion of a deep space, with two courtyards behind the chromed wooden figure of Mary Magdalene (fig. 13.11),
foreground action. In each courtyard the people are pro- which stands over six feet high. After a sermon by Pope
gressively smaller. The floor pattern, drawn in linear per- Gregory the Great in 594, in which he made a suggestive
spective, enhances the illusion of recession. Donatello’s comparison to Mary Magdalene’s sinfulness, she came to
emphasis on the mathematical discipline of his design and be identified as a prostitute. She remained among the fol-
his rigorous application of the laws of perspective are bal- lowers ofJesus, is said to have annointed him with oil after
anced by the dramatic and emotional content of the scene. his crucifixion, to have attended to his burial, and discov-
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 315

Figure 13.10 Donatello, David, ca. 1425-30, bronze,

height 5'2 7 (1.58 m), Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Flo-
rence. Scala/Art Resource, NY. The Early Renaissance interest FiGurRE 13.11 Donatello, Mary Magdalene, 1453-55, wood,
in antiquity and the accurate portrayal of the nude are evi- painted and gilded, height 6’2” (1.88 m), Museo dell’Opera del
denced in Donatello’s work. Duomo, Florence. Scala/Art Resource, NY. Not only beauty,
but also its absence can be used to create emotionally moving
ered his resurrection. Donatello depicts her after years of art, as in this portrayal of the repentant sinner.
living in the desert, rejecting the life of the body in antic-
ipation of the immortal life of the soul after a spiritual res- Masaccio’s extraordinary inventiveness is evident in the
urrection. Her body now gaunt, her arms and legs frescoes painted on the walls of the Brancacci Chapel in
withered, she prays. Donatello’s figure is intentionally un- Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence, completed in 1428.
nerving, even repulsive. It is the striking absence of beauty In one, The Tribute Money (fig. 13.12), Masaccio depicts
that makes her both powerful and memorable. the scene from the Bible in which Jesus orders his disciples
to “render unto Caesar that which is Caesar’s, and unto
God the things that are God’s.” In the center, Jesus, in re-
PAINTING sponse to the arrival of a Roman tax collector, tells his dis-
Masaccio. Of all the Early Renaissance painters, it was ciple Peter to look for money in the mouth of a fish. On
MASACCIO [mah-SAH-chee-oh] (1401-29), in his short the left, having removed his cloak, Peter takes the money
life, who carried the naturalistic impulse in painting fur- from the fish. On the right, he gives the money to the tax
thest. In the 1436 Italian edition of On Painting, Alberti collector. It is an example of continuous narration.
named Masaccio, along with Brunelleschi, Donatello, and Masaccio’s figures are harmoniously arranged, the main
Ghiberti, as‘a leading artist
of the day. figure group placed to the left of center, balancing the
316 CHAPTER 13

FiGurE 13.12 Masaccio, The Tribute Money, Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine,
Florence, finished 1428, fresco, 8'1” X 197” (2.3 X 6.0 m). A narrative based on Matthew
17:24-27 is related in a three-part perfectly balanced composition, seemingly illuminated by
light coming from the chapel windows. Perspective converges to a point behind Jesus’ head,
thereby directing the viewer’s eyes to Jesus.

visually heavier group on the far right. The entire space is pictions of two members of the Lenzi family who com-
carefully composed by the one-point perspective of the ar- missioned the work. Unlike the anonymous marginal fig-
chitecture, the vanishing point behind Jesus’s head. The ures of donors seen in medieval paintings, these donors
depth of the whole scene is further enhanced by means of have a real presence in the scene. So successful was Masac-
atmospheric (aerial) perspective, duplicating in point cio in his use of linear perspective that the chapel appears
the optical phenomenon of the atmosphere’s ability to to recede into the wall; the vanishing point is just below
modify the clarity and color of objects at a distance. the bottom of the cross, five feet from the floor, approx-
The figures seem to stand in a three-dimensional space. imately eye level for the adult viewer. Situated deeper in
The tax collector, wearing the short tunic, has turned his the space and therefore drawn smaller than the Lenzis,
back to us, and stands in a contrapposto pose, balanced, re- Mary and John the Evangelist plead with Jesus on behalf
laxed, and natural. When Vasari later wrote that “Masac- of humankind. The only figure to defy natural logic is
cio made his figures stand upon their feet,” he was praising God, for his feet are on the back wall, yet he holds the
the naturalism of such poses. The tax collector also echoes cross in the foreground. The Renaissance interest in the
our own relationship to the space; real viewers and painted antique is seen in the coffered barrel vault, Ionic and
figures alike look at Jesus. All the faces are individualized, Corinthian capitals, and the moldings—all based upon
not idealized, and reflect Masaccio’s models, real people ancient Roman models.
of the peasant class of Florence. Masaccio’s use of strong
contrast between light and shadow creates an illusion of Piero della Francesca. PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA
three-dimensional, almost sculptural, figures moving in [pea~-AIR-oh del-uh-fran-CHES-kah] (ca. 1406/12-1492)
space. They are lit from the right in imitation of physical was also deeply interested in portraiture, a reflection of
reality, since the windows in the Brancacci Chapel are to the Renaissance concern for the individual. His double de-
the right of the fresco. piction of Battista Sforza and Federico da Montefeltro
Masaccio’s fresco of the Trinity with the Virgin, St. John (figs. 13.14 and 13.15) shows wife and husband holding
the Evangelist, and Donors (fig. 13.13), in Santa Maria their heads motionless, high above the landscape behind
Novella in Florence, of ca. 1427-28, summarizes several them. They are noble, elevated, grand. The profile pres-
characteristics of the Renaissance. The Renaissance in- entation was especially popular in the Early Renaissance,
terest in lifelike portraiture can be seen in the life-size de- revealing the sitter’s most distinctive features.
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 317

FiGurRE 13.14 Piero della Francesca, Battista Sforza,

1472-73, oil on panel, 185” x 13” (47 X 33 cm), Galleria
degli Uffizi, Florence. SCALA/Art Resource, NY. The profile
portrait was favored in the Early Renaissance; later the three-
quarter view became popular.

Piero began the portraits in 1472, the year the count-

ess died, suggesting her portrait was made from her death
mask. She is shown in the fashion of the times, with her
plucked and shaved forehead, her elaborate hairstyle, and
sparkling jewels. The count was ruler of Urbino, which
had begun to compete with Florence as an intellectual cen-
ter. He was a gentleman, scholar, bibliophile, and warrior,
whose court included humanists, philosophers, poets, and
artists. A left profile view was chosen because the count
had lost his right eye and the bridge of his nose to a sword
in a tournament. It is nonetheless with unsparing realism
that Piero presents him “warts and all.” We can assume
the countess and count looked exactly like this, and that
Piero faithfully recorded all the crannies and crevices of
Ficure 13.13. Masaccio, Trinity with the Virgin, St. fohn the their facial terrain.
Evangelist, and Donors, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, proba-
Fra Angelico, FRA ANGELICO [FRAH an-JELL-ee-
bly 1427 or 1428, fresco, 21' x 105” (6.5 X 3.2 m). The ar-
chitectural setting demonstrates the Early Renaissance interest
coh] (ca. 1400-55), nicknamed “Angelic Brother” by his
in the antique and in spatial illusion; the naturalistic portrayal brother Dominican monks, was the most popular painter
of the life-size donors indicates the new concern for the indi- in Florence in the first half of the fifteenth century. His
vidual.
318 CHAPTER 13

who saw the angel Gabriel addressing Mary in their own

monastery.

Sandro Botticelli. SANDRO BOTTICELLI [bott-tee-

CHEL-lee] (1445-1510) received his artistic training as
an assistant to Fra Filippo Lippi, a painter who had worked
with Fra Angelico.
His Primavera (fig. 13.17), painted about 1482, is a com-
plex allegory of spring taken from the Latin writers Ho-
race and Lucretius. It embodies the growing interest in
classical literature and pagan mythology of the Neopla-
tonists of the Florentine Academy. Botticelli was himself
a member of this Neoplatonist circle, which also included
Lorenzo de’ Medici. Primavera was commissioned by
Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de’ Medici, a cousin of Lorenzo's,
for a chamber next to his bedroom.
Botticelli was unconcerned with the representation of
deep space; his orange grove behind functions more like a
stage backdrop than an actual landscape. However, Botti-
celli is, above all, a master of line, and the emphasis of his
work is on surface pattern. Neither solid nor three di-
mensional, his figures are clearly outlined, and they seem
to flow along the rhythmic lines of a dance or procession.
The painting moves from right to left, as if blown on the
breath of Zephyrus, god of the west wind, shown with his
cheeks puffed out on the far right. Next is Chloris, the
spring nymph, with a leafy vine coming from her mouth.
FiGurE 13.15 Piero della Francesca, Federico da Montefeltro,
Beside her is Flora, the goddess of flowers, strewing their
1472-73, oil on panel, 185 x 13” (47 X 33 cm), Galleria path with petals. In the middle stands Venus, goddess of
degli Uffizi, Florence. Scala/Art Resource, NY. In this pair love, shown pregnant as a symbol of her fruitfulness in
of portraits, wife and husband are recorded with unsparing spring. With her, the movement of the scene almost comes
realism. An accident in combat accounts for the count’s to a halt, but she gestures toward the three Graces as
curious profile. Cupid, above her, shoots an arrow in their direction. The
three Graces themselves, daughters of Zeus and the per-
sonifications of beauty and charm, twirl and whirl us
Annunciation (fig. 13.16), painted between 1438 and 1445 around, but they too seem to spin to the left where finally
in the monastery of San Marco in Florence, was part of a Mercury, messenger of the gods, holds up his caduceus,
vast project in which Fra Angelico painted on the walls in or staff, as if to halt the entire procession.
one of the cloisters, the chapter house, upstairs in the cor- Botticelli’s Birth of Venus (fig. 13.18), of ca. 1484-86,
ridors, and especially in the monks’ dormitory cells with was also painted for Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de’ Medici,
the help of assistants. It would be difficult to create gen- and also depicts a subject from antique pagan mythology,
tler, more graceful gestures than those of Mary and Gabriel made acceptable to the Christian church by equating
in this scene. Their crossed arms are a sign of respect as Venus with Jesus’s mother Mary on the grounds that both
well as a reference to Jesus’s cross and prefiguration of his were sources of love. According to Neoplatonic interpre-
crucifixion. In the garden to the left are accurate depic- tation, the birth of Venus is equivalent to the birth of the
tions of real plants, but Fra Angelico, in medieval fashion, human soul, as yet uncorrupted by the matter of the world.
has spaced them evenly across the ground so each main- In Neoplatonic terms, the soul is free to choose for itself
tains its separate identity. The architecture of the space is whether to follow a path toward sin and degradation or to
rendered with typical Early Renaissance respect for the attempt to regain, through the use of reason, a spiritual °
laws of perspective, but Fra Angelico has placed his fig- perfection manifested in the beauty of creation and felt in
ures in the architectural setting without regard to proper the love of God. To love beauty is to love not the material
relative scale. The scene is accurately set within the ar- world of sensual things, but rather the world’s abstract and
chitecture of San Marco, newly finished by the architect spiritual essence.
Michelozzo; thus the Annunciation is shown to take place In 1494, a Dominican friar, Girolamo Savonarola, who
in a specific and contemporary building. The immediacy had lived in the same monastery of San Marco in Florence
and conviction of the event were enhanced for the monks that Fra Angelico had painted, took control of the city.
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 319

cS —_

FiGureE 13.16 Fra Angelico, Annunciation, monastery of San Marco, Florence, 1438-45,
fresco, 7'6” X 10’5” (2.29 X 3.18 m). Fra Angelico cleverly painted the Annunciation as if it
were taking place within the actual architecture of the monastery of San Marco.

Savonarola proclaimed that Florence had condemned it- and such a concert of diverse instruments, that it seemed
self to perdition, saying that its painters—artists such as (not without reason) as though the symphonies and songs
Botticelli—“make the Virgin look like a harlot.” A bon- of the angels and of divine paradise had been sent forth
fire was built in the Piazza della Signoria, the main square from Heaven to whisper in our ears an unbelievable ce-
of the city, and on it signs of vanity—clothing, wigs, false lestial sweetness.”
beards, make-up, and mirrors—as well as books, board
games, and paintings were burned. Guillaume Dufay. More than any other composer,
GUILLAUME DUFAY [dew-FAY] (1400-74) shaped the
musical language of the Early Renaissance. Born in north-
ern France, Dufay served first as a music teacher for the
EARLY RENAISSANCE MUSIC
French court of Burgundy, then as a court composer in
March 15, 1436, was a day of dedication for the completed Italy, working at various times in Bologna, Florence, and
Florence Cathedral, now crowned by Brunelleschi’s ex- Rome. A musical celebrity, he was often solicited to com-
traordinary dome. A procession wound its way through pose music for solemn occasions, such as the dedication
the city’s streets and entered the cathedral, led by Pope of “Il Duomo.”
Eugene IV and seven cardinals, thirty-six bishops, and un- The English had developed pleasing harmonies using a
told numbers of church officials, civic leaders, artists, three-note interval (rather than the four-, five-, or eight-
scholars, and musicians. The papal choir included one of note intervals of the Middle Ages), but it was Dufay who
the greatest figures in Renaissance music, the composer used this triadic harmony in polyphonic and imitative style.
Guillaume Dufay. The choir performed a motet called in- Dufay was a composer of the increasingly popular “par-
formally “Il Duomo” composed by Dufay especially for ody mass,” where a popular song of the day was inserted
the occasion. As one eyewitness recalled, “The whole space into a liturgical mass. Congregations loved the familiar
of the temple was filled with such choruses of harmony, secular tune used in their daily worship. However, com-
320 CHAPTER 13

FiGurE 13.17 Sandro Botticelli, Primavera, ca. 1482 (?), tempera on panel, 6'8” x 10'4”
(2.03 X 3.15 m), Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence. Neoplatonic theory is given visual form in
this allegory, perhaps a depiction of the Floralia, an ancient Roman celebration of spring. It
was made for a cousin of Lorenzo de’ Medici, ruler of Florence.

posers of parody masses were careful to hide the pop tune rhythmic distortion of medieval composition. The three
in a slow-moving tenor line to escape criticism from the voices of Dufay’s Alma Redemptoris Mater—bass, tenor, and
clergy. soprano—maintain rhythmic independence (also a late
Dufay wrote music in all the popular genres of his time: medieval characteristic) until the third and last section of
masses for liturgies, Latin motets, or compositions for mul- the motet. Then Dufay blocks them together in chords to
tiple voices; music for ceremonies; and French and Italian emphasize the text’s closing words, which ask Mary to be
chansons, or songs, for the pleasure of his patrons and merciful to sinners; the chords, arranged in graceful har-
friends. In each genre, Dufay’s melodies and rhythms were monies, soothe the listener’s ears more than those of the
more easily identifiable than those of earlier composers. traditional medieval motet. In this last part Dufay adds an
Motets. Dufay wrote many motets: one-movement additional voice by giving the sopranos two different parts
compositions that set a sacred text to polyphonic choral to sing. In doing so, he moves toward the four-part texture
music, usually with no instrumental accompaniment. of soprano, alto, tenor, and bass that was to become the
Dufay’s motet Alma Redemptoris Mater, composed in about norm for later Renaissance vocal music.
1430, fuses medieval polyphony—that is, the simultaneous Word Painting. Dufay’s emphasis on lyrics is an early
singing of several voices each independent of the others— example of word painting, in which the meaning of words
with a newer Early Renaissance form. The result was a is underscored and emphasized through the music that ac-
multimelodic, rather than merely a multivoiced, musical companies them. One sixteenth-century musical theorist
style, with more lyrical, less chantlike melodies and a more offered composers this suggestion: “When one of the
sensuous sound. Earlier composers typically put the plain- words expresses weeping, pain, heartbreak, sighs, tears,
chant melody, or main melody, in the lowest voice, but and other similar things, let the harmony be full of sad-
Dufay puts the main melody in the highest or uppermost ness.” A composer might also employ a descending
voice, where it can be better heard. He also avoids the melodic line (going from high to low), or a bass line, to
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 321

FIGURE 13.18 Sandro Botticelli, Birth of Venus, ca. 1484-86, tempera on canvas, 6'7” X 9/2”
(2.01 X 2.79 m), Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence. SCALA/Art Resource, NY. Botticelli painted
this important revival of the nude based upon antique prototypes.

express anguish; conversely, an ascending line (going from the church, which remained the staunchest of musical pa-
low to high), utilizing soprano voices, might express joy trons. The nobility commissioned secular works to ac-
and hope. This increasing sense of the drama of language, company formal occasions such as coronations, weddings,
comparable to the Renaissance artists’ attention to the processions, and even political events. However, before
drama of the stories they chose to depict—Donatello’s long secular music also found its way into sacred settings.
Mary Magdalene (see fig. 13.11), for example—led Re- Dufay, for instance, introduced the popular French folk-
naissance composers to use music to enrich the feelings song “L’Homme arme” (“The Man in Armor”) into a mass,
their music expressed, and to support the meaning of a and other composers soon followed suit, creating an entire
song’s text, whether sacred or secular. Though little music musical genre known as chanson masses, or “song masses.”
had survived from ancient Greece, humanist philosophers Musical accomplishment was one of the marks of an
like Ficino understood that Aristotle had considered music educated person in the Renaissance, and most people
the highest form of art and the rhythms of Greek music among the nobility both played an instrument and sang.
imitated the rhythms of Greek poetry, for which it served Moreover, many uneducated people were accomplished
as a setting. Thus word painting as the intimate relation of musicians; in fact, the music of the uneducated masses—
sound and sense has classical roots. their songs and dances—was most influenced by the sec-
As in the Middle Ages, musicians like Dufay were em- ular music of the age. Music was an integral part of an
ployed by the churches, towns, and courts. However, un- evening’s entertainment. Although it was common for pro-
like music in the Middle Ages, which served mostly fessionals to provide this entertainment, increasingly in-
religious ends, music in the Renaissance became increas- dividuals at a party might entertain the group. Dance, too,
ingly secularized. Musicians still depended on such pa- became the focus of social gatherings, and much of the in-
tronage, but commissions came from wealthy burghers strumental music of the day was composed to accompany
and aristocrats such as the Medici family, as well as from dances. By the Early Renaissance, instruments had evolved
322 CHAPTER 13

Connections

MATHEMATICAL PROPORTIONS: its rhythm rather than its melody. The having an internal and an external struc-
BRUNELLESCHI AND DUEAY slower-moving lower voices of the two ture.
tenors proceed in strict rhythmic pro- The structure of a Petrarchan sonnet
A {|athematics played an important gressions that reflect the ratio of 6:4:2:3. also employs a harmonious mathematical
part in all the arts of the Renais- The initial ratio of 6:4 is reducible to 3:2; ratio for its basic structure. The Petrar-
sance. Architects designed buildings thus it is a mirror reverse ratio of 3:2:2:3, chan sonnet is composed of fourteen
guided by mathematical ratios and pro- which appears in the number of beats in lines, which typically break into two
portions. Painters employed the mathe- each of the work’s four sections: 6, 4, 4, parts: an octave of eight lines and a ses-
matical proportions governed by linear and 6. In addition, Dufay’s motet con- tet of six that yield a ratio of 8:6, which
perspective. Composers wrote music that tains a total of 168 measures, propor- reduces to 4:3. Moreover, both the oc-
reflected mathematical ratios between tionally divided into four harmonious tave and the sestet usually split evenly
the notes of a melody and in the intervals parts of 56, 56, 28, and 28 measures each. into two equal parts: 4 + 4 and 3 + 3,
between notes sounded together in har- The last two parts contain exactly half yielding a further neatly symmetrical bal-
mony. Poets structured their poems ac- the number of measures of the first two, anced pair of proportions in both octave
cording to mathematical proportions. creating a mathematically harmonious and sestet of 1:1.
One especially striking set of rela- and intellectually pleasing structure. In these and numerous other instances
tionships exists between the proportions Brunelleschi’s dome’s proportions ex- of Renaissance architecture and music, as
of the dome built by Filippo Brunelleschi hibit mathematical ratios that are 6:4:2:3, well as perspectivist painting, sculptural
for Florence Cathedral and “Il Duomo,” just as in Dufay’s motet. This is the ratio proportions, and poetry, mathematics lies
the motet for four voices that Guillaume of the internal dimensions to the exter- at the heart of the harmonious nature of
Dufay wrote for its dedication in 1436. nal ones. And motet and dome both have the works. This concern with geometric
Its formal title is Nuper Rosarum Flores a doubling. Dufay’s motet employs a symmetry and mathematical proportions
(Flowers of Roses), the word flores refer- doubling of the tenor voices, which sing illustrates one more way in which the arts
ring to Florence itself. The mathemati- the lower melody five notes apart. of the Renaissance were a legacy of the
cal ratios in Dufay’s motet are evident in Brunelleschi’s dome is a double shell, golden age of Greece.

to look much as they do today. The lute was used both as

LITERATURE
a solo instrument and to accompany singers. Bowed in-
struments came in all sizes; wind instruments with brass Petrarch. ‘The first great figure of Italian Renaissance
mouthpieces and single and double reeds were used in fes- letters, and the first important representative of Italian Re-
tivals and in church. Instruments were classified as either naissance humanism, was Petrarch, a scholar and prolific
loud (haut) or soft (bas), which also designated the activity writer, whose work simultaneously reflects the philosophy
for which the instrument was intended. Before this time, of Greek antiquity and the new ideas of the Renaissance.
instruments had always performed vocal parts. During the Born Francesco Petrarca in Arezzo and taken, at the age
Renaissance, music was written specifically for particular of eight, to Avignon, where the papal courts had moved
instruments without regard for the capability of the human in 1309, Petrarch studied law in Bologna and Montpel-
voice. lier, then returned in 1326 to Avignon. Petrarch once said
Movable type contributed to the growth and popular- of himself, “I am a pilgrim everywhere,” for he also trav-
ity of music during the Renaissance. The first collection of eled widely in France and Italy, hunting down classical
music printed in movable type, One Hundred Songs, was manuscripts.
published in 1501 in Venice by Ottaviano de’ Petrucci. Unlike his Florentine predecessor, Dante Alighieri,
Half a century later, printed music was widely available to whose Divine Comedy (see Chapter 12) summed up the sen-
scholars and amateurs alike. With the greater availability sibility of late medieval culture, Petrarch positioned him-
of printed scores, Renaissance composers became more self at the beginning of a new literary and artistic era, one
familiar with each other’s works and began to influence that placed greater emphasis on human achievement.
one another. Amateurs were able to buy and study the same Without rejecting the importance of spirituality and reli-
music, and soon songs and dances in particular achieved gious faith, Petrarch celebrated human accomplishment
the kind of widespread popularity that today might put a as the crowning glory of God’ creation but praised human
song into the “Top Ten.” beings for their achievements as well.
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 323

Petrarch’s work is poised between two powerful, inter- tet of six. The octave typically identifies a problem or sit-
twined impulses: the religious and moral impulse of the uation, and the sestet proposes a solution; or the octave
early medieval thinkers, such as St. Augustine, and the hu- introduces a scene, and the sestet comments on or com-
manist dedication to the disciplined study of ancient writ- plicates it. The rhyme scheme of the Petrarchan sonnet
ers, coupled with a desire for artistic excellence. reinforces its logical structure, with different rhymes oc-
Petrarch was especially affected by the elegance and curring in octave and sestet. The octave rhymes abba abba
beauty of early Latin literature. However, he disliked the (or abab abab), and the sestet rhymes cde cde (or cde ced; cde
Latin of the Middle Ages, seeing in it a barbarous falling dce; or cd, cd, cd).
off from the heights of eloquence exemplified by ancient The following sonnet was the most popular poem in
Roman writers such as Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Seneca, and the European Renaissance; it depicts the lover’s ambiva-
Cicero. Petrarch strove to revive classical literature rather lence in a series of paradoxes.
than absorb its elements into contemporary Italian civi-
I find no peace and all my war is done,
lization. He considered classical culture a model to be em-
I fear and hope, I burn and freeze like ice;
ulated and an ideal against which to measure the I fly above the wind yet can I not arise,
achievements of other civilizations. For Petrarch, ancient And nought I have and all the world I sesan.
culture was not merely a source of scientific information, That loseth nor locketh holdeth me in prison 5
philosophical knowledge, or rhetorical rules; it was also a And holdeth me not, yet can I escape nowise;
spiritual and intellectual resource for enriching the human Nor letteth me live nor die at my devise,
experience. Petrarch would help first Italy, and then Eu- And yet of death it giveth me occasion.
rope, recollect its noble classical past. And although Pe- Without eyes, I see, and without tongue I plain,
trarch did not invent humanism, he breathed life into it I desire to perish, and yet I ask health, 10
and was its tireless advocate. I love an other, and thus I hate my self,
I feed me in sorrow and laugh in all my pain,
Soon after his return to Avignon in 1326, Petrarch fell
Likewise displeaseth me both death and life,
in love with a woman whose identity is unknown, but And my delight is cause of this strife.
whom he called Laura in his Canzoniere (Songbook). This
collection of 366 poems—sonnets, ballads, sestinas,
madrigals, and canzoni (songs)—was written and re-
worked over more than forty years. Many of the poems
THE HIGH RENAISSANCE
are about love, and they are notable for their stylistic ele- In the High Renaissance, focus shifted from Florence to
gance and formal perfection. The poems about Laura are Rome due to the wealth and power of the popes. Lavish
the most famous and the most beautiful. artistic patronage was provided especially by Pope Julius
II (1503-13), patron of Bramante, Raphael, and Michelan-
The Petrarchan Sonnet. ‘Vhematically, Petrarch’s son- gelo, and Pope Leo X (1513-21), who also patronized
nets introduced what was to become a predominant sub- Michelangelo (and excommunicated Martin Luther).
ject of Renaissance lyric poetry: the expression of a Rome had now become a city in which the two major na-
speaker’s love for a woman and his experience of the joy tional traditions of Italy converged—Classicism and Chris-
and pain of love’s complex and shifting emotions. Laura’s tianity.
beauty and behavior cause the poet/speaker to sway be- The High Renaissance begins around 1485 or 1490 in
tween hope and despair, pleasure and pain, joy and an- Italy. Only one generation long, the High Renaissance was
guish. Throughout the sequence of poems, Laura remains a short yet extremely important period that was to prove
unattainable. Like so many figures in Renaissance paint- enormously influential on future art. Although there is no
ing, she is at once a real person and an ideal form, a con- precise conclusion to the High Renaissance, the period
tradiction expressed in the ambivalent feelings the may be said to come to a close at the death of Raphael in
poet/speaker has about her. Petrarch’s popularity spawned 1520, because this artist’s paintings are widely held to epit-
a profusion of imitators, who borrowed from his situa- omize the Renaissance style. Alternatively, the Renaissance
tions, psychological descriptions, figurative language, and may be said to have ended when Rome was sacked and
particularly his sonnet form. Petrarch’s sonnets also in- burned by troops serving the Holy Roman Emperor
spired poets throughout Europe to write their own sonnet Charles V (in Germany) in 1527. Many artsts fled the city,
sequences. The most famous examples in English are thereby further spreading the ideas of Italy over western
Philip Sidney’s Astrophel and Stella (1591), Edmund Europe.
Spenser’s Amoretti (1595), and William Shakespeare’s 154 The High Renaissance continued Early Renaissance
sonnets. Petrarch’s sonnet structure established itself as interests in humanism, classicism, and individualism,
one of the two dominant sonnet patterns used by poets. artists and authors perfecting some of the ideas of their
The Petrarchan (sometimes called the Italian) sonnet is Early Renaissance predecessors and developing ideas of
organized in two parts: an octave of eight lines and a ses- their own.
324 CHAPTER 13

PAINTING
Leonardo da Vinci. Born in Vinci, about twenty miles
west of Florence, LEONARDO DA VINCI [lay-o-NAR-
doh dah VIN-chee] (1452-1519) was the illegitimate son
of a peasant named Caterina and Ser Piero, a Florentine
lawyer, or notary. Leonardo later joined his father in Flo-
rence, and in 1469 he entered the workshop of Andrea del
Verrocchio, whose other apprentices included Sandro Bot-
ticelli. Giorgio Vasari wrote of Leonardo’s “beauty as a
person,” describing him as “divinely endowed” and “so
pleasing in conversation that he won all hearts.” But he
was, Vasari noted, unstable in temperament, often aban-
doning projects, constantly searching and restless.
Leonardo was sent to Milan by Lorenzo the Magnificent
in 1481 or 1482 as an ambassador, charged with presenting
an ornate lyre to the duke, Ludovico Sforza, as a gesture of
peace. Leonardo chose to remain in Milan. In Florence,
Leonardo had been known as a painter and sculptor, but he
was, he told the duke, primarily a designer of military and
naval weaponry and only secondarily an architect, painter,
drainage engineer, and sculptor. He was, in short, the epit-
ome of what we have come to call the “Renaissance” or
“universal man,” a person not merely capable but talented
in an extraordinarily wide range of endeavors.
Leonardo was fascinated by all aspects of nature, as is
amply evidenced in his Madonna of the Rocks (fig. 13.19),
begun in 1483, soon after his arrival in Milan. This is the
first time Mary has been depicted in a grotto. The geol-
ogy—cliffs, mountains, and a grotto filled with stalactites
and stalagmites—comes out of his lifelong fascination with
the effects of wind and water on the environment. Hurri-
canes and deluges, eddies and currents of moving water, FiGurE 13.19 Leonardo da Vinci, Madonna of the Rocks,
particularly intrigued him. The Madonna of the Rocks ca. 1483, oil on panel, 665” X 4’ (2.0 x 1.2 m), Musée du
demonstrates Leonardo’s preoccupation with the interre- Louvre, Paris. SCALA/Art Resource, NY. Leonardo, both
artist and scientist, created a grotto setting with stalactites,
lated effects of perspective, light, color, and optics. Natu-
stalagmites, and identifiable foliage, an unusual environment
ralistic lighting and atmospheric perspective are taken to
for these religious figures.
new heights.
Leonardo developed a technique for modeling forms
called chiaroscuro. In Italian, chiaro means “clear” or Leonardo’s greatest achievement in Milan was The Last
“light,” and oscuro means “obscure” or “dark.” Chiaroscuro Supper (fig. 13.20), painted between 1495 and 1499. The
\describes Leonardo’s technique of working in areas of light orderly composition of The Last Supper clarifies the paint-
nd dark in space. Leonardo also developed a painting ing’s meaning. The largest of the three windows on the
technique called sfumato (in Italian, “smoky”), which is back wall is directly behind Jesus, thereby emphasizing
the intentional suppression of the outline of a figure in a him. The curved pediment, which arches above his head,
hazy, almost smoky atmosphere. Leonardo’s figures do not serves as a halo. He is perfectly centered in the mural, and
so much emerge from the darkness of the grotto as they are all perspective lines converge toward a vanishing point di-
immersed in it, surrounded by it, even protected by it, as rectly behind his head, leading the viewer’s eyes to him.
if the grotto were the womb of the earth itself and Mary The twelve apostles are arranged six on each side, divided
athe site’s resident mother goddess. In the Madonna of the into four equal groups of three figures. The result is a com-
Rocks, the child Jesus blesses his cousin John, the infant position that is symmetrically balanced on either side
John the Baptist, who represents the congregation of around the central figure of Jesus, whose arms are extended
Christians, literally protected by Mary’s cloak but figura- diagonally so that he forms an equilateral triangle in the
tively taken under her wing. The figures form a triangu- center. The arrangement of the five segments is somewhat
lar or pyramid grouping, a favorite Renaissance theatrical—action building from the wings, leading to the
compositional device. central calm figure of Jesus.
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 325

FiGurE 13.20 Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper, refectory, Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan,
1495-98, tempera and oil on plaster, 15’ 2” x 28’10” (4.60 X 8.80 m). Scala/Art Resource, NY.
The mural’s poor condition is due to the experimental media in which Leonardo painted. Never-
theless, his ability to merge form and content, using perspective to create simultaneously an
illusion of a cubic space and focus the viewer’s attention on Jesus, can still be appreciated.

Leonardo chose the most psychologically powerful mo- Notebooks, “that in narratives it is necessary to mix closely
ment in the story: Jesus has just announced that one of his together direct contraries, because they provide a great
apostles will betray him, and they respond with dismay. contrast with each other, and so much more if they are ad-
Judas, his betrayer, sits with John and Peter directly to the jacent, that is to say the ugly to the beautiful.”
left of Jesus, his face lost in shadow as he leans away, clutch- Sometime in 1503, after Leonardo had been forced to
ing a money bag in his right hand. We know from prepara- return to Florence, he painted the Mona Lisa (fig. 13.21),
tory sketches that Leonardo wanted to depict a different a portrait of Lisa di Antonio Maria Gherardini, the twenty-
emotion on each of the apostles’ faces. The most difficult four-year-old wife of a Florentine official, Francesco del
thing to paint, Leonardo said, was “the intention of Man’s Gioconda—hence the painting is sometimes called La Gio-
soul.” It could only be shown by pose, facial expression, conda. Mona Lisa appears relaxed and natural. Leonardo
and surrounding events and figures. Painting Judas and presents his sitter in a half-length, three-quarter view, the
Jesus, apparently, gave Leonardo the most difficulty. Vasari hands showing. With this pose, set against a landscape
tells the story: background, Leonardo established a type. In accordance
with the fashion of the time, her high forehead indicates
The prior [of Santa Maria delle Grazie] was in a great Mona Lisa’s nobility—the effect achieved by her shaved
hurry to see the picture done. He could not understand hairline and absence of eyebrows. The sitter’s lofty mind
why Leonardo would sometimes remain before his work is indicated by the stormy weather shown in the back-
half a day together, absorbed in thought. . . . [Leonardo]
ground. The fame of this painting rests on the sitter’s fa-
made it clear that men of genius are sometimes producing
most when they seem least to labor, for their minds are cial expression. Leonardo was concerned with not only the
then occupied in the shaping of those conceptions to which exterior, but also with the interior, with the psychological
they afterward give form. He told the duke [Sforza, under subtleties of individual personality.
whose protection the monastery was] that two heads were
yet to be done: that of the Savior, the likeness of which he
could not hope to find on earth and . . . the other, of Judas. THE REINVENTION OF ROME
... As a last resort he could always use the head of that In the middle of the fifteenth century, Pope Nicholas V
troublesome and impertinent prior. had close ties to the Florentine humanists, especially to
Leonardo solved his problem with Judas by grouping him Leon Battista Alberti, who made a massive survey of clas-
with Peterand John. “I say,” Leonardo explained in his sical architecture, De re aedificatoria. With Alberti as his
326 CHAPTER 13

ANY
MEN-YRas DEBETZNAM QVAF SQY

FIGURE 13.21 Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa, ca. 1503, oil FiGuRE 13.22 Melozzo da Forli, Sixtus IV Appoints Platina
on panel, rig x 1'9" (76.8 X 53.3 cm), © Musée du Head of the Vatican Library, 1480-81, fresco, 13'1” x 10'4”
Louvre, Paris/Reunion des Musées National/Art Resource, (3.99 X 3.15 m), Pinacoteca Vaticana, Rome. Platina kneels
NY. Probably the most famous painting in the world, Mona before Pope Sixtus IV while the Pope’s nephews stand behind.
Lisa’s mysterious smile continues to intrigue viewers today. In the middle is Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere, later Pope
Julius II.

chief consultant, Nicholas V began to rebuild Rome’s an- Archaeological discoveries led to Rome’s reinvention
cient churches and initiated plans to remake the Vatican as as the classical center of learning and art. Sixtus established
a new sacred city. Nicholas V also began to assemble a a museum in 1474 to house the recently uncovered Etrus-
massive classical library, paying humanist scholars to trans- can bronze statue of the she-wolf that had nourished
late ancient Greek texts into Latin and Italian. Romulus and Remus, the mythical twin founders of the
city (see Chapter 4). Other discoveries followed: Spinario,
The New Vatican. ‘The Vatican library became one of the a Hellenistic bronze of a youth pulling a thorn from his
chief preoccupations of Pope Sixtus IV (reigned 1471-84). foot; Hercules, the life-size bronze discovered in the ruined
With Platina as its head, the library became a true “Vati- temple of Hercules in the Forum Boarium; and two an-
can,” or “public,” library, with rules for usage, a permanent tique marble river gods that came from the ruins of the
location, and an effective, permanent administration. Constantinian baths.
Platina’s appointment is celebrated in a fresco painted by To execute Pope Nicholas’s plans for a new Vatican
Melozzo da Forli for the library (fig. 13.22). The Latin cou- palace, Sixtus IV commissioned the Sistine Chapel, which
plets below the scene, written by Platina himself, outline he named after himself, and inaugurated plans for its dec-
Sixtus’s campaign to restore the city of Rome, rebuilding oration. Perugino and Botticelli, among others, painted
churches, streets, walls, bridges, and aqueducts, but praise frescoes for the chapel’s walls, which were completed in
Sixtus IV most of all for the creation of the library. By 1508, 1482. Sixtus’s nephew, Pope Julius II (reigned 1503-13),
the Vatican Library was said to be the “image” of Plato’s continued Sixtus’s plans. Classical sculpture was placed in
Academy. Athens had been reborn in Rome. the Vatican’s sloping gardens: the Apollo Belvedere, which
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 327

had been discovered during excavations, and the Laocoén

(see Chapter 3), found buried in the ruins of some Roman
baths. Composers were hired to write new hymns. Josquin
des Prés served in the sixteen- to twenty-four-member
Sistina Cappella, or Sistine Choir, from 1476 to 1484. Soon
the rough rhythms of medieval poetry were supplanted by
the softer, finer meter of the Horatian odes. To add to the
pomp of the liturgical processions, Julius established a large
chorus to perform exclusively in St. Peter’s, the Cappella
Giulia, or Julian Choir, which remains active to this day.
And, most important, Julius invited Raphael and Michelan-
gelo to work in Rome.

PAINTING AND SCULPTURE

Raphael. When RAPHAEL [RAFF-ay-el], born Raf-
faello Santi of Urbino (1483-1520), was invited to Rome
in 1508, he was not yet twenty-five years old, but his
renown as a painter was well established. He had grown up
surrounded by culture and beauty. He studied painting
under his father, Giovanni Santi, a painter for the dukes of
Urbino. In Perugia he studied with Perugino.
One of Raphael’s first major works is directly indebted
to Perugino’s Fesus Delivering the Keys. It is the Marriage of
the Virgin (fig. 13.23), signed and dated 1504, the year he
came to Florence. As in Perugino’s work, the composition
is divided into a foreground with large figures, a middle
ground of open space with smaller figures, and a back-
ground with a temple and tiny figures. In the foreground,
FIGURE 13.23 Raphael, Marriage of the Virgin, 1504, oil on
Mary and Joseph wed. The story says that Joseph, although panel, 5'7” X 3'105” (1.70 X 1.18 m), Giancarlo Costa/Brera
older than the many other suitors, was selected because, Gallery, Milan. Raphael’s carefully composed scene includes
among all the symbolic rods presented to Mary, his alone figures in the foreground, middleground, and background.
flowered. Beside him a disgruntled suitor snaps his own The lines of perspective lead to a central plan building (the
rod in half over his knee. The absence of facial expression type favored by Bramante); the marriage is shown taking place
is a stylistic habit derived from Perugino, which Raphael in the foreground, dividing the composition.
would soon discard under the influence of Leonardo and
Michelangelo. Everything in Raphael’s painting is meas-
ured and rendered in careful perspective, as is emphasized
by the pattern of rectangles that cross the square. In fact, differences between the sacred and the secular are mini-
so powerful is the perspective grid that the viewer's eyes are mized—even the figures’ halos have become thin gold
led away from the marriage in the foreground to the tem- bands.
ple behind, creating a competing focal point, in contrast to A master of composition, with ease and grace, Raphael
Leonardo da Vinci’s use of perspective to focus the viewer’s contrasts the curved and rounded shapes of his substan-
attention on the most important person in a scene (fig. tial figures with their triangular and pyramidal positions in
L320): space. The triangular format recalls that of Leonardo’s
Raphael became famous for his paintings of the Madonna of the Rocks (fig. 13.19), but the difference be-
Madonna and Child. His Madonna of the Meadows (fig. tween the dark grotto setting of Leonardo’s painting and
13.24), painted in 1505, is typical of his style: pale, sweet, Raphael’s pastoral countryside is instructive. Raphael’s
and serious. She is maternal and meditative, thinking ahead composition is simpler, possessing far less contrast between
to Jesus’s passion, prefigured by the cross offered by the in- light and dark. His figures are more tightly grouped.
fant St. John, who in turn is identified by the camel-hair Leonardo’s children have serious facial expressions, lend-
garment he would wear as an adult. In most Early Re- ing them the emotional complexity of adults; Raphael’s are
naissance depictions of this subject, the Madonna is ele- far more playful.
vated on a throne. Raphael’s Madonna has descended to Beginning in 1508, Julius If commissioned Raphael to
our earthly level; she even sits upon the ground—in this paint frescoes in several rooms in the Vatican Palace, in-
pose she is referred to as the “Madonna of Humility.” The cluding the Stanza della Segnatura, the room where papal
328 CHAPTER 13
se of
cavation and preservation of antiques. Perhaps becau
baths and
this, the setting is based on the ancient Roman
ht, ration -
has the classical statues of Apollo (god of sunlig
ality, and poetry) and Minerva (goddess of wisdo m).

Michelangelo. MICHELANGELO BUONARROTI

[my-kuhl-AN-gel-oh] (1475-1564), born near Florence,
lived as a child in the Palazzo Medici there, which served
not only as Lorenzo the Magnificent’s home but also as an
art school, and there he studied sculpture under Giovanni
Bertoldo, once a student of Donatello. In Lorenzo’s palace,
bursting with Neoplatonic and humanist ideas, Michelan-
gelo was nurtured on the virtues of antique classical sculp-
ture. As a boy, in Florence, he studied fresco painting under
Domenico del Ghirlandaio and routinely copied the fres-
coes by Giotto in Santa Croce and those by Masaccio in
Santa Maria del Carmine. He was, like so many Renais-
sance artists, skilled in many areas—painting, architecture,
poetry—but in his own mind he was a sculptor.
Michelangelo believed the figure is imprisoned within
the block of marble in the same way the soul is trapped
within the body. In fact, to release the figure from the mar-
ble was a matter of subtraction, as the sculptor chiseled
away the shell of stone that hid the figure within.
Michelangelo’s approach to sculpture was, in short, pro-
foundly Neoplatonic; sculpture, from his point of view,
both revealed and liberated the human ideal, as the first
stanza of the following poem by him suggests:
FiGuRE 13.24 Raphael, Madonna of the Meadows, 1505, oil
Even the best of artists can conceive no idea
on panel, 445" x 343" (113 X 87 cm), Kunsthistorisches
Museum, Vienna. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY. Often
That a single block of marble will not contain
considered the epitome of High Renaissance painters, Raphael
In its excess, and such a goal is achieved
was celebrated for his ability to arrange several figures into
Only by the hand that obeys the intellect.
compact units. Mary, Jesus, and John the Baptist form a pyra-
The evil which I flee and the good I promise myself 5
mid, a favorite Renaissance compositional device. Hides in you, my fair, proud, and divine lady;
And working against my very life,
My skill is contrary to my purpose.
My ill cannot be blamed upon your beauty,
documents were signed. The School ofAthens (fig. 13.25) Your harshness, bad fortune, or your disdain, 10
embodies the Renaissance humanist’s quest for classical Nor upon my destiny or my fate,
learning and truth. In the center of this bilaterally sym- If in your heart you bear both death and mercy
At the same time, and if my lowly talent
metrical composition are the ancient Greek philosophers,
Ardently burning, can draw forth only death.
Plato and Aristotle. The figure of the older Plato, which
might be a portrait of Leonardo da Vinci, holds Plato’s Unlike Leonardo, who believed beauty was found in
Timaeus and points upward, indicating the realm of his nature, Michelangelo believed beauty was found in the
ideal Forms. The younger Aristotle holds his Ethics and imagination. One of his earliest sculptures is a Pieta (fig.
points toward earth, indicating the philosopher’s empha- 13.26), meaning “pity.” The term refers to depictions of
sis on material reality. The scene includes representations Mary mourning over the dead Jesus in her lap. Commis-
of Diogenes or Socrates, sprawling on the steps in front of sioned by a French cardinal, Michelangelo bragged his
the philosophers; Pythagoras, calculating on a slate at the Pieta would be “the most beautiful work in marble that ex-
lower left; Ptolemy, holding a globe at the right; and Eu- ists today in Rome.” In order to heighten the viewer’s feel-
clid in front of him, inscribing a slate with a compass. ings of pity and sorrow, Michelangelo made the figure of
Michelangelo is shown as the philosopher Heraclitus in Jesus disproportionately small in comparison to the mon-
the foreground leaning on a block of marble while sketch- umental figure of Mary. Despite the fact that Jesus died as
ing. Raphael painted his own portrait, the second figure a grown man of thirty-three, Mary is portrayed as a very
from the right, looking at us. Pope Julius had made young woman; the poignant implication is that Mary
Raphael “prefect of antiquities,” in charge of the papal ex- thinks back to when Jesus was an infant in her lap.
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 329

Gas
Bin SMe wre secrclaare

della Segnatura, Vatican Museums, Rome. Raphael painted several rooms in the Vatican for
Pope Julius I, a great patron of the arts. Statues of Apollo and Minerva flank Plato and Aristo-
tle, shown surrounded by scientists and philosophers of antiquity, some of whom have been
given the facial features of Raphael’s contemporaries.

Michelangelo carved the enormous David (fig. 13.27) explode, and the question seems to be less ifhe will move
between 1501 and 1504. The statue, which is over 13 feet than when. The absence of attire recalls the heroic nudes
tall, was intended to stand 40 feet above the ground on a of antiquity and avoids linking the David to a specific time
buttress on Florence Cathedral. However, when it was fin- period; instead David has universal meaning. He repre-
ished, the city officials designated it a “masterpiece,” too sents the battle between good and evil, as well as every
good to be placed so high on the cathedral; instead it was person who must face their foe.
placed in front of the Palazzo Vecchio in the Piazza della Michelangelo was called to Rome in 1505 to create the
Signoria. There, in the square where political meetings monumental tomb of Pope Julius I. The project was halted
took place, it would symbolize not only freedom of speech, by Julius I himself soon after Michelangelo’s arrival when
but the Republic of Florence itself, free from foreigners, the pope decided that finishing the painting of the Sistine
papal domination, and Medici rule. (The Medici had been Chapel, a project initiated by his predecessor Sixtus IV,
exiled in 1494.) should take priority. Michelangelo is reputed to have said,
The David’s pose is taken from antiquity, with the “Painting is for women, sculpture for men.” Reluctantly,
weight on one leg in the contrapposto position. The sculp- he began to paint. The ceiling, which covers more than
tor’s virtuosity is most evidenced in David’s tightly muscled 5,800 square feet, is nearly seventy feet high. Michelangelo
form, his tendons and veins recorded. A sense of enor- would have to work long hours on scaffolding, paint drip-
mous pent-up energy emerges, of latent power about to ping on him. The center of the ceiling features the story of
330 CHAPTER 13

FiGurE 13.26 Michelangelo, Pieta, 1498/99-1500, marble,

height 5 "95" (1.70 m), St. Peter’s, Vatican, Rome. Araldo de
Luca, Roma/Vatican Museums, Rome, Italy/Fabbrica di San
Pietro. “Pieta” refers to the depiction of Mary mourning over
Jesus, lying across her lap. Although the subject was developed
in Gothic Germany, the most famous Pieta is surely Michelan-
gelo’s version.

Creation—nine scenes from Genesis. Four further scenes

from the Old Testament appear in the corners. Old Testa-
ment prophets and ancient pagan sibyls (female prophets)
are included, along with Jesus’s ancestors, and assorted
medallions, putti (cherubs), and male nudes. There are over
three hundred figures in all, many of which have no known
meaning. Michelangelo claimed that Julius I let him paint
what he pleased, but the complexity of the program sug-
gests he had advisers. Neoplatonist numerology, symbol-
ism, and philosophy inform many of the subjects and pagan
stories and motifs are also evident. Old Testament stories
are used to prefigure those in the New Testament.
In the scene of the Creation ofAdam (fig. 13.28), God,
noble and powerful, flies in swiftly, bringing Eve with him
under his arm. Compare this scene with Ghiberti’s depic-
tion in the Gates ofParadise (see fig. 13.8). Michelangelo’s
dynamic God contrasts with a listless Adam, whose figure
Michelangelo derived from an ancient Roman coin. Mo-
mentarily, God will give Adam his soul and bring him fully
to life, for their fingers are about to touch. Note the mas- FiGurRE 13.27 Michelangelo, David, 1501-04, marble,
culine musculature of the figures; even the female figures height 13’5” (4.09 m), Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence. A
on the Sistine ceiling are based on male models. Michelan- magnificent marble man, akin to the heroic nudes of antiquity
and undated by costume, David becomes a universal symbol of
gelo’s figures are heroic and powerful, yet they have a grace
the individual facing unseen conflict.
and beauty.
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 331

f i x *

FIGURE 13.28 Michelangelo, Creation ofAdam, detail of Sistine Chapel ceiling, 1511-12, fresco,
9'2" X 18’ 8” (2.79 X 5.69 m), Vatican, Rome. Adam’s enormous latent power will be released in
the next instant when swift-moving God, with Eve already under his arm, brings him to life.

In both the tenseness of its mood and its distortion of the whole painting. The hands of Bartholomew’s flayed
human anatomy, Michelangelo’s fresco of The Last fudg- skin seem to reach downward, to the chasm of hell that
ment (fig. 13.29) reflects the Mannerist style. Although his opens at the bottom of the painting, where a monstrous
plan for St. Peter’s, built in 1546, embodies the ideals of the Charon (the ferryman of the dead) guides his boat across
High Renaissance, much of Michelangelo’s late work leaves the River Styx, driving the damned before him into per-
those ideals far behind. A new spirit entered his art in The petual torment.
Last Judgment, commissioned for the altar wall of the Sis-
tine Chapel in 1534 by a dying Pope Clement VII. Painted Properzia de’ Rossi. PROPERZIA DE’ ROSSI [Pro-
between 1536 and 1541, it lacks the optimism and sense of PEHR-tzee-ah deh RAW-see] (ca. 1490-1530), from
beauty that define Michelangelo’s work on the ceiling. His Bologna, is known for her work in miniature, carving entire
figures, no longer beautifully proportioned, now look scenes on the pit of an apricot or a peach! Yet she also
twisted and grotesque, with heads too small for their giant, sculpted on a huge scale, for de’ Rossi won a competition to
inflated bodies. The space is filled with bodies that are create sculpture for the facade of the church of San Petro-
larger at the top of the picture than the bottom; no illusion nio in Bologna, from which the scene of Joseph and Potiphar’s
of realistic depth is even intended here. Wife (fig. 13.30) is believed to come. The semiclad wife of
However, this style befits Michelangelo’s subject. The the Egyptian officer Potiphar has failed to seduce Joseph;
dead are dragged from their graves and pulled upward to she reaches quickly to grab for his cloak as he flees her bed.
be judged by Jesus. Mary, at his side, cringes at the vision. The sense of animation achieved is notable, the draperies
At his feet, to his right, is St. Bartholomew. Legend states and hair of Joseph and of Potiphar’s wife shown to respond
that Bartholomew was martyred by being skinned alive, to the speed of their movements. Properzia de’ Rossi died
and he holds his skin in his hand. But the face is a self- at the age of 39—one can only wonder what she would have
portrait of Michelangelo, and such grimness extends to achieved had her productive years been extended.
 332 CHAPTER 13

<2

ee 13.29 Michelangelo, The Last Fudgment, Sistine Chapel, 1536-41,

fresco, 48 x 44!
(: he x 13.41 m), Vatican Museums, Rome. Michelangelo’s optimism
and the ideatved beau
of the ceiling of this chapel are now replaced with a pessimistic view and
anatomical meee
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 333

THE QUESTION OF ART ample is the restoration of Leonardo da longer be Leonardo’s. Countering these
RESTORATION Vinci's Last Supper, which took twenty arguments were those who claimed that
years, and involved not only cleaning, cleaning the Sistine frescoes would re-
A,rN mong questions debated strongly in but also filling in some missing sections store them to how Michelangelo origi-
LfXrecent years is the extent to which of the image with new paint. nally painted them. Similarly, those who
works of art that have deteriorated over Among the arguments against clean- favored restoring Leonardo’s Last Supper
the centuries should be restored, or even ing Michelangelo’s work was that the believe that the painting has now been
cleaned. Cleaning refers to removing cleaning agents might also remove some restored to its former glory.
grime and soot, or layers of varnish from of the original pigment, and could dam- Which point of view do you find
works. Restoration involves repairing el- age the painting irretrievably by remov- more convincing, and why? What other
ements that have become damaged and ing the darkened colors that over many issues do you think should be evaluated
replacing missing elements. One major generations people had become accus- when a major art masterpiece is being
example that occasioned strenuous de- tomed to seeing and revealing a brighter considered for cleaning and/or restora-
bate was the cleaning of the Sistine set of hues that some considered garish. tion? What do you think should be done
Chapel frescoes painted by Michelan- Against adding newly painted sections to with Leonardo’s Mona Lisa, which is the
gelo, and which had, over the centuries, Leonardo’s work were those who said the most famous prime candidate for clean-
become darkened with dirt. Another ex- great painting would effectively no ing today?

OR nH EAS HANI SR Ba a a a Ns cok a iN a a tie aL ee ee TN ey PD

FiGurRE 13.30 Properzia de’ Rossi, Joseph and Potiphar’s Wife, ca. 1520, marble bas-
relief, is} x 3’ 2” (49 X 46 cm), Museo di San Petronio, Bologna. Powerful full
figures, so admired during the High Renaissance, move rapidly through space in this
compact composition, the garments revealing the bodies beneath as well as enhanc-
ing the action.
334 CHAPTER 13

ARCHITECTURE
Donato Bramante. DONATO BRAMANTES’s [bra-
MAHN-tay] (1444-1514) reputation was based largely on
a building called the Tempietto, or “little temple” (fig.
13.31) constructed from 1502 on the site where St. Peter
was believed to have been crucified. Commissioned by
Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain (patrons of the explorer
Christopher Columbus), the Tempietto is an adaptation
of a classical temple of the Doric order (see Chapter 2),
including a complete entablature.
The building itself is set on a stepped base and sur-
rounded by a peristyle, or continuous row of columns. The
first story is topped by a balustrade, or carved railing, in-
side of which is a drum, or circular wall, on which Bramante
set a classically hemispheric dome. The plan, with its deeply
recessed spaces, creates a dramatic play of light and dark, (b)
despite the relatively small scale of the building itself.

THE NEw ST. PETER’S BASILICA

In 1506, Pope Julius I decided to tear down the old St.
Peter’s Basilica, which had stood at the Vatican since the
time of Constantine in the early fourth century, and re-

FiGurE 13.31 Donato Bramante, Tempietto, San Pietro in

Montorio, Rome, 1502-after 1511. Small in size but of great
importance, the Tempietto demonstrates the reuse of ancient
abde
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pagan architecture for Renaissance Christian purposes.

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FiGuRE 13.32 Floor plans for St. Peter’s, Rome, by (a) Bra-
mante, (b) Michelangelo, and (c) Carlo Maderno. Although
Bramante and Michelangelo intended Greek-cross plans, the
long nave of the Latin-cross plan was added by Maderno to ac-
commodate the crowds of people.
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 335

place it with a new church more befitting the dignity and

prestige of the papacy. To this end he appointed Donato
Bramante as architect.
Bramante’s plan for St. Peter’s Basilica (fig. 13.32) is, es-
sentially, a grander version of the Tempietto, over 450 feet
in diameter instead of 15. Instead of basing his plan on the
traditional longitudinal Latin cross (three short arms and
one long one), Bramante chose to utilize a Greek cross (four
arms of equal length) with a central dome. The plan is sym-
metrical and harmonious, symbolizing the perfection of God,
topped by an enormous dome modeled after the Pantheon’.
Michelangelo’s St. Peter’s. With the deaths of Julius II
in 1513 and of Bramante in 1514, work ceased temporar-
ily. After several other architects, including Raphael, at-
tempted to revise Bramante’s plan, Michelangelo was
appointed architect in 1546. He described Bramante’s orig-
inal design as “clear and straightforward.” He wrote, “In-
deed, every architect who has departed from Bramante’s
plan . . . has departed from the right way.” Nevertheless,
Michelangelo modified the original (fig. 13.32). Instead
of an interior of interlocking Greek crosses, Michelangelo FIGURE 13.33. View of St. Peter’s, Rome. St. Peter’s under-
simplified the scheme, in part, due to structural necessity. went so many changes that only a hint of the simplicity of Bra-
The four main piers had to be massively enlarged to sup- mantés and Michelangelo’s original Greek cross plans remains.
port the dome, causing Michelangelo to simplify the re-
maining interior space. Michelangelo also intended a
double-columned portico across the front.
Michelangelo did not live to see the completion of his
plan. The dome was finished in 1590 (fig. 13.33), with a
VENICE
somewhat higher and more pointed profile than Michelan- Throughout the fifteenth century and into the sixteenth,
gelo had intended, in part because of engineering re- Venice was one of the most powerful city-states in all of
quirements, the vertical shape minimizing the lateral thrust Europe, exercising control over the entire Adriatic and
exerted by the dome. In 1606, Pope Paul V appointed the much of the eastern Mediterranean. It was celebrated in
architect Carlo Maderno to restore the church to a Latin- Vittore Carpaccio’s Lion ofSt. Mark (fig. 13.34), painted in
cross plan (fig. 13.32). 1516 for a government office in the city’s Ducal Palace.

FIGURE 13.34 Vittore Carpaccio, Lion of St. Mark, 1516, oil on canvas, 4'63" x< ID
(1.40 X 3.70 m), Ducal Palace, Venice. The winged lion was a symbol of the Evangelist Mark
and of Venice. This painting documents the early sixteenth-century appearance of the city,
with its campanile, Ducal Palace, and the domes of St. Mark’s Cathedral.
336 CHAPTER 13

The lion is the symbol of the city’s patron saint, Mark the 1475, after oil painting (pigments mixed with linseed oil)
Evangelist, whom God was said to have visited on the Evan- was developed in The Netherlands, fresco painting in
gelist’s arrival at the Venice lagoon, thereby designating Venice gradually ceased. The use of oil on canvas led in
Venice as the saint’s final resting place. Greeting St. Mark, turn to a new kind of painting. Applying colors in glazes—
God’s angel is said to have announced, “Peace unto you, that is, in layers of transparent color—created by mixing
Mark, my evangelist,” the Latin words inscribed on the a little pigment with a lot of linseed oil, painters were able
tablet held in the lion’s paws. The lion stands with its front to create a light that seemed to emanate from the depths
paws on land and its hind paws in the water, signifying of the painting itself. Furthermore, the texture of the can-
Venice’s dominion over land and sea. Behind the lion, to the vas itself was exploited. Stroked over a woven surface, the
left, is the Ducal Palace, the seat of government and law brush deposits more paint on the top of the weave and less
and the source of the city’s order and harmony. The Byzan- in the crevices. This textured surface in turn “catches” ac-
tine domes of St. Mark’s Cathedral rise behind it, the basis tual light, lending an almost shimmering vibrancy.
of the city’s moral fabric, and the giant campanile (bell
Titian. ‘Tiziano Vecelli of Venice, known as TITIAN
tower) that dominates St. Mark’s Square stands on the far
[TISH-un] (ca. 1488/90-1576) favored paintings with
left housing the five bells of St. Mark’s, one of which chimed
complex iconography—in fact, Titian classified his paint-
to announce the beginning and end of each working day.
ings as poetry. Characteristic of the Renaissance interest in
Behind the lion to the right is a fleet of Venetian merchant
antiquity, the subject of Titian’s festive Bacchanal (fig.
ships, the source of the city’s wealth and prosperity.
13.35), painted ca. 1518, derives from Classical mythol-
Venetian Oil Painting. Surrounded by water and built ogy; Bacchus is the ancient Roman god of wine. Titian
over a lagoon, humidity made fresco painting, so popular popularized the type of strawberry blond female seen here,
elsewhere in Europe, virtually impossible in Venice. From portrayed with his characteristically sensuous handling of

FicureE 13.35 Titian, Bacchanal, ca. 1518, oil on canvas, 5°32" x 6'4” (1.75 X 1.93 m),
Museo del Prado Madrid. Botticelli’s slender Early Renaissance figure type (figs. 13.17-18)
matured in the work of High Renaissance painters such as Titian to a full-bodied ideal of
beauty.
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 337

flesh. The richness of Titian’s paintings is due in part to his diately after. The dignified serenity and graceful restraint
use of an underpainting of ted bolus (an earth pigment) of Josquin’s “Ave Maria . . . virgo serena” can be compared
in many of his works, rather than the usual green-black with the quiet beauty and restrained elegance of Raphael’s
underpainting. He also used impasto—thick paint made madonnas.
by mixing the pigment with beeswax. Titian is associated
with the so-called “golden glow” of Venetian painting, Palestrina. The music of the Italian GIOVANNI
achieved, in part, by adding a bit of yellow pigment to the PIERLUIGI DA PALESTRINA [pal-uh-STREE-nah]
final protective glaze applied to the painting. (1525-94) came to dominate the church throughout most
of the sixteenth century. As the church came under attack
from the north for its excessive spending and ornate lav-
MusIc ishness, it responded by simplifying the mass and the music
designed to accompany it. Although it considered banning
The reinvention of Rome required the reinvention of
polyphony altogether, thinking it too elaborate to be eas-
music—a new St. Peter’s needed a new mass to fill its vast
ily understood by laypeople, in the end the church endorsed
space with sound.
the controlled and precise style of Palestrina.
Palestrina held a number of important church positions.
Josquin des Pres. "The most important composer of the
He was organist and choirmaster of the large chorus that
new Rome took on the job: JOSQUIN DES PRES [JOZ- performed exclusively in St. Peter’s, the Cappella Giulia
skanh de-PRAY] (1440-1521), from Flanders. It was
(Julian Choir), and he was music director for the Vatican.
Josquin who led the Sistine Choir as Michelangelo painted
His music evokes the Gregorian roots of traditional church
the ceiling and Raphael worked in the papal suites. Like
music and relies directly on the emotional appeal of the
Dufay, Josquin spent many years in Italy, serving the Sforza
listener’s potential union with God. He wrote nearly a
family in Milan, the Estes at their court in Ferrara, and fi-
thousand compositions, including over a hundred masses.
nally several Roman popes, including Sixtus IV (for whom
Among the most beautiful of all Palestrina’s works is his
he directed the Sistine Choir), Julius I, and Leo X. So
Pope Marcellus Mass, written in honor of the pope and set
highly regarded was Josquin that the French king Louis
for an a cappella—or unaccompanied—choir in six voice
XII and the Austrian queen Margaret both bid for his serv-
parts: soprano, alto, two tenors, and two basses. It con-
ices. His contemporaries extolled him as “the Father of
tains music for the Kyrie, Gloria, Credo, Sanctus, Bene-
Musicians” and “the best of composers.” An enchanted
dictus, and Agnus Dei, as did the Gregorian Mass before
Martin Luther remarked that Josquin was “the master of
it, and Palestrina utilizes the traditional Gregorian
the notes; they must do as he wills.”
melodies connected with each of these parts of the mass.
Josquin composed approximately two hundred works—
Still, it is clearly Renaissance in its style, utilizing an or-
motets, masses, and chansons (songs). His many motets
derly and clear imitative polyphony that allows the listener
and chansons attest to his interest in exploring new trends
to follow each of the voices in the mass as they weave to-
in setting words to music. His motet “Ave Maria . . virgo
gether with precision.
serena” (“Hail, Mary... Serene Virgin”) (1502) exempli-
fies his style. The opening employs imitative counterpoint
with the melody for the words “Ave Maria” first heard in
LITERATURE
the soprano, then repeated in succession by the alto, the
tenor, and the bass while the original parts continue, as in Baldassare _—_Castiglione. BALDASSARE ~~ CAS-
a round. On the words gratia plena (“full of grace”) Josquin TIGLIONE [KAS-till-YOH-nay] (1478-1529) was a
introduces a new, second melody, again in the soprano, courtier to the Italian ducal courts, first at the court of
which is again passed from one voice to the next. Josquin Francesco Gonzaga, the ruler of Mantua in the early six-
overlaps the voices in both melodies, allowing the altos to teenth century, and then at the court of Urbino, estab-
enter, for example, before the sopranos have sung the com- lished by Federico da Montefeltro, the father of
plete melody. This overlapping of voices enriches the Guidobaldo da Montefeltro, in whose service Castiglione
music’s texture, giving it body and providing it with a con- prospered. Later unrest caused him to return to service in
tinuous and fluid motion. Josquin also allows two voices, Duke Francesco’s court. After serving as ambassador to
and sometimes three or four, to sing the same melody si- Rome, Castiglione was appointed by Pope Clement VI
multaneously—a duet between the two lower voice parts as papal ambassador to Spain, where he lived out the re-
(tenor and bass), for instance, will imitate a duet between maining years of his life.
alto and soprano. The motet concludes serenely with em- While at Urbino, Castiglione wrote the Book of the
phatic slow chords on the words O mater Dei, memento mei Courtier, which memorializes, celebrates, and idealizes life
(“O mother of God, remember me”). Just before this end- at court, especially Urbino. It is cast in the form of a series
ing, Josquin introduces a significant silence that sounds at of dialogues spread out over four evenings at the court of
first like an ending. He uses this silence to focus the lis- Urbino. The central topic is the manners, education, and
tener’s attention on the true ending, which comes imme- behavior of the ideal courtier, whose virtues Castiglione
338 CHAPTER 13

extols. The courtier must be a man of courage with expe- nobility of the graceful head to the intelligence of the shin-
rience in war; he must be learned in the classics and in ing eyes, complemented by the elegant refinement of the
classical languages; he must be able to serve his prince with attire.
generosity. Castiglione’s ideal courtier had to be physically Niccolo Machiavelli. A contemporary of Castiglione,
and emotionally strong, able to perform feats requiring NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI [mak-ee-ah-VEL-ee]
agility, skill, courage, and daring. His physical prowess was (1469-1527), also wrote a guideboo on behavior—The
k
measured by his grace as a dancer and elegance as a singer Prince, a manual for princes and rulers.
and musician. He was also expected to be an engaging and Like Castiglione, Machiavelli was well educated in the
witty conversationalist, a good companion, an elegant
Renaissance humanist tradition. Like Castiglione’s
writer, even a bit of a poet. In short, Castiglione’s courtier
courtier, Machiavelli’s prince is a model of an ideal. The
was the ideal Renaissance gentleman—of sound mind,
difference between the two writers’ “ideals,” however, is
body, and character, and learned in the ideas of Renais-
dramatic: Castiglione supported the tenets of Renaissance
sance humanism.
humanism, but Machiavelli challenged them by introduc-
Castiglione’s blending of the soldier and the scholar,
ing a radically different set of standards, standards that in-
his merging of the ideals of medieval chivalry with those
form, among other things, Mannerist art.
of Renaissance humanism, made his Book of the Courtier
Young Machiavelli was employed as a clerk and secre-
popular both in its own time and afterward. Castiglione tary to the Florentine magistrates responsible for war and
himself was no exception and embodied the ideals his book internal affairs. From 1498 to 1512, he also served as an
celebrated. Raphael’s portrait of Castiglione (fig. 13.36)
ambassador to, among others, the Holy Roman Emperor
displays many of the qualities Castiglione extols, from the
Maximilian, the king of France, and Pope Julius I. Dur-
ing his lifetime, the Italian city-states were almost contin-
ually at war either with one another or with other
countries, such as France and Spain. Machiavelli himself
FIGURE 13.36 Raphael, Baldassare Castiglione, ca. 1515, oil
suffered from the changing fortunes of the ruling families:
on panel, transferred to canvas, o2aF 2G 26500(81.9 2356/3. cin);
When the Medici came to power in Florence, for instance,
Musée du Louvre, Paris. J.G. Berizzi/Reunion des Musées Na-
tional, France/Art Resource, NY. Castiglione wrote about the
he was accused of conspiracy, tortured, and imprisoned.
qualities of the ideal courtier; it is not surprising that Raphael, Later, when the Medici government collapsed, he was ac-
a refined gentleman, was a personal friend of his. Perhaps some cused of being a Medici sympathizer.
of the calm restraint recommended by Castiglione is seen in The Prince was written in 1513 and published in 1532
Raphael’s portrait with its restricted range of color. after Machiavelli’s death. It quickly acquired fame or, as
some would have it, notoriety. Based on a series of prem-
ises about human nature—none favorable—The Prince as-
serts that people are basically selfish, deceitful, greedy, and
gullible. Accordingly, Machiavelli advises princes to rule in
ways that play on these fundamental human characteristics.
A prince can be—indeed, should be—hypocritical, cruel,
and deceitful when necessary. He should keep faith with no
one but himself and employ ruthlessness and cunning to
maintain his power over the people. As Machiavelli writes,
“at is far better to be feared than loved,” although he notes,
“the prince must nonetheless make himself feared in such
a way that, if he is not loved, he will at least avoid being
hated.”
The view of human beings that forms the foundation of
Machiaveili’s arguments in The Prince reflects political ex-
pediency, based on Machiavelli’s observation of Floren-
tine politics and the politics of other city-states and
countries he visited as a Florentine ambassador. Having
witnessed the instability of power in Italy, particularly the
surrender of parts of Italy to France and Spain, Machi-
avelli wrote that a ruler must be strong enough to keep
himself in power, for only with the strength of absolute
power could he rule effectively.
Machiavelli’s The Prince was the most widely read book
of its time, after the Bible. The questions it raises about the
relationship between politics and morality, the starkly re-
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 339

alistic depiction of power it presents, and the authority, and preference for primary colors, Mannerist painting, in
immediacy, and directness with which it is written, ensured contrast, was characterized by intentionally obscure sub-
its success. Whatever we may think of its vision of human ject matter, unbalanced compositions, bodies with dis-
nature or of the advice it offers rulers, it is hard to deny the torted proportions and contorted poses, confusing spatial
power of its language, the strength of its convictions, and constructions, and a preference for secondary and acidic
force of its arguments. colors. Facial expressions may be strained or inappropri-
ate for the subject. Aesthetic forms became of greater con-
cern than content.
Parmigianino. Among the most characteristic examples
of the Mannerist departure from the Renaissance norm is
Mannerism was defined as a style in 1914 by Walter
the Madonna with the Long Neck (fig. 13.37), painted
Friedlander; the term Mannerism derived from the Ital-
1534-40 by PARMIGIANINO [par-mee-jah- NEE-noh]
ian maniera (manner of style, suggesting affectation). The
style is also referred to as the Maniéra as well as the anti-
Classical style, although the artists today labeled as Man-
nerists considered themselves classical. Mannerism FIGURE 13.37 Parmigianino, Madonna with the Long Neck,
originally referred only to painting, and meant that one 1534-40, oil on panel, 7'1” x 4'4” (2.16 X 1.32 m), Galleria
painted “in the manner of . . .” Later, it came to have a degli Uffizi, Florence. Scala/Art Resource, NY. Comparison
negative connotation, one associated with affectation, ac- with Raphael’s High Renaissance Madonna of the Meadows (see
ademicism, and decadence: Mannerism became a deroga- fig. 13.24) makes obvious the Mannerist preference for dis-
tory term connoting artificiality and artistic decline on the torted figures and spatial ambiguity.
grounds that artists did not assimilate the style of a mas-
ter, but only affected it. Today, Mannerism is no longer
considered a decline, for it is felt the distorted elements
that characterize the style give spiritual feeling and convey
emotion. The Mannerist period dates from approximately
1520 to 1600, the style seen especially in Italy, centering
in Rome and Florence, although it was also fashionable in
France and elsewhere.
Mannerism coincides with a period of political and re-
ligious unrest. The sack of Rome in 1527 by the troops of
Charles V, six months of murder and destruction, under-
mined the confidence of the Renaissance humanists. Re-
ligious feelings were strong in the time of the Reformation
and Counter-Reformation. In an age of anxiety, an era of
crisis, the clarity and confidence of the High Renaissance
was lost, replaced by ambiguity and despair. The emo-
tional impact of Mannerist art is likely to be tense and dis-
turbing.
Never intended to have broad public appeal, Manner-
ism was a court style oriented to the tastes of the upper
class. It was formulated to appeal to the sophisticated, el-
egant, aristocratic sensibilities of the sixteenth century.
Thus, although the style was in vogue for a long period of
time, its audience was restricted and it was not to have sig-
nificant impact on future artistic trends. Mannerism, there-
fore, is not considered as important in the history of
culture as the preceding Renaissance style or the succeed-
ing Baroque style.

PAINTING
Mannerism was a departure from Renaissance ideals.
Whereas Renaissance painting was characterized by clear
presentations of subject matter, balanced compositions,
normal body proportions, scientific spatial constructions,
340 CHAPTER 13

(1503-40) of Parma. The figures are perfect, but, in con-

rast to the classical canon of proportions admired in the
Renaissance, they have become unreal, other worldly, elon-
gated and ethereal, artificial and affected, graceful and re-
fined beyond nature’s capabilities. Mary is especially large,
with an almost balloonlike inflation through the hips and
thighs. Only a complete absence of bones and joints would
explain the curving contours of Mary’s right hand.
The composition is unbalanced and spatially ambigu-
ous. The figures are crowded on the left side, yet the open
area on the right side is almost empty. The column in the
background is a symbol of the torture of Jesus, because he
was bound to a column and flagellated. The tiny prophet
emphasizes the odd and unclear spatial arrangement—the
viewer looks up to the foreground figures but down to the
prophet.
Bronzino. Another representative of the Mannerist or
anti-Classical style is Bronzino (1503-72), court painter
to Cosimo de’ Medici. Mannerism was noted to be the
style of the courts and was not intended to appeal to the
general public. Bronzino’s painting of the Allegory of Venus
(figure 13.38), ca. 1546, demonstrates the intentional am-
biguity of Mannerist iconography. The two main figures
are Venus and Cupid, their relationship shown to be un-
comfortably erotic. On the right, Folly throws roses. In
the upper right, Father Time uncovers the follies of love—
or perhaps he tries to hide them! The figure in the right FiGureE 13.38 Agnolo Bronzino, Allegory with Venus and
Cupid, ca. 1546, oil on panel, 4'95" 393" (146% tom);
background, with the body of a snake and the left and right
National Gallery, London. Typically Mannerist are the inten-
hands reversed, is Deceit—the masks suggest falseness.
tionally complex iconography (including an oddly erotic en-
The figures in the left background are probably Hatred counter between Venus and Cupid) and the pictorial space
and Inconstancy. Typically Mannerist is the complexity choked with figures.
and obscurity of the allegory, which has been interpreted
in various ways by historians.
Like the subject, the composition is also unclear. Char-
is gone. In fact, the viewer may need some time to find
acteristic of Mannerism is the absence of a single center of
Jesus in this scene, for the perspective leads the viewer's
focus—the figures seem to compete with each other for
eyes away from Jesus and out of the composition, many
the viewer's attention. The figures completely fill the com-
figures compete with Jesus for the viewer’s attention, and
position, choking the space. Still and tense, their poses are
Jesus is pushed back into the space. He is singled out only
elegant but affected, agitated, and exaggerated—and cer-
by his central position and aureole of light. The lighting
tainly difficult for a person to actually assume. Relative
is unnatural, radiating from Jesus and the hanging lamp,
scale of the figures is inconsistent. Their uneasy expres-
from which the smoke turns into floating transparent an-
sions cause them to appear disturbed, and they are in-
tended to disturb the viewer in this style that is distorted gels. Judas is singled out from the apostles as the only fig-
psychologically and physically. The colors are acid and ure on the opposite side of the table. The table is not
metallic, the style of painting linear and hard with harsh parallel to the picture plane, as in Renaissance portrayals
lighting. Figures weave in and out in a paper-thin space, of the Last Supper, but placed on a strong diagonal into
crowded, limited, and confined, set against a heavy and
depth—the rapid recession is characteristic of Tintoretto.
impenetrable background. Spatial contradictions abound— This Mannerist portrayal of the Last Supper is set in a tav-
a floor plan of this space and its inhabitants cannot be ern, an unusually commonplace location for a religious
drawn, for neither linear nor aerial perspective is used.
event.
Yet there is no possibility of mistaking this for a genre
Tintoretto. ‘The leader of the Mannerists in Venice was scene. Religious drama and emotion derive from Tin-
Tintoretto (1518-94), whose real name was Jacopo Ro- toretto’s striking composition and lighting. Far from a
busti, painter of the Last Supper (fig. 13.39) of 1592-94. calm, stable, static depiction, Tintoretto’s verve changed
The coveted Renaissance iconographic clarity, seen in Leonardo da Vinci’s format for the Last Supper and broke
Leonardo da Vinci’s depiction of this subject (fig. 13.20), Leonardo’s hold on this subject. But Tintoretto’s presen-
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 341

FIGURE 13.39 ‘Tintoretto, The Last Supper, 1592-94, oil on canvas, 12’ X 18'8” (3.66 X 5.69
m), San Giorgio Maggiore, Venice. SCALA/Art Resouce, NY. In striking contrast to the com-
positional clarity of Leonardo da Vinci’s High Renaissance depiction (see fig. 13.20), the
viewer may have some difficulty in locating Jesus in Tintoretto’s Mannerist version of this
subject, for the perspective leads away from, rather than toward, Jesus.

tation has been criticized for losing sight of the spiritual- burial and the ascension occur in two separate realms, nei-
ity of the subject, with too much stress placed on the in- ther of which fits spatially with the other, and both of
cidental activity in the foreground. Instead, ‘Tintoretto’s which are packed with figures. On the lower portion, El
greatest concern was the aesthetic problem and the po- Greco has painted the local contemporary aristocracy—
tential of light, movement, and drama. people he knew—in attendance at the funeral, not the aris-
tocracy of the count’s day. In fact, El Greco’s eight-year-old
El Greco. One of the most interesting artists whose work son stands at the lower left next to St. Stephen, and above
displays Mannerist qualities is known as EL GRECO [el him, looking out at the viewer from the back row, is quite
GRECK-ob] (1541-1614), or “the Greek.” Domenikos possibly El Greco himself.
Theotokopoulos was born on the island of Crete. He stud- The top half of the scene is as spatially ambiguous as any
ied in Venice from about 1566, where he was deeply in- example of Mannerist painting. A crowd of saints enters
fluenced by Titian, and then for seven years in Rome. In from a deep space at the top right. A chorus of angels play-
1577, he emigrated to Spain, going first to Madrid and ing instruments occupies a sort of middle space on the left.
then to Toledo. In the foreground, St. John and the Virgin Mary greet the
The most important of his major commissions is The angel who arrives with the soul of the count, shown about
Burial of Count Orgaz (fig. 13.40) of 1586. Legend held the size of a baby, as if to emphasize its innocence. John
that at the count’s burial in 1323, Saints Augustine and and Mary plead the count’s case with Jesus, who is pecu-
Stephen appeared and lowered him into his grave even as liarly small and seated far enough in the distance almost to
his soul was seen ascending to heaven. In the painting, the occupy the vanishing point to the heavens. The most no-
342 CHAPTER 13

generous dowry the Spanish monarchy provided for her

first marriage in 1570.
Sofonisba Anguissola frequently painted self-portraits,
which were much in demand due to her fame, as well as
portraits of her family, such as fig. 13.41 of one of her sis-
ters, Minerva. Her sitters appear relaxed, almost alive;
Giorgio Vasari noted that she created “breathing like-
nesses.” Minerva wears a large gold medallion of the an-
cient Minerva, goddess of wisdom and the arts.
Lavinia Fontana. LAVINIA FONTANA [La-VEEN-
nee-eh Fohn-THAN-nah] (1552-1614) grew up in
Bologna, where she was instructed by her father, the artist
Prospero Fontana. She is believed to be the first woman in
western Europe to establish herself as a professional artist
equal to her male contemporaries in fame. Her Portrait of
a Noblewoman (fig. 13.42) is representative of her work; al-
though women artists were likely to specialize in portrai-
ture, Fontana’s repertoire included religious and
mythological subjects as well. Her husband and fellow

FiGureE 13.41 Sofonisba Anguissola, Portrait of the Artist’s

—, Sister Minerva, ca. 1564, oil on canvas, 335 x 26”, Milwaukee
Figure 13.40 El Greco, The Burial of Count Orgaz, 1586, oil
Art Museum. Gift of the family of Mrs. Fred Vogel, Jr. As was
on canvas, 16’ X 11'10” (4.88 X 3.61 m), Church of San customary for women artists of this era, Anguissola specialized
Tomé, Toledo. Although El Greco’s distorted figures were in portraits. Such realistic records are one of the manifesta-
once attributed to astigmatism, they are now recognized as tions of the interest accorded the individual that began during
part of the Mannerist preference for elongated bodily pro- the Renaissance.
portions.

table aspect of El Greco’s style is exemplified by Jesus’

right arm, which stretches far forward into the space above
Mary’s head. The elongated hands and arms are the most
“mannered” feature of El Greco’s art, and yet it is difficult
to label his work “Mannerist.” His aim is to move his au-
dience by conveying a sense of the spiritual, almost mys-
tical power of deeply religious faith and conviction. In this,
his painting anticipates that of the Baroque age, and cap-
tures something of the power of the great Spanish mys-
tics of his own day, Teresa of Avila and Ignatius Loyola,
both of whom would be made saints in Rome in 1622.
Sofonisba Anguissola. Castiglione’s Book of the Courtier
advocated that aristocrats, be they male or female, be ed-
ucated in social arts, and that women, specifically, should
learn to paint, not as a career, but as part of training for
aristocratic life. SOFONISBA ANGUISSOLA [So-fo-
NEES-bah Ahn-gwee-SO-lah] (1528/35— 1625), from Cre-
mona, and her five younger sisters studied painting and
all became painters; only the youngest sibling, a boy, did
not. In 1560, Anguissola became a painter at the court of
Philip I in Madrid, indicating her international fame. The
high regard in which she was held is made clear by the
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 343

painter Gian Paolo Zappi worked as her assistant. She was

the mother of eleven children, although was survived by
only three of them. In 1604 she moved to Rome to work
as a portrait painter for Pope Paul V. The appeal of
Fontana’s style lies in the meticulously painted details of
the costume, her superb technical skill in depicting various
textures, and the absence of a distracting background,
thereby placing all attention on the subject.

SCULPTURE
By the mid-sixteenth century, Mannerism was the domi-
nant style in France, largely as a result of the influence of
Italian artists who moved there after the sack of Rome in
1527. Benvenuto Cellini’s sculpture and writings reflected
the full flowering of the style.

FiGure 13.42 Lavinia Fontana, Portrait ofa Noblewoman, ca.

1580, oil on canvas, 454 x 354” (114.9 X 89.5 cm), National
Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, DC. Gift of
Wallace and Wilhelmina Holladay. This portrait of an un-
known Bolognese lady is believed to be a marriage portrait
because red was the customary color of a wedding gown in
Bologna; she is shown wearing one of the garments, and some
of the gems, in her trousseau. The dog is a standard symbol
of marital fidelity.

FicurE 13.43 Benvenuto Cellini, Sa/teellar ofFrancis I,

1539-43, gold with enamel, 105” X 135” (26 X 33.3 cm), Figure 13.44 Benvenuto Cellini, Perseus, 1545-54, bronze,
Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria. An example of height 18’ (5.4 m), Loggia dei Lanzi, Florence. Even the depic-
extreme elegance and opulence, this table ornament contained tion of the decapitation of the ancient mythological gorgon
salt and pepper. Medusa, blood gushing, attains elegance in the Mannerist style.
 344 CHAPTER 13

Then & Now

THE VENICE GHETTO and objects, which led to the profession of about where they should be allowed to
pawnbroking. In 1397, all Jews were ex- live. The issue was hotly debated for
ne of the most horrifying events in pelled, ostensibly because of irregularities seven years. Franciscan sermons rou-
twentieth-century history is the that had been discovered in the monetary tinely warned that God would punish the
Holocaust, the anti-Semitism movement practices of Jewish bankers and merchants. city if Jews were admitted. Finally, on
in Hitler’s Germany that led to the mur- They were permitted to visit the city for March 29, 1516, a substantial majority
der of more than six million Jews. One of no more than fifteen consecutive days and of the Senate approved a proposal to
the reasons Hitler could so easily con- forced to wear an emblem identifying their move the Jews en masse to an islet linked
trol the Jewish population in Europe was religion. But this order became more and to the rest of the city by two points of
that he created ghettos for the vast ma- more laxly enforced, and the Venetian access that could be closed at night. In
jority of Jews in the major European cap- Jewish community flourished until 1496, this way, Venice could make use of the
itals. The earliest known segregation of when they were once again banished, and skills—and money—of the Jewish com-
Jews into their own distinct neighbor- this time only permitted to stay in Venice munity and still segregate them.
hoods occurred in Spain and Portugal in for two weeks a year. The island to which they were ban-
the fourteenth century, but a large ghetto In 1508, Julius II formed an alliance ished was the site of a new foundry. The
was established in Frankfurt in 1460. with the rest of Italy and Europe against Venetian word for the smelting process is
Ghettos in Venice appeared early in the Venice, and when his army approached gettare, and the new foundry built on the
sixteenth century. the city in the spring of 1509, the large island was named getto nuovo. Soon the is-
A Jewish presence in Venice dates to Jewish community that lived on the land itself was called Ghetto Nuovo, and
the early fourteenth century, and by 1381 mainland at the lagoon’s edge fled to the word “ghetto” entered the language,
the city had authorized Jews to live in the Venice proper. Many Jewish leaders of- and came to be used throughout Europe
city, practice usury—the lending of money fered much-needed financial support, to describe the areas in cities where Jew-
with interest—and sell secondhand clothes and the city found itself in a quandary ish communities were to be found.

Benvenuto Cellini. BENVENUTO CELLINI [che- Like the elongated figures in Parmigianino’s paintings,
LEEF-nee] (1500-71) was a Florentine who worked in Cellini’s exaggerated portrayal of himself and others, in
France for King Francis I (reigned 1515-47). Cellini made his Autobiography, typifies the Mannerist tendency. Unlike
an extraordinary gold and enamel Saltcellar ofFrancis I (fig. Parmigianino’s delicacy and grace, however, Cellini is all
13.43), between 1539 and 1543. It is functional, yet elegant drama and vigor. Cellini’s Autobiography, in the end, is akin
and fantastic. Salt is represented by the male figure Nep- to his Saltcellar ofFrancis I. His sculpture extends the Man-
tune, because salt comes from the sea (the salt is actually nerist style to its limits—the decorous Classical ideal of
in a little boat), and pepper is represented by the female his Renaissance predecessors is gone.
figure Earth, because pepper comes from the earth (the
pepper is actually in a little triumphal arch). On the base
are complex allegorical figures of the four seasons and four ARCHITECTURE
parts of the day, meant to evoke both festive seasonal cel-
Mannerist architects responded to the revival of the an-
ebrations and the daily meal schedule. Cellini wrote that
tique in unorthodox ways. The vestibule of the Laurent-
figures should be elongated; these with small heads and
ian Library in Florence (fig. 13.45) was built as the Medici
boneless limbs are graceful and charming.
family library above the monastery of the church of San
The Autobiography ofBenvenuto Cellini. Among the most Lorenzo. Begun by Michelangelo in 1524, the staircase
widely read of Renaissance works, Cellini’s Autobiography is was designed between 1558 and 1559, and the room
notable for the way in which it portrays the Italian Manner- was completed by GIORGIO VASARI [va-SAH-
ist sculptor and goldsmith. His response to his patron, the ree] (1511-74) and AMMANATI [ah-mahn-AH-tee]
duke of Florence, Cosimo de’ Medici, who had just com- (1511-92). One of the most peculiar rooms ever built, the
missioned a new sculpture, Perseus (fig. 13.44), shows his foyer has among its oddities that it is two stories high and
Mannerist extravagance. When the duke questioned Cellini’s thus higher than it is long or wide. The niches (wall re-
ability to complete a sculpture in bronze, the artist responded cesses) are smaller at the bottom than at the top, and the
with supreme confidence. In Cellini’s account of the inci- same inversion of the norm is true of the pilasters that
dent, the artist is portrayed as heroic, brave, violent, pas- flank the niches. The columns are set into the wall, not in
sionate, promiscuous, and entirely committed to his art. front of it, reversing the usual column and wall relation-
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 345

ship. Scroll brackets, usually supporting elements, are ren- identical, each mimicking an ancient temple facade with a
dered nonfunctional by their placement. The impression triangular pediment supported on columns. The central
is one of walls pushing in, crushing the visitor. Finally, the dome recalls that of the ancient Roman Pantheon (Chapter
staircase has three separate flights at the bottom but only 4, fig. 4.13). Certainly the result is harmonious, dignified,
one into the doorway at the top—a guaranteed traffic majestic, with an impressive grandeur. Yet the idea of a
problem. This intriguing and uncomfortable room, in home as inviting and welcoming has been transformed into
which everything is contrary to the classical rules of ar- something intimidating: The visitor is humbled by the as-
chitecture, may be regarded as an ingenious Mannerist in- cent of many steps required to gain entry, and, although
terpretation of the antique vocabulary. the spacious main floor was used for entertaining, the bed-
‘The architect ANDREA PALLADIO (1508-80), from rooms upstairs have low ceilings.
Vicenza in northern Italy, created a building in the Man- Palladio was not only an architect but also an author:
nerist style that was to be highly influential—the Villa Ro- His Four Books on Architecture, published in 1570, became
tunda (fig. 13.46), ca. 1567-70, one of many villas he built the handbook of architects. An admirer of classical archi-
in and around Vicenza. The Villa Rotunda demonstrates tecture, as the Villa Rotunda demonstrates, the ancient ar-
the extreme to which Palladio carried his passion for sym- chitect’s logic is replaced by impracticality in the
metry and ancient architecture, since all four sides are Mannerist’s reinterpretation.

FiGurE 13.45 Michelangelo, Vasari, and Ammanati, vestibule of Laurentian Library, begun
1524, staircase completed 1559, monastery of San Lorenzo, Florence. The antique architec-
tural vocabulary has been used to create a space in which the visitor is unlikely to feel comfort-
able. The stairs, which seem to flow downward, fill most of the floor space and, because three
flights lead to a single doorway at the top, a traffic jam is likely.
346 CHAPTER 13

’T ‘he Renaissance changed the way like Copernicus and Galileo built on the Outside the arts proper, the political
A. human beings thought of them- advances of that earlier time. ideas of Macchiavelli have been pro-
selves. People were no longer content to The power of individual artistic ge- foundly influential. Machiavelli’s realistic
see themselves simply as a part of a larger nius is most evident perhaps, among approach to governing established prin-
social or religious group. With the Ital- Italy’s painters and sculptors. Who bet- ciples by which rulers not only of his own
ian Renaissance emerged the notion of ter than Raphael, Leonardo, and day, but also of future eras, would rule.
the individual self, an idea that would be Michelangelo epitomize the genius of More quiet but no less influential were
celebrated two centuries later in the age the Renaissance and its cultural influ- the social ideals of Renaissance court
of Romanticism. ence? The very concept of the “Renais- etiquette, especially those set down by
One legacy of the Italian Renaissance sance man,” a multitalented individual Castiglione. His ideals of behavior es-
was a restless intellectual energy. The in- who operates at the peak of perfection in tablished a standard for educated people
dependent thought and critical scrutiny many areas, is synonymous with these of his own and future centuries to emu-
encouraged during the Renaissance splendid artists, whose achievements late.
would result in the scientific revolution have never been surpassed.
of the seventeenth century, as thinkers

FIGURE 13.46 Andrea Palladio, Villa Rotunda, Vicenza, ca. 1567-70. This home takes the
idea of symmetry and repetition beyond the limits of practicality, for all four sides look exactly
the same. Palladio’s passion for his antique prototype—the Roman Pantheon (see Chapter 4)—
led him to create this Mannerist example.
 THE RENAISSANCE AND MANNERISM IN ITALY 347

KEY TERMS
Renaissance motet chiaroscuro mass
humanist word painting sfumato chanson
Neoplatonism sonnet peristyle a cappella
lantern ballad drum Mannerism
baptistery sestina oil painting allegory
linear perspective canzoni impasto
atmospheric (aerial)

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

http://www.nga.gov/collection/gallery/gg4/gg4-main2.
html
(A virtual tour of the early Renaissance in Florence, with many excellent images from the period.)
hitp://www.artchive.com/artchive/D/donatello.htm|
(This is the Artchive, a website with virtually every major artist in every style from every era in
art history. It is an excellent resource.)
http://www.michelangelo.com/buon/bio-index2.html
(This site is a comprehensive resource for the life and career of Michelangelo.)
http://www.GreatBuildings.com/buildings/St Peters of Rome.html
(The Great Buildings site is an excellent tool for architecture of all eras.)
 SIOP TA h- Oe een
=i. a

‘ ba

ne

‘ teal ; 1520 Pope Leo X excommunicates Luther

e—~—s— «SYST Cet of Worms condemns Luther
See

> 1529-35 —_Reformation Parliament in England

«1534 Henry VIII declared head of Church of England
; , iw ~- 1535 aBecket in Canterbury Cathedral destroyed; Henry VIII orders monasteries destroyed
Shrine to St. Thomas
~ ———*1542—s“Frisius invents triangulation
~ ————- 1550 Images and altars ordered removed from English churches
a > «1553-58 Mary restores Catholicism in England
~~ ~——————* 1555 Peace of Augsburg ends German religious wars
4 «1559 «Elizabeth reestablished as head of Church of England
— = 1566 Van Eyck’s Ghent Altarpiece hidden by church supporters
"ROE te ST 1598 Edict of Nantes ends French religious wars

5 Se
«1609 = Galileo adapts telescope to astronomy

Dee ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE

g ear a. 1426 Campin, Mérode Altarpiece
= ~~ 1425-32 Van Eyck, Ghent Altarpiece
Bas, 7 1500 Der, Self-Portrait
— —————-'1505-10 Bosch, Garden of Earthly Delights
— 1519, Da Cortona (?), Chateau of Chambord
a a —
1529-35 Luther, lyrics to “A Mighty Fortress Is Our God”
» ———*1540 “Holbein the Younger, Henry VIII
ae 1551 ~~ Van Hemessen, Portrait of a Lady
Bae 1566-67 Bruegel the Elder, Peasant Wedding
eee 1595 Morley, madrigal composer, “Now Is the Month of Maying”
1591-96 Smythson, Hardwick Hall
. Rares: 1598 Weelkes, madrigal composer, “As Vesta Was Descending”

= ‘ 1509 Erasmus, The Praise of Folly

ee 1517 Sir Thomas More, Utopia
ae 1519 —_Luther, “Ninety-Five Theses”
e 1520 Erasmus, Familiar Conversations
OF 1536 Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion
} * 1542 Jesuit order founded
; ! 1543 __Vesalius, Seven Books on the Structure of the Human Body
f 1549 Copernicus, On the Revolutions of Celestial Bodies
1550 == Cranmer’s Book of Common Prayer required in all English churches
1559 _ First Index of Prohibited Books
te ae 1593 Montaigne, Essays
Les 1595 Marlowe, Dr. Faustus
= 1603 _ Gilbert, Concerning the Magnet
» 1609 Shakespeare, Hamlet
fs e 5 Bore, acer 1620 Kepler, On the Motion of Mars
(ares 1628 == Bacon, Novum Organum
e ————~—_-‘1628 Harvey, On the Circulation of Blood
 The Renaissance
in Northern Europe

Teen
ate
pcan
ace
Rae
sy
ia
resem

ifff
pohiegce
gs "
e

Albrecht Diirer, Se/f-Portrait, 1500, oil on panel, 264 x 17” (66.3 X 49 cm), ae
a
Gh
ea
A:
Alte Pinakothek, Munich.

349
 [| Empire of Charles V ca. 1551 |

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

0 250 500 Miles

0 250 500 Kilometers

Map 14.1 The empire of Charles V, ca. 1551.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

THE EARLY RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE

The Low Countries establish high standards in the visual arts

THE HIGH RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE

The age of discovery, political and religious conflict, Shakespeare, and the portrait

350
 THE RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE 351

THE EARLY RENAISSANCE Ghent were commercial centers, surrounded by agricul-

tural lands and located, for trading purposes, along the
IN NORTHERN EUROPE rivers and coast. In 1340, Ghent was a flourishing textile
HE “REBIRTH” OF CLASSICAL VALUES EMERGED in center producing tapestries, lace, and other fine textiles,
northern Europe and in England more slowly than which it exported to the world from its substantial port on
in Italy. Inevitably, trade and commerce brought the River Scheldt. But by 1400, it had lost its place as the
Italian ideas northward, where they influenced the artistic region’s commercial center, supplanted by the nearby port
traditions. As trade grew, it brought prosperity to an ever of Bruges, which had become the financial capital of all
more influential merchant class, who soon became the northern Europe. There were many reasons for Bruges’s
most important patrons of their day. rise, among them Ghent’s devastating population loss to
the Black Plague. Perhaps the most important reason was
that Bruges, not Ghent, became the favorite city of the
THE COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE
dukes of Burgundy, especially Philip the Good (1396-
With the voyages of the Italian navigator Christopher 1467). Philip dreamed of creating a court culture that
Columbus and the Portuguese navigator Vasco de Gama, might compete with that of the French, and early in the fif-
European penetration of the Americas became well estab- teenth century he moved his court from Dijon to Bruges.
lished, following previous voyages of Portuguese mariners, Meanwhile, the Medicis founded an important branch of
especially those of Henry the Navigator in the early fif- their bank in Bruges and fresh news of the Florentine cul-
teenth century. Successive Portuguese voyages resulted in tural scene was always at hand.
their colonizing the Madeira and Azores islands in the At- Philip’s grandfather, Philip the Bold, and his brother,
lantic, as well as the Cape Verde islands off the west coast Jean, duke of Berry, were great patrons of art in northern
of Africa. By the mid-fifteenth century, Portuguese traders Europe, just as the Medici were in southern Europe. (Jean
had expanded their trade in guns and textiles for African commissioned the Limbourg brothers’ illuminated book of
gold to include trade in slaves. Although Africa had long hours, completed in 1416; see Chapter 12.) Their court
engaged in its own slave trade, the Portuguese vastly in- was obsessed with chivalry and encouraged chivalrous en-
creased its volume and varied the destinations of slaves to tertainments—jousts, tournaments, pageants, and proces-
offshore African islands, Atlantic islands, North and South sions. They dressed in gold-threaded cloth, ermine, and
America, and the Caribbean region. jewels; they commissioned the finest tapestries; and they
The voyages of Christopher Columbus, underwritten surrounded themselves with poets, musicians, scholars,
by the Spanish King and Queen, Ferdinand and Isabella, and painters. Unfortunately, by the late fifteenth century,
did not reach the “Indies” in Asia by sailing west, as the harbor at Bruges was filled with silt, and the city, dwin-
Columbus had calculated. Nor did Columbus bring back dling in size, lost importance as a financial capital. Virtu-
the silks and spices he had envisioned when he set sail on ally untouched and forgotten for four hundred years, it
these voyages. These voyages, however, did open the way remains today as one of the best examples of an Early Re-
for other European mariners from England, France, Hol- naissance city in Europe, its streets and buildings still very
land, and Spain to follow in his wake and to explore and ex- much as they were.
ploit opportunities for trade and for colonizing the
Americas and the Caribbean. In the centuries following
Columbus’s and de Gama’s voyages, the conquest, settle- FLEMISH OIL PAINTING
ment, and exploitation of native peoples of the Americas Oil paint had been used for centuries to paint stone and
and Africa by Europeans was firmly established. metal, but it was not used on wood panels until the early
The natural resources of the new world were brought to fifteenth century. In the past, painters had used egg tem-
Europe, such that to a large degree, the wealth of the Amer- pera. In egg tempera (pigments mixed with egg yolk), an
icas fueled the amassing of fortunes in art by European artist must work quickly because the mixture dries rap-
courts. Moreover, new world products, such as cocoa, cot- idly. Subtle modeling is difficult to achieve in egg tem-
ton, and tobacco, became staples of European consumers. pera, since the paint does not blend readily and is fairly
One of the great ironies of the period from the fourteenth opaque. Oil paint (pigments mixed with linseed oil) stays
through sixteenth centuries is that an age grounded in hu- wet a long time, so color can be blended and reworked
manistic ideals and anchored in religious morality could right on the painting surface. Depicting subtle texture—
result in the exploitation of African slaves and the destruc- soft skin, fluffy hair, velvet, wood, metal, or plaster—is
tion of native Indian civilizations in Mexico and Peru. possible in oil paint.
Robert Campin. One of the first important examples of
GHENT AND BRUGES the oil painting technique is the Mérode Altarpiece (fig.
In the Low Countries, the areas known today as Belgium 14.1), attributed to the Master of Flémalle, ROBERT
and The Netherlands, there was a number of substantial CAMPIN [cam-PEN] (ca. 1375-1444), a member of both
cities by the dawn of the fifteenth century. Cities such as the Tournai painters’ guild and the city council.
352 CHAPTER 14

Ficure 14.1 Robert Campin (Master of Flémalle), Mérode Altarpiece, ca. 1426, egg tempera and
oil on panel, center 25 7 x 242" (64.1 X 63.2 cm), each wing 25 x 102" (64.5 X 27.6 cm),
The Cloisters Collection, 1956 (56. 70), Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Illusions of
texture and atmosphere are made possible by painting in oil rather than egg tempera, the medium
favored during the Middle Ages. Equally innovative is the depiction of the Annunciation in a
middle-class fifteenth-century Flemish home.

The altarpiece still echoes medieval conventions: For watchfulness as well as of Jesus and his resurrection; the
instance, the large size of Mary and Gabriel indicates their dog finials are symbols of fidelity and domesticity. The can-
importance, not realistic relative scale. Yet it also intro- dle refers to the light brought into the world by Jesus. The
duces a new matter-of-fact attention to the details of real- lily, a symbol of purity, is the flower of Jesus’s mother Mary
ity, facilitated by the use of oil paint. Painting around 1426, (Madonna lily). Perhaps the most interesting symbolic de-
Campin employed a mixed technique in the altarpiece, tail is the tiny figure coming in the window on rays of light,
using egg tempera for the underpainting, then proceed- heading for Mary’s abdomen. This miniature man, carry-
ing immediately to paint over it in oil. ing a tiny cross, is a prefiguration of Jesus—in the next in-
The altarpiece is a triptych—a three-paneled painting. stant the Incarnation will take place. Every object, even an
The triptych wings are hinged and can be closed to pro- ordinary household item, could carry iconographic (or
tect the painting inside, and when they are opened out at symbolic) implications. An unusual example of symbolism
an angle, the altarpiece can stand up unaided. This is the is seen on the right panel, where Mary’s husband Joseph
earliest known depiction of the Annunciation as taking makes mousetraps in his carpentry shop, a fifteenth-century
place not in a church or holy realm but in a home. Here Flemish carpenter’s shop complete with tools. Presumably
the traditional religious subject has been combined with an this iconography derives from St. Augustine’s description of
accurate observation of daily life. the Lord’s cross as a mousetrap for the devil, and his death
The central panel depicts the Annunciation. In the left as the bait by which the devil would be caught.
panel, a prosperous merchant, the patron, Ingelbrecht of
Mechlin, and his wife look in through an open doorway, Jan van Eyck. In the 1420s, the painter JAN VAN
witnessing the miraculous event. This clever device es- EYCK [van IKE] (ca. 1390-1441) served Philip the Good,
tablishes an ingenious spatial relationship uniting the two not only as a painter but also as a diplomat to Spain and
panels. Portugal. In Portugal, he painted portraits of Philip’s fu-
The artist documents each object in tiny detail. Every ture bride, Princess Isabella, so that Philip, back in Flan-
part of the painting catches and holds the viewer's eyes. ders, might see what she looked like. He became renowned
This interest in detail is suffused with religious symbolism. not only at the Burgundian court but among notables vis-
For example, the lion finials on the bench are symbols of iting from abroad, especially the Italians. By the middle
 THE RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE 353

of the next century, Giorgio Vasari was referring to him in it might in nature, heightening a sense of verisimilitude. St.
his Lives as the “inventor of oil painting.” Bavon was dedicated to John the Baptist, the patron saint
Like Robert Campin, van Eyck recorded the world in of the city of Ghent.
minute detail. Jan van Eyck completed his Ghent Altar- A deed dated May 13, 1535, establishes Joos Vijd, on
piece, in 1432, just a few years after the Mérode Altarpiece. the left, and his wife Elizabeth Borluut, on the right, as
The Ghent Altarpiece is a much more ambitious work in founders of the chapel where the altarpiece stood. An in-
which he was probably aided by his brother Hubert. Lo- scription on the outer frame reads: “Hubert van Eyck, the
cated in St. Bavon Cathedral in Ghent, this enormous most famous painter ever known, started this work of art
polyptych—a painting consisting of multiple panels—has at the request of Joos Vijd; his brother Jan, who was the
twenty-six panels. When shut, it depicts the Annunciation second in art, finished the monumental commission. With
(fig. 14.2) across four panels cleverly painted to form one this verse the donor consigns the work to your charge on
room. Even the frame enters the pictorial illusion, casting May 6, 1432.” Little is known about Hubert van Eyck.
shadows into the room. In the center of the lower tier are Still, mention of the artists on the work itself indicates a
John the Baptist and John the Evangelist, the former iden- shift from the anonymity of the medieval guild system to-
tified by his camel hair garment and the lamb he is hold- ward the recognition of individual artists.
ing, the latter by a chalice with snakes. These figures are When opened, the altarpiece focuses on the salvation
painted to appear to be sculptures set in architectural and redemption of humankind (fig. 14.3). The glowing
niches. Van Eyck has painted light falling from the right as colors of the interior contrast with the somber colors of the
exterior panels. The central panel on the lower level de-
picts the Adoration of the Lamb: The Mystic Lamb is sac-
rificed, its blood spurting into the chalice, which
FiGure 14.2 Jan and Hubert van Eyck, Ghent Altarpiece symbolizes Jesus’s sacrifice. In the foreground is the Foun-
(closed), ca. 1425-32, oil on panel, 115s" x 763" (3.4 X tain of Life, symbolizing the mass from which grace un-
2.3 m), St. Bavon, Ghent. Although Gabriel and Mary are too
ceasingly flows. The crowds of people paying homage to
large to stand up, the space is ingeniously depicted as if contin-
the Lamb include Old Testament prophets and patriarchs,
uous through all four panels behind the frame—which itself
appears to cast shadows into the room. classical poets and philosophers, New Testament apostles,
and people of all classes, times, and places. Various body
types and facial expressions individualize the figures with
their blemishes and deformities included. Realism is
heightened by the use of atmospheric perspective (see
Chapter 13). The colors and the edges of objects in the
background are not as intense or as sharp as those in the
foreground; distant hills merge with the sky. This differs
from the Mérode Altarpiece in which the artist gave each
object equal focus, whether in the foreground or back-
ground.
Unlike the lower panels, the upper panels do not form
a unified composition. In the center is either God orJesus,
adorned in a scarlet mantle and gemstones that appear to
catch the light. This figure seems to incorporate all as-
pects of the Trinity within himself—the Father, Son, and
Holy Ghost. The outermost figures are Adam and Eve,
the earliest large-scale nudes in northern European panel
painting. Highly naturalistic, they were obviously painted
from models. Eve’s protruding abdomen is the fashionable
figure of the day rather than an indication of pregnancy.
Adam is shown with his mouth slightly open, as if speak-
ing. Drawn as if seen from below, the bottom of Adam’s
foot is visible as he steps on the frame, because the viewer
must look up at these figures.
Van Eyck’s particular genius is further demonstrated in
his commissioned portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and His
Wife Giovanna Cenami, often called The Arnolfini Wedding
(fig. 14.4). On the back wall, above the mirror, are the
words “Johannes de Eyck fuit hic. 1434” (“Jan van Eyck was
here. 1434”). We see reflections in the mirror: the backs of
354 CHAPTER 14

FicurE 14.3 Jan and Hubert van Eyck, Ghent Altarpiece (open), ca. 1425-32, oil on panel,
Nes ” x 151 :" (3.4 X 4.6 m), St. Bavon, Ghent. Because of the lower center scene in which
the multitudes are shown venerating the Lamb of God (Agnus Dei), this monumental polyp-
tych is sometimes referred to as the Mystic Lamb.

Arnolfini and Cenami and, beyond them, two other fig- that canopy beds were “furniture of estate,” commonly
ures, standing in the same place as the viewer. The man in displayed in the principal room of the house as a sign of the
the red turban is perhaps the artist himself, suggesting he owner's prestige.
was, in fact, present as witness. The painting is replete with objects that hold icono-
Giovanni Arnolfini was an Italian merchant working in graphic significance, in disguised symbolism. Thus St.
Bruges as an agent for the Medicis. The painting expresses Margaret, patron saint of childbirth, adorns the bedpost.
the prosperity of the merchant class in fifteenth-century The couple’s shoes are off to signify they stand on holy
Bruges with their lavish textiles and dazzling finery. His ground. Ten scenes in the mirror frame represent the pas-
wife’s protruding abdomen again does not suggest preg- sion of Jesus, and the single candle in the chandelier rep-
nancy but a fashionable physique, probably achieved by a resents the all-seeing God. The dog, as noted, is a symbol
small padded sack over the abdomen and emphasized by of fidelity and domesticity. God’s presence on earth was
the cut of the garment and posture of its wearer. believed to be found in ordinary everyday objects.
Although it has long been assumed the couple are
shown in a bridal chamber, exchanging marriage vows, re- Hieronymus Bosch. Very different from Jan van Eyck’s
cent arguments suggest instead we are witness here not to efforts to portray the real world are those of HIERONY-
a marriage but to an engagement, and the room is not a MUS BOSCH [BOSH] (1450 or 1453-1516). He takes
bedroom but the main room of Arnolfini’s house. The mo- his name from s-Hertogenbosch [s-HER-toe-gen-bos] in
ment is not unlike that described by Shakespeare in Henry southern Holland (now called Den Bosch) where he grew
V, when the English king proposes to Katherine, the up and worked. Off the main roads, isolated from pro-
French princess: “Give me your answer; i’ faith, do; and so gressive ideas, this was a middle class, commercial town
clap hands and a bargain: how say you lady?” Such a touch- situated within an area of religious, political, social, and
ing of the hands was the common sign of a mutual agree- economic unrest. In Bosch’s world, people believed in
ment to wed. As for the room itself, it has been pointed out witches, astrology was taught at the universities, and vi-
 THE RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE 355

FicureE 14.4 Jan van Eyck, Giovanni Arnolfini and His Wife Giovanna Cenami, signed and
dated 1434, oil on panel, Me x 23 i (83.8 X 57.2 cm), National Gallery, London. The grow-
ing interest in portraiture is evidenced here. Cenami’s protruding abdomen was a fashion of
the times, achieved by padding and posture (note Eve’s comparable contour in the Ghent Al-
tarpiece) rather than an impetus for the exchanging of wedding vows.
356 CHAPTER 14

sions were accepted as fact. Although a member of a while the dancing demon on the right plays his nose like a
Catholic fraternity until his death in 1516, Bosch was flute, and a couple kiss in the bushes. Only the angel on
openly critical of certain religious practices. the left notices Jesus above. The left panel is a scene of
Bosch’s work displays an extraordinary imagination and Original Sin. Rebel angels are thrown out of heaven and the
a highly personal style, his painting teeming with bizarre sky is full of monsters. On the right panel is hell—to which
and menacing creatures, part human, part animal. Paint- the wagon, pulled by devils, is rolling.
ing alla prima [AH-la PREE-ma]—without any prelimi- Bosch’s most famous painting, the Garden ofEarthly De-
nary drawing—his draftsmanship looks fragile and delicate. lights (fig. 14.6), probably painted between 1505 and 1510,
Where other Flemish painters stressed solid dimensional- is, like the Hay Wain, a sermon on earthly folly and its pun-
ity, Bosch chose dreamy transparency. While his contem- ishment in hell. Again, creation is shown on the left panel
poraries painted illusions of nature, Bosch painted a and hell on the right. But here the pleasures of the flesh,
phantasmagorical world. Bosch was less interested in the portrayed on the central panel, are the focus of punish-
painterly problems of light and shadow, and more con- ment.
cerned with the moralistic import of his subjects. The central panel is populated by innumerable tiny
Bosch’s Hay Wain (fig. 14.5), a triptych painted ca. humans, bizarre animals, and fantastic plants. The huge
1495-1500, illustrates the Flemish proverb, “The world is fruits are perishables, such as cherries, strawberries, and
a hay wagon and each seeks to grab what he can.” The hay blackberries—rotting fruit is a recurrent image. The im-
wagon is a symbol of worldly goods and pleasures, and the plication is that pleasure, too, is short lived. In this realm,
painting is a satire on the evils of greed. Characteristically, people cavort amorously. Gluttonous lovers sit inside a
Bosch fills this painting with a multitude of vignettes. In berry, luring people in. Other lovers are surrounded by a
the center panel all classes of people fight each other for the transparent capsule, unaware that their conduct is seen
hay. Some are crushed under the wheels. A quack physi- by all.
cian fills his purse. Nuns, supervised by a gluttonous monk, The left panel portrays the creation of Eve, her pres-
stuff hay into a bag. On top of the hay a man plays a lute entation to Adam, the Tree of Knowledge, and the begin-

FiGuRE 14.5 Hieronymus Bosch, Hay Wain, ca. 1495-1500 (?), oil on panel, center
475" x 3°33" (1.40 X 1.00 m), each wing 4'gin X 2'2"(147 X 66 cm), Museo del Prado,
Madrid. Another version of this painting is in the Escorial, near Madrid—scholars debate
which is the original. People of all types try to grab the hay, which, according to a proverb,
represents material possessions.
 THE RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE

FIGURE 14.6 Hieronymus Bosch, Garden ofEarthly Delights, ca. 1505-10, oil on panel, center
7'2" X 6'4" (2.20 X 1.95 m), each wing 720" x 3’2"(2.20 X 0.97 m), Derechos reservados ©
Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid. Bosch’s predilection for the bizarre, his juxtapositions of
seemingly unrelated objects, and their irregular scale foreshadow Salvador Dali and twentieth-
century Surrealism (see Chapter 21).

ning of sin with the Fall. The right panel is a vision of hell.
At the top, cities burn. A pair of ears is separated by a knife,
but held together by an arrow. There is a convent, roofed
by a horse’s skull and populated by demons. A knight is
THE HABSBURG PATRONAGE
devoured by dogs. Musical instruments serve as instru-
ments of torture. At this time lust was called the “music of Bosch became the favorite northern painter of Philip II of
the flesh,” and the bagpipe referred specifically to the male Spain, the richest and greatest collector of art in the last
sexual organ. A bird-creature consumes and excretes the half of the sixteenth century. Not only did Philip own the
damned. A miser vomits gold coins into a sewer. Every Garden ofEarthly Delights, but he owned over thirty other
type of sin receives its punishment in hell. Is the face look- paintings attributed to Bosch. The painter’s work evidently
ing out at us below the bagpipe a self-portrait? If so, Bosch struck a chord with the elegant, highly educated, and re-
has placed himself in hell! fined prince.
Although much of Bosch’s meaning escapes us, some Philip I was the nephew of Charles V, emperor of the
aspects are clear. When he portrayed a mother superior Holy Roman Empire, and of Mary of Hungary, the em-
pig giving a dying man an embrace, Bosch was cryptically peror’s sister. The HABSBURG [HAPS-burg] Charles V
criticizing the Church practice of extracting wills that ben- controlled Spain, the Low Countries, the German empire,
efited monasteries. Members of the clergy during Bosch’s Hungary, Spanish America, and parts of Italy. Although
time were often corrupt, living in licentious luxury even as not a strong supporter of the arts, Charles discovered the
they preached austerity and abstinence to others. paintings of Titian in 1532 and became, together with
The German artist Albrecht Diirer later said of Bosch’s Mary, the artist’s chief patron. Mary of Hungary also
paintings that nothing like them was ever “seen before nor served as governor of the Netherlands from 1531 to 1556,
thought of by any other man.” Bosch’s vision of the Church and in that time developed a passion for fifteenth-century
soon became part of a general call for reform, as other Flemish painting, acquiring, among others, van Eyck’s
artists, writers, and intellectuals began to attack the portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and His Wife Giovanna Ce-
Church. nami (see fig. 14.4).
358 CHAPTER 14

Then & Now

ample—were funded in part by the Na- beliefs of the adherents of a particular re-
ICONOCLASM AND THE ATTACK
tional Endowment for the Arts. The at- ligion or non-religion.”
ON THE ARTS Supporters of artists’ rights of self-
tackers argue that the government,
tbe iconoclastic practices of sixteenth- supported by taxpayers’ money, should expression found the last word of that
century European Protestants were not fund work that offends or upsets statement particularly alarming, be-
focused on the destruction of “idolatrous” those who pay for it. cause, if the amendment were to be
images of God. From the Protestant point Senator Alphonse D’Amato, a Re- passed, the government could prohibit
of view, such images diminished God by publican from New York, tore a photo- funding of any material that denigrated
making him appear like humankind. ‘This graph of one of Serrano’s works into anyone’s belief about anything. It seemed
logic quickly extended to all images within pieces on the floor of the U.S. Senate on to many like government-supported
churches, which could distract the wor- May 18, 1989. “This so-called piece of censorship.
shiper from the true contemplation of sal- art is a deplorable, despicable display of The amendment failed, and thus
vation. It was not a question of artistic vulgarity,” he exclaimed. On July 26, began a legislative battle that continues
merit; the statues were viewed solely for 1989, Senator Jesse Helms, a Republi- to this day. Should the government take
their sacrilegious content. can from North Carolina, introduced an on the role of artistic patron? If not, who
Since 1985, artists in the United amendment to legislation funding the will? Many of the country’s great dance
States have also been attacked for creat- National Endowment that would pro- companies, symphony orchestras, the-
ing art considered obscene or blasphe- hibit the use of appropriated funds to, ater companies, artists, and writers de-
mous, specifically those works that, to among other things, “promote, dissem- pend on government funds to complete
some people, challenge the very idea of inate, or produce . . . obscene or inde- their projects.
Christianity and the values they associate cent materials, including but not limited Thus the link between Renaissance
with a Christian lifestyle. Recent attacks to depictions of sadomasochism, homo- iconoclasm and today’s debates over
have had a political flavor because the art eroticism, the exploitation of children, funding of the arts is clear. How our cur-
and artists in question—Robert Map- or individuals engaged in sex acts; or... rent society settles the debate remains in
plethorpe and Andreas Serrano, for ex- material which denigrates the objects or question.

Financed by gold and silver from the Americas, Philip part glowed, sparkled and flashed with rare and large gems,
added to the great collections of his uncle and aunt. Like some of which were bigger than a goose egg.”
Charles V and Mary before him, he favored Titian, grant- Erasmus blended the study of classical civilization with
ing him an annual stipend and allowing him to paint what- Christian faith. Combining critical intelligence with spir-
ever he chose. When Titian died in 1576, Philip had itual conviction, Erasmus brought together the thought
amassed dozens of his paintings. From Flanders, Philip of Plato with that of St. Paul, and the philosophy of Aris-
collected works by Campin and Bosch. By the time Philip totle with that of St. Augustine. Educated by the Brethren
was done, he had brought more than 1,500 paintings to of the Common Life, an order of laymen who modeled
Spain. their lives on that of Jesus Christ, he joined an Augustin-
ian monastery in 1487 and was ordained a priest in 1492.
Erasmus traveled widely, studying and teaching in most of
the cultural centers of Europe, including England. At Ox-
ERASMUS AND NORTHERN HUMANISM
ford, he became friends with Sir Thomas More; at Cam-
Like Bosch, the northern humanist scholar DESIDERIUS bridge, he was Professor of Divinity and of Greek.
ERASMUS [ee-RAZ-mus] (1466-1536), born in Rotter- Erasmus wrote his Familiar Conversations (1519) to at-
dam, The Netherlands, saw the religious world of late-fif- tack abuses within the Catholic Church. Erasmus’ read-
teenth- and early-sixteenth-century Europe through a ers found the satire scathingly accurate. His Conversations
critical lens, but he was no iconoclast. In .A Pilgrimage for was so antagonistic to the clergy that Charles V, the Holy
Religion’s Sake, he marveled at the shrine to Thomas a Roman Emperor, issued an edict that any teacher using
Beckett in Canterbury Cathedral: “Ye Gods! What a show the work in the classroom would be liable to immediate
was there of silken vestments, what a power of golden can- execution. Forty editions of the book were published in
dlesticks. . . . Treasures beyond all calculation [were] dis- Erasmus’s lifetime, and John Milton, more than a hundred
played. The most worthless thing there was gold, every years later, remarked that everyone was still reading it at
 THE RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE 359

Cambridge. His most famous work, however, is The Praise

ofFolly, a satire of hypocrisy and pretension in his time.
Erasmus did not set himself up as a counterauthority
to the Catholic Church. His goal was to purify the church
from within by ridiculing its abuses and thereby stimulat-
ing internal reform.

THOMAS MORE
Sir Thomas More (1478-1535), to whom Erasmus dedi-
cated his Praise ofFolly, was, like Erasmus, a scholar and a
Christian humanist. More rose to power during the reign
of King Henry VIII, the English king who broke away
from the Roman Catholic Church to establish the Church
of England. A man of conscience, More lost his life for re-
fusing to support Henry in his split with the Roman
Church, and especially in his effort to annul his marriage.
Henry had More executed for treason.
More is also known for his Utopia, which depicts an
ideal state in which economic and social equality prevail
and in which citizens are free to pursue religion and learn-
ing as they wish. In More’s utopian society, citizens
worked, studied, and took recreation in a balanced life
guided by moral values and ethical principles, although
not dominated by any particular religion.

MARTIN LUTHER AND THE REFORMATION

If one individual could be said to dominate the history of
sixteenth-century Europe, that person would be MAR-
TIN LUTHER [LOO-ther] (1483-1546) the key figure
in the Protestant Reformation. Like Erasmus, Luther (fig.
14.7) was an Augustinian monk and a humanist scholar, FIGURE 14.7 Lucas Cranach, Portrait ofMartin Luther, ca.
and, again like Erasmus, he was no iconoclast, although 1526, oil on panel, 15 X 9” (38.1 X 22.9 cm), Uffizi Gallery,
he was well aware that his teachings sparked iconoclastic Florence. SCALA/Art Resource, NY. Cranach was a staunch
frenzy. He was an avid lover of the arts, especially music. supporter of Luther, whose criticism of church practices, such
He wrote hymns for his new Protestant church services. as indulgences, began the Protestant Reformation.
Many are still sung, especially “A Mighty Fortress Is Our
God.” Two centuries later, Johann Sebastian Bach used
Luther’s chorales, embellishing them in his cantatas. was not delivered through achievement but through faith.
Luther was a professor of philosophy and biblical stud- According to Luther, the gospel repudiates “the wicked
ies at Wittenberg [VIT-en-burg] University. At Witten- idea of the entire kingdom of the pope . . . [with its idea
berg Latin was the language of instruction, and the method that] a Christian man must be uncertain about the grace of
of teaching was a detailed study of the classics with par- God toward him. If this opinion stands, then Christ is
ticular attention to Aristotle’s logic. The learning process completely useless. ... Therefore the papacy is a veritable
depended on disputations, or debates. Faculty and stu- torture chamber of consciousness and the very kingdom of
dents attended weekly disputations, which were judged on the devil.”
success according to the rules of logic. Such language would obviously offend Rome, but the
The faculty of Wittenberg University came largely from incident that drew Luther to the attention of Pope Leo X
an Augustinian monastery in the city, where Luther was a was the publication, on October 31, 1517, of his “Ninety-
monk. Luther specialized in the language and grammar of Five Theses.” The clergy had long accepted payment for
the Bible. After 1516, he studied in particular the Greek indulgences, which supposedly remitted penalties to be
New Testament in the edition of Erasmus. The task of suffered in the afterlife (including release from purgatory)
making his own translation into German led him to re- and paved the purchaser’s way to heaven. Luther was par-
think the question of salvation. Salvation, he now believed, ticularly incensed by the conduct of the Dominican monk
360 CHAPTER 14

TETZEL [TET-sel]. “As soon as the coin into the box Martin Luther as fast as they could. Over 750,000 copies
rings,” ‘Tetzel would remind his audience, “a soul from of Luther’s German translation of the Bible were in cir-
purgatory to heaven springs.” Frederick the Wise had culation by the time of his death in 1546.
banned Tetzel from Wittenberg, but the city’s populace Luther concluded that every nonessential religious
simply went out to meet him in the countryside. When practice needed to be stripped away. For Luther, nonessen-
the people informed Luther, who also served as their pas- tials included scholastic philosophy and church ritual,
tor, that they no longer needed to confess or attend mass along with its hierarchy, sacraments, organizational struc-
because they had purchased lifetime indulgences from the ture, and even its prayers and services. Believers could be
Dominican monk, Luther was outraged, and the “Ninety- “justified by faith alone.”
Five Theses” soon followed. Luther crystallized reformist ideas that were simmering
Luther’s ideas were given greater impact by the advent in other countries besides Germany, most importantly
of printing—Luther considered the printing press a gift Switzerland and England. Aside from the sale of indul-
from God. In 1500, there were over two hundred printing gences, at issue were three fundamental concerns: (1) the
presses in Europe; soon there were seven in Wittenberg opulence and worldliness of the Roman Church; (2) the
alone, pumping out the writings of the so-called heretic idea that faith, not good works, led to a person’s salvation;

Map 14.2 The Reformation in Europe, ca. 1560.

y
Atlantic

Ocean

North Sea
Baltic
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cS Roman Catholic ES | ae

ease |Lutheran ee |Calvinist

Orthodox ea Muslim — |

Roman Catholic minorities

“ay L\ AA
WN

Calvinist minorities aa Ba (Paris 494

An AA
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mie
Anabaptist minorities
Muslim minorities
scattered Jewish communities

Toul a (oh
sc Oporto Pre
A Marsettle's N\ Florence

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SPAIN
Barcelona, a & FAPAL \ Adriatic
Pp Fagus STATES |
LY (ss Madrid yee

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“Ne © Xk a Mediterranean wFRome
J a j ~ ITALY"
a Sea Vay,
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GRANADA @

250 miles

400 kms toe

 THE RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE 361

and (3) the tension between religious tradition as embod- religious living. His Institutes drew out the principles em-
ied in the papacy and Scripture, including both Old and bedded in biblical teaching. They include the following:
New ‘Testaments, as the supreme authority in matters of
faith and morals. Luther and other Protestant reformers 1. Human beings are born in total depravity as a result
of Adam’s fall, whereby they inherit original sin.
sought to simplify the elaborate rituals of the Roman
2. The will of God is absolute and all-powerful.
Church by returning to spiritual essentials. In addition, 3. Faith is superior to good works, since humans lack
Protestant reformers, especially Luther, believed that in the capacity to choose to do works that are truly
order to achieve salvation one had to believe in God, and good in God’s eyes.
that God’s mercy alone, not an individual’s good acts, de- 4. Salvation comes through God’s freely given grace
termined one’s spiritual salvation. Moreover, central to the rather than through any acts of the people.
reformers’ ideas was an emphasis on the importance of the 5. God divinely predestines some to eternal salva-
individual conscience—one’s unmediated, personal rela- tion—the Elect—and others to eternal perdition—
tionship with God, rather than a relationship mediated by the Damned; and since no one knows with absolute
priests, doctrines, and religious tradition. certainty whether he or she is one of the Elect, all
Luther was also community minded. No one, he be- must live as if they were, obeying God’s commands.
lieved, should have to beg in Wittenberg. Every city should Calvin identified the Elect by their unambiguous profes-
take care of its poor. Disappointed by the unwillingness sion of faith, their upright life, and their pious participa-
of the populace of Wittenberg to contribute to the com- tion in the sacraments, whose number, like Luther, Calvin
munity chest (established by him in late 1520 to provide reduced.
social welfare), Luther scolded his congregation for being From Geneva Calvinism spread into France, the
“unthankful beasts,” and, declaring his unwillingness to Netherlands, England, Scotland, and North America, im-
be “the shepherd of such pigs,” actually quit preaching pacting the social, political, and intellectual life of all these
until the situation was remedied. He argued, “Christ and countries. The Calvinist attitude can be traced in the rise
all saints are one spiritual body, just as the inhabitants of of the Puritans, in Milton’s Paradise Lost and the works of
a city are one community and a body, each citizen being a seventeenth-century American Puritan writers Edward
member of the other and of the entire city.” Thus Luther Taylor and Cotton Mather, and in nineteenth-century
laid religious grounds for social democracy and equality, works such as Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter
ideas that would, in the next century, lead to social revo- and Herman Melville’s Moby-Dick.
lution throughout Europe and the Americas.

ICONOCLASM
JOHN CALVIN AND THE INSTITUTES
OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION Iconoclasm [eye-KON-o-KLAZ-em] is the systematic
destruction of religious icons because of their religious
While Luther was reforming in Germany, another more connotations. As anti-Catholic reform movements spread
radical Protestant leader was active in Geneva in Switzer- throughout northern Europe in the sixteenth century, an
land, JOHN CALVIN [KAL-vin] (1509-64), a French hu- iconoclastic fever spread with them. The widespread de-
manist who underwent a religious conversion of great struction of religious images resulted from popular re-
intensity. Calvin’s reformist views were not well received sentment against a church grown worldly and corrupt. The
in France, and he fled to Switzerland, where he published Old ‘Testament prohibition against images that led to idol-
his Institutes of the Christian Religion in Basel and later set atry was cited as the justification for this destruction. The
up a theocratic state—that is, a state ruled by a religious art that had flourished under the patronage ofJulius II and
figure or group—in Geneva. Leo X became the very symbol of the papacy’s corruption.
Calvin’s reforms, like Luther’s, involved stripping away In Zurich, the religious leader ULRICH ZWINGLI
what he considered external and distracting to true Chris- [ZWING-glee] even prohibited the use of music in wor-
tian piety. He rejected images of saints and limited the use ship. John Calvin wrote, “Therefore it remains that only
of music to psalms. Many other activities were prohibited those things are to be sculpted or painted which the eyes
in Calvin’s Geneva, including feasting and dancing; wear- are capable of seeing: let not God’s majesty, which is far
ing rouge, jewelry, and lace, and dressing immodestly; above the perception of the eyes, be debased through un-
swearing, gambling, and playing cards; reading immoral seemly representations.” Such sentiments led church sup-
books and engaging in sexual activity outside of marriage. porters to dismantle the Ghent Altarpiece in 1566 and
People caught breaking the rules were warned the first safeguard it in the tower of St. Bavon.
time, fined the second, and severely punished after that. ‘The most virulent iconoclasm occurred in England, be-
Some were banished, others executed. ginning when King Henry VIII (fig. 14.8) ordered the
Like Luther, Calvin recognized the Bible as the destruction of the monasteries in 1535. Henry’s motives
supreme source of knowledge and the only recourse for were as much political as they were religious. When he
362 CHAPTER 14

Uu
= Nera me

DURER DESCRIBES MEXICAN early as the thirteenth century. It re- tirely of gold, a whole fathom wide; like-
"TREASURES counts agricultural rituals, establishes the wise, a moon, made entirely of silver, and
Mayan calendar, and, in its drawings of just as big; also, a variety of other curiosi-
en Hernan Cortés landed in costumes and gods, is by far the most de- ties from weapons, to armor, and missiles.
Mexico in 1519, he did so as the tailed description of Mayan life we have ... These things were all so precious that
representative of King Charles V of today. Only its having been sent back to they were valued at a hundred thousand
Spain, the Hapsburg ruler who actually Europe saved it from the total destruc- gilders. But I have never seen in all my
lived in Vienna. Cortés sent Charles a se- tion of all “pagan” and “idolatrous” man- days anything that caused my heart to re-
ries of letters recounting his conquests uscripts ordered by Diego de Landa, joice so as these things have. For I saw
there, and with them a collection of Charles V’s first appointee as bishop of among them amazing art objects, and I
treasures. When these treasures arrived Yucatan. marveled over the subtle ingenuity of the
in Brussels, Albrecht Diirer was among But Diirer was most impressed by the men in distant lands who made them.”
the many who came to see them. extraordinary gold- and metalwork sent This Aztec goldwork was, however, soon
Among the collection was the famous from the “New World”: “I saw the things melted down by Charles for currency, the
Dresden Codex, a folding-screen manu- brought to the King from the New fate of almost all such metalwork sent to
script made of bark paper dating to as Golden Land,” Diirer wrote, “a sun en- Europe from Mexico.

FicurE 14.8 Hans Holbein the Younger, Henry VIII, ca. wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne
1540, oil on panel, 2'95” < 2'55" (82.6 X 75 cm), Galleria Boleyn, from whom he hoped for a male heir, as a Catholic
Nazionale d’Arte Antica, Rome. Scala/Art Resource, NY. The he could not do so. Frustrated after six years of negotia-
English monarch is shown in wedding dress—an attire he tions with Pope Clement VII in Rome, Henry eliminated
donned six times. As Holbein records, at the age of forty-nine
papal authority in England. Thus the Church of England
he was already, as he was described in his later years, a “man-
mountain.” was born—the Anglican Church—and it granted his di-
vorce. (An heir was born, although Henry was disap-
pointed, since the child was a girl—the future Queen
Elizabeth I.)
Henry first attacked the monasteries, the ruins of many
of which still stand: Glastonbury, the mythological burial
place of King Arthur, and Tintern Abbey, which later in-
spired a poem by William Wordsworth. When Shake-
speare wrote of “these bare ruin’d choirs where late the
sweet birds sang,” he was referring to such ruins. Thomas
Cromwell, Henry’s minister, ordered the destruction of
the objects of idolatry, particularly “feigned images . .
abused with pilgrimages or offerings.” Soon the shrine to
St. Thomas a Beckett in Canterbury Cathedral was torn
down and his sainthood recanted.

THE AGE OF DISCOVERY

Ever since Marco Polo had returned from China in the
thirteenth century, the European view of the globe had
undergone continual revision. In the two centuries after
1450, European explorations mapped the details of the
world. Fueled by both missionary and economic zeal, Eu-
ropean exploration also spawned an encounter with peo-
ples and cultures hitherto unknown.
 THE RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE 363

Renaissance Explorers. 1n 1488, the Portuguese explorer In the same year that Copernicus published On the Rev-
BARTOLOMEU DIAS [DEE-es] was blown far south off olutions of Celestial Bodies, ANDREAS VESALIUS [vi-SAY-
the West African coast by an enormous storm. Heading lee-es] (1514-64) published his Seven Books on the Structure
northeast afterwards, he had rounded what came to be called of the Human Body, which illustrated the anatomy of the
the Cape of Good Hope, thus suggesting that Africa was sur- human body based on actual observations. In England, Sir
rounded by water. In 1497, the Portuguese explorer VASCO William Harvey discovered capillaries in the human cir-
DA GAMA [VAS-koe de GAM-uh] followed Dias’s route culation system, solving the mystery of how blood returned
and reached India ten months and fourteen days after setting to the heart from the arteries. The English mathematician
out from Lisbon. Meanwhile, Christopher Columbus had JOHN NAPIER [NAY-pee-er] discovered the logarithm,
made landfall in the Bahamas in 1492, and in 1500 the Por- freeing mathematicians from arduous calculation. In 1542,
tuguese PEDRO CABRAL [ka-BRAHL] pushed west from GEMMA FRISIUS [FREE-zi-yus] discovered new prin-
the bulge of Africa and landed in what is now Brazil. Magel- ciples for increasing accuracy in surveying and mapmak-
lan sailed around the tip of South America, across the Pacific ing, using the technique of triangulation.
to the Philippines, across the Indian Ocean and around Africa,
thus circumnavigating the globe. On September 8, 1522, the
PAINTING AND PRINTMAKING
eighteen survivors of Ferdinand Magellan’s crew arrived back
in Cadiz, Spain, three years after setting out. Albrecht Diirer. Vf any artist in the north can be said to
The age of discovery was an age of doubt. Thus not embody the ideals of the Renaissance and the spirit of dis-
only geography underwent revision in the sixteenth cen- covery that defines it, it is ALBRECHT DURER
tury. Likewise, the Reformation placed in doubt the au- [DYOU-ruhr] (1471-1528), painter, printer, draftsman,
thority of institutional orthodoxy. In asserting that theoretician, writer, humanist, and publisher. His output
authority resided in the individual, Luther echoed a hu- was enormous, consisting of more than a hundred paint-
manist trend. Luther’s emphasis on individual conscience, ings and over a thousand drawings and prints.
on private judgment, and the individual act of faith was Diirer was born in Nuremberg; his mother was a Ger-
part of the cultural transformation that led to the secular- man, his father a Hungarian goldsmith. Like his Italian
ization of society and the rise of scientific investigation. counterpart Leonardo da Vinci, Diirer was fascinated with
nature and studied it intensely. Throughout his career,
Nicolas Copernicus. In the spirit of geographical “dis-
Diirer made various studies of animals, birds, and plants,
covery” the Polish astronomer NICOLAS COPERNI-
all sketched or painted from life.
CUS [koh-PUR-ni-kus] (1473-1543) published On the
Diirer produced a number of self-portraits. In that of
Revolutions of Celestial Bodies in the year of his death. Build-
1500 (fig. 14.9), he admires himself in a most self con-
ing on the work of the ancient Greek geographer and as-
gratulatory way. “Art,” he wrote, “derives from God; it is
tronomer Ptolemy, whose writings had been rediscovered
God who has created all art; it is not easy to paint artisti-
and translated in 1410, Copernicus argued that earth and
cally. Therefore, those without aptitude should not at-
the other planets orbit the sun, rather than the sun and
tempt it, for it is an inspiration from above.” Diirer
planets revolving around earth. But theologians refused to
believed he was endowed with a God-given gift, a hu-
believe the earth was not at the center of the universe, and
manistic and individualistic view that he shared with
Copernicus’s book was placed on the Index of Prohibited
Michelangelo and other Renaissance artists.
Books in 1616. Even so, Copernicus’s work could not be Despite his genius at painting, Diirer’s fame derives
suppressed. from his prints. In woodcuts and engravings, through
The New Scientists. In England, Francis Bacon the precision and detail of his work as well as the richness
(1562-1626) advocated a “scientific method” in which ac- and variety of his effects, Diirer was able to achieve mon-
tual observations needed to be made in planned experi- umentality on the scale of a sheet of paper. Among the
ments. Hypotheses could be tested and proved; there was many series of prints that Diirer produced is the Apocalypse,
no room in science for blind “faith.” published in 1498, consisting of fifteen woodcuts with the

Reformer . Country / Significance

Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1533) The Netherlands The Praise of Folly

Martin Luther (1483-1546) Germany The 95 Theses
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) Switzerland (Zurich) Iconoclasm
John Calvin (1509-64) Switzerland (Geneva) Predestination

King Henry VIII (1491-1547) England Destruction of monasteries

364 CHAPTER 14

ji

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PE off f? i
f ia ad
ji >. 3
*

Ne Ss OD geSa ee _ Ie kes

Figure 14.9 Albrecht Diirer, Se/f~Portrait, 1500, oil on

FicurE 14.10 Albrechr Diirer, Four Horsemen of the Apoca-
panel, 265 X 194" (66.3 X 49 cm), Alte Pinakothek, Munich. lypse, 1497-98, woodcut, 155 X 11” (39.4 X 28.3 cm), gift of
Junius S. Morgan, 1919. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
Diirer, carrying the Renaissance interest in the self further
York. Diirer’s genius elevated graphic art (printmaking) to a
than most, completed several self-portraits throughout his life.
fine art. When making a woodcut, the artist draws a reverse
Here, hardly subtle, Diirer depicts himself in Christlike mode.
image on a block of wood, then cuts away the wood from the
drawing. The remaining raised areas of the wooden block are
inked, the paper is pressed onto the block, and an image of the
text printed on the reverse. Reissued several times, this se- raised area is made.
ries did much to spread his fame. From the Apocalypse se-
ries comes the gruesome Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
(fig. 14.10). Death, War, Pestilence, and Famine are rid- cuts, the image that is printed is a mirror reversal of the
ing rampant over the burghers, artisans, merchants, and original.
other citizens of Nuremberg. In a woodcut, the negative, After visiting Italy, Diirer became increasingly inter-
or white, areas of the final print are cut into the block while ested in the human figure, and his depictions of Adam and
the black areas are uncut, and remain raised in relief. Ink Eve essentially an excuse to study the male and female
is rolled over the surface, paper is placed on the inked sur- nude. Diirer used mathematical proportions and drew
face, and the image transferred to the paper by applying from Italian works and interpretations of antiquity. His
pressure to the back of the paper. Adam resembles the Hellenistic Greek Apollo Belvedere,
Adam and Eve (fig. 14.11) is an engraving, signed and which had been recently discovered, and his Eve recalls
dated on the plaque on the tree branch, “Albrecht Diirer the classical Venus de Milo.
of Nuremberg made this in 1504.” An engraving is printed Diirer included symbols of the four humors, a notion
from a design inscribed in the surface of a metal plate. derived from classical philosophy, in the background of
Using a sharp burin, or steel gouging tool, the design is cut Adam and Eve: The cat is choleric (angry); the rabbit san-
into the surface of a metal plate. Ink is rubbed into these guine (confident); the elk melancholic (depressed); and the
recesses and the surface of the plate is wiped clean. Damp ox phlegmatic (impassive).
paper is then placed on the inked plate. The pressure of a In 1515, Diirer was made court painter to Emperor
printing press is required to force the paper into the re- Maximilian I. Now among the rich and famous, Diirer had
cesses to pick up the ink. For both engravings and wood- a shop of people working for him. In later years he worked
 THE RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE 365

Figure 14.11 Albrecht Diirer, Adam and Eve, 1504, engrav-

FiGuRE 14.12 Hans Holbein the Younger, Erasmus ofRotter-
ing, 95 x 73" (25.1 X 19.4 cm), Philadelphia Museum of Art,
dam, ca. 1523, oil on panel, 165 x Dee (42 X 31.4 cm),
Philadelphia. In an engraving, the recessed areas are printed.
Musée du Louvre, Paris. Reunion des Musées Nationaux/Art
The artist cuts the lines into a metal plate, the recessed lines
Resource, NY. Holbein’s portrait of the Dutch humanist Eras-
take the ink, paper is applied to the inked plate, and the ink is
mus, shown as he records his ideas, conveys his intellectual au-
transferred to the paper by the pressure of a printing press. thority.

more and more on theories of measurement and propor- shop. Around 1523, Holbein painted Erasmus ofRotterdam
tion. Like Leonardo da Vinci, Diirer relied on Vitruvius’s (fig. 14.12), a portrait of the famous Dutch humanist who
scheme of human proportions, and in 1525 he published had settled in Basel in 1521. Holbein revered Erasrnus,
The Teaching ofMeasurements with Rule and Compass (Man- became his close friend, and portrayed him several times.
ual of Measurements) and later Four Books on Human Pro- Erasmus provided Holbein with letters of introduction
portions. Concerned with practical application, Diirer to the English court, where he was to become famous. In
designed devices to aid the artist in doing perspective 1536, Holbein became court painter to Henry VIII, pro-
drawings. In all, his interests in antiquity, the natural world, ducing portraits of the king and his family (see fig. 14.8).
anatomy, and perspective were analogous to those of his As Henry’s court painter, Holbein painted portraits of his
Italian contemporaries. prospective brides. Holbein’s working method was to begin
Although Diirer did paint and print religious subjects, with a chalk sketch, the face drawn in careful detail, the
most were executed early in his career. In 1519, Diirer be- body and costume loosely indicated. Later, the portrait
came a follower of Martin Luther. As the Reformation was painted in his studio. The sitter could send to Hol-
gained momentum, painters in the north turned more and bein’s studio any garment she or he wished to be shown
more to secular subjects. wearing; no one was expected to pose while waiting for
Holbein to craft every puff and pleat. These portraits dis-
Hans Holbein the Younger. ‘The art of HANS HOL-
play exquisite line and sensitive modeling. Holbein varied
BEIN THE YOUNGER [HOLE-bine] (1497/98-1543)
the format of his portraits, but he always made the sitter
reflects this increasing secularity. Holbein’s fame grew
look dignified.
from his portraiture, and he painted many important peo-
ple. Born in Augsburg into a family of artists, he worked Caterina van Hemessen. Caterina Van Hemessen
in the shop of his father, Hans Holbein the Elder, and he (1527/8 — ca. 1566), one of the most important women
studied in Basel, Switzerland, where in 1519 he set up painters of the Renaissance in northern Europe, also
366 CHAPTER 14

and the new trends, but the trip seems to have had little im-
pact on his art. In 1563, he married his teacher’s daughter
and moved from Antwerp to Brussels, where he was to re-
main. His two sons became painters.
Bruegel earned considerable income by imitating the
paintings of Hieronymus Bosch, which were extremely
popular by the middle of the sixteenth century. But his
best paintings depict the daily life of ordinary people,
known as genre painting. Typical of his paintings is the
Harvesters (fig. 14.14) of 1565. Bruegel was commissioned
to paint a series of scenes of the months of the year with,
presumably, one painting representing every two months;
the Harvesters represents August and September. Bruegel
gave the landscape prominence; nature no longer served
merely as a setting for a portrait or religious event. The
Limbourg brothers (see Chapter 12) had completed a se-
ries on the months of the year in their book of hours in
1416; what is new in Bruegel’s paintings is the way in which
the landscape is shown. The figures, rather than being
placed in front of a landscape background, are now inte-
grated into the setting. The colors convey the feeling of a
warm summer afternoon—rich yellows and tans in the
foreground, cool greens in the background.
Bruegel’s Peasant Wedding (fig. 14.15), of ca. 1566-67,
records the commotion of a rustic wedding. The smiling
bride sits before a dark hanging cloth, hands clasped. Two
men carrying bowls of rice pudding on wooden planks cre-
ate the foreground. The bagpiper looks at this dessert,
which, because rice was not a local product, was considered
FicureE 14.13 Caterina van Hemessen, Portrait ofa Lady,
1551, oil on oak, 9 X 7” (23 X 18 cm), National Gallery, Lon- a delicacy. The composition of the Peasant Wedding is care-
don. Tiny in size, this portrait is an example of the sixteenth- fully constructed to appear informal and draw the viewer
century vogue for miniature portraits. Van Hemessen’s sitters, into the event. The foreground is brought close to the
seemingly avoiding eye contact with the viewer, maintain their viewer by the figures in the lower left, including a child
quiet composure. licking his fingers. The arrangement in space is diagonal;
the diagonal line of the planks on which the dessert is
specialized in portraiture, as many women artists did. Her served continues to recede down the table all the way to the
father was the Flemish Mannerist painter Jan Sanders van back of the hall. Bruegel uses areas of flat color and sim-
Hemessen of Antwerp. The example seen in fig. 14.13 is plified forms to create a decorative, patterned quality. His
typical of her work in its small-scale depiction of a single strong, stocky figures convey the robustness and earthy
figure standing against a dark monochromatic back- liveliness of this celebration.
ground. This reserved simplicity accorded with the taste
of the time and brought her great success, for she was pa-
tronized by Queen Mary of Hungary, then ruling the Low ARCHITECTURE
Countries for her brother, Charles I of Spain. In 1556,
As the merchant class rose in importance, secular patron-
when Mary returned to Spain, her invitation to van
age of the arts grew, along with interest in personal luxury
Hemessen and her husband to join her there was accepted.
and the display of wealth as a means of expressing power
When Mary died, she left van Hemessen and her husband
and prestige. Castles were obvious examples of the owner’s
ample funds to allow them to return to Antwerp and live
comfortably. importance. The most splendid of these were the chateaux
(castles) of France. A concentration of Renaissance castles
Pieter Bruegel the Elder. In contrast to Holbein’s and is found in the Loire [LWAR] valley, which was an espe-
van Hemessen’s work at court, PIETER BRUEGEL THE cially agreeable area because of its fine climate and abun-
ELDER [BROY-gul] (ca. 1525-1569) portrayed the peas- dant game.
antry and the countryside. Little is known about his life.
When he was born remains uncertain; where, perhaps in Chateau of Chambord. Perhaps the most extraordinary
Flanders. He visited Rome to study humanism, classicism, of the French Renaissance chateaux is that of Chambord
 THE RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE 367

Figure 14.14 Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Harvesters, 1565, oil on panel, 3/105" x 53 a
(1.18 X 1.61 m), Rogers Fund, 1919. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. A genuine in-
terest in landscape as a subject, rather than as mere background, first appears in Bruegel’s se-
ries of paintings depicting the months and their corresponding labors.

[sham-BORE] (fig. 14.16), begun in 1519 for the king, staircases can see each other across the central well, but
Francis I. The original architect is believed to have been they cannot touch.
an Italian, DOMENICO DA CORTONA {dah kor-
TOE-nuh] (d. 1549). The largest of all Renaissance Hardwick Hall. England’s castles with massive fortifica-
chateaux, Chambord has 440 rooms, 365 chimneys (one tions and small windows gradually gave way to airy homes
for every day of the year), fourteen big staircases, and sev- with huge glass windows. These were built for the newly
enty smaller staircases. The plan of Chambord is that of a enfranchised nobility created by Henry VIII, when he
medieval castle with a central keep, four corner towers, a granted church lands to his supporters. Hardwick Hall (fig.
surrounding wall, and, originally, a moat. Yet Chambord 14.17), built 1591-96 and probably the work of the leading
was built not for defense but for display. English architect ROBERT SMYTHSON [SMITH-son]
The chateau at Chambord has two extraordinary fea- (ca. 1535-1614), is one example. It was built for the able and
tures, one outside, the other inside. Outside, on the flat determined Elizabeth of Shrewsbury, also known as Bess of
roof, is a tiny town with winding streets, squares, and tur- Hardwick, who amassed a fortune from her four marriages
rets. To walk on the roof is to wander in an intricate fairy- and as a businesswoman in her own right.
land in the sky. Inside, the main attraction is the central The plan of Hardwick Hall is symmetrical and com-
double-spiral staircase. Built within a circle 30 feet in di- pact, built with a central great hall and square corner tow-
ameter and 80 feet to the roof, the two spiral staircases in- ers. The layout is innovatively arranged to separate rooms
tertwine, but do not meet—two people on opposite for public functions from those for private activities. The
368 CHAPTER 14

FiGureE 14.15 Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Peasant Wedding, ca. 1566-67, oil on panel,
es a x 5'4' (1.10 X 1.60 m), Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Unlike his contempo-
raries, Bruegel was concerned not so much with the individual as with the type and, in particu-
lar, with the peasant class.

FIGURE 14.16 Domenico da Cortona (?), Chateau of Chambord, Loire Valley, begun in
1519, north facade. It is possible to ascend the monumental double-spiral staircase to the
roof—where a little town has been constructed atop this extraordinary French castle.
 THE RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE 369

FIGURE 14.17 Robert Smythson (?), Hardwick Hall, Derbyshire, 1591-96, facade. The im-
portance of large windows as a sign of wealth is made clear by the comment, “Hardwick Hall,
more glass than wall,” to describe this English castle.

floors are divided according to function and the more cer- spoken language. Although secular vocal compositions
emonial the use of a room, the higher it is located in the were written in Italian, French, Spanish, German, Dutch,
house. Thus the great hall and the areas used by servants and English, there were two main schools of madrigal writ-
are on the ground floor; the private family apartments on ing—English in the north and Italian in the south.
the next floor; and the state rooms at the top of the house. The madrigal is a vocal composition for a small group
Hardwick Hall includes an invention of the English Re- of singers, usually with no accompaniment. Like sacred
naissance, a long gallery—an unusually long room in motets (religious texts set to a polyphonic composition),
which to take exercise during bad weather. madrigals were composed in polyphonic style, with mul-
Hardwick Hall’s massiveness and symmetry are char- tiple voice parts. (For an explanation of polyphony, see
acteristic of Elizabethan architecture. Hardwick Hall was Chapter 13.) Unlike motets, however, which were per-
noted in particular for the great size of its windows, made formed by a small choir singing the same text in
memorable by the line coined at the time, “Hardwick Hall, polyphony, madrigals were performed by a few singers,
more glass than wall.” Note, too, that the size of the win- each of whom sang a different vocal part. The madrigal
dows increases as the floors ascend, corresponding to the particularly appealed to an educated audience and was a
luxury and prestige of the functions of the rooms within. popular court entertainment.
Typically settings of short lyric poems, madrigals were
often about love and frivolity. The madrigalist’s challenge
SECULAR MUSIC was to set the poem to music perfectly. Madrigalists often
During the Renaissance, secular music (music not asso- tried to outdo each other, and their language and musical
ciated with religious meanings or ceremonies) became in- settings were often witty. They were especially inventive
creasingly popular. Giorgione and Titian’s Fete champétre in setting words associated with weeping, sighing, trem-
(see fig. 13.36) documents this popularity in its depiction bling, and dying.
of people playing instruments. Unlike sacred vocal music,
which typically set Latin or Greek texts to music, secular Thomas Weelkes. A composer best known for his madri-
vocal music was composed for lyrics in the vernacular, the gals, THOMAS WEELKES [WILKS] (1575-1623) was
370 CHAPTER 14

the organist at Chichester Cathedral. His madrigal “As two singers then three, and finally all six join in before
Vesta Was Descending” was included in an early-seven- dropping back to a solo singer. Weelkes also uses fast notes
teenth-century collection of madrigals, The Triumph of Ori- for the words “running down amain,” and he writes lively
ana, to honor Queen Elizabeth I (fig. 14.18). Written for and upbeat music for the line “With mirthful tunes her
six voices—two sopranos, alto, two tenors, and bass— presence entertain.” Finally, for the word “long” in the
Weelkes’s madrigal was a setting of the following poem: last line, Weelkes provides singers with their longest held
As Vesta was from Latmos hill descending,
note. (For a further explanation of word painting, see
She spied a maiden Queen the same ascending, Chapter 13.)
Attended only by all the shepherds swain, Thomas Morley. Another well-known composer of
To whom Diana’s darlings came running down amain: madrigals was Thomas Morley (1557-1603). Morley fa-
First two by two, then three by three together,
vored homophonic texture, in which a single melody, not
Leaving their goddess all alone, hasted thither,
And mingling with the shepherds of her train, several, is employed with harmonic support. He also uses
With mirthful tunes her presence entertain. the same music for each stanza of the poem below, with the
Then sang the shepherds and nymphs of Diana, nonsense syllables fa-/a sung as a refrain. The playfulness
Long live fair Oriana. of the music complements the playfulness of the words,
which, as with much Elizabethan poetry, reveal a true love
Weelkes takes advantage of the poem’s opportunities for
of the language.
word painting. On the words “descending” and “ascend-
Morley’s madrigal, “Now Is the Month of Maying,”
ing,” for example, he uses descending and ascending mu-
scored for five voices, describes the flirting and courtship
sical lines, respectively. He also expresses the description
games common in the countryside. Morley’s melody has
of the attendants running “two by two, then three by three
the rhythm and tunefulness of a folk dance. It is structured
together, / Leaving their goddess all alone,” by having first
in two parts, each of which is repeated and each of which
concludes with the fa-/a refrain. Here is the text:
FiGurE 14.18 Levina Bening Teerling, Elizabeth I as a Now is the month of maying,
Princess, ca. 1559, oil on oak panel, 42 z x Ww A) (108.5 xX When merry lads are playing, fa la,
81.8 cm), The Royal Collection © 2004 Her Majesty Queen Each with his bonny lass
Elizabeth II, Windsor Castle, Windsor. Royal Collection En- Upon the greeny grass. Fa la.
terprises Ltd. The books are indicative of Elizabeth’s love of The spring, clad all in gladness,
learning and support of the arts. Doth laugh at winter’s sadness, fa la,
And to the bagpipe’s sound
The nymphs tread out their ground. Fa la.
Fie then! why sit we musing,
Youth’s sweet delight refusing? Fa la,
Say, dainty nymphs, and speak,
Shall we play barley break? Fa la.
The lyrics to both Weelkes’s and Morley’s madrigals depict
delicate nymphs and good-natured shepherds, light-
hearted diversions that appealed to the privileged classes.

LITERATURE
Michel de Montaigne. ‘The fame of MICHEL DE
MONTAIGNE [mahn-TAYN] (1533-92) rests on his
Essays, which exemplify Renaissance individualism
grounded in a humanism derived from Greco Roman an-
tiquity. Montaigne’s Essays, however, are distinguished less
by depth of knowledge of the past than by a profound
knowledge of the self.
Montaigne was born in Bordeaux, southern France.
Montaigne studied law, spent time at court, and became a
member of the Bordeaux parliament, serving as an arbi-
trator between the warring Protestant and Catholic royal
factions. At thirty-eight, Montaigne retired to his castle,
where he had a library, and devoted himself to reflection
and writing. (At forty-eight, he came out of retirement to
serve two terms as mayor of Bordeaux in 1581-85.)
 THE RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE 371

Montaigne’s early essays (in French, essais) contain nu-

merous quotations from antiquity. In his second book of
essays, however, he relied less on the authority of the past THE
and more on expressing views in his own voice. In his third
and last book of essays, Montaigne used quotations spar-
ingly, presenting an original self-portrait.
Montaigne said that he wrote about himself because he
Tragicall Hiftorie of
HAMLET
knew himself better than he knew anything else. In “Of
Experience,” he wrote that “no man ever treated of a sub-
ject that he knew and understood better than I do this...
and in this I am the most learned man alive.” Montaigne Prince ofDenmarke»
notes, however, that he exists in a state of flux. “I must
adapt my history to the moment,” he wrote, for “I may By William Shake-{peare.
presently change, not only by chance, but also by inten-
tion.” And thus his essays are “a record of diverse and As it hath beene diuerfe times acted by his Highneffe fer-
changeable events, of undecided, and . . . contradictory uants in the Cittie of London : asalfo inthe two V-
ideas.” niuerfities of Cambridgeand Oxford,and elfe-where
Montaigne asks questions in his essays, without pro-
viding answers. “Perhaps” and “I think” are among his
most frequently used expressions, and “Que sais-je?”
(“What do I know?”) is his most recurring question. The
very name for the genre he created, essai, means trial or
attempt, suggesting a process rather than a product, open-
ness rather than conclusiveness, a journey and not a des-
tination. As much as his essays reveal him, they also reveal
readers to themselves. Montaigne’s search for questions
rather than answers, coupled with his affirmation of the
individual, makes his work a landmark of Renaissance hu-
manism. The modern novelist Virginia Woolf put it this
way: “This talking of oneself, following one’s own vagaries,
giving the whole map, weight, colour, and circumference
of the soul in its confusion, its variety, its imperfection— At London printed for N.L- and Iohn Trundell.
this art belonged to one man only: to Montaigne.” 1603,

William Shakespeare. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE FicureE 14.19 Title page, Hamlet (1603), The Huntington
[SHAYK-speer] (1564-1616) is the greatest writer in the Library, California. This is the title page of the first quarto
English language, a reputation that rests on thirty-seven edition of the play that was printed.
plays and 154 sonnets exploring complex states of mind
and feeling in exuberant language rich with metaphor. His
command is particularly evident in his soliloquies, med-
itative reflections spoken aloud. From Hamlet (fig. 14.19)
contemporary Ben Jonson’s judgment that “he is not for an
alone, we glean the following sayings:
age, but for all time.”
In my mind’s eye; Shakespeare’s sonnets have drama as well as melodic
I must be cruel only to be kind; lyricism. ‘Their range is wide, including melancholy, de-
Brevity is the soul of wit; spair, hope, shame, guilt, fear, jealousy, and exhilaration.
To be or not to be, that is the question; Written during the 1590s, they were not published until
Neither a borrower nor a lender be; 1609—(though two were printed in a 1599 collection, The
Something’s rotten in the state of Denmark;
Passionate Pilgrim, without Shakespeare’s authorization).
What a piece of work is a man.
Like John Donne’s poems, Shakespeare’s sonnets circu-
Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in April lated in manuscript before publication and were much ad-
1564. He attended the local school, but did not go on to mired.
Oxford or Cambridge. Instead, in 1582, at the age of eight- Shakespeare’s soliloquies further reveal the human
een, he married Anne Hathaway, who bore him three chil- spirit. In a soliloquy, Macbeth uses obsessive, bitter lan-
dren in as many years. At that time Shakespeare began guage to lament his ruined scheme. The following from
writing and acting in plays. Although many tributes have Act V, Scene i occurs when Macbeth discovers that though
been paid to Shakespeare,-one stands above the rest: his he is now king, his wife is dead:
372 CHAPTER 14

SHAKESPEARE AND MUSIC and Juliet. When Romeo and Juliet part, In this elaborated metaphor, everything
Juliet cries out in disappointment, “the Hamlet says proves to be literally true.
~‘ hakespeare employs music in his plays lark sings so out of tune, / Straining harsh
\J for various purposes. He uses music discords and unpleasing sharps.” Often, Composers and Instruments
to suggest a change in locale and time, however, Shakespeare developed elabo-
indicating that the action of a play has rate patterns of musical imagery. A strik- Instruments used for Shakespearean
shifted scene. Music signals the entrance ing example occurs when Hamlet speaks music include brass, woodwind, strings,
or exit of an important character; trum- to his boyhood friends Rosencrantz and and percussion (fig. 14.20). Trumpets
pet flourishes announce the arrival or de- Guildenstern, who are about to betray were the most frequently used brass in-
parture of royalty. Trumpets also sound him. In complaining about their deceit, strument; wooden flutes and recorders
a battle charge. Hamlet likens himself to a recorder, or of various sizes were the most common
flute, playing in the background, and also woodwind instruments. Stringed instru-
Music and Character Revelation to a plucked and fretted instrument: ments included the violin, harp, lyre, and
lute, among others. Percussion was al-
Perhaps the most important function of HAMLET Why, look you now, how most always supplied by a tabor or drum,
music in Shakespeare’s plays is to reveal unworthy a thing you make of me! which often was accompanied by a fife,
character. Shakespeare’s characters dis- You would play upon me, you would the smallest of the flutes.
close their states of mind through the seem to know my stops, you would Shakespeare did not compose the
songs they sing. In Hamlet, the young pluck out the heart of my mystery,
Ophelia reveals her unstable mental state music that accompanied his plays. In
you would sound me from my low- Shakespeare’s lifetime, his contempo-
through singing about love, loss, and est note to the top of my compass; raries, such as Thomas Morley, set his
death. In Othello, Desdemona, Othello’s and there is much music, excellent
wife, conveys an ominous foreboding words to music, including “O Mistress
voice, in this little organ, yet cannot Mine” from Twelfth Night, which Morley
about her imminent death in the “Wil- you make it speak. ’Sblood, do you
low Song.” may have written at Shakespeare’s re-
think I am easier to be played on quest. Other music used to accompany
than a pipe? Call me what instru- songs included traditional arrangements
Musical Imagery
ment you will, though you can fret that antedated the plays, as with the
Shakespeare’s plays are also rife with mu- me, you cannot play upon me. “Willow Song,” sung by Desdemona in
sical images. Some of these are simple Othello, and the gravedigger’s song “In
passing references, such as those in Romeo Act II, Scene ii, il. 349-57 Youth When I Did Love” from Hamlet.

FicureE 14.20 Anonymous, Le Concert

champétre: la musique (The Country
Concert), Italian School, sixteenth century.
Musée de l’Hotel I’Allemant, Bourges.
Giraudon/Art Resource, New York.
Here is a depiction of a typical chamber
music ensemble, consisting of a harp-
sichord, lute, recorder, and bass viol.
 THE RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE 373

Critical Thinking
WHO WROTE “SHAKESPEARE’S tive authors, including, among others, Sir mal part of his theatrical work. They
PLAys”? Francis Bacon and Edward De Vere, the refer to contemporary paintings of
Seventh Earl of Oxford, and the Renais- Shakespeare and to his extensive knowl-
pws issues in literary studies that sance playwright Christopher Marlowe, edge of Italy, classics, and the law, which
ave reappeared over the centuries is all of whom were extremely well educated runs throughout his plays.
that of whether William Shakespeare is and themselves very good writers. How would you go about deciding
the actual author of plays such as Hamlet, Defenders of Shakespeare claim that whether Shakespeare wrote the plays at-
Julius Caesar, and Romeo and Fuliet. Those the preponderance of evidence is in favor tributed to him? What questions would
arguing against Shakespeare’s authorship of his authorship of the plays. These de- you have in pursuing your investigation
claim that he was not sufficiently well ed- fenders offer as evidence that Shake- of the matter? What kinds of evidence
ucated to have written such masterpieces, speare’s name is on the first printed would you look for? What types of
with their wide range of knowledge and editions and that he was an actor and part sources would you consult, and what
their brilliant language. These critics of owner of an acting company that needed kinds of credentials for the writers of
Shakespearean authorship offer alterna- new material, which he wrote as a nor- those sources would you find credible?

‘Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow » could seat thousands. The Globe could accommodate
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day, 20 about 2,300 people, including roughly eight hundred
To the last syllable of recorded time; groundlings who, exposed to the weather, stood around
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools the stage. The stage itself projected from an inside wall
The way to dusty death. Out, Out, brief candle! into their midst. More prosperous spectators sat in one of
Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player the three stories that encircled the stage. The reduced size
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage 25
of the Elizabethan theater and the projection of its stage
And then is heard no more. It is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury made for a greater intimacy between actors and audience.
Signifying nothing. Although actors still had to project their voices and exag-
gerate their gestures, they could be heard and seen with-
out the aid of the megaphonic masks and elevated shoes of
Written in blank verse—verse in unrhymed iambic pen- the ancient Greek theater. Elizabethan actors could mod-
tameter (each line has ten syllables with alternating ulate their voices to vary pitch, stress, and intonation in
stresses)—the soliloquy portrays Macbeth’s despair over ways unsuited to the Greek stage. They could also make
the apparent meaninglessness of life. wider and more subtle use of facial expression and gesture.
Shakespeare’s plays capture the imagination. The po- In addition to greater intimacy, the Elizabethan stage
litical astuteness in Fulius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra also offered more versatility than its Greek counterpart.
is complemented by the playful comedy in As You Like It Although the Greek skene building could be used for scenes
and Much Ado About Nothing, and the tempered romance occurring above the ground, such as a god descending
of Shakespeare’s final plays, of which The Tempest is the from above by means of a crane (deus ex machina), the
glorious example. Greek stage was really a single-level acting area. Not so
The drama of the Elizabethan Age (1558-1603) shares the Elizabethan stage, which contained a second-level bal-
features with Greek drama. The Elizabethan dramatists cony, utilized in Othello and in Romeo and Fuliet, for in-
wrote domestic tragedies, tragedies of character, and re- stance. Shakespeare’s stage also had doors at the back for
venge tragedies, of which Hamlet is the great example. The entrances and exits, a curtained alcove useful for scenes of
Elizabethan dramatists also wrote comedies of manners intrigue, and a stage-floor trapdoor, used for the ghost’s
and comedies of humors, which extended the range of ear- entrance in Hamlet.
lier romantic and satiric comedies. In both Greek and Eliz- These and other of Shakespeare’s plays were given var-
abethan theater, props were few, scenery was simple, and ied readings. Julius Caesar and other Roman plays, such as
the dialogue alone indicated changes of locale and time. Coriolanus, were given classical settings to highlight Re-
An Elizabethan playhouse such as the Globe (fig. 14.21), naissance interest in the classical world. Romeo and Juliet,
where Shakespeare’s plays were staged, had a much smaller in contrast, was set in the Italian Renaissance, and Hamlet
seating capacity than the large Greek amphitheaters, which was set in the north, in Denmark.
 374 CHAPTER 14

Cultural Impact
he Reformation of the Roman respect as a mark of social status and a The power of the individual genius
Church, which emerged from the sign of divine favor. The virtues of disci- creating works of enduring influence also
Renaissance emphasis on individualism, pline and effort necessary to achieving finds expression in the north, more pow-
had profound effects on western Euro- worldly success were Protestant values erfully perhaps, in the work of its writers
pean society. With the decline of the and fed directly into the emergence of than in that of its painters, sculptors, and
authority of the Catholic Church, Euro- capitalism. architects, who led the Renaissance in
peans began to follow alternative reli- The invention of movable type led Italy. Who better than Montaigne and
gious beliefs and practices. Soon after to mass printing of reformist theologi- Shakespeare to epitomize the heights of
Luther, Calvin, Zwingli, and Henry VIII cal tracts. Gutenberg’s press changed achievement during the Elizabethan age,
had splintered the Catholic Church, the way information was packaged, as they invented genres such as the per-
their own churches fragmented and fac- processed, and disseminated. Among the sonal essay and perfected those of the
tionalized. In the ensuing centuries, nu- world’s major revolutions, mechanized sonnet and the revenge tragedy? More-
merous religious denominations were printing had an effect that lasted to the over, Shakespeare set the standard for
established, and hundreds of Protestant end of the millennium; only now in the poetic excellence and dramatic accom-
churches emerged. twenty-first century, is the new age of plishment, his 37 plays having been
A more general consequence of the electronic technology vying to displace translated into many of the world’s lan-
Protestant Reformation was an emphasis print as the prime medium of communi- guages and continue to be studied and
on wealth. Personal wealth commanded cation. dramatized today.

throne _to the stage.

B. “ Heavens”.
_C. Top stage, some-
times as a music

F. Inner __ stage,
sometimes called the
Ly".
G. “Traps"' lead-
ing down to the ‘‘Hell”’
under thestage.
H. “Gent "$
Rooms’ or “ Lords’
ooms’”.
J. Storage lofts,
dressing rooms, etc.
K. essing rooms.
L. Backstage area.
M. Main entrances
to auditorium.
- Doorways con-
necting with gallery
staircase.
O. Entrance to gal-
leries and staircases.

FiGurE 14.21 Shakespeare’s Globe Playhouse, London, 1599-1613. C. Walter Hodges,

Shakespeare and the Players, London, 1948. This imaginative reconstruction by C. Walter
Hodges depicts the open-air theater where Hamlet and other plays by Shakespeare were first
performed.
 THE RENAISSANCE IN NORTHERN EUROPE 375

KEY TERMS
egg tempera disputation chateaux blank verse
triptych iconoclasm long gallery iambic pentameter
polyptych woodcut secular music deus ex machina
disguised symbolism engraving madrigal
alla prima burin homophonic texture
Reformation genre painting soliloquy

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

http: //www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/collection.asp
(Campin’s The Annunciation Triptych exhibits the stylistic tendencies of the early Netherlands
style.)
http://artchive.com/artchive/V/van_eyck.html
(This is the Artchive, a Website with virtually every major artist in every style from every era in
art history. It is an excellent resource.)
hitp://mexplaza.udg.mx/wm/paint/auth/bosch/delight/
(The Webmuseum of Paris displays and discusses Bosch’s most famous and unconventional
picture, The Garden of Earthly Delights.)
http://www.iep.utm.edu/h/humanism.htm#Erasmus
(The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy is an excellent source for all the major philosophers.)
hitp://www.txdirect.net/users/rrichard/ science.htm
(This is the Internet Chronology of Scientific Developments, listing all the important scientists
from the sixteenth through the twentieth century.)
 CHAPTER 15
ar

oa

ws x

ae

“HISTORY
c

Pe 1575 Order of Oratorians founded by St. Philip Neri

: a 1598 Edict of Nantes ends French religious wars
et Ss 1609 Galileo, telescope
Breas. i 1610; Henry IV assassinated
x ene) 1622 Philip Neri, Teresa of Avila, Ignatius of Loyola canonized
: 1648 Peace of Westphalia ends Thirty Years’ War
ee eee Fronde rebellions against absolute monarch
fats tay al | Louis XIV begins personal reign
lee eae Louis XIV moves court to Versailles
ee
ee 3, at
18
Leeuwenhoek sees microorganism
Louis XIV revokes Edict of Nantes
meeea
ee ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE
Bose
, Caravaggio, Calling of St. Matthew
Peeters, Table with a Tart and a White Pitcher
Pope Paul V commissions Maderno for St. Peter's Basilica; nave and facade completed; 1607-15 Monteverdi, Orfeo
Gentileschi, Judith Slaying Holofernes
Rubens, Marie de’ Medici, Queen of France, Landing in Marseilles
Pope Urban VIII commissions Bernini to finish St. Peter’s Basilica; colonnade designed, 1657
Hals, Jolly Toper; Moillon, Still Life with Cherries, Strawberries, and Gooseberries
Leyster, Boy Playing a Flute; Van Dyck, Portrait of Charles |
Poussin, Rape of the Sabine Women
Rembrandt, The Night Watch
Bernini, Ecstasy of St. Teresa
Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture established
Velazquez, Maids of Honor
Sirani, Virgin and Child
Vermeer, Young Woman with a Water Pitcher
Borromini, San Carlo
Le Vau, Le Brun, Perrault, east facade of the Louvre
Beale, John Wilkins DD
Le Vau, Hardouin-Mansart, Le Brun, and Coysevox, Palace of Versailles
Pozzo, Triumph of St. Ignatius Loyola
Wren, St Paul’s Cathedral
J.S. Bach, Brandenburg Concertos
Vivaldi, The Four Seasons
Handel, Messiah

LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

oe 1548 St. Ignatius of Loyola, Spiritual Exercises

oe 1565 St. Teresa of Avila, Life
1582-84 St. John of the Cross, The Dark Night of the Soul
ke 1601 Donne, Songs and Sonnets
eee 605! Cervantes, Don Quixote
oe ea Descartes, Meditations
Hobbes, Leviathan
Louis XIV becomes patron of Molire, Moliére, Tartuffe, 1664
Milton, Paradise Lost
Locke, Essay on Human Understanding
Gianlorenzo Bernini, David, marble, 1623, height 5’7’(1.7 m), Galleria Borghese, Rome.
 e@ -

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Marseille

- Barcelona
BALEARIC
ISLANDS MINORCA
ee gee (British) SA

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

THE BAROQUE IN ITALY

Drama and illusion dominate the arts

THE BAROQUE OUTSIDE ITALY

Diversity rules the arts and sciences

THE BAROQUE IN ITALY the style is characterized by drama and theatricality seen
in a heightened realism and illusions of motion. Classical
HE TERM BAROQUE, FROM THE PORTUGUESE word elements are used without classical restraint. Emotional-
barrocco, meaning a large, irregularly shaped pearl, ism is enhanced by striking contrasts of light and shadow.
was initially used as a pejorative, or negative, term. At least as important in defining the Baroque style is
Gradually it came to describe the complex, multifaceted, understanding the patronage that supported it. Church-
international phenomenon of the Baroque. Baroque artists sponsored art in Rome thrived during the Counter-
intended to involve their audiences emotionally. Formally, Reformation. Although secular patrons were important in
378
 THE BAROQUE AGE 379

the development of Baroque art (particularly Philip IV in met informally for spiritual conversation, study, and prayer.
Spain and Marie de’ Medici and Louis XIV in France), the They met not in churches but in prayer halls called ora-
Church in Rome assumed the role of the center of the tories. They were not a religious order: They took no
Baroque art world. vows, and members could leave at any time. Music played
As pope succeeded pope, each brought with him an en- an essential role in their religious devotions, especially
tourage of family and friends who expected and received vocal music. The composer who was most important for
lucrative positions in the government and who vied with them was Palestrina (see Chapter 13), whose Laude, or
each other to give expression to their newfound wealth songs of praise, were easy to sing. Later, musical per-
and position. The popes commissioned palaces and formances became increasingly dramatic. Eventually, they
chapels—along with paintings and sculptures to decorate resembled unstaged miniature music dramas and were the
them. Artists flocked to Rome to take advantage of the sit- forerunners of the oratorios written by George Frederick
uation. Handel.
The Fesuits. In 1534, the Jesuit order of Catholic priests
THE COUNTER-REFORMATION IN ROME was established by St. Ignatius Loyola, and there was noth-
In response to Martin Luther’s “Ninety-Five Theses” and ing informal about the Jesuits’ organization or goals. The
the Protestant Reformation that followed, the Catholic order was to follow a militaristic discipline. Members fol-
Church sought to remake Rome as the cultural center of lowed strict vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience while
the Western world. Thus once again Roman popes be- pursuing a rigorous education in preparation for their mis-
came great patrons of art and architecture. The strategy to sionary role. Jesuit priests played an important part in the
defend Rome’s prestige and dominion was continued for religious life of the age, serving as confessors and spiritual
over a hundred years, culminating in the twenty-one-year advisers to prominent artists such as Bernini and to polit-
pontificate of Urban VII (1623-44). ical leaders, including Queen Christina of Sweden.
The theological justification for this patronage came at The most influential aspect of Jesuit spirituality derives
the Council of Trent, which convened in three sessions from the writings of the order’s founder, St. Ignatius. His
from 1545 to 1563 to address the crisis of the Reformation. Spiritual Exercises, published in 1548, guide believers
The council decided to counter the Protestant threat “by through a sequence of spiritual practices to intensify their
means of the stories of the mysteries of our Redemption relationship with God. The Evercises involve each of the
portrayed by paintings or other representations, [whereby] © senses so the individual might obtain more than just in-
the people [shall] be instructed and confirmed in the habit tellectual understanding. For example, when contemplat-
of remembering, and continually revolving in mind the ing sin and hell, the soul is exhorted to consider in order:
articles of faith.” The council further suggested that reli- the sights of hell (flames); the sounds of hell (groans of the
gious art be directed toward clarity (to increase under- damned and shrieks of devils); the smells of hell (the fetid
standing), realism (to make it more meaningful in everyday stench of corrupting bodies); the tastes of hell (the suffer-
fashion), and emotion (to arouse piety and religious fervor). ing of hunger and thirst); and the tactile experience of hell
Taken together, these goals epitomized the Catholic (the intense heat, which scorches the body and boils the
Counter-Reformation. blood). Such exercises involved the emotions in religious
According to the council’s recommendations, art ought experience, the hallmark of Baroque sensibility.
to be easily understood. Music had to be accessible and Complementing the work of the Oratorians and the Je-
lyrics intelligible. Literature should celebrate religious val- suits were the writings of sixteenth- and seventeenth-
ues and ideals. These recommendations were intended to century Spanish mystics such as St. John of the Cross, who
counter the Mannerist style. Mannerist painting tended wrote The Dark Night of the Soul, and St. Teresa of Avila,
who wrote an autobiography. Both blended the contem-
to be refined, stylized, virtuosic, decorative, and complex
plative life with a commitment to a life of action. Teresa of
in color, structure, and allegorical content. Baroque art
Avila was canonized by Pope Gregory XV in 1622, along
was to make direct statements on religious subjects famil-
with Philip Neri and Ignatius of Loyola.
iar to the common people. Still, from the Mannerists,
Baroque artists inherited a reliance on emotionally charged
and dramatic action. The Council of Trent began a re-
newal of faith, stirring religious fervor through church art
THIRTY YEARS’ WAR
and architecture, and through liturgies, rituals, and During the thirty-year period from 1618 to 1648, a series
dogmas. / of wars raged throughout central Europe. On one side was
Two new religious orders emerged from the Council a coalition consisting of the Austrian Hapsburg Holy
of Trent, the Oratorians and theJesuits. Both were of cen- Roman Emperors, Ferdinand I and II, with their Spanish
tral importance to the religious mission. cousin King Philip IV. Opposing them were Denmark,
The Oratorians. Founded by St. Philip Neri, the Ora- France, Holland, and Sweden. In addition, various Ger-
torians were groups of Catholics, laymen and clergy, who man principalities fought on both sides. There was also a
380 CHAPTER 15

religious dimension to the war, with Lutherans, Catholics, ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE IN ROME
and Calvinists fighting one another at various times.
The war occurred when the Peace of Augsburg (1555), St. Peter’s Basilica. "The Church’s most visible effort to
which had ended violence between Lutherans and arouse the faithful was the continued work on the new St.
Catholics in Germany, became frayed. Tensions were ex- Peter’s Basilica, work initiated by Pope Julius I in 1502
acerbated by rising political tensions throughout Europe, (see Chapter 13). In 1607, Pope Paul V commissioned
as Denmark, France, Spain, and Sweden all had designs, CARLO MADERNO [mah-DEHR-no] (1556-1629) as
for different reasons, on German lands. Fought primarily Vatican architect to convert Michelangelo’s Greek-cross
on German lands, the war resulted in the deaths of about plan into a Latin cross plan complete with a new facade.
one-third of the German population. There was a practical reason for this: The long nave of the
The consequences of the war were significant. Spain Latin cross plan provided space for more people to attend
declined both politically and militarily, with Portugal de- services. The interior space Maderno created was the
claring its independence from Spain in 1640. With Ger- largest of any church in Europe, meant to evoke the vast-
many fractured into many competing territories, France ness of God himself.
grew in power. Other effects included an end to the age of Maderno’s facade (fig. 15.1) followed Michelangelo’s
mercenaries, or hired soldiers. The Peace of Westphalia conception of using the colossal order to unite the stories
(1648), which concluded the Thirty Years’ War, ended the and of topping the entrance with a triangular pediment. In
era of the Holy Roman Empire and religious unity, inau- fact, Maderno’s composition is even more theatrical than
gurating a new era in which sovereign nation states con- Michelangelo intended. Pope Paul V conceived of the
trolled politics and diplomacy in Europe. church facade as a backdrop to his own public appearances

AN etn

FIGURE 15.1 Carlo Maderno, facade of St. Peter’s, Rome, 1607-15, height 147'(44.81 m),
width 374’(114 m). The facade is
treated like a theatrical performance that builds from the wings: Starting from the corners, the pilasters
double, then become
columns, which then also double, and, finally, the center section seems to push out
to meet the visitor.
 THE BAROQUE AGE 381

and required a balcony from which he could bless the peo-

ple below. An architectural crescendo rises from the sides
of the facade toward the central portal, generating a dra-
matic, which is to say Baroque, effect.

Gianlorenzo Bernini. ‘The theatricality of Maderno’s fa-

cade was only a beginning. When Maderno died in 1629,
Pope Urban VIII replaced him with GIANLORENZO
BERNINI [ber-NEE-nee] (1598-1680), who had collab-
orated with Maderno for five years. Although Bernini con-
sidered himself a classicist, he fused his classicism with
extraordinary drama and emotion. His sculpture and ar-
chitecture are the essence of Baroque art.
In 1657, Bernini, now working for another pope, de-
signed and supervised the building of a colonnade, or row
of columns, in front of St. Peter’s. Beginning in two
straight covered walkways, or porticoes, the Doric
columns extend down a slight incline from the church fa-
cade, then swerve into two enormous curved porticoes,
surrounding and embracing the open space of the piazza,
like “the motherly arms of the church,” as Bernini him-
self put it (fig. 15.2). Forgoing the square and circular
forms of the Renaissance, Bernini’s colonnade uses the
more dynamic ellipse and trapezoid. In the center of the
oval plaza stands an obelisk, or four-sided shaft topped by
a pyramid. From there, lines on the pavement radiate out
to the colonnade. Finally, surmounting each inner column
is a different statue, creating an irregular silhouette along
the top of the colonnade.
Bernini's sculpture of David (fig. 15.3), carved in 1623
and characteristic of his style, deserves comparison to
Michelangelo’s High Renaissance David (see Chapter 13). e
e
e

In its depiction of drama, Bernini’s work is close to Hel- e

@

lenistic sculpture as embodied in the Laocoén (Chapter 3),

e

which Bernini had studied. Michelangelo’s David, by con- eee

oe
°eee?
trast, seems restrained. Bernini captures the split second
before David flings the stone that kills Goliath, implying
a second figure to “complete” the action. David’s pose and
facial expression charge the space surrounding the sculp-
ture with tension, so effectively that people viewing the
statue avoid standing between David and his implied tar-
get.
Bernini’s Ecstasy of St. Teresa (fig. 15.4) is the most im- FIGURE 15.2 St. Peter’s Rome, plan. Maderno’s Latin cross
pressive sculpture created to celebrate the life of a plan of St. Peter’s is preceded by Bernini’s colonnades that cre-
ate a dynamic architectural environment of eliptical and trape-
Counter-Reformation saint. Bernini designed it for the
zoidal shapes.
Cornaro Chapel of Santa Maria della Vittoria in Rome
and positioned it in an oval niche above the altar, framed
by green marble pilasters. Created between 1645 and 1652,
Abandoning Renaissance restraint, Bernini captures the
the multimedia sculpture depicts the moment in St.
sensuality of her ecstasy.
Teresa’s autobiography when she says an angel pierced her
heart with a flaming golden arrow, causing her to swoon Francesco Borromini. FRANCESCO BORROMINI
in pleasure and agony. “The pain was so great that I [Bor-ro-MEE-nee] (1599-1667) joined his uncle, Carlo
screamed aloud,” she wrote, “but at the same time I felt Maderno, in Rome in 1619 and was soon working for
such infinite sweetness that I wished the pain to last for- Bernini in St. Peter’s. But Borromini quickly became
ever... . It was the sweetest caressing of the soul by God.” Bernini’s chief rival, and unlike the worldly Bernini,
 382 CHAPTER 15

stone appearing to undulate in a serpentine concave-

convex motion. So three dimensional is this facade that it
almost becomes sculpture, rippling with light and shade
in Rome’s sunlight.
Borromini designed San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane
with a double facade, a clever solution to a practical prob-
lem. The church faces so small an intersection that it is
not possible to stand back far enough to view the facade in
its entirety. Borromini’s double facade divides the surface
into two smaller compositions, yet the entablature of the
lower story forms the balcony of the upper story, typical of
the Baroque concern for unity of design.
Borromini’s extravagant style was popular. ‘The head of
the religious order for whom San Carlo alle Quattro
Fontane was built wrote with great pride, “Nothing sim-
ilar can be found anywhere else in the world. This is at-
tested by the foreigners who . . . try to procure copies of

FiGurE 15.3. Gianlorenzo Bernini, David, marble, 1623,

height 5’ 7” (1.7 m), Galleria Borghese, Rome. Unlike
Michelangelo’s static David, Bernini’s is caught at the split sec-
ond when the direction of the action is about to reverse—much
like the ancient Greek Discus Thrower. Bernini effectively indi-
cates the position of the giant Goliath, something that is sensed
by viewers, who quickly move out of the implied line of fire.

Borromini was a secretive and unstable man whose life

ended in suicide.
Borromini is best known for San Carlo alle Quattro
Fontane (fig. 15.5), or St. Charles of the Four Fountains,
named for the fountains at the junction where it is located
in Rome. The interior of the church was designed between
1638 and 1641, and the facade between 1665 and 1667.
On a tiny and irregular plot, Borromini built a tiny and
irregular church: San Carlo could fit easily within Saint FIGURE 15.4 Gianlorenzo Bernini, Ecstasy of St. Teresa,
Peter’s. Deviating from the classical tradition, the columns overview of Cornaro Chapel, 1645-52, height of figure group
are of no known order—instead, Borromini designed a 11’ 6'"(3.51 m), Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome. This dra-
matic depiction of Teresa’s written description is literally the-
new order of his own. Rather than building with the tra-
atrical, for the chapel is arranged like a theater, complete with
ditional flat surfaces of ancient architecture, Borromini
box seats occupied by marble figures of members of the
made the stone facade seem elastic, curving in and out, the Cornaro family.
 THE BAROQUE AGE 383

ghese’s villa contained a vast quantity of paintings and fres-

coes and was set in a large park full of niches and statuary.
One of Borghese’s favorite painters was CARAVAGGIO
[ka-ra-VAH-joh] (1573-1610), whose real name was
Michelangelo Merisi but who took his name from his
birthplace, the village of Caravaggio near Milan. Car-
avaggio was a bohemian artist with a terrible temper who
led a short and turbulent life (with a long police record
bordering on the criminal). Despite his lifestyle, Caravag-
gio was a great religious painter whose work established
the major direction of painting in the Baroque age.
Caravaggio painted the Calling ofSt. Matthew (fig. 15.6)
in about 1599-1602 for the private chapel of the Contarelli
family in the Church of San Luigi dei Francesi in Rome.
A large painting, it depicts the climactic moment of
Matthew’s calling. As told in the Bible, Matthew 9:9. Jesus
points to the tax collector Matthew, who gestures with dis-
belief, as if to say, “Who? Me?”
This biblical tale, shown in the everyday environment
of a Roman tavern, is enacted by people who could have
been Caravaggio’s contemporaries (who were probably the
models for the work). Although Matthew and his associ-
ates are richly attired, the two figures on the right are in
rags. Jesus’s halo is barely visible. Yet a religious atmos-
phere is created by Caravaggio’s dramatic use of light,
known as tenebrism—a “dark manner,” in which light
and dark contrast strongly, the highlights picking out only
what the artist wants the viewer to see. The light comes
from above, like a spotlight centering on an actor on stage,
but no obvious light source is shown.
Caravaggio also painted the Entombment (fig. 15.7), ex-
FiGuRE 15.5 Francesco Borromini, San Carlo alle Quattro ecuted in 1603 for a chapel in Santa Maria in Vallicella,
Fontane, Rome 1638-67, width of facade 34’(10.36 m). Be- Rome, the church of St. Philip Neri’s Congregation of the
cause this church is located at an intersection of narrow Oratory. The light reveals only a hint of the setting; clar-
streets, the viewer cannot easily see the entire facade. Borro- ity is achieved by Caravaggio’s highlighting of select fig-
mini therefore created two separate compositions, undulating ures and features. The platform on which his figures stand
and sculptural, linked by the entablature of the lower story is at the viewers’ eye level and seems to extend into the
that forms a balcony for the upper story.
viewers’ space, increasing the impact of the scene by draw-
ing them toward it, and making them feel virtual partici-
pants in the event. Indeed, the implication is that the
viewer is in the tomb itself, ready to receive Jesus’s body.
the plan. We have been asked for them by Germans, Flem-
The figures are placed so close to the picture plane that the
ings, Frenchmen, Italians, Spaniards, and even Indians.”
elbow of the man who grasps Jesus’s legs seems to project
into the viewer’s space.
The Entombment makes the words of the sermon visi-
PAINTING IN ITALY
ble, explicit, almost tangible. Caravaggio portrays Jesus’s
As with sculptors and architects, the demand for painters associates as people much like himself. He did not raise
during the Counter-Reformation was enormous. Although his subjects to the level of the heroic, as had customarily
some were hired to work permanently for a given patron, been done. This aspect of Caravaggio’s art was not well
by far the majority worked in studios in Rome, displaying received by his contemporaries who felt he had gone too
their works in progress and seeking commissions. Com- far in reducing the distinction between heaven and earth.
petition for the best artists was fierce, and as a result their
Artemisia Gentileschi. "The emotional and dramatic side
social standings (and fees) rose ever higher.
of the Baroque is demonstrated also by ARTEMISIA
Caravaggio. One of the most important art patrons was GENTILESCHI [jen-tee-LESS-kee] (1593-ca. 1653).
Cardinal Scipione Borghese, nephew of Pope Paul. Bor- Born in Rome, her style seems to have been influenced by
384 Gi APE Re eS

FIGURE 15.6 Caravaggio, Calling of St. Matthew, ca. 1599-1602, oil on canvas, 11’ 1” x
11'5”(3.38 & 3.48 m). Contarelli Chapel, San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome. Although Matthew is
seated in a tavern when he receives Jesus’s call, Caravaggio uses tenebristic lighting to reveal
the religious nature of this event.

that of her father, Orazio Gentileschi, a painter in Car- tiful Jewish widow Judith saved her people from Neb-
avaggio’s style. She was herself known as one of several uchadnezzar’s Assyrian army by enticing their leader,
“Caravaggisti,” or “night painters,” whose work was iden- Holofernes, into a tent where he drank himself to sleep.
tifiable by the use of tenebrism. She then cut off his head with his own sword. The un-
Gentileschi’s paintings often depicted the popular bib- nerving drama is enhanced by the dark tenebristic lighting
lical subjects of Bathsheba and David and of Judith and that spotlights the actors as if on stage. The large figures
Holofernes. Her Judith Slaying Holofernes (fig. 15.8), fill the picture and seem to crowd forward as if about to
painted ca. 1620, conveys intrigue and violence. The beau- burst through the picture plane.
 THE BAROQUE AGE 385

FiGuRE 15.8 Artemisia Gentileschi, Judith Slaying Holofernes,

ca. 1620, oil on canvas, 6'65" x 5’4"(1.99 X 1.63 m). Galleria
degli Uffizi, Florence. Scala/Art Resource, NY. Drama and
horror are magnified by the proximity of the figures and by the
powerful spotlight focusing attention on the beheading, leaving
all else in shadow.
FIGURE 15.7 Caravaggio, Entombment, 1603, oil on canvas,
9’ 103” X 6’ 742"(3.00 X 2.03 m), Musei Vaticani, Pina-
coteca, Rome. Scala/Art Resource, NY. The painting’s impact
is enhanced by bringing the figures close to the picture plane.
By locating the stone slab at eye level, Caravaggio suggests the Her painting of the Virgin and Child (fig. 15.9), dated to
viewer is actually in the tomb, ready to receive Jesus’s body. 1663, shows the sentimentality that charmed her patrons.
Mary’s gesture could be no gentler without losing hold of
her twisting infant, whose animation contrasts to Mary’s
slow movement. The exchange of gazes endears, as Mary
Gentileschi’s paintings have been linked to a sexual as- leans forward so that Jesus may crown her with a flower
sault at the age of fifteen by one of her teachers. Later she garland. Sirani signed her work in the embroidered band
was tortured in court with a thumbscrew (a device designed on the pillow on which Jesus sits.
to compress the thumb to the point of smashing it) to ver-
ify the validity of her accusation. Giovanna Garzoni. In contrast to the Baroque emo-
tional drama and obscuring shadows is the work of GIO-
Elisabetta Sirani. During her brief life of only twenty- VANNA GARZONI [Gee-oh-VAHN-nah Gar-ZONE-ee]
seven years, the extremely prolific painter ELISABETTA (1600-70), for although she painted various subjects, she
SIRANI [Elis-ah-BEHT-tah see-RAH-nee] (1638-65) of is remembered for her depictions of still life, a subject al-
Bologna was in charge of the family shop and supported ready popular in Northern Europe from the late sixteenth
her parents and three siblings through the sale of her art. century onward. In the Plate of White Peas (fig. 15.10) the
Known for the speed with which she produced finished composition is simple and the subject is ordinary, down to
paintings, she achieved international fame and her paint- the degree of decay beginning to appear on the leaves and
ings were sought by the most important patrons. Her early pods. The appeal of Garzoni’s paintings is based largely
death followed immediately after severe abdominal pains. upon her impressive technical skill and ability to simulate
When an autopsy discovered perforated ulcers, the maid in paint what the eye sees, down to the tiniest and most
accused of poisoning her was acquitted. meticulously rendered detail.
386 CHAPTER 15

FiGurE 15.10 Giovanna Garzoni, Plate of White Peas, un-

dated, tempera on parchment, oe 113 $"(25 < 33 cm).
Palazzo Pitti, Florence. Technically, working in a water-based
medium on animal skin and painting the tiniest details, this re-
calls medieval manuscript illuminations. But the extreme de-
gree of fidelity to the visible world and direct study from a
model in Garzoni’s work contrasts with the medieval prefer-
ence for distortion and avoidance of firsthand study of nature.

FicureE 15.9 Elisabetta Sirani, Virgin and Child, 1663, oil on

canvas, 34” X 275" (86.4 xX 69.9 cm), National Museum of
Women in the Arts, Washington, DC. Gift of Wallace and
Wilhelmina Holladay. Conservatin funds generously provided or clouds; others fly through space in a dazzling display of
by the Southern California State Committee of the National
Baroque artistic dexterity.
Museum of Women in the Arts. The Baroque interest in emo-
tion, in this case sweet, sentimental, and touching, is seen in
Sirani’s painting. Also characteristic of the Baroque are the lush MUSIC IN ITALY
full-bodied figures and the facility with which they are painted.
Claudio Monteverdi and Early Opera. It is hardly sur-
prising, given the dramatic theatricality of Baroque paint-
ing, that the Baroque era produced the musical form
known as opera, the Italian word for “a work.” Opera
Like some successful male artists of her day, Garzoni
drammatica in musica, “a dramatic work in music,” has been
did not marry and instead traveled from one city to the
abbreviated to “opera.” Combining vocal music, instru-
next. Thus, she accommodated her patrons in Venice, Flo-
mental music, and theater, an opera is a staged drama sung
rence, Naples, and Rome, arriving there by 1654 and re-
to the accompaniment of an orchestra. Opera developed
maining in this city thereafter.
among a group of humanists in Florence, who were inter-
Fra Andrea Pozzo. ‘The epitome of the illusionistic ested in reviving the arts of ancient Greece. The creation
Baroque ceiling fresco was achieved by FRA ANDREA of accompanied melodies with dramatic presentation was
POZZO [POT-zoh] (1642-1709), in his depiction of the thought to be similar to the original Greek performances
Triumph of St. Ignatius of Loyola (fig. 15.11), of 1691-94, that had occurred between acts of plays. The emotional
on the nave ceiling of Sant’Ignazio, Rome. The effect is as- content of the voice, accompanied by instruments and
tonishing; the solid vault of the ceiling has been painted combined with drama, was one of the most powerful forms
away. It is an extreme example of what the Italians called to develop during the Baroque era. Opera epitomized the
quadratura, used to trick the eye into believing that the ar- spirit of the Baroque in its flamboyant and theatrical style.
chitecture of the church, its columns and arches, extends The first operas were written and performed before
past the actual ceiling. The perspective is calculated to be 1600, but the first notable work in the genre, Orfeo
seen from a specific point marked on the floor. When (Orpheus) by CLAUDIO MONTEVERDI [mon-teh-
standing there, it is difficult to determine where the real ar- VAIR-dee] (1567-1643), was composed for his patron, the
chitecture ends and the painted architecture begins. The duke of Mantua, in 1607. It retells the Greek myth of Or-
center of the ceiling appears to be open sky from which pheus, the poet and musician who goes down to Hades,
saints and angels descend. Some sit on painted architecture the underworld, to bring back his dead wife, Eurydice.
 THE BAROQUE AGE 387

Loyola, 1691-94, ceiling fresco,

Ficure 15.11 Fra Andrea Pozzo, Triumph of St. Ignatius of
ly below the center of this quintessentially
Sant Ignazio, Rome. If the viewer stands direct the actual architecture ends
le to see where
Baroque illusionistic ceiling painting, it is not possib
and the painted architecture begin s.
 388 GH ApoE RT 15

The opera includes recitative, a form of musically nello section is played by the entire instrumental group in
heightened speech midway between spoken dialogue and alternation with sections for the solo violin. The ritornello
melodic aria. Orpheus’s recitative is a monologue in the form pervades not only Vivaldi’s music but the Baroque
“agitated style,” which expresses musically the feelings de- concerto generally. Different textures in solo and ensem-
scribed by the text. For example, the melody descends on ble sections are supplemented by abrupt contrasts in dy-
the words pitt profondi abissi (“deepest abysses”) and ascends namics from loud to soft (terraced dynamics) and by
to accompany the words a riverder le stelle (“to see again the contrasting imitations of bird-song and storm.
stars”). But interesting as such musical scene painting may be,
Singing the women’s parts in opera throughout the the primary interest of Vivaldi’s music is its use of themes,
Baroque were “castrati,” men who had been castrated be- textures, and tone colors in structured repetitions and con-
fore puberty to maintain their “boy soprano” vocal quali- trasts that identify him as a master of the concerto style. In-
ties. The high register of the boy, coupled with the ventive within a formal structure, Vivaldi’s music was soon
strength and power of an adult voice, was popular with au- admired throughout Europe, and closely studied by Jo-
diences during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. hann Sebastian Bach, the great composer of the age. The
The demand for vocal virtuosity in lead singers in opera play between control and freedom appealed to an age at
and later in solo performances meant castrati often had once attracted to the classicism of a Bernini colonnade and
much wealth and prestige. the fantasy of a Borromini facade.
The orchestra accompanying Baroque operas consisted
of groups of small ensembles and was used to affect the
“feelings” produced by the libretto, or text. Pastoral scenes THE BAROQUE OUTSIDE ITALY
might be accompanied by recorders or scenes of heaven by
a harp. This process paved the way for program music in Baroque art, especially painting, originated in Italy.
the centuries to follow. Many of the Baroque artists whom we identify with
other countries either lived, worked, or studied in Rome,
Antonio Vivaldi and the Concerto Grosso. Invented by including the French painter Nicolas Poussin, the Span-
ARCANGELO CORELLI [ko-REL-lee] (1653-1713), ish painter Diego Veldzquez, and the Flemish painter
the concerto grosso is an instrumental musical form con- Peter Paul Rubens. If they did not go to Rome, they
sisting of three parts, or movements, for soloists and or- were usually influenced by Roman Baroque painting,
chestra pitted against one another in dramatic contrast. particularly Caravaggio, who enjoyed a considerable rep-
Typically, the first movement of a Baroque concerto is en- utation outside Italy. Nonetheless, the Baroque thrived
ergetic and spirited, the second is slow but with increasing outside Italy: in the low countries, Flanders and Hol-
tension, and the third and final movement more vigorous land, where a flourishing mercantile class became deeply
than the first, releasing the tensions built up earlier. interested in the arts; in Spain, where Philip TV amassed
One of the most prolific Baroque composers of the con- a collection; in England, where Charles I did the same;
certo was ANTONIO VIVALDI [vee-VAHL-dee] in France, where Marie de’ Medici, regent for the young
(1678-1741), who wrote 450 concertos, forty operas, and King Louis XIV, exerted influence over the French
numerous vocal and chamber works. Born in Venice in court; and in Germany, where Baroque music was par-
1678, Vivaldi, an ordained priest, spent most of his life as ticularly well received.
music master at a Venetian school for orphaned girls. Many
of his works were composed for student recitals.
Vivaldi’s most popular work is The Four Seasons, a set of PAINTING IN HOLLAND
four concertos for solo violin and orchestra. Each of Vi- During the reign of Philip II of Spain, the northern
valdi’s four concertos—Winter, Spring, Summer, and provinces of The Netherlands rebelled against his repres-
Fall—is accompanied by a sonnet describing the appro- sion of Protestants and formed a new Dutch republic; the
priate season. In the original edition, the words were southern provinces remained Catholic and loyal to Spain,
printed above musical passages that depicted the words in thus creating the separate countries of Holland and
sound. The Spring Concerto, for instance, includes de- Flanders.
scriptions of chirping birds returning to the meadows, and A distinct brand of Baroque painting emerged in Hol-
has accompanying sections called “bird calls” in which one land, which in the seventeenth century was a country of
violin “calls” and another answers it. merchants and tradespeople who found themselves, freed
The first eight lines of the sonnet are distributed of Spanish rule, the sudden beneficiaries of having Am-
throughout the first movement of the Spring Concerto, sterdam, the maritime center and commercial capital of
an Allegro in E major. The movement opens with a phrase Europe, as their capital city.
played twice in succession, once loud and once softly as In Holland not just religious and political leaders but
an echo. This is followed by a ritornello passage that will also merchants and tradespeople collected art. The Eng-
return repeatedly throughout the movement. The ritor- lish traveler Peter Mundy in 1640 claimed that “none go
 THE BAROQUE AGE 389

beyond” the Dutch “in the affection of the people to pic-

tures. .. . All in general strive to adorn their houses, espe-
cially the outer or street room, with costly pieces. Butchers
and bakers not much inferior in their shops, which are
fairly set forth, yea many times blacksmiths, cobblers, etc.,
will have some picture or other by their forge and their
stall.”
Frans Hals. FRANS HALS [hals] (ca. 1580-1666) was
born in Antwerp and worked in Haarlem as a portraitist.
An extrovert, the painter’s jovial personality comes across
in a number of his paintings. Hals’s sitters usually appear
to be in a good mood, more at home in a tavern than in a
church. Differing from the stiff formality of earlier por-
traiture, the folly Toper (fig. 15.12) of ca. 1628-30 is bal-
ancing a wine glass and gesturing broadly, perhaps caught
in conversation. Hals broke with the fashion of the time,
which was to paint with careful contours, delicate model-
ing, and attention to detail. Instead, his paint ranged from
thick impasto to thin fluid glazes and he left the separate
brushstrokes clearly visible. This spontaneity of technique
matched the liveliness of his subject.
Judith Leyster. The most important follower of Frans
Hals was JUDITH LEYSTER [LIE-ster] (1609-60), a
FiGure 15.13. Judith Leyster, Boy Playing a Flute, 1630-35,
oil on canvas, 285 x 245"(72.4 X 61.3 cm), Nationalmuseum,
FiGuRE 15.12 Frans Hals, Folly Toper, ca. 1628-30, oil on Stockholm. Leyster’s ability to convey a sense of life, of anima-
canvas, 312 Xx 264"(81.0 X 66.7 cm), Rijksmuseum, Amster- tion, is comparable to Hals’s. The seemingly casual quality of
dam. Breaking from the stiffness of earlier portraits, this man both subject and painting technique is actually achieved with
appears to have been caught in mid-sentence—perhaps offer- great care.
ing that glass of wine. Hals’s dashing brushstrokes accord with
and enhance the quality of spontaneity.

Dutch painter whose name came from her family’s brew-

ery in Haarlem, the Leysterre (Pole Star). So close are
their painting styles that several works long thought to be
by Hals have been found to be by Leyster. Like Hals,
Leyster depicted animated scenes from daily life, as in the
Boy Playing a Flute (fig. 15.13), painted 1630-35. Like Car-
avaggio, Leyster used limited colors and tenebristic light-
ing. And, as in Caravaggio’s paintings, the figure occupies
a shallow space, close to the picture plane. The boy’s glance
to the left would endanger the balance of this composi-
tion, were it not for the musical instruments hanging on
the wall to the right. As with Hals, the seemingly casual
brushwork and composition skillfully create an impression
of relaxed ease.
Rembrandt van Rijn. 1n Amsterdam, the most impor-
tant painter was REMBRANDT VAN RIJJN [REM-brant]
(1606-69), who took Caravaggio’s Baroque lighting to new
heights. Born in Leyden, the son of a miller, Rembrandt
abandoned his studies of classical literature at the Univer-
sity of Leyden to study painting. In 1634, he married
Saskia van Ulenborch, who came from a wealthy family.
Between 1634 and 1642, now extremely successful, Rem-
brandt had many commissions and owned a large house
390 CHAPTER 15

and art collection in Amsterdam. Saskia was his great joy painting shows Cocq’s company in the morning, welcoming
and often his model, but her early death in 1642 marked Marie de’ Medici, Queen of France, at Amsterdam’s city gate.
a turning point in Rembrandt's life—it was in this year that The composition moves along diagonals. Originally,
he painted The Night Watch. Captain Cocq and his lieutenant were not in the center
The Night Watch (fig. 15.14) was one of Rembrandt’s most but walking toward it (the painting has been cut on the
important public commissions, paid for by the Amsterdam left and bottom). Originally their next steps would have
civic guard. All the men portrayed in this huge informal placed them in the center; because the viewer intuitively
group portrait had contributed equally to the cost (their expects the focal point to be in the center, Rembrandt clev-
names appear on the shield hanging on the far wall). Its orig- erly implies their movement.
inal title was Captain Frans Banning Cocq Mustering His Com- The most remarkable aspect of the painting is the light,
pany, but it was dubbed The Night Watch in the eighteenth which creates atmosphere, unifies the composition, links
century because it had darkened with age. In actuality, the the figures, highlights expressive features, and subordi-

FiGurE 15.14 Rembrandt van Rijn, Captain Frans Banning Cocq Mustering His Company (The
Night Watch), 1642, oil on canvas, 11'11” X 14'4” (3.63 X 4.37 m), Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.
This enormous group portrait is often interpreted as marking the turning point in Rem-
brandt’s life. His wife Saskia died in 1642, his popularity as an artist declined, and his financial
problems began. The event depicted took place in the morning, but, because of gradual dark-
ening, the painting has come to be known as The Night Watch.
 THE BAROQUE AGE 391

WW :

Me Zi J Ve We:

FicurE 15.15 Rembrandt van Rijn, Christ Preaching, ca. 1652, etching, 63 x Ba” (15.6
x 20.6 cm). Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, bequest of Mrs. H. O. Havermeyer,
1929. The H. O. Havermeyer Collection (29. 107. 18). The strong contrasts of light and
dark seen in Rembrandt's paintings have their equivalent in his prints.

FiGurRE 15.16 Rembrandt van Rijn, Portrait ofthe Artist as an

Old Man, 1669, oil on canvas, Ds x 20"(59.0 X 51.0 cm),
nates unimportant details. The figures of Captain Cocq lait (on abia iol maa aie
d his li iS; - oe
2 f ‘ 7soa eke the Bea ere. aeothd painted himself throughout his life, not in a laudatory manner like
See atet,, DUE Lhe. pictute my asconsidered B00 Albrecht Diirer, but as a means of self-analysis and personal re-
enough to hang in the company’s clubhouse. flection more akin to the later self-portraits of Vincent van Gogh.
Rembrandt also worked as a printer, a medium devoted
to the play of light and dark. His etching of Christ Preach-
ing (fig. 15.15), of ca. 1652, is set in Amsterdam’s Jewish
ghetto. Rembrandt felt sympathy for the Jewish people as
victims of persecution. Using cross-hatching to model the
masses and shadows, Rembrandt's subtle effects range from
the faintest lines of gray to the richest areas of black. In
etching, as in engraving, the design comes from incisions
made in the surface. When an etching is made, first, a metal
plate is coated with a waxy film. Next, the design is scraped
or scratched through the wax to expose the plate, a process
far less arduous than engraving the plate itself. The plate is
then placed in a mild acid bath that eats into the exposed
areas of metal. Finally, the waxy layer is removed from the
plate, inkiswiped into the grooves, and the plate is printed
on paper under pressure exerted by a printing press.
Rembrandt recorded his own life in many self-por-
traits—sixty in oil alone. His last Se/f-Portrait (fig. 15.16)
was painted in 1669, the year of his death. The textured
handling of paint is masterful, the colors luminous and
glowing, but the contours are looser, the brushstrokes
broader, the surface not as smooth as in his earlier paint-
ings. Rembrandt is weary and disillusioned. Yet he remains
dignified; in none of his self-portraits does he appear bit-
392 CHAPTER 15

ter, resentful, or self-pitying. Introspective and honest, he meer’s clear and luminous light pervades the space, unlike
presented himself as he was. Rembrandt’s light, which falls in shafts. Neither the sub-
tle gradations across the back wall nor the reflections of the
Pieter de Hooch. Everyday life, in its humblest details, is table rug in the metal basin are overlooked. The viewer
documented in the paintings of the Dutch artist PIETER can almost feel the starched linen headdress, its two sides
DE HOOCH [hoogk] (1629-after 1684). In The Bedroom subtly differentiated by the fall of light, the polished metal
(fig. 15.17) of about 1663, a woman chats with a girl as she pitcher, and the basin. The woman is posed within a com-
changes linens. Notable is de Hooch’s carefully observed position of rectangles drawn in perspective. Vermeer’s in-
lighting; the woman is bathed by light from the window,
timate scene of a woman absorbed in household tasks
while the dark interior contrasts with the warm sunlight on
conveys a mood of serenity and peace.
the cityscape visible through the door.
Jan Vermeer. Born in Delft, JAN VERMEER [vur- Rachel Ruysch. This interest in careful observation and
MEER] (1632-75) painted only for local patrons. He detailed recording done with an almost scientific atten-
specialized in domestic scenes that document everyday life. tion to detail is seen in the work of the Dutch artist
Like Rembrandt Vermeer was fascinated by light, but of a RACHEL RUYSCH (1664-1750), whose fame derives
very different kind. Where Rembrandt’s light is theatri- from the many still lifes of flowers she executed during a
cal, Vermeer’s is scientific. Vermeer’s use of light reveals long and productive life. In 1679 she began an appren-
every textural nuance. ticeship with a flower painter. Her Roses, Convolvulus, Pop-
In Young Woman with a Water Pitcher (fig. 15.18) of ca. pies, and Other Flowers in an Urn on a Stone Ledge (fig.
1664-65, characteristic of Vermeer, a single female figure 15.19), an early work from the 1680s, shows her to have
is depicted performing an ordinary action, indoors, at a been an especially adept student. This scientifically accu-
table with objects on it, light coming from a window on the rate record of a variety of flowering plants includes both
left, the figure silhouetted against a pale-colored wall. Ver- familiar and exotic species. Some are still buds, others are

FIGURE 15.17 Pieter de Hooch, The Bedroom, ca. 1663, oil on canvas, 20 X 24” (50.8 X 61.0
cm), National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Widener Collection. © Board of Trustees, The
intimate details of everyday life are the center of interest of de Hooch’s Baroque Dutch painting.
 THE BAROQUE AGE 393

FiGuRE 15.18 Jan Vermeer, Young Woman with a Water Pitcher,

ca. 1664-65, oil on canvas, 18 X 16” (45.7 X 40.6 cm), Metro-
politan Museum of Art, New York, gift of Henry G. Marquand, Other Flowers in an Urn.on a Stone Ledge, ca. 1745, oil on can-
1889. Great importance is given by Vermeer to light—not for vas, 425 x 33”(108 X 84 cm), National Museum of Women
Baroque bravura, but to scientifically observe and record every in the Arts, Washington, DC. Gift of Wallace and Wilhelmina
detail, and to note every subtle gradation and reflection. Holladay. A much-appreciated painter of flower still lifes, a
subject favored by the Dutch, Ruysch’s popularity was based
on her perfect assymetric flower arrangements, the most color-
ful flowers emerging from the characteristically dark gloom.
in full bloom, and still others are now decaying. Ruysch’s ‘Taking a scientific approach to Nature, she included a variety
interest in variety includes the decorative shapes, colors, of types of plants and recorded the tiniest details of each.
and textures. She had learned the importance of careful
observation of Nature from her father, the scientist Fred-
erik Ruysch; later she returned the favor by teaching her Intelligent, talented, sociable, energetic, and equipped
father to paint. with a good business sense, Rubens became extremely suc-
Ruysch joined the painters’ guild in The Hague in 1701. cessful. He set up shop in Antwerp, and by 1611, with two
Commissions for her large flower still lifes came from var- hundred painters and students working in his studio, was
ious parts of the globe. In 1708, she accepted an invita- the most financially successful artist of the age. He built a
tion to be court painter to Johann Wilhelm, the Elector large home containing his studio and an art collection in-
Palatine of Bavaria, in Diisseldorf. cluding works by Raphael, Titian, Tintoretto, van Eyck,
and Bruegel. He received commissions from the Church,
the city of Antwerp, and private individuals, but it was the
PAINTING IN FLANDERS
royal courts of Europe that garnered him the most fame
Peter Paul Rubens. Although born in Germany, PETER and fortune. He was court painter to the Duke of Mantua,
PAUL RUBENS [REW-bens] (1577-1640) established and to the Spanish regents of The Netherlands, Albert
himself as an artist in Antwerp, the capital of Catholic and Isabella. Commissions came also from Charles I of
Flanders. Between 1600 and 1608, at the very height of England and Philip IV of Spain, both of whom presented
Caravaggio’s career, he was in Italy, where he studied the him with a knighthood. In 1621, Marie de’ Medici of
Baroque masters, the antique, and the High Renaissance. France gave him the commission that would establish his
He copied the “old masters” and enjoyed a good reputa- international reputation.
tion in Italy, painting in a style that combined influences After the death of her husband, Henry IV, Marie de’
from the north and the south. Medici served as regent for her young son, Louis XIII.
394 CHAPTER 15

SET a MaeMO I Rae

VERMEER AND THE ORIGINS inverted image on the opposite, interior dimensional image; it revealed intriguing
OF PHOTOGRAPHY wall of the box. Thus the camera obscura details about the play of light. Often in
is like the modern-day camera, but it Vermeer’s paintings the light seems to
Tt appears that Vermeer used a device lacks light-sensitive paper or film on force the image out of focus. Photogra-
I known as the camera obscura to ex- which to record the image. In Vermeer’s phers call such spots in a photograph
ecute his paintings. First used in the Re- time, it could be the size of a room in “discs of confusion.” Although fleeting to
naissance for verifying perspective, the which the artist could stand fully upright the naked eye, Vermeer could study this
camera obscura was used by Dutch and trace the image, Or, as is probable optical effect through the lens of his cam-
painters as a tool for observation com- in the case of Vermeer, the pinhole was era obscura and capture it on canvas.
parable to the microscope and the tele- lensed in such a way that he could focus While it would be another 150 years
scope. At its simplest, the device is an the image on a translucent intermediary until photographic chemistry was per-
enclosed box with a tiny hole in one side screen that he could closely copy. fected, the physics upon which photog-
through which shines a beam of external Not only did the camera obscura trans- raphy is based was already at work in
light, projecting the scene outside as an form a three-dimensional view to a two- Vermeer’s images.

Ne AS LA RE NO I DUN TT NT CREE LO ONES AMES IEMA EL IS SILT INNS EME Ree lta eR aA eea itEE La ee re en ee

FIGURE 15.20 Peter Paul Rubens, Marie de’ Medici, Queen

of France, Landing in Marseilles, 1622-25, oil on canvas,
She asked Rubens to create a cycle of twenty-one large oil
Dual ok Tess x 1.21 m), Musée du Louvre, Paris,
paintings portraying her life. His aim was to glorify the
Reunion des Musées Nationaux. Jean Lewandowski/Art
queen. A master of narrative, Rubens’s solution was to Resource, NY. With the diagonal movements typical of the
dramatize even the ordinary. In the scene of Marie de’ Baroque, brilliant color, sensuous textures, and dashing
Medici, Queen of France, Landing in Marseilles (fig. 15.20), brushwork, Rubens raised his depiction of an unglamorous
the queen is merely disembarking in the southern French queen at an ordinary event to the level of high drama.
city of Marseilles, yet Fame flies above, blowing a trumpet,
and Neptune, god of the sea, accompanied by mermaids,
rises from the waves to welcome her.
The drama of the composition is characteristic of the
Baroque style, as is the love of movement in an open space.
Everything becomes active to the point of agitation, even
when not required by the subject. Rubens painted in terms
of rich, luminous, glowing color and light rather than in
terms of line. Every stroke, every form, is united by the
sweeping movements of Rubens’s design and the sheer ex-
uberance of his lush forms, which appeal more to the eye
than to the mind.
Aided by his early experience as a court page as well as
his fluency in five languages (Greek, Italian, French, Span-
ish, and Flemish), Rubens served as an adviser and emis-
sary for the Flemish court. When he visited the court of
Philip IV in Spain from September 1628 until late April
1629, he stayed in the royal palace in Madrid and was vis-
ited almost daily by the young king.
After his first wife died in 1626, Rubens married Héléne
Fourment, a distant relative, and began a second family.
He was fifty years old, his bride sixteen, and they had four
children in five years. The Garden of Love (fig. 15.21), ca.
1638, expresses the pleasures of life, with a robust grandeur
approaching animal exuberance. Certainly Rubens’s main
interest in this work is in the voluptuous female figure.
Only with difficulty could this scene be made any more
sumptuous—or sensuous.
 THE BAROQUE AGE 395

FIGURE 15.21 Peter Paul Rubens, The Garden of Love, ca. 1638, oil on canvas,
6'6" X93 5"(1.98 X 2.83 m), Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid. Rubens is known for his
rich, lush style—applied to the setting and, especially, to the figures. The term Rubenesque has
been coined to describe voluptuous fleshy females.

Anthony van Dyck. Rubens’s assistant from 1618 to polished metal plate or glass goblet, which sometimes in-
1620, Anthony van Dyck (1599-1641), became painter to cluded miniature self-portraits.
the court of Charles I in England and perhaps the great- Beneath the surface beauty of such still life paintings
est portrait painter of the age. His Portrait of Charles I at lies deeper symbolic meaning, often alluding to the brevity
the Hunt (fig. 15.22), of 1635, captures the king’s self-as- of life. In moralizing vanitas pictures, obvious symbols are
surance. Van Dyck contrasts the king with the anxious a snuffed-out candle, hour glass, or skull, while more sub-
groom and the pawing, nervous horse behind him, un- tle are flowers that are dying or eaten by insects and fruits
derscoring Charles’s command of all situations. that are decaying or peeled, as seen here. The meaning of
such symbols was well known to Peeters’s intended au-
Clara Peeters. Another aspect of Flemish painting is rep- dience.
resented by Clara Peeters (1594—after 1657) from Antwerp,
who signed her first painting at the age of fourteen. A still
PAINTING IN ENGLAND
life painter, her specialty was the depiction of breakfasts or
elaborate banquet tables. Of the latter type is her Table Mary Beale. ‘The interest in portraiture in seventeenth-
with a Tart and a White Pitcher (fig. 15.23) of 1611, painted century Europe also appears in the work of Mary Beale
when she was only seventeen years old. This complex table (1632-97), who specialized in portraiture, a genre particu-
setting records a complete gourmet meal. Her technical larly appreciated by the British. The artist Sir Peter Lely in-
ability in depicting different textures and surfaces reached vited Beale to copy paintings in his extensive personal art
a peak in the skillful handling of reflections, as here on the collection in London. After Lely’s death, Beale satisfied the
396 CHAPTER 15

FiGurE 15.22 Anthony van Dyck, Portrait of Charles I at the Hunt, 1635, oil on
canvas, approx. 9 X 7’ (2.74 X 2.13 m), Musée du Louvre, Paris. Reunion des
Musées Nationaux. Art Resource, NY. Working in Rubens’s rich, painterly style
with loose brushwork and a range of textural effects, van Dyck captures the
haughtiness of the posturing king.

demand for copies of his paintings: So adept was she at this, PAINTING IN SPAIN
and so similar were their styles, that it is possible some por-
traits by Beale have been incorrectly attributed to Lely. Diego Velazquez. Philip IV had become king of Spain in
After marrying Charles Beale, she began a professional ap- 1621 at the age of sixteen, and from the outset he relied
prenticeship and by 1670 was working independently as an heavily on the advice of Gaspar de Guzman, the count of
artist. An example of her skill at this time in portraiture is Olivares. Olivares wanted Philip’s court to be recognized as
seen in the likeness she created of John Wilkins DD (fig. the most prominent in Europe; he appointed DIEGO VE-
15.24) of ca. 1670. Painted in subdued colors, the Bishop LAZQUEZ [ve-LAHS-kez] (1599-1660) to the position of
of Chester is shown seated, the depiction straight forward, royal painter. Velazquez was highly honored by the king,
as he looks directly at the viewer. who ultimately knighted and conferred on him the Order of
Beale’s husband aided her by preparing her canvases Santiago, usually reserved for noblemen. Velazquez painted
and colors, and even becoming an art dealer. Notebooks many portraits of the royal family, and he seems to have
survive in which he kept track of her work and the large made his sitters no prettier or more handsome than they
number of commissions she completed each year. One of actually were. Velazquez lived most of his life in Madrid, al-
her two sons became a portraitist. though shortly after Rubens’s visit and at Rubens’s sugges-
 THE BAROQUE AGE 397

Bi
2 ZA.
AGA iSTS
CAAT
hace aoe _
NYe7Z; yee

FIGURE 15.23 Clara Peeters, Table me 4 Tart and a White Pitcher, 1622, 75 x 73 cm. Museo
del Prado, Madrid, Spain. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY. Such still life paintings appeal to
our senses—of visual beauty and, as encouraged by the level of realism, also to our senses of
taste and of smell. A luxurious way of life is implied, perhaps the viewer’s for the taking: Ob-
jects extend over the edge of the table, suggesting that we might reach across the picture plane
and help ourselves to these delicious foods.

tion, Philip granted Velazquez permission to visit Italy in Margarita, or are the king and queen having their portraits
order to study art in 1629. There he absorbed the lessons of painted by Velazquez and their child has come to watch?
the Italian Baroque and brought them back to Spain. Velazquez unites the world of the sitter and the world of
Throughout his career, his style became progressively richer, the viewer. Velazquez implies yet a third space to be
the color lusher, the figures more animated. reached by ascending the stairs on the back wall.
Velazquez’s most celebrated painting is the Maids of When Velazquez’s masterpiece took its place in Philip
Honor, or Las Meninas (fig. 15.25), painted in 1656. Origi- IV’s collection, it joined over 1500 paintings in the king’s
nally called Family ofPhilip IV, the painting raises the ques- collection at the Buen Retiro, the new residence that Oli-
tion: Is this a formal portrait? Or is ita genre scene? In fact, vares and Philip built on the outskirts of Madrid in the early
it is both. A glass of water has just been brought to Princess 1630s. Together with Philip II’s massive collection, Spain,
Margarita, the five-year-old daughter of Philip IV and his by 1650, owned much of the Western world’s great art.
second wife, Queen Mariana. Margarita’s maids, friends, a
nun, a dwarf, a dog, and others gather round. Yet this scene
PAINTING IN FRANCE
from everyday life is portrayed on a huge scale. Velazquez
includes himself painting a large canvas in the foreground. Nicolas Poussin. NICOLAS POUSSIN [poo-SAN]
On the back wall of the room are the reflections of (1594-1665) represents the classicizing and restrained ten-
the queen and king, apparently in a mirror. They stand dency within the usually dramatic Baroque.
where the viewer stands in relation to the pictorial Favoring academic history painting, his Rape of the
space. Is the viewer looking at a portrait of the Infanta Sabine Women (fig. 15.26), of ca. 1636-37, shows Romulus,
398 CHAPTER 15

FIGURE 15.24 Mary Beale, John Wilkins DD, ca. 1670, oil on canvas, 49 X 395"(124.5 x
100.5 cm). Bodleian Library, Oxford. The British interest in portraiture is evidenced here. The
abundant and richly textured textiles of the costume, furniture, and curtain add to the sought-
after impression of elevated social standing.

on the left, raising his cloak to signal his men to abduct Louise Moillon. Among all seventeenth-century French
the Sabine women to be their wives. The figures make painters of still life, LOUISE MOILLON [Loo-EEZ
wild gestures and expressions, yet the action is frozen and Mwa-YON] (1610-96) of Paris is regarded as the finest.
the effect unmoving. This style is intended to appeal more Both her father, Nicolas Moillon, who died when she was
to the mind than to the eye; appreciation of the painting nine, and her stepfather, Francois Garnier, were painters
depends largely upon knowing the story depicted. Poussin and art dealers. A child prodigy, she was selling paintings
said the goal of painting was to represent noble subjects to by the time she was ten. Although the Royal Academy of
morally improve the viewer. His approach to painting was Painting and Sculpture, discussed below, regarded still life
. disciplined, organized, and theoretical. Poussin worked in as of less merit than religious or historical subjects or por-
terms of line rather than color—in this he was the oppo- traiture, the artists elected to membership during the sev-
site of Rubens. enteenth century included still life painters. In fig. 15.27,
 THE BAROQUE AGE 399

FIGURE 15.25 Diego Velazquez, Maids ofHonor (Las Meninas), 1656, oil on canvas, 10’ 5” X
9’ (3.17 X 2.74 m), Museo del Prado, Madrid. Velazquez depicts himself in this group portrait
in the process of painting just such a large canvas. Much as in Jan van Eyck’s Arnolfini wed-
ding portrait (fig. 14.4), the presence of people (here the king and queen) in the viewer’s space
is indicated by their reflection in the mirror on the back wall.
400 CHAPTER 15

FiGurE 15.26 Nicolas Poussin, Rape of the Sabine Women, ca. 1636-37, oil on canvas,
5 in x 6' 1027(1.55 x 2.10 m). Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. In spite of the dra-
matic subject and technical perfection of drawing, Poussin’s academic style renders his charac-
ters as frozen actors on a stage, unlikely to elicit an emotional response in the viewer.

Still Life with Cherries, Strawberries, and Gooseberries, define absolute standards by which to judge the art of the
painted when she was only twenty and already an artist of period.
note, Moillon created a simple composition, perfectly bal- Favored above all other painters was Poussin, but the
anced, the blank background focusing all attention on the Academy’s insistence on Poussin’s supremacy alienated
objects. The textures, sizes, and shapes of the fruits as well many younger members of the Academy inclined not
as of their containers form intentional contrasts. toward Poussin’s cool classicism, but toward Rubens’s dash-
ing bravura. By the end of the seventeenth century, the
The French Academy. Beginning with the reign of Academy had split into two opposing groups—those who
KING LOUIS XIV [LOO-ee] (1638-1715), who came to favored line and those who favored color. The former, ad-
the throne as a child in 1643 and ruled outright from 1661 herents to the style of Poussin and referred to as poussin-
until 1715, Paris became increasingly the center of the istes, argued that line was superior because it appealed to
Western art world, even if many of its most important the mind, whereas color appealed only to the senses. The
painters, such as Poussin, preferred to live and work latter, preferring the style of Rubens, were called
in Rome. Louis XIV’s reign was the longest in European rubénistes and maintained that color was truer to nature;
history, and assisted by his chief adviser, Jean-Baptiste line appealed only to an educated mind, but color appealed
Colbert, he soon established control over art and archi- to all. Both sides agreed on this point. Thus, to ask whether
tecture. He did this through the Royal Academy of Paint- line or color is superior is to question whether the edu-
ing and Sculpture, established in Paris in 1648 and known cated person or the lay person is the ultimate audience for
more simply as the French Academy. Its purpose was to art, a debate that continues to this day.
 THE BAROQUE AGE 401

FIGURE 15.27 Louise Moillon, Stil] Life with Cherries, Strawberries, and Gooseberries, 1630,
oil on panel, 122 x lo (32 X 48.5 cm). Norton Simon Foundation, Pasadena, CA. Moillon’s
speciality was fruit still lifes. This display of her extraordinary technical skill includes the drops
of water on the table which are given a prominent location in the center foreground, ensuring
that they do not go unnoticed by the viewer. More realistic records of the visible world would
have to wait until the invention of photography.

ARCHITECTURE tend on each side, and the building ends in forms remi-
niscent of a Roman triumphal arch. The king was so
The Louvre. As head of the French Academy, Colbert pleased that he insisted the new facade be duplicated on the
invited Bernini to Paris in 1664 to present plans for the palace’s other faces.
facade for the new east wing of the royal palace of the
Louvre [LOOV]. But Bernini’s approach was deemed too The Palace of Versailles. Louis XIV then turned his at-
radical, and furthermore, French architects did not think tention to the building of a new royal palace at Versailles
the design of a French palace should fall to an Italian. [vair-SIGH], eleven miles southwest of Paris. It was begun
Therefore, to conceive a new plan, Colbert appointed a in 1669 by Le Vau, who managed to design the garden fa-
French council: architect LOUIS LE VAU [luh VO] cade but died within the year. JULES HARDOUIN-
(1612-70), painter CHARLES LE BRUN [luh BRUN] MANSART [man-SAR] (1646-1708) took over and
(1619-90), a previous director of the French Academy, and enlarged the palace to the extraordinary length of 1,903
architect CLAUDE PERRAULT [peh-ROH] (1613-88), feet.
who later published a French edition of the ancient archi- The visitor arriving at Versailles from Paris is greeted
tect Vitruvius. A strict, linear classicism was the result (fig. by the principal facade, designed to focus on the three win-
15.28). The center of the facade looks like a Roman tem- dows of Louis XIV’s bedroom in the center. The entire
ple with Corinthian columns; wings of paired columns ex- palace and gardens are arranged symmetrically on this axis.
402 CHAPTER 15

Critical Thinking
ART FORGERIES chased by the J. Paul Getty Museum in ture was created, why some people were
California. Although the work appeared fooled by it, and how some experts knew,
Ale the problems confronting art to be from the sixth-century B.C.E. his- seemingly instinctively, that the Getty
ealers and purchasers today is that torians were divided as to its authentic- kouros was a fake, even though many de-
of forgery—works of art which have ity. After listening to arguments on both tails suggested its authenticity.
been created to look like important sides, the museum purchased the statue, What do you think is necessary for an
paintings, sculptures, or artifacts from in large part because geological analysis expert to detect a forgery? What kinds
the past, usually from ancient times, but indicated that its marble had come from of tests might be done as part of the in-
are copies meant to deceive. Forgery ex- an ancient quarry site and because it had vestigation into a work’s authenticity? ‘To
ists because artworks are valuable, and appropriate papers to designate its what extent do you think tests, such as
forgers aim to cash in on that fact. provenance—its history of former own- those done on the dating of a work’s ma-
Among recent forgeries is that of an ership. terials, are enough to decide such issues?
ancient Greek sculpture of a kouros, or In a recent book, Blink, Malcolm To what extent is an art historian’s expe-
young male nude standing figure, pur- Gladwell explains how the forged sculp- rience of value in deciding such matters?

FIGURE 15.28 Louis Le Vau, Charles Le Brun, Claude Perrault, east facade, Palais du
Louvre, Paris, 1667—70. All vestiges of Baroque sensuality have been banished here in favor of
a strict revival of elements found in ancient Roman architecture.
 THE BAROQUE AGE 403

Versailles was the seat of the government of France and (1632-1723) quickly brought it to the fore. In addition to
once housed ten thousand people. Even the humblest attic being an architect, Wren was professor of astronomy at
room at Versailles was preferred to living on one’s own es- Oxford University and was also knowledgeable in anatomy,
tate, because only through contact with the king was there physics, mathematics, sailing, street paving, and embroi-
the possibility of obtaining royal favor. The most spectac- dery. He even invented a device for copying documents
ular of the many splendid rooms of the palace of Versailles by having a second pen attached to the first and writing
is the Hall of Mirrors (fig. 15.29), designed about 1680, the double.
work of Hardouin-Mansart, Le Brun, and Antoine Coy- During the Great Fire of 1666, much of London was
sevox. Tunnel-like in its dimensions (240 feet long, but only destroyed, including the original Gothic church of St.
34 feet wide, and 43 feet high), the Hall of Mirrors over- Paul’s. Wren joined the royal commission for rebuilding
looks the gardens through seventeen arched windows re- the city, and although his master plan for its reconstruction
flected in seventeen arched mirrors. Furnished with silver was rejected, he did design many local churches. His mas-
furniture and orange trees, and hung white brocade cur- terpiece was the new St. Paul’s cathedral (fig. 15.30), built
tains, lit by innumerable flickering candles, mirrored to re- 1675-1710.
flect marble, gilding, stucco, wood, and paint, it is one of St. Paul’s cathedral may be regarded as a Baroque rein-
the ultimate examples of French Baroque elegance. terpretation of the ancient Roman Pantheon (see Chap-
ter 4). Wren designed a dome like that of the Pantheon,
St. Paul’s Cathedral. Although England had lagged be- but raised it high on double drums and topped it with a
hind the continent artistically, Sir Christopher Wren lantern, and he modeled his triangular pediment on the

FiGureE 15.29 Jules Hardouin-Mansart and Charles Le Brun, Hall of Mirrors, Palace of
Versailles, ca. 1680. Typically Baroque is the combination of a variety of materials to enhance
the opulence of the overall impact. Imagine the-effect with the flickering light of hundreds of
candles reflected in the arched mirrors.
404 CHAPTER 15

FiGurE 15.30 Sir Christopher Wren, facade, St. Paul’s Cathedral, London,
1675-1710, length 514’ (156.67 m), width 250’ (76.20 m), height of dome 366’
(111.56 m). The facade of St. Paul’s in London deserves comparison with that of St.
Peter’s in Rome (fig. 15.1). Although the basic dome, pediment, and columns derive
from antiquity, the Baroque influence is evident in the paired columns and double
facade.

Pantheon’s but supported it on two stories of columns, St. Paul’s includes such details on both the exterior and
which, characteristic of the Baroque, are grouped in pairs. interior.
The lower story of columns is as wide as the nave and
aisles, the upper as wide as the nave. Particularly Baroque
BAROQUE MUSIC OUTSIDE ITALY
are the broken silhouettes of the towers at each corner.
It is possible that Wren intended St. Paul’s to be the St. Handel and the Oratorio. Late in the Baroque age, Ital-
Peter’s of the north. Like the dome of St. Peter’s in Rome, ian opera such as Monteverdi’s began to go out of style,
the dome of St. Paul’s is as wide as the nave and aisles. Al- particularly in the north where Protestants thought the
though smaller than St. Peter’s, St. Paul’s is considered ar- form frivolous. One of the most successful composers of
tistically superior for its stylistic consistency; St. Paul’s is Italian opera of the day was GEORGE FREDERICK
also the only major cathedral in Western Europe to be HANDEL [HAN-del] (1685-1759), a German composer
completed by the person who designed it. St. Peter’s lacks who emigrated to England in the early 1700s. Handel was
small-scale features with which to interpret its vastness; renowned as an organist and a prodigious composer in
 THE BAROQUE AGE 405

many musical genres, including keyboard works, orches- “light” of the soprano voices and brass contrasted with the
tral suites, and concertoes for various instruments. Lauded “darkness” of the drums and bass line, capturing the
and commissioned by the Hanoverian kings, he profoundly essence of the crucifixion’s simultaneous sorrow and joy.
influenced English music for a century after his death. Composed in an astonishing twenty-three days, Messiah
By the mid-1720s Handel had composed nearly forty was first performed not in London but in Dublin, in 1742,
operas, but recognizing the growing English distaste for for the relief of prisoners and wards of the state. It was not
the form, he turned to composing oratorios. An oratorio until 1750 that the London public fully responded to the
is a sacred opera sung without costume and without acting work. Upon completing Messiah Handel’s eyes are said to
because it,was forbidden to present biblical characters in have filled with tears, and he is reputed to have said, “I did
a public theater. Handel relied on a heightened musical think I did see all Heaven before me, and the Great God
drama to make up for the lack of theater. Written in Eng- Himself!”
lish, Handel’s oratorios employ the many musical forms
of opera, such as arias (solo songs), recitatives, duets, en- Jobann Sebastian Bach. ‘The other great Baroque com-
semble singing, and choruses, and all were set to orches- poser is JOHANN SEBASTIAN BACH [BAHK]
tral accompaniment. (1685-1750), the grand master of the Baroque style and
Handel’s most famous oratorio is his Messiah, a com- musical art forms of his age, and as thorough and thought-
position of enormous scope that rivals the most ambitious ful a musician as ever lived. Bach’s output includes music
projects of Baroque art and architecture—Bernin1’s colon- for voices and instruments in every major form of the era
nade for the Vatican square, Rubens’s cycle of paintings except opera. His works for keyboard include hundreds of
celebrating the life of Marie de’ Medici and Milton’s epic pieces that are used today as teaching pieces. He played
Paradise Lost. Messiah includes approximately fifty indi- and composed solo works for a number of instruments,
vidual pieces, lasting, collectively, about three hours. Its including violin and harpsichord (fig. 15.31), and was mas-
three parts are based on the biblical texts of Isaiah, the ter of the organ, on which he could improvise at will the
Psalms, the Gospels, Revelations, and the Pauline Epis- most complicated fugues.
tles. The first part concerns the prophecy of the birth of A fugue is composed of three or four independent parts
Christ; the second focuses on his suffering, especially the of which one part, or voice, states a theme, which is then
crucifixion; the third encompasses his resurrection and the imitated in succession by each of the other voices. As the
redemption of the world.
The tone of Messiah is jubilant and celebratory. One
particularly inspirational section is the second part of the FiGurE 15.31 Jerome de Zentis, harpsichord, 1658. Maker:
oratorio, concluding with the famous “Hallelujah Cho- Girolamo Zenti. Robet Harding/Metropolitan Museum of Art,
rus,” which is based on Revelations 11:15. The text is as New York. A keyboard instrument that was often intricately dec-
follows: orated, the Baroque harpsichord had strings that were plucked
by mechanical plectra inside the body of the instrument.
a. Hallelujah! Hallelujah!
b. For the Lord God omnipotent reigneth
c. The Kingdom of this world is become the Kingdom
of Our Lord and of His Christ.
d. And He shall reign for ever and ever
King of Kings and Lord of Lords
And He shall reign for ever and ever
Hallelujah! Hallelujah!

The opening of this exultant chorus is noteworthy for

its repeated and emphatic Hallelujahs (a), followed by a
sudden contrasting quieter section (b). An even softer sec-
tion begins with (c) “The Kingdom of this world,” which
is quickly followed by the majestic fugue of (d) “And he
shall reign for ever and ever.” As the chorus moves exu-
berantly toward its dramatic conclusion, Handel splits the
voices. The top voice is split into two voices, soprano and
alto, and they rise higher and higher on the phrase “King
of Kings and Lord of Lords.” The bottom voice is also di-
vided into two voices, tenor and bass, which sing “for ever
and ever, Hallelujah!” The four voices are bolstered by the
jubilance of beating drums and trumpeting brass. The en-
tire effect is one of Baroque drama, a play between the
406 CHAPTER 15

Cross Currents
THE BAROQUE IN MEXICO elaborate is the whole that the style is
called the “exuberant Baroque.”
en the Spanish explorers led by Among the most noteworthy and in-
Hernan Cortés came to America fluential of Mexican Baroque writers was
in 1519, they spread Catholicism with SOR JUANA INES DE LA CRUZ
zeal. With the support of Jesuits, mis- [soar HWA-nah] (1648-95), who was
sionaries, and the political and financial born near Mexico City. Hailed as the
backing of European governments, sev- “Phoenix of Mexico” and “America’s
enteenth-century South America boasted Tenth Muse” during her lifetime, Sor
a strong European cultural connection, Juana is considered one of the finest
including no fewer than five universities, Spanish American writers of her time.
the largest and most important of which Although a nun, she also became the
was in Mexico City. confidante of prominent leaders and in-
Mexican-born writers and artists tellectuals throughout Spanish America.
worked hand in hand with their Her poetry speaks to women across
European-born counterparts to create a cultures and centuries in a language that
native architecture and literature that is by turns playful and ironically critical
spoke to the European cultural heritage. of men’s failures, as shown in the first and
Great Baroque structures were built, the last stanzas from her aptly titled poem,
leading example of which is the Chapel “She Demonstrates the Inconsistency of
of the Rosary in the Church of Santo Men’s Wishes in Blaming Women for
Domingo in Puebla (fig. 15.32), com- What They Themselves Have Caused”:
pleted about 1690. Like much Mexican FiGurE 15.32 Chapel of the Rosary,
Silly, you men—so very adept
art, it melds local traditions and Catholic Church of Santo Domingo, Puebla,
at wrongly faulting womankind,
icons. Here local artisans crafted images not seeing you're alone to blame Mexico, ca. 1690. Free of any precon-
in polychrome stucco that, although they for faults you plant in woman’s mind. . . ceptions that would limit their decora-
represent Christian figures, possess the I well know what powerful arms 5 tive impulses, the artists who fashioned
faces and dresses of native Mexicans. you wield in pressing for evil: this interior were able to press the
Meandering vines weave across the ceil- your arrogance is allied Baroque sensibility to its very limits.
ings, and gold leaf covers the altar. So with the world, the flesh, and the devil.

second voice takes over the theme from the first, the first of the duke of Weimar, composing many works for the
continues playing in counterpoint, music that differs from organ. Next Bach served as director of music for the prince
the main theme. The third voice takes over from the sec- of Cothen, where he composed a set of six concertos ded-
ond, the second continues on in counterpoint, and so on. icated to the Margrave of Brandenburg, subsequently
The driving rhythm of Bach’s fugues create drama and known as The Brandenburg Concertos. Bach’s longest musi-
tension, as the musical voices seem to chase one another, cal post was as music director of the Church of St. Thomas
only to be resolved when they come together peacefully at in Leipzig, where for twenty-seven years he served as or-
the end. ganist, choirmaster, composer, and music director. At
Bach developed to perfection the art of such polyphonic Leipzig, Bach produced his religious vocal music, includ-
music, or music for multiple voices. As a young church or- ing the B Minor Mass, the St. John and St. Matthew Passions,
ganist, Bach demonstrated a talent for improvising on and numerous church cantatas, of which he wrote nearly
hymn tunes, so much so that complaints were lodged three hundred, more than two hundred of which survive.
against him “for having made many curious variations in A cantata is a work for a single singer or group of singers
the chorale and mingled many strange tones in it.” He was accompanied by instruments.
at work on his Art of the Fugue, an encyclopedic com- Among these is the famous Cantata No. 80: Ein feste
pendium of fugues for study and performance, when he Burg ist unser Gott (A Mighty Fortress Is Our God), com-
died. posed in 1715, revised in 1724, and based on the hymn,
Bach’s professional career began with a position as or- or chorale, by Martin Luther. Like many of Bach’s sacred,
ganist at a church in Arnstadt. Then he served for nine or church, cantatas, this one was written for Lutheran serv-
years as court organist and chamber musician at the court ices. The cantatas were performed by eight to twelve
 THE BAROQUE AGE 407

singers and an orchestral ensemble of eighteen to twenty- 1604 he was the first to describe it as an optical instrument
four musicians (although Bach often complained he had with a lens used for focusing (fig. 15.33). “Vision,” he
to make do with wretched musicians and underprepared wrote, “is brought about by a picture of the thing seen
vocalists). Luther’s original chorale, which is in itself a cen- being formed on the concave surface of the retina.”
terpiece of Protestant hymnology, appears in eloquent and “I leave to natural philosophers to discuss the way
simple majesty in a four-part harmonization as the final in which this picture is put together by the spiritual
movement of Bach’s cantata. principles of vision residing in the retina and the
Bach’s music gained worldwide popularity when a com- nerves,” he wrote, “and whether it is made to appear be-
poser of the Romantic era, Felix Mendelssohn (1809-47), fore the soul or tribunal of the faculty of vision by a spirit
arranged for a performance of Bach’s Passion According to St. within the cerebral cavities, or the faculty of vision, like a
Matthew some eighty years after Bach’s death. Since that magistrate sent by the soul, goes out from the council
time, Bach has been considered the consummate composer
of Baroque music. His musical style has been adapted to a
variety of genres. Jazz performers study Bach’s improvisa- FiGurRE 15.33 _ Illustration of the theory of the retinal image,
tional style and his theoretical techniques. Groups such as from René Descartes, La Dioptrique (Leiden, 1637), Bancroft
the Swingle Singers and the Thomas Gabriel Trio have Library, Berkeley, California. No image better illustrates the
importance of scientific observation to the Baroque sensibility.
adapted Bach’s works in a fusion of jazz and Baroque styles.
Even the eye itself is defined here as a scientific instrument.
His polyphonic compositions are well suited to computer-
generated music such as the series of Wendy Carlos’s
Switched On Bach. The parodies of Peter Schickele, who
uses the pseudonym PDQ Bach, entertain us with comedic
renditions of Bach’s music.
Ee He
THE SCIENCE OF OBSERVATION
The precision of Bach’s fugues and Vermeer’s paintings
echo the scientific spirit of the Baroque age. Francis
Bacon’s development of the principles of the scientific Uy
te
method (see Chapter 14), with its emphasis on the careful oe
ee
.
observation of physical phenomena, resounded through- ‘.,
Chat)

out the Baroque age in a vast array of scientific discover-

ies and inventions. Precise observation required new tools
for seeing, and these new observations in turn created new
knowledge.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek. In Holland, for instance, a

lens maker named ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK
[LAY-ven-huck] (1632-1723) transformed the magnifying
glasses used by lace makers and embroiderers into power-
ful microscopes capable of seeing small organisms. He in-
vestigated everything under his microscope (including all
of his bodily fluids). Leeuwenhoek quickly realized that
the world was teeming with microorganisms he called “lit-
tle animals.” He was the first person to see protozoa and
bacteria and the first to describe the red blood cell.
Leeuwenhoek was also fascinated with the mechanisms of
sight, particularly with the fact that the eye is itself a lens.
He dissected insect and animal eyes, and actually looked
through them himself. He describes looking at the tower
of the New Church through the eye of a dragonfly: “A
great many Towers were presented, also upside down, and
they appeared no bigger than does the point of a small pin
to our Eye.”

Johannes Kepler. JOHANNES KEPLER [KEP-ler]

(1571-1630) had been equally interested in the eye, and in
408 CHAPTER 15

chamber of the brain to meet this image in the optic nerves PHILOSOPHY
and retina, as it were descending to a lower court.”
Kepler is interested in the fact of vision, not its metaphys- René Descartes. Kepler’s effort to distinguish the science
ical meaning. of observation from the contemplation of the subjective
or spiritual matters of the mind was well known to RENE
Galileo Galilei. Kepler’s friend GALILEO GALILEI DESCARTES [day-CART] (1595-1650). Descartes actu-
[ga-li-LAY-o] (1564-1642) was the first to develop the tel- ally published the illustrated model of the retinal image
escope and use it to observe the heavens. Through it he (fig. 15.33) in his own work. But Descartes was interested
saw and described craters on the moon, the phases of in what Kepler was not. He was, in fact, the very “natural
Venus, and sunspots, and he theorized, in one of the im- philosopher” to whom Kepler left the problem of what
portant advances of physics, that light takes time to get happened to the image once it registered itself on the
from one place to another—that, either as a particle or retina. Descartes did for modern philosophy what Bacon
wave, it travels at a uniform speed that is measurable. had done for science, and so he is often called the “Father
Galileo’s astronomical findings confirmed Copernicus’s of Modern Philosophy.”
theory that the earth circled the sun, a position the Church Descartes used doubt as a point of departure and philo-
still did not accept. In 1615, Galileo was forced to defend sophical debate. He began with a series of systematic ques-
his ideas before Pope Paul V in Rome, but his efforts failed, tions that led him to doubt the existence of everything. At
and he was prohibited from either publishing or teaching that point, he asked himself if there was anything at all he
his findings. When Pope Urban VHI, an old friend, was could know with certainty. His answer was that the only
elected pope, Galileo appealed to the papacy again, but thing he could conceive of “clearly” and “distinctly” (his
again he was condemned, this time much more severely. two essential criteria) was that he existed as a doubting en-
He was made to admit the error of his ways in public and tity. Descartes formulated this fundamental concept in
sentenced to prison for the rest of his life. Friends inter- Latin: Cogito, ergo sum, which means “I think, therefore I
vened, and in the end he was merely banished to a com- am.” According to Descartes, this cogito provided the foun-
fortable villa outside Florence. dation, principle, and model for all subsequent knowledge,

Map 15.2 World exploration, 1271-1611.

Arctic Ocean
a
ox: ea English territories

French territories

ee Portuguese territories

panish territories

Pacific

vd
Ocean

Fer dinand
Hernan Cortés
1519
Sebastign ¢°9ellanv
15 19.25 ano

OTRae
Pacific
Ocean
Indian Ocean es
Francisco Pizarro

oo

(0) 2000 miles

eee ere
3200 kms
 THE BAROQUE AGE 409

which he held to the same standards of evidence and ra- ment of the solar system could be extended to the obser-
tionality. vation of human beings in their relations to one another.
Turning his attention from himself to the world, Hobbes’s philosophy, published in 1651 in a book en-
Descartes allowed that the only thing he could know for titled Leviathan (fig. 15.34), would be read by many as an
certain about the material world is that it too exists. He apology for, or defense of, monarchical rule. Hobbes be-
believed there was an absolute division between mind and lieved that humans are driven by two primal forces, the
matter. Matter could be studied mathematically and sci- fear of death and the desire for power. If government does
entifically, its behavior predicted by the new science of nothing to check these impulses, humankind simply self-
physics. How the mind knows something is altogether dif- destructs. But Hobbes also believed that humans recog-
ferent. When we observe an object in the distance—the nize their essential depravity and therefore choose to be
sun, for instance—it appears to be small, but we know governed. They enter into what he called the social con-
through scientific observation that it is much larger than tract, by which the people choose to give up sovereignty
it appears. Knowledge, Descartes recognized, cannot rest over themselves and bestow it on a ruler. They agree to
on perception alone. This had been demonstrated by carry out all the ruler’s commands, and in return the ruler
Copernicus’s theory of the universe: We may perceive our- agrees to keep the peace.
selves to be standing still, but we are on a planet spinning
quickly through space.
This recognition led Descartes to ask how we can know
that which we cannot perceive. Most important, how can
we know that God exists, if we cannot perceive him? FiGurE 15.34 Frontispiece of Leviathan, 1651, Bancroft Li-
Descartes decided, finally, that if we are too imperfect to brary, Berkeley, California. An image of the social contract, the
trust even our own perceptions, and yet we are still able to body of the king is made up of hundreds of his subjects. He
rules over a world at peace, its cities well fortified and its coun-
imagine a perfect God, then God must exist. If he did not,
tryside well groomed.
then he would be unimaginable. In other words, what is
“clearly” and “distinctly” perceived by the mind—Cogito,
ergo sum—tnust be true. Descartes’s answer was somewhat
paradoxical and would lead to much philosophical debate
in the centuries to come.
Thomas Hobbes. During the Baroque age, the question
of how to govern increasingly occupied philosophical
thinkers. In England, the situation reached a crisis point
when Charles I challenged Parliament’s identity as the
king’s partner in rule. Civil war erupted, and in 1649, a
Commonwealth was established, led by the Puritan Oliver
Cromwell as, essentially, a military dictatorship. The
monarchy was restored in 1660 after the republic failed,
but the relationship between parliament and monarch re-
mained murky. Finally, in 1688, James II was expelled in
the bloodless “Glorious Revolution,” and Mary and
William of Orange, James’s daughter and son-in-law, as-
cended the throne. They immediately accepted the rights
of all citizens under the law, recognizing in particular Par-
liament’s right to exercise authority over financial matters,
and England became a limited monarchy.
In this atmosphere, the debate about who should gov- "4 i
4407H Ecorest ast
5
ical
4
g
ern and how was addressed by two political philosophers ana Cn TIL.

with very different points of view. Mirroring Descartes’s ‘By TiHowas HOBBES
emphasis on the primacy of perception was the philoso- of MALMESBVRY «
pher Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). Educated as a classi-
cist, Hobbes was particularly impressed by the geometry
of Euclid, and he came to believe the reasoning on which
geometry is based could be extended to social and politi-
cal life. After visiting with Galileo in Italy, Hobbes became London
led forAnoren? Croke

even more convinced this was true. The power of Galileo's

science of observation and its ability to describe the move-
410 CHAPTER 15

Then & Now

THE TELESCOPE the stuff, scientists believe, of which solar

systems are made. Hubble has shown
ee telescope’? (hig 715735) these whirling jets all at once form a star
changed the way people thought of and shoot out jets of matter that will
their solar system. It demonstrated con- form something like our own solar sys-
clusively that the earth and other planets tem. The implication is that some stars,
orbited around the sun. The modern-day even in our own galaxy, may possess solar
Hubble Space Telescope is rapidly en- systems similar to our own, and hence
hancing our understanding of the solar the possibility of life.
system’s place in the universe. Deployed
into Earth’s orbit on April 24, 1990, from
the space shuttle Discovery, the 12.5-ton
satellite is able to look directly at the cos-
mos unhindered by Earth’s atmosphere.
It has revealed galaxy forms as far as
twelve billion light-years away, which
may be the furthest reaches of our uni-
verse.
Galileo was able to see other galaxies,
which he called nebulae (clouds). Hub-
ble’s photographs suggest that these
nebulae are really clumps of gas that gen- FiGureE 15.35 Galileo Galilei,
erate new stars. Enormous jets of gas Telescope, 1609, Museum of Science,
erupt out of these gas clumps at speeds Florence. With a telescope such as this,
up to 300 miles per second and are shot Galileo was able to contradict the
trillions of miles out into space. This is Ptolemaic view of the universe.

Fobhn Locke. JOHN LOCKE [lock] (1632-1704), repu- thority. Such ideas set the stage for the political revolu-
diating Hobbes, believed people are perfectly capable of tions of the eighteenth century.
governing themselves. Locke’s Essay on Human Under-
standing, published in 1690, argues that the human mind
LITERATURE
is at birth a tabula rasa, or “blank slate.” Then two great
“fountains of knowledge,” our environment as opposed to Unlike Renaissance writers, who were often content to cat-
our heredity, and our reason as opposed to our faith, fill alog the beauties of the beloved, Baroque writers explore
this blank slate with learning as the person develops. Locke the mysteries of love, both erotic and divine. Baroque writ-
argued, furthermore, in his Second Treatise on Government, ers, overall, also spend considerably more time exploring
also published in 1690, that humans are “by nature free, their relationship to God, often in passionate and dramatic
equal, and independent.” They accept the rule of govern- terms. Religious and secular Baroque writing, poetry in par-
ment, he argues, because they find it convenient to do so, ticular, often dramatizes emotional and personal encoun-
not because they are innately inclined to submit to au- ters between speaker and listener (whether God or lover).

ae
Scientists
ot
+
eae a
Pane | Toble 15-1 _SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY SCIENTISTSAND PHILOSC
Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723): The microscope
Johannes Kepler (1571-1639): The science of vision
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642): The telescope
Philosophers Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): The Leviathan social contract
René Descartes (1595-1650): Cogito, ergo sum (I think, therefore | am)
John Locke (1632-1704): Essay on Human Understanding; tabula rasa (blank slate)
 THE BAROQUE AGE 4l11

Moliere and the Baroque Stage. During the Baroque plot, the vitality of its characterization, and the brilliance
era, stage plans differed from those of Shakespeare and of its language.
classical Greece. Seventeenth-century plays took place in-
Fohn Donne. JOHN DONNE [dun] (1572-1631) is
doors on a stage, with a proscenium arch, an arch that
considered among the finest poets of his, or indeed of any,
stands in front of the scene and divides the stage from the
age. He wrote prose as well as verse, and his poetry in-
auditorium. A supporting curtain separates the audience
cludes amorous lyrics, philosophical poems, devotional
from the actors. The plays were enacted on a box stage,
sonnets and hymns, elegies, epistles, and satires.
which represented a room with a missing fourth wall, al-
Born into a Roman Catholic family in anti-Catholic
lowing the audience to look in on the action. This is still
England, Donne attended Oxford and Cambridge Uni-
the most popular stage in use.
versities, though he neither took an academic degree nor
Unelaborate painted scenery served as a backdrop for
practiced law. He later converted to Anglicanism and was
the action. Candles and lanterns illuminated actors and
appointed private secretary to Sir Thomas Egerton, a high
audience. Costume tended toward the ornate, as in Eliza-
court official. When Donne secretly married his em-
bethan drama. On both Elizabethan and Baroque stages,
ployer’s niece, Anne More, he was dismissed and prohib-
actors were costumed in the contemporary dress appro-
ited from obtaining court appointment, first by Egerton
priate to the social status of the characters they portrayed.
and later by King James I, who wanted Donne to become
An innovation in seventeenth-century drama was that fe-
an Anglican preacher. This Donne eventually did, being
male actresses assumed women’s roles for the first time,
ordained to the ministry in 1615 and made dean of St.
enabling more extensive, more frequent, and more realis-
Paul’s Cathedral in London in 1621, where he served until
tic love scenes. As in the earlier eras of drama, however,
his death ten years later.
language still did much of the work.
Donne’s “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning,” a
The conventions of the French theater of the time were philosophical love poem, is noted for its extended analogy
inspired by the classical drama of Greece and Rome. Like
or conceit comparing lovers to the two feet of a geome-
its ancient antecedents, the seventeenth-century French
trician’s compasses.
theater observed what are known as the three unities: the
unity of time, the unity of place, and the unity of action. As virtuous men pass mildly away,
A play’s action had to be confined to a twenty-four-hour And whisper to their souls to go,
period. The place should be a single setting. The action While some of their sad friends do say,
The breath goes now, and some say, no:
must be unified in a single plot. Plays that violated these So let us melt, and make no noise, 5
unities were thought crude and inelegant by their audi- No tear-floods, nor sigh-tempests move;
ence, which consisted largely of courtiers and aristocrats. ”*Twere profanation of our joys
The three great practitioners of the French Baroque the- ‘To tell the laity our love.
ater all observed the unities—its two great tragedians, Moving of th’ earth brings harms and fears,
PIERRE CORNEILLE [kor-NAY] (1606-1684) and Men reckon what it did and meant, 10
JEAN RACINE [ra-SEEN] (1639-1699), and its great But trepidation of the spheres,
comic genius Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, known by his stage Though greater far, is innocent.
name MOLIERE [mol-YAIR] (1622-1673). Dull sublunary lovers’ love
Corneille’s themes are patriotism and honor. Racine’s (Whose soul is sense) cannot admit
Absence, because it doth remove 15
plays concentrate on the moral dilemmas of the Greek
Those things which elemented it.
tragedies. But of the three, Moliére’s satiric comedy is the But we by a love so much refined,
most accessible, resorting, as it often does, to slapstick, That ourselves know not what it is,
pratfalls, and the sorts of comic predicaments modern au- Inter-assured of the mind,
diences still enjoy. Among his masterpieces is Tartuffe, Care less, eyes, lips, and hands to miss. 20
which satirizes fraud and religious hypocrisy. The play also Our two souls therefore, which are one,
pokes fun at the gullibility of those who allow themselves Though I must go, endure not yet
to be taken in by greedy, self-serving sanctimony. A breach, but an expansion,
When Tartuffe was first staged in 1664, it antagonized Like gold to airy thinness beat.
some who considered it an attack on religion. Even though If they be two, they are two so 25
As stiff twin compasses are two;
Moliére retitled it The Impostor to indicate Tartuffe’s fraud-
Thy soul the fixed foot, makes no show
ulence, the play was censored and banned. ‘To defend him-
‘To move, but doth, if th’ other do.
self and his play against such charges, Moliére wrote three And though it in the center sit,
prefaces and later changed his original ending. The pub- Yet when the other far doth roam, 30
licity enhanced the play’s popularity, and the work was re- It leans, and hearkens after it,
turned to the stage under the protection of the king. Its And grows erect, as that comes home.
unending popularity, however, is due neither to royal pro- Such wilt thou be to me, who must
tection nor to notoriety, but rather to the ingenuity of its Like th’ other foot, obliquely run:
412 CHAPTER 15

Thy firmness makes my circle just, 35 If ever wife was happy in a man,
And makes me end, where I begun. Compare with me, ye women, if you can.
I prize thy love more than whole Mines of gold
Contemporary sources note that Donne addressed this Or all the riches that the East doth hold.
poem to his wife as he was preparing in 1611 for a conti- My love is such that Rivers cannot quench,
nental journey. He had premonitions of disaster, which Nor ought but love from thee give recompetence.
turned out to be well founded because his wife gave birth Thy love is such I can no way repay.
The heavens reward thee manifold, I pray.
to a stillborn child while he was abroad. In the first two
Then while we live, in love let’s so persever
stanzas the speaker urges his wife not to make a public That when we live no more, we may live ever.
spectacle of their grief on parting. The poet/speaker com-
pares their leave-taking with the death of virtuous men,
who depart life quietly and peacefully. He urges her to em- Jobn Milton. John Milton (1608-74) represents a facet
ulate their behavior, arguing that theatrical displays of un- of Baroque sensibility that John Donne lacked. Unlike
happiness profane their deeply private relationship. Donne, whose poems are mostly brief lyrics, Milton had
Throughout the next four stanzas the speaker contrasts a monumental conception of poetry attuned to the epic.
the couple’s higher, more spiritual love with the love of the Like the architect Bernini, the painter Rubens, and the
sensual. Their love, intellectual and spiritual, transcends the composers Bach and Handel, Milton worked on a grand
senses. In these stanzas, Donne introduces the first of his two
scale.
important conceits: that the lovers’ souls are not really sepa- No poet more than Milton embodies a grand ideal of
rated but are almost infinitely expanded to fill the interven- the poetic vocation. He believed a poet had to prepare the
ing space between them, as gold expands when beaten into mind and soul through study and prayer before attempt-
paper-thin sheets. The comparison with gold suggests the
ing to produce great art.
value of love and its prominent position in their lives. This use
One kind of preparation was his study of the classical
of concrete reality to illuminate a spiritual condition typifies
writers of ancient Greece and Rome—Homer, Virgil,
Donne’s amalgamation of disparate realms of experience.
Ovid, and Theocritus. Another was his study of the com-
The last part of Donne’s “A Valediction: Forbidding
plete Bible, which he is said to have memorized. Follow-
Mourning,” however, extends his conceit over three stan-
ing these studies Milton wrote poetry at once serious in
zas. The compass is a symbol of constancy and change,
outlook and grand in manner, befitting one who wanted to
since it both moves and remains stationary. The compass
“leave something so written to aftertimes as they should
also inscribes a circle, symbol of perfection. These ideas of
not willingly let it die.”
constancy and perfection are worked through in detail as
Combining the ideals of classical humanism and bibli-
the speaker/poet explains how one foot of the compass
cal morality more thoroughly and more profoundly than
moves only in relation to the other, returning “home”
any other writer in English, Milton presents a summation
when the two feet of the compass are brought together.
of High Renaissance art and Christian humanism. From
Anne Bradstreet. Among Donne’s near contemporaries the Greeks and Romans Milton derived a sense of civic
is Anne Bradstreet (1612-72), the first major poet in Amer- responsibility. Milton valued statesmen, who by virtue of
ican literature. Born Anne Dudley to a Puritan family in their nobility, intellectuality, and vision might ensure the
Northampton, England, she sailed with her parents and survival of humane values. In later life, Milton found his
her new husband, Simon Bradstreet, to Massachusetts in ideal in the Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell, for whom he
1630. As secretary to the Massachusetts Bay Company, wrote a series of prose works.
Simon often traveled on company business, leaving Anne Milton’s life can be divided into three parts. First, he
alone. On several occasions she wrote poems about their prepared for his vocation. This period culminated in the
separation. “A Letter to Her Husband, Absent upon Pub- publication of “Lycidas,” his elegy on the death of a
lic Employment” is an example. drowned friend, followed by a two-year tour of Europe.
Though best known today for her domestic lyrics, in her Second, from about 1640 to 1660 was a twenty-year span
own day Bradstreet was known for a cycle of historical of political involvement, during which he wrote prose
poems based on the four ages of humanity. Donne’s philo- rather than poetry. In the service of the Puritan cause, Mil-
sophical poems, and Bradstreet’s domestic ones, can be com- ton produced pamphlets and tracts on various theological
pared with the art of Vermeer, whose paintings, although and ecclesiastical issues, such as Christian doctrine and di-
few in number, embody near perfection of form and idea. vorce. When the English monarchy was restored to the
The following poem to her husband is an example. Stuart line, Milton was imprisoned and his property con-
fiscated. Set free a short time later, he lived out the third
part of his life in relative isolation working on his great
To My DEAR AND LOVING HUSBAND
epic poems. Milton lived the last two decades of his life in
If ever two were one, then surely we. blindness caused, in part, by his exhausting work on behalf
If ever man were lov’d by wife, then thee. of the Puritans.
 THE BAROQUE AGE 413

Milton spent the last fifteen years of his life writing and Her face was veil’d yet to my fancied sight
publishing his most ambitious works: Paradise Lost (1667), Love, sweetness, goodness, in her person shin’d
Paradise Regained (1671), and Samson Agonistes (1671). In So clear, as in no face with more delight.
these poems, especially in Paradise Lost, Milton attempted, But O, as to embrace me she inclin’d,
in his words, “to justify the ways of God to man.” This I wak’d; she fled; and day brought back my night.
idea of justification reflected Milton’s blend of Puritan the-
Miguel de Cervantes. During the sixteenth century in
ology and classical humanism. Milton reinterpreted the
Spain, a narrative form known as the picaresque began
events of Genesis—humankind’s fall from grace, and its
to develop. The picaresque novel details the life of a picaro,
banishment from the Garden of Eden. Milton emphasized
a rogue or knave who wanders from adventure to adven-
the central belief of Christianity: the incarnation of God-
ture, and marks the birth of the novel as a literary art form.
as-man in Jesus Christ, who came to atone for the sin of
Like Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, the picaresque novel prob-
humanity’s first parents. Christ’s sacrifice thus gained for
ably developed out of the pilgrimage tradition, in partic-
human beings the chance for eternal life—providing they
ular the pilgrimage across northern Spain to Santiago de
live in accordance with biblical teachings.
Compostela, the burial place of St. James, which in the
We should note, however, that although Milton’s major
eleventh and twelfth centuries had been the object of Eu-
life work was his epic, Paradise Lost, he also wrote a few
ropean pilgrimages. Whereas the Canterbury Tales is a com-
exquisite sonnets. The two reprinted here, one on his
pendium of stories about different pilgrims, the picaresque
blindness, the other on his deceased wife, are perhaps his
novel focuses on a single hero.
finest efforts in the genre.
One characteristic feature of the picaresque novel is its
pseudo-autobiographical nature. Narrated always by the
WHEN I CONSIDER How My LIGHT IS SPENT hero, the point of view is clearly his, prejudiced and par-
When I consider how my light is spent tial. He is an observer of society, and, perhaps as a result,
Ere half my days in this dark world and wide, he is expert at recognizing fraud and deception.
And that one talent which is death to hide The greatest of all picaresque novels is Don Quixote,
Lodg’d with me useless, though my soul more bent by MIGUEL DE CERVANTES §[ser-VAHN-tez]
To serve therewith my Maker, and present (1548-1616). It is in fact more than a picaresque novel,
My true account, lest he returning chide, satirizing the form even as it goes beyond it in complexity
“Doth God exact day-labour, light denied?” and ambition. Composed between 1603 and 1615, Don
I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent Quixote was translated in the seventeenth century into Eng-
‘That murmur, soon replies: “God doth not need
lish, French, Italian, and German. The central character,
Either man’s work or his own gifts: who best
Don Quixote, the hero, wants, most of all, to become a
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state
Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed “knight errant,” the kind of hero he has read about in
And post o’er land and ocean without rest: books, who saves ladies from evil and defeats dragons in
‘They also serve who only stand and wait.” combat. In fact, he is at once noble and a buffoon. What
he sees and what is the truth are two entirely different
ON His DECEASED WIFE things. His horse is “all skin and bones,” but in his eyes, it
is a noble “steed.” His companion is a peasant boy, re-
METHOUGHT I saw my late espoused saint dubbed his “squire,” Sancho Panza. His lady, the lovely
Brought to me like Alcestis from the grave, Dulcinea, is actually one Aldonza Lorenzo, who “never
Whom Jove’s great son to her glad husband gave,
knew or was aware of” his love for her. And the giants he
Rescued form death by force, though pale and faint.
Mine, as whom wash’d from spot of child-bed taint fights are not giants at all, but windmills. The novel rep-
Purification in the old Law did save, resents, for the first time in Western literature, the conflict
And such, as yet once more I trust to have between reality and the imagination, and although Don
Full sight of her in Heaven without restraint, Quixote’s imagination brings him to the edge of total mad-
Came vested all in white, pure as her mind: ness, it ennobles him as well.
414 CHAPTER 15

Cultural Impact
he Baroque era celebrated individ- boyant, with the north revealing a more influence appears in such later poets as
ual genius while endorsing new subdued but no less sustained shift of cul- Emily Dickinson in the nineteenth cen-
forms of social cooperation and artistic tural expression. In England and in Hol- tury and T. S. Eliot in the twentieth.
patronage. Begun in Italy, the Baroque land, for example, artistic patronage Unlike their counterparts in the
style spread throughout Europe. In Italy shifted from court and church to wealthy south, composers of the northern
the Counter-Reformation fueled an patrons, who commissioned works hon- Baroque were not exclusively in the em-
emotional embrace of the spiritual world, oring themselves and their world. This ploy of the Roman Church. Thus, al-
seen especially in the sculpture and ar- celebration of social ideals and middle- thoughJ. S. Bach and G. F. Handel both
chitecture of Bernini. class prosperity are hallmarks of the wrote reams of music for religious occa-
The Baroque style influenced the cre- northern Baroque. Portraits by Rem- sions, both composed much music for
ation of public buildings and monu- brandt of prominent individuals and of court and private entertainment as well.
ments, as well as domestic architecture. members of civic organizations exem- Their music, and the music of Baroque
The monuments of southern Baroque plify this desire for recognition and masters in the south such as Antonio Vi-
architecture were funded not by private honor. valdi, was designed to challenge the vir-
donors but by public commission of Northern Baroque painters such as tuosity of the performer, an emphasis
court or church. Piazzas and fountains Rembrandt and Rubens amassed huge that would be taken much further later,
abounded in Italy, with forms alluding to fortunes. Rembrandt was to lose his and especially during the Romantic era.
religious history and Greco-Roman died nearly destitute. Rubens, however, Perhaps the greatest legacy of the
mythology. oversaw a large studio and inaugurated northern Baroque was the emergence of
The Roman Church and Counter- a major industry—the production of objectivity with the inductive method of
Reformation spirituality retained influ- masterpieces with the aid of teams of as- Baconian science and the rational ana-
ence on the music of the southern sistants. lytical method of Cartesian philosophical
Baroque. However, Baroque music be- The situation was otherwise for liter- thought. Casting everything into doubt
came as much a secular as a religious art. ature, which was only occasionally com- until proof could be established, Bacon
Opera, invented in Italy during the early missioned and almost exclusively and Descartes changed science and phi-
Baroque, initially took its subjects from composed by an individual. John losophy forever.
myth, history, and legend. This trend Donne’s poems circulated in manuscript Finally, the expansion of colonial em-
continued in later centuries, as the in- only to be published after his death. pires spread European values and ideals
fluence of opera became more promi- While employing Renaissance poetic around the globe, particularly to the
nent. conventions and playfully undermining shores on the Americas, where they took
The impact of the Baroque in north- them, Donne and his followers seasoned root and sprouted during the eras of the
ern Europe was quieter and less flam- poetry with wit and ingenuity. Donne’s Enlightenment and Romanticism.

KEY TERMS
Baroque opera» poussinistes/rubénistes social contract
Counter-Reformation recitative oratorio proscenium arch
oratories concerto grosso aria unities
portico ritornello fugue picaresque
obelisk etching counterpoint
tenebrism camera obscura cantata
 THE BAROQUE AGE 415

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

http://galileo.rice.edu/gal/urban.html
(A site on the Maffeo Barberini, also known as Pope Urban VIII, one of the most powerful and
influential popes.)
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/loyola-spirex.html
(An excerpt from The Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius Loyola, founder of the Jesuit order.)
http://www.artchive.com/artchive/C/caravaggio/calling of st matthew. jpg.html
(This is the Artchive, a website with virtually every major artist in every style from every era in
art history. It is an excellent resource.)
hitp://w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/cmp/monteverdi.html
(A good site on Monteverdi and the beginning of opera.)
hitp://www.ucmp. berkeley.edu/history/leeuwenhoek.
html
(The biography of Antony Leeuwenhoek, discoverer of bacteria and inventor of the micro-
scope.)
CHAPTER 16
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HISTORY |
1710 Leibniz invents new notations of calculus
715 Louis XV ascends to French throne
1733 James Key invents flying shuttle
1735 Linnaeus establishes biological classification system
1740-48 War of the Austrian Succession
1756-63 Seven Years’ War
1759 Wedgwood opens English pottery factory
1769 Watt patents steam engine
1775-83 American Revolution
1776 American Declaration of Independence
1787 Edmund Cartwright invents power loom
1789-99 French Revolution
1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
Gathering of Estates General and declaration of National Assembly; fall of Bastille
1792 French monarchy abolished
1793 Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette executed
1799 Napoleon overthrows Directory
1804 Napoleonic Code established

Art, ARCHITECTURE, AND Music

17 Watteau, Pilgrimage to Cythera
1725 Burlington/Kent, Chiswick House
1744 Hogarth, Marriage a la Mode
1763 Chardin, The Brioche
1769 Jefferson designs Monticello
1770 West, Death of General Wolfe
772 Haydn, Farewell Symphony
1777-80 Reynolds, Lady Elizabeth Delmé and Her Children
1785 David, Oath of the Horatii
1785 Kaufmann, Cornelia Pointing to Her Children as Her Treasures
1786 Mozart, The Marriage of Figaro
1787 Vigée-Lebrun, Portrait of Marie Antoinette with Her Children
1787 Mozart, Don Giovanni
1788 Labille-Guiard, Louise-Elisabeth of France
1788-92 Houdon, George Washington
1796-98 Beethoven, early piano sonatas, op. 1-14
1807-8 Beethoven, Symphony No. 5 in C Minor

LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

712 Pope, The Rape of the Lock

1726 Swift, Gulliver's Travels
1751-72 Diderot, Encyclopédie
1755 Voltaire, Candide
1762 Rousseau, Social Contract
1776 Smith, Wealth of Nations
—
aa.
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et

|
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Marie-Louise-Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun, The Artist and Her Daughter, ca. 1785, oil on canvas,
4’ 3” x 3’ 1" (139.7 X 94 cm). Photo: G. Blot/C. Jean. Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo credit:
Reunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY/Musée d’Orsay.

417
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0 250 500 Miles
* Revolt/revolution
500 Kilometers

Map 16.1 Revolts and revolutions in Europe, 1705-1809.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

ENLIGHTENMENT
The Philosophers Enlighten the World

REVOLUTIONS
Politics, Philosophy, Industry, and Science Change the World

ROCOCO
Romance and Luxury Permeate the Arts

LITERATURE OF RATIONALISM

VOLTAIRE’S PHILOSOPHY OF CYNICISM

NEOCLASSICISM
Clarity, Balance, and Antiquity Dictate the Arts

TOWARD ROMANTICISM
Restraint of Expression Begins to Crumble
418
 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 419

ENLIGHTENMENT son, humankind could achieve a perfect society of perpet-

ual peace, order, and harmony.
ETWEEN 1700 AND 1800, THE WORLD WAS trans- The philosophes championed the possibility of demo-
B formed. At the beginning of the century, Louis XIV, cratic rule; they feared tyranny most of all. The
the Sun King, had firm control of France. By the philosophes denounced intolerance in matters of religious
end of the century, the French monarchy had fallen, as belief which, since the Reformation, had continued to dis-
Louis XVI (1754-93), the Sun King’s great-grandson, and rupt society, and they advocated public, as opposed to
his Queen, MARIE ANTOINETTE [anntweh-NET] church-controlled, education.
(1755-93), were executed by the National Assembly of the
French Revolution. Rational Humanism. Rational humanism is based on
The changes that occurred in the eighteenth century the belief that through rational, careful thought,
were swift and extreme, encompassing revolutions that progress—which is good and benefits everyone—is in-
were not only political, but intellectual, scientific, indus- evitable. Like the humanists of the Renaissance, the ra-
trial, and social. Indeed, the eighteenth century has been tional humanists believed progress is possible only through
called the “Age of Reason” because of the dominance of learning and through the individual’s freedom to learn.
the intellectual revolution we have come to call the En- Humans must, therefore, be free to think for themselves.
lightenment. This logic links the rational humanists with the two great
political revolutions of the day, in America and in France,
and with such political documents as the Declaration of
Independence and the Declaration of the Rights of Man
THE ENLIGHTENMENT and Citizen as well as with the Constitution of the United
The term Enlightenment refers to the eighteenth-century States. The rational humanists believed that any political
European emphasis on the mind’s power to reason, in con- system that strives to suppress freedom of thought must be
trast to the mind’s yearning for religious faith, which a overthrown as an obstacle to progress.
number of Enlightenment thinkers saw as superstition.
The late seventeenth century through the eighteenth cen-
tury saw two great movements: that of the “Age of Rea-
son,” which hallmarks the contemporary emphasis on REVOLUTIONS
rationality, and the Neoclassical, which testifies to the in-
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
fluence of classical antiquity.
The Enlightenment continued an emphasis on secular Enlightenment ideals had a profound effect on eighteenth-
concerns that began during the Renaissance and continued century America. The first and most important was as a
with the rise of scientific and philosophical thought dur- source of inspiration that spurred the colonists philo-
ing the seventeenth century. Eighteenth-century political sophically and politically to revolt against England. A later
and philosophical ideals included freedom from tyranny but no less significant Enlightenment influence was to keep
and superstition, and a belief in the essential goodness of religion separate from politics, leaving church and state to
human nature and the equality of men (although not all operate in distinct and separate realms.
men, and not women). But why did the American Revolution occur? What
Enlightenment thinkers emphasized the common na- precipitated it? One major cause was the imposition of
ture of human experience, ignoring differences in social, new taxes by the British in an attempt to exert more con-
cultural, and religious values. Enlightenment composers trol over the colonies. Colonists were deeply angered over
sought universal musical forms. Enlightenment writers taxes on molasses, on publications and legal documents,
celebrated constancy and continuity, encouraging a respect and most famously, on tea. They also resented Britain’s
for tradition and convention, especially in literature and enforcement of laws requiring cargo to travel at sea in
the arts. Enlightenment artists and thinkers were not, how- British vessels, and they objected to being required to
ever, simply supporters of the status quo. They used their house and accommodate British troops.
analytical powers to attack the hypocrisies of the age. As The colonists responded to Britain’s authoritative stance
much as they celebrated the powers of reason, they did by boycotting British products, attacking British officials,
not fail to notice when human behavior was guided by pas- generating anti-British slogans like “no taxation without
sion, selfishness, and irrationality. Voltaire, Swift, and Pope representation,” and staging protests. The most famous
all composed scathing attacks on political and social mis- of these was the “Boston Tea Party,” in which colonists
conduct. dumped a cargo of tea into Boston Harbor rather than pay
the tax for it. Shortly afterward, colonists exchanged gun-
The Philosophes. The Enlightenment was embodied in fire with British troops in Lexington, a suburb of Boston.
a group of intellectuals called by the French name On July 4, 1776, the Continental Congress, which had
philosophes. These thinkers believed that through rea- been established two years earlier to coordinate resistance
420 CHAPTER 16

to British policies, adopted the Declaration of Indepen- was a statesman and diplomat, printer and writer, mer-
dence. According to this important document inspired by chant and newspaper editor, and an inventor who experi-
Enlightenment ideas of liberty and sovereignty, “all men mented with electricity, and who invented both the
are created equal,” and all are endowed by God with the lightning rod and bifocals. During a long and illustrious ca-
“unalienable rights” of “Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of reer, Franklin founded the first lending library in America,
Happiness.” The Declaration also asserted that the established the first fire company, and created a college
colonists had the right to establish a government to secure that merged later with the University of Pennsylvania.
these rights, and that the government derived its author- Among his greatest accomplishments, however, was his
ity from the people. service as Minister to friends prior to and during the Rev-
The Declaration led to the colonists’ armed resistance olution. Franklin deserves much of the credit for securing
of Britain, and even though Britain was the preeminent a treaty with France, including financial support to secure
economic and military power of the western world, the American independence.
colonists prevailed, and the balance of world power was Enlightenment Thought and Women. During the eigh-
dramatically altered. The war lasted five years, with the teenth century, advocates for the rights of women were
surrender of British troops to General George Washing- active in a number of countries, including Britain, Canada,
ton in 1781. Two years later, the Peace of Paris was signed, France, and the United States. The British writer Mary
in which the British recognized American independence. Wollstonecraft was one of the best known, with her influ-
The Americans could not have won the war without ential essay “A Vindication of the Rights of Women,” pub-
the help of European nations, including France, Holland, lished in 1792. Following John Locke’s arguments for
and Spain, which all wanted to see Britain weakened. An- human freedom, Wollstonecraft argued that women would
other factor in the colonists’ favor was that they were de- make better and more successful wives and mothers if they
fending their own land and fighting for a set of principles, were educated, and that they would be fuller and abler par-
not the least of which was freedom. ticipants in the political process.
Paine, Washington, Jefferson, and Franklin. Among In the United States, Elizabeth Cady Stanton would
the men who had a decisive impact leading up to the war take up the cause for the full slate of women’s rights, in-
with Britain, and who continued to exert a significant in- cluding the right to vote. The word suffrage means the
fluence in America and beyond afterwards were Thomas right to vote, a right denied women in the United States
Paine, George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Ben- and the United Kingdom until the suffragist movement
jamin Franklin. Thomas Paine (1737-1809) was a jour- in both countries reversed that denial. The movement for
nalist and pamphleteer whose writings roused readers’ women’s suffrage in the United States lasted more than
passions against the British and inspired them to believe seventy years, from the time of the first women’s conven-
that military resistance was both necessary and justified. tion in Seneca Falls, NY, in 1848, until the passage of the
The first of his famous pamphlets, Common Sense, begins nineteenth amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1920.
with these rousing words: “These are the times that try In the U.K., women were given restricted voting rights in
men’s souls; the summer soldier and sunshine patriot will, 1918, and then full voting rights equal to those granted
in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country, but U.S. women, in 1928. (U.S. blacks had gained the right to
he that stands by it now deserves the loving thanks of man vote with the ratification of the fifteenth amendment in
and woman.” 1870, although it took the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to
George Washington (1732-99) took charge of the army make it a reality).
during the war. As a military leader, General Washington Propelling the movement for women’s suffrage in the
consistently outsmarted and outmaneuvered his British United States was the general movement for women’s
antagonists, culminating in their surrender to him. After rights, including property rights and educational oppor-
the war, Washington served two terms, from 1789 to 1797, tunities. These were announced at the Seneca Falls Con-
as the country’s first President. vention in the Declaration of Sentiments. Fueling the
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) is credited as the pri- movement for women’s suffrage in the United Kingdom
mary author of the Declaration of Independence. Jefferson was the shortage of able-bodied men during World War I,
served as governor of Virginia, as U.S. minister to France, requiring women to take on many traditional male roles
as Secretary of State under Washington, and as Vice Pres- and responsibilities, which led before long to a fuller un-
ident under John Adams, before becoming himself the derstanding of the capabilities of women, and then to their
third President of the United States. Jefferson was also a being granted property, educational, and voting rights.
writer who argued that liberty was a God-given right. In In other countries, too, women’s rights were being con-
addition, Jefferson founded the University of Virginia, tested. New Zealand gave women full voting rights in
which he planned, designed, and supervised. 1893, the first country to do so. In 1902 Australia gave
The most versatile of the American Founding Fathers women the right to vote in national elections. Other coun-
was Benjamin Franklin (1706-90), one of five men who tries granting voting rights to women in the early 1900s in-
helped draft the Declaration of Independence. Franklin cluded Canada, Finland, Germany, and Sweden.
 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 421

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION ing called the Jeu de Paume, the king’s tennis court. ‘[o-
gether they swore they would not separate until France
The executions of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette in had a new constitution; Jacques-Louis David, a painter
1793 represented not only the death of the monarchy, but who recorded the revolution, captured the moment in The
also an end to the privilege and extravagance that the Tennis Court Oath (fig. 16.1).
monarchy had come to represent in the minds of the peo- Rumors that the king was planning to overthrow the
ple. In death, all are equal. The century’s growing belief in National Assembly led to the formation of a volunteer
the equality of all, in the right of the individual to live free bourgeois militia, which, on July 14, 1789, went to the
of tyranny, and in the right of humankind to self-gover- Bastille prison in Paris in search of arms and gunpowder.
nance, culminated in political revolution, the overthrow The prison governor panicked and ordered his guard to
of the existing order for a new one. In fact, revolution it- fire on the militia, killing ninety-eight and wounding sev-
self seemed to many an “enlightened” course of action. enty-three. An angry mob quickly formed and stormed the
The American Revolution began to stir in 1774, when Bastille, decapitating its governor and slaughtering six of
the colonists convened for the new Continental Congress. the guards. The next day, Louis XVI asked if the incident
An American Declaration of Independence, authored by had been a riot. “No, your majesty,” was the reply, “it was
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), unified the colonies in a revolution.”
their successful war against the British, and in the follow- ‘The National Assembly continued to meet while riot-
ing years, a constitutional convention met in Philadelphia ing spread throughout the French countryside, and finally,
to draft a new charter for the American republic. At the on August 4, 1789, in a night session, the viscount of
convention, mechanisms were devised to assess and col- Nouilles and then the duke of Aiguillon renounced their
lect taxes, regulate commerce, and make enforceable laws, feudal privileges and revenues. Other nobles did the same,
all within a government framework of “checks and bal- and the clergy in attendance relinquished their tithes. By
ances.” The legislative, judicial, and executive branches of the end of the evening, all French people suddenly found
government all had their own powers, but powers that themselves subject to the same laws and taxes. On August
were overseen by the other branches. , 27, 1789, the Assembly ratified its Declaration of the
The French bourgeoisie watched with interest. They Rights of Man and Citizen, and a constitutional monarchy
wanted a “National Assembly” like the Continental Con- was established.
gress; a document drafted along the same principles as the
American Declaration; and a republican constitution that
would give them life, liberty, and the right to own prop-
erty. But the French situation was different from the Amer- THE DEMISE OF THE MONARCHY
ican one. Where the American Revolution pitted against
Despite the events of August 27, as early as October 5,
one another two groups with similar cultural values, one
1789, Parisian women were back in the streets demon-
simply seeking economic autonomy from the other, the
strating for bread. It was on this day that Marie Antoinette
French Revolution was essentially an internal class strug-
is supposed to have declared, notoriously, “Let them eat
gle and, as such, expressed a clash in values.
cake!”—an exclamation some historians doubt was ever
Each of the French kings of the eighteenth century—
made. The women marched on the palace at Versailles and
Louis XIV (r. 1643-1715), Louis XV (r. 1715-74), and
invaded the inner rooms, causing the queen to flee for her
Louis XVI (r. 1774-93), guillotined on January 21, 1793—
life, but Louis and Marie Antoinette were escorted back to
had successively led the country further into debt. In May
Paris later that day.
1789, Louis XVI, succumbing to mounting pressures to
The king ostensibly cooperated for a while with the Na-
deal with the ever-increasing national debt, called for an as-
tional Assembly, but in June 1791 he attempted to flee with
sembly of the Estates General. This assembly of the clergy
his family to Luxembourg. The royal retinue was captured
(the First Estate), the aristocrats (the Second Estate), and
and returned to Paris. Then, in April 1792, Austria and
the bourgeois middle class (the Third Estate) resulted in
Prussia took the opportunity to declare war on the weak-
the “The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen,”
ened nation, and the Prussian duke of Brunswick declared
a document modeled on the American “Declaration of In-
he would restore Louis XVI to full sovereignty, revealing
dependence.”
an already widespread suspicion that the king was collab-
orating with the enemy. And so the bourgeois leaders, aided
by the working class, invaded the Louvre on August 10,
THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY 1792, butchering the king’s guard and the royal servants,
In the Estates General, each of the three estates had one and over the next forty days arrested and executed more
vote. The Third Estate quickly realized it would be out- than a thousand priests, aristocrats, and royalist sympa-
voted 2-1 on every question. Thus, on June 20, 1789, the thizers. On September 21, 1792, a newly assembled Na-
deputies of the Third Estate along with their aristocratic tional Convention abolished the monarchy in France, and
sympathizers declared a “National Assembly” in a build- on January 21, 1793, Louis XVI was executed by guillotine
422 CHAPTER 16

FIGURE 16.1 Jacques Louis David, The Tennis Court Oath, 1789-91, unfinished, pen and
brown ink and brown wash on paper, 26 X 42” (66 X 107 cm), Musée du Louvre, Paris. Re-
union des Musées Nationaux, Art Resource/NY. Spectators peer down on the Third Estate,
which takes its oath as the “winds of freedom” blow through the windows above.

in the Place de la Révolution, known today as the Place de rectory and installing himself, on the Roman model, as
la Concorde. First Consul (fig. 16.2).
The situation continued to deteriorate. In the summer Napoleon was a common man who rose to power
of 1793, a Committee of Public Safety was formed, headed through talent and civic sacrifice. Yet he was also a man of
by MAXIMILIEN DE ROBESPIERRE [ROBES-pea- uncommon presence. He had no shortage of ego, either,
air] (1758-94). For fifteen months, France endured the for in 1802 he inquired of the people, “Is Napoleon Bona-
committee’s Reign of Terror. The Terror had three goals: parte to be made Consul for Life?” The people answered
to win the war with Austria and Prussia; to establish a “Re- in the affirmative by 3.5 million votes to 8,000. After an-
public of Virtue”; and to suppress all its enemies. Io other election in 1804, he declared himself Emperor for
achieve the latter, the Revolutionary Tribunal of Paris Life, and was crowned Emperor Napoleon I in Decem-
alone handed out 2,639 death sentences, including that of ber 1804. France had, effectively, restored the monarchy.
Marie Antoinette, who by this time was referred to simply Napoleon’s power and appeal tell us much about the
as “the widow Capet.” Throughout France, an estimated Enlightenment itself. He was the very model of enlight-
twenty thousand people were executed. ened leadership that the philosophes longed for, although
his decision to crown himself emperor disillusioned many
of his republican supporters. Under Napoleon’s regime,
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE the economy boomed again, and he vigorously supported
industrial expansion. Cotton production, for instance,
In 1795, when the term of the National Convention ex- quadrupled between 1806 and 1810. In 1800, Napoleon
pired, a political body known as the Directory succeeded created the Bank of France, which made government bor-
to power. It managed to establish peace, but otherwise rowing a far easier and more stable matter. But his great-
France was effectively rudderless. Finally, in November est achievement was the Napoleonic Code, which
1799, General NAPOLEON BONAPARTE [BONE-ah- provided a uniform system of law for the entire country.
part] (1769-1821) staged a coup d’état, abolishing the Di- This code was brief and clear, with the aim that every cit-
 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 423

Then & Now

THE RIGHTS OF WOMEN titled to all honors, places, and public cal group of English artists and writers,
employments according to their abilities, including Tom Paine and William God-
en the French National Assem- without any other distinction than that win, who sympathized with the aims of
bly ratified the Declaration of the of their virtues and their talents.” the French Revolution.
Rights of Man and Citizen on August 27, The Englishwoman Mary Woll- To the contemporary American,
1789, its members did not include stonecraft (1759-97) wrote another these demands may seem reasonable
women among the “citizens.” In 1791, important revolutionary manifesto sup- enough, but it is worth remembering
Olympe de Gouges (1748-93) wrote a porting women’s rights. A Vindication of that women did not gain the right to
“Declaration of the Rights of Women” the Rights of Woman, published in 1792, is vote in the United States until 1920.
and demanded that the National Assem- a treatise embodying Enlightenment And women continue to fight for equal-
bly act on it. This stated that “Woman faith in reason and in the revolutionary ity in the workplace, both in competing
is born free and remains equal to man in concepts of change and progress. Woll- for jobs on an equal footing and receiv-
rights,” arguing that “the only limit on stonecraft held that women, having an ing comparable pay for comparable
the exercise of woman’s natural rights is equal capacity for reason, should have an work. Such demands were certainly not
the perpetual tyranny wielded by men; equal standing in society. She offered a considered reasonable at the time of the
these limits must be reformed by the law scathing critique of the social forces that French Revolution. De Gouges was
of nature and the law of reason.” The kept women in a position of inferiority. charged with treason by the National
declaration continued with the then rad- Wollstonecraft developed her revolu- Assembly and sentenced to the guillo-
ical claim that women were “equally en- tionary ideas in the company of a radi- tine in 1793.

izen should be capable of understanding it. Together with Boulton (1728-1809) inherited his father’s toy factory
the Declaration of Independence, the U.S. Constitution, (small metal objects such as belt buckles, buttons, and
and the Declaration of the Rights of Man, the Napoleonic clasps were known as “toys”). Soon he had built a factory
Code is one of the great monuments of Enlightenment in London, employing six hundred people in mechanized
thought. large-scale production. The steam engine, patented by
The causes of the revolution were complex, ranging James Watt in 1769, transformed the way in which these
from a resentment of royal absolutism, a desire for liberty new factories could be powered. Mechanical looms were
in tune with enlightenment ideals, to gross economic class soon introduced into the cotton cloth industry, powered by
inequities, a scarcity of food, and the king’s failure to deal Watt’s steam engines. Where once workers had woven fab-
with precipitating crises. The consequences of the French ric at home as piecework, they now watched over giant
Revolution were momentous; the revolution was, in fact, looms that did the work for them, in a fraction of the time.
a turning point in French history, with significant conse- Mass manufacturing, and with it what we have come to
quences for Europe. It marked a pronounced shift from call the Industrial Revolution, had begun.
monarchy and absolutism to republicanism and democ-
racy. Furthermore, enlightenment ideals embodied in both Adam Smith. In 1776, the Scotsman Adam Smith
the French and American revolutions, especially freedom, (1727-90) provided the rationale for the entire enterprise.
equality, and sovereignty, spurred revolutionary move- His Inquiry into the Nature and Cause ofthe Wealth ofNations
ments in the Caribbean and in Central and South Amer- barely mentioned manufacturing, concentrating instead on
ica, especially in Bolivia, Haiti, and Mexico. agriculture and trade, but the businesspeople who ran the
new factories saw in his writings the justification for their
practices. In a free-market system based on private prop-
"THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION erty, Smith argued that prices and profits would automati-
The Birth of the Factory. On May 1, 1759, in Stafford- cally be regulated to the benefit, theoretically, of everyone,
shire, England, a twenty-eight-year-old man named Josiah not just the factory owners. He contended that the econ-
Wedgwood (1730-95) opened his own pottery manufac- omy would operate as if with an “invisible hand” benefi-
turing plant. Wedgwood initially specialized in unique pot- cently guiding it. The new “working class” that arose out of
tery made by hand, but began to produce ceramic the Industrial Revolution, however, would find that the free-
tableware on which designs were printed by mechanical market system benefited the factory owners a great deal
means. Inthe same year, Wedgwood’s friend Matthew more than themselves, and by the dawn of the nineteenth
424 CHAPTER 16

relying on the others to maintain its place and position.

Transferring this vision to human society, the philosophes
suggested that with a comparable system of mutual re-
liance humans could live in harmony. Throughout the
eighteenth century, scientists explored the natural world to
such a degree that new sciences had to be defined: geology
(1795), mineralogy (1796), zoology (1818), and biology
(1819).
Denis Diderot and Carolus Linnaeus. ‘The French es-
sayist DENIS DIDEROT [DEED-eh-roe] (1713-84)
conceived of an idea for an Encyclopédie, twentyeight
volumes designed to encompass the whole of human
knowledge, from science and technology to philosophical
thought. The volumes contain thousands of illustrations
showing the mechanical principles of production and com-
merce.
In the middle of the century, CAROLUS LINNAEUS
[leh-NAY-us] (1707-78) established the biological classi-
fication system that is still used to identify species. Both
Linnaeus’s classification system and the Encyclopédie are
undertakings that reveal the optimism of the age, the re-
sult of two hundred years of scientific advances that had
convinced many people that humankind could in fact even-
tually know everything—and catalog it.

The Rococo style of art was, in the eyes of many, entirely

decadent and self-serving. It was commissioned by the
same powerful aristocratic French families who were seen
as suppressors of the people’s freedom. Its abundant ex-
travagance was interpreted as a reflection of its patrons’
FIGURE 16.2 Jacques Louis David, Napoleon in His Study, self-aggrandizement. The Rococo art of this aristocracy,
1812, oil on canvas 7’4” x 424”, (2.05 X 1.28 m). Coll. the poetry, architecture, painting, and sculpture of the
Napoleon, Paris. Giraudon/Art Resource, NY. In this prime ex- court of Louis XV (r. 1715-74), is precisely what the En-
ample of art as political propaganda, Napoleon is shown work- lightenment came to define itself against.
ing all night for the people of France while surrounded by The name Rococo is thought to come from the French
objects that refer to his accomplishments. Napoleon compared word rocaille, a type of decorative work or grotto work
himself to the leaders of ancient Rome; his portrait deserves made from pebbles and shells. It is also very likely a pun
comparison to that of Emperor Augustus (fig. 4.8). on the Italian word for the Baroque, barocco; the style’s con-
nection to certain elements of the Baroque is strong. As-
sociated especially with the reign of Louis XV of France,
century, the factory owners had become the new “kings” of Rococo artists reshaped and refined the more elaborate
industrial culture—as spendthrift and tyrannical as the mon- aspects of the Baroque style.
archs of the previous age.

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION Table 16-1 EIGTHEENTH-CENTURY

Isaac Newton. ‘The positivism of the age was driven by TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES
advances in scientific learning. The philosophes seized on The steam engine: United States, 1769
the discovery by Isaac Newton (1642-1727) of the princi- The flush toilet: England, 1775
ple of gravitation, the first physical description of the forces The bicycle: France, 1779
holding the known universe together. The earth and its
The hot air balloon: France, 1783
moon, Jupiter and its four moons, the sun and its planets
all formed a harmonious system, with each celestial body The flintlock musket: United States, 1793
 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 425

FRENCH MUSIC for their amorous conversations, graceful fashion, and so-
cial gallantry.
Couperin and Rameau. Next to the drama and grandeur Watteau’s Pilgrimage to Cythera (fig. 16.3), of 1717, isa
of Baroque music, Rococo music is playful and light. The mythologized vision of just such an event. The party takes
gallantry and polish of Rococo painting are echoed in Ro- place on Cythera, the birthplace of Venus and the island of
coco music, especially music written for harpsichord by love. Lovers go there to honor Venus, portrayed by a statue
Francis Couperin (1668-1733) and Jean-Philippe Rameau on the far right. Cupids fly above the crowd, the sun is
(1683-1764). low, and the lovers are boarding the boat that will return
During the mid-to-late eighteenth century, when the them to the real world. The departure is sad; some people
Rococo style was in full bloom, France successfully resis- glance back, reluctant to leave the idyllic setting.
ted the influence of foreign musical styles. King Louis Watteau’s painting gained entry into the Royal Academy
XIV, in his effort to establish things French as the epitome of Painting and Sculpture even though it did not adhere to
of taste and culture, subjected the arts to a consistent na- Academy rules of size or subject. It is relatively small, and
tional policy and set up an operatic monopoly that ex- the subject was neither history nor religion nor portrai-
cluded foreign composers. A tight musicians’ guild ture, the subjects the Academy favored. Watteau did not
effectively limited outsiders from participating through glorify the state or flatter the king. Nonetheless, the Acad-
strict apprenticeship and accreditation requirements. In emy recognized Watteau’s achievement, and in a moment
addition, creative efforts in music, as in the other arts, of triumph for the rubéniste sensibility, it created a new of-
were concentrated in areas approved and supported by ficial category expressly for fetes galantes.
the court. Thus music during the reign of Louis XIV was By the time Louis XV assumed personal rule of the
largely designed to accompany court functions, cere- country in 1743, the court had enjoyed a free rein for many
monies, and entertainments. Couperin and Rameau sup- years. The king essentially adapted himself to its carefree
plied much of this music. ways, dismissing state officials at whim. In thirty years of
personal rule, he had fourteen chief fiscal officers and eight-
een different foreign secretaries, creating ceaseless insta-
FRENCH PAINTING bility in government. Part of the problem can be attributed
Jean-Antoine Watteau. JEAN-ANTOINE WATTEAU to France’s growing fiscal crisis and the high costs of gov-
[WAH-toe] (1684-1721) was most noted for his fetes ernment and court life. Nonetheless, life, for Louis XV,
galantes, depictions of elegant out-of-doors parties known was something of an endless féte galante. He surrounded

FIGURE 16.3 Jean-Antoine Watteau, Pilgrimage to Cythera, 1717, oil on canvas, 4'3"
6145" (1.30 X 1.90 m), Musée du Louvre, Paris. Reunion des Musées Nationaux/Art
Resource, NY. The Rococo style is characterized by lightness both of content and of color; ro-
mantic pastimes are portrayed in an atmosphere of lighthearted aristocratic hedonism.
a 5 = = = ENS
426 CHAPTER 16

himself with mistresses, at least one of whom, Madame de cratic, delicate, and soft, seemingly straight from the hair-
Pompadour, wielded as much, or more, power than the dresser. The curving shapes are characteristic of the Rococo
king himself. style, as are the lush colors that he favors—tender pinks,
blues, and soft whites. The artist’s friends likened his colors
Francois Boucher. Madame de Pompadour’s favorite to “rose petals floating in milk.” The overall effect is one of
painter was FRANCOIS BOUCHER [boo-SHAY] quiet sensuality, conveying an air of relaxed indiscretion.
(1703-70), who began his career, in 1725, by copying the
Watteau paintings owned by Jean de Jullienne, the prin- Jean-Honoré Fragonard. ‘The other great painter of the
cipal collector of the artist’s work. Jullienne had conceived Parisian Rococo was JEAN-HONORE FRAGONARD
of the notion of having all of Watteau’s works engraved so [frah-goh-NAR] (1732-1806), Boucher’s student, whose
they could be enjoyed by a wider public. Boucher was the work is even more overtly erotic than his teacher’s. Sensuous
best of the printmakers hired by Jullienne to undertake nudes inhabit his paintings, and they are depicted in an
the task. With his earnings, he set off for Rome in 1727 to equally sensual style, much like that of Rubens in its use of
study the masters. But he found Raphael “trite” and strong fluid color and areas of light and shade. Fragonard is
Michelangelo “hunchbacked,” so he returned to Paris. By noted for his rapid brushwork—sometimes he could paint
1734, he was an established member of the Academy, spe- an entire work inside an hour. His figures float softly, ever
cializing in fétes galantes and other similar subjects. Soon he graceful, always courtly. Fragonard’s most famous work, how-
was appointed director of the Royal Academy and first ever, was a series of fourteen canvases commissioned around
painter to Louis XV, and patrons of society clamored after 1771 by Madame du Barry, Louis XV’s last mistress. De-
his work. signed to decorate her chateau, they depict a series of en-
Boucher’s painting of the Bath of Diana (fig. 16.4), of counters between lovers in garden settings, like the gardens
1742, displays the delicate French grace and charming Ro- of the chateau itself. The Meeting (fig. 16.5) has elements
coco sentiment that made him so successful. Boucher characteristic of the whole series. Below a statue of Venus, a
painted many female nudes, then a popular subject; but on young woman waits to meet her lover, who is climbing over
this occasion, to make it socially acceptable, he presented the garden wall. Depictions of flirtation and romance, en-
the figure as the mythological Diana. His goddess of the joyed by elegantly attired aristocrats in imaginary garden
hunt, however, is hardly strong or powerful. She is aristo- settings, are typically Rococo.

FiGurE 16.4 Francois Boucher, Bath of Diana, 1742, oil on canvas, 22 Ee x we Gi2ex<
73 cm), Musée du Louvre, Paris. Reunion de Musées Nationaux. Gabriel Ojeda/Art Resource,
NY. The portrayal of female nudity was made acceptable by the antique context in which it
was presented. The female type admired was not athletic or rugged but pale and pampered.
 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 427

FiGuRE 16.5 Jean-Honoré Fragonard, The Meeting, FIGURE 16.6 Marie-Louise-Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun, The
1771-73, oil on canvas, 10’ cow xe 2" (3.18 X 2.15 m), Frick Artist and Her Daughter, ca. 1785, oil on canvas, 4’ 3” X 3' 1”
Collection, New York. The pastel colors, delicate graceful ges- (139.7 X 94 cm). Musée du Louvre, Paris. Photo: G. Blot/
tures, and curving forms—including the twisting pose of the C. Jean./ Photo credit: Reunion des Musées Nationaux/Art
statue of Venus—are Rococo characteristics. Resource, NY/Musée d’Orsay. Vigée-Lebrun’s style coincided
perfectly with upper-class tastes, making her the highest paid
portrait painter in France (by the age of twenty!) and court
painter to Queen Marie Antoinette.

Fragonard endured constant interruption by Madame vey a sense of power combined with grace and intimacy.
du Barry, and in the end the paintings were rejected, per- Her subjects often seem to be turning to glance at the
haps because the Rococo was becoming increasingly un- viewer, as if the viewer just happened into their presence
popular. Seen by many as the embodiment of the a moment ago. Closely linked to royalty, Vigée-Lebrun
decadence of the aristocracy, the style was on the wane. fled France during the revolution, spent many years
traveling and painting in Europe, and published three
Marie-Louise-Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun. Paintings like
volumes of memoirs, which give an insight into her art
The Artist and Her Daughter (fig. 16.6) by MARIE-
and era.
LOUISE-ELISABETH VIGEE-LEBRUN l[vee-JHAY
le-BRUN] (1755-1842) signaled the arrival of amore re- Adelaide Labille-Guiard. Like her contemporary Vigée-
strained and naturalistic classical style. Her father died Lebrun. ADELAIDE LABILLE-GUIARD [ahd-LAID
when she was young, and Vigée-Lebrun supported her la-BEE ghee-YAR] (1749-1803) was a French portraitist
mother and brother by her painting. She was a child who received commissions from some of the same patrons.
prodigy; by the time she was twenty, her portraits were Both were admitted to the French Academy on the same
commanding the highest prices in France. Highly sought day in 1783. Whether their rivalry was real or invented by
after, Vigée-Lebrun painted portraits of all the impor- the hostility of other artists is unknown. Several of La-
tant members of the aristocracy, including Louis XVI's bille-Guiard’s pupils went on to notable artistic careers.
queen, Marie Antoinette. Vigée-Lebrun was able to con- She was active in promoting the rights of women artists.
428 CHAPTER 16

In her capacity as the Peintre des Mesdames (Painter of for the child-king, Louis XV, Versailles was immediately
the Ladies) to Louis XVI, she was commissioned to portray abandoned. The court was reestablished in Paris, although
Louise-Elisabeth ofFrance (fig. 16.7) in 1788. This is a com- not so much at the Palace of the Louvre, as in hotels, or
memorative portrait, as Louise-Elisabeth had died almost townhouses, where clever hostesses oversaw weekly salons,
thirty years earlier of smallpox when only thirty-two years fashionable social gatherings of notable people. These sa-
old. In this poignant memorial, her expression is almost lons were the scene of conversations that turned, very
wistful as she looks out at the viewer, while her son reaches often, into battles of wit and intelligence, or dwelt on mat-
up to take her hand. Although shown on a balcony, the ters of love and courtship. Musicians, frequently the finest
sweep of red drapery was customary in portraiture. of the day, entertained the guests.
The hostesses were free to pursue their own tastes in
The New Hotels. In almost all things, the French court
Paris, unhampered by any official court style such as they
indulged its newfound sense of freedom. When Louis XIV
had experienced at Versailles, and they decorated their
died, and the Duc d’Orléans assumed the role of regent
hétels elaborately. One salon was created for the Princess
de Soubise (fig. 16.8). Designed by France’s royal architect,
GABRIEL-GERMAIN BOFFRAND [boo-FRAHN]
(1667-1754), it displays the typical Rococo pale pastel col-
ors, small details, and concern for melding ceiling and walls
FIGURE 16.7 Adélaide Labille-Guiard Posthumous portrait of into one curvilinear flow of delicate ornament and grace.
Louise-Elisabeth of France, Duchess of Parma. 1788, oil on canvas,
8’ 9” x 5’ 3’ (2.72 X 1.6 m). Musée du Louvre. Paris.
Chateaux de Versailles et de Trianon, Versailles, France. Re-
ENGLISH PAINTING
union des Musees Nationaux/Art Resource, NY. This is a me- William Hogarth. William Hogarth (1697-1764)
morial portrait to a member of the family of Louis XVI, the painted series of pictures that were equivalent to scenes in
former Duchess of Parma, who died of smallpox leaving the
a play or chapters in a novel. He used similar details to
young son seen here, Don Ferdinand, the future Duke of
Parma. Labille-Guiard evokes the viewer’s sympathy by the
help viewers interpret the different scenes of his works,
child’s gaze and gesture and especially by the use of shadows, which were much like morality plays. He sought to teach
as that across her face, for the sun is symbolically low and soon by example, referring to his narratives as “modern moral
to set. subjects.” A social critic, he satirized the decadent customs
of his day by exposing the “character” of society. Thus,
unlike his French counterparts, who painted the life of the
aristocracy in an unabashedly erotic and glowing light,
Hogarth’s view of England’s aristocracy is overtly critical
and moralistic. The engravings he made of these paint-
ings were sold to the public and became wildly popular.
Hogarth’s financial success was based on the fact that lurid
stories sell well.
Hogarth’s Marriage a la Mode is a series of paintings
made in 1744. The first scene, called The Marriage Contract
(fig. 16.9), introduces the cast of characters. On the right
sits the father of the groom, a nobleman who points to his
family tree. Through this arranged marriage, he is trading
his social position for money that will ensure the mort-
gage on his estate is paid off. The bride’s father, a wealthy
tradesman, inspects the contract. On the left, the engaged
couple have their backs to each other. The groom preens
himself in the mirror. The bride talks to the lawyer, coun-
selor Silvertongue.
In the five scenes that follow, the marriage, as expected,
sours. Husband and wife are both unfaithful. When the
husband finds his wife with Silvertongue, the lover stabs
him. The wife is disgraced and takes poison. As she is
dying, her father, mercenary to the end, removes her valu-
able rings. In Marriage a la Mode the guilty go unpunished.
Sir foshua Reynolds. One of the leading painters of Lon-
don society was Sir Joshua Reynolds (1723-92). Thought-
 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 429

FIGURE 16.8 Salon de la Princesse, Hétel de Soubise, Paris, ca. 1737-38, decorated by
Gabriel-Germain Boffrand. Turning away from the vast spaces of Baroque architecture,
Rococo architects preferred small rooms, as demonstrated by those in this elegant townhouse.
‘This room measures ca. 33 X 26’ (ca. 10.06 X 7.92 m), an ideal space in which to cultivate the
art of conversation.
430 CHAPTER 16

:
ao

FiGuRE 16.9 William Hogarth, Marriage a la Mode: The Marriage Contract, 1744, oil on can-
vas, 35 X 27” (89 X 69 cm), National Gallery, London. Through a series of paintings, compa-
rable to scenes in a play, Hogarth told moralizing tales focusing on the hypocritical or
dishonest practices of his day. Marriage a la Mode shows the disastrous outcome of a marriage
arranged for the benefit of the parents of the bride and groom.

ful, intelligent, and hard working, Reynolds was named fashionably dressed. The colors and textures are lush in
the first president of the Royal Academy of London in Reynolds’s “Grand Manner”—indeed, the canvas itself is
1768 and was knighted the following year. Favoring an ac- enormous and the figures almost life size.
ademic art similar to that championed by Lebrun in France Reynolds painted rapidly with full, free brushstrokes,
a century earlier, Reynolds developed a set of theories and without first making sketches. In his fourth Discourse, he says
rules in his fifteen Discourses, positioning history painting a portrait painter should give a general idea of his subject
as the highest form of art. and “leave out all the minute breaks and peculiarities in the
The majority of Reynolds’s works, however, are por- face . . . rather than observing the exact similitude of every
traits, presumably because portrait painting was lucrative. feature.” ‘Thus Reynolds painted people the way he thought
His style is seen in his portrait Lady Elizabeth Delmé and they should look, rather than how they actually did look.
Her Children (fig. 16.11), executed 1777-80 at the peak of
his career. Reynolds often portrayed aristocratic ladies as Thomas Gainsborough. Reynolds’s chief rival was
elegant and gracious, refined and dignified. Lady Delmé Thomas Gainsborough (1727-88). Although Gainsbor-
sits on a rock and embraces her oldest children. All are ough began as a landscape painter, a subject he always
 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 431

Si RS RGR EN Ni NS aM a a UE ele ol aE ein asap al NG RE aE et ll

DIDEROT AS ART CRITIC Although he considered Boucher the “Tell me, Monsieur Challe, why are you
most talented painter of his generation, a painter? There are so many other pro-
¢ “ne of the very first art critics—cer- Diderot generally disapproved of his fessions in which mediocrity is actually
LJ tainly the first art critic of any sub- subjects, and went so far as to condemn an advantage.”
stance—was Denis Diderot (1713-84), him and his contemporaries in the Salon Anticipating the Impressionists a cen-
the philosophe. He enjoyed art, and his of 1767 for the essentially erotic content tury later, he celebrated a still life paint-
enjoyment is evident in every page of his of most of what was on display. Four ing entitled The Brioche (fig. 16.10) by
essays, called the Sa/ons. He reviewed all years earlier he had asked, “Haven’t JEAN-BAPTISTE-SIMEON CHAR-
the exhibitions sponsored by the French painters used their brushes in the serv- DIN [shar-DAN] (1699-1779), “Such
Academy from 1759 on for a private ice of vice and debauchery long enough, magic leaves one amazed. There are
newspaper, La Correspondance littéraire. too long indeed?” He preferred what he thick layers of superimposed color, and
Subscribers to this newspaper were the called “moral” painting that sought “to their effect rises from below to the sur-
elite of Europe—princesses and princes— move, to educate, to improve us, and to face. . .Come closer, and everything be-
and it was intended to keep potential pa- induce us to virtue.” Diderot could also comes flat, confused, and indistinct;
trons abreast of the latest news from be cruel. Addressing a now-forgotten stand back again, and everything springs
Paris. painter by the name of Challe, he asked, back into life and shape.”
Diderot’s writing style is anything but
as direct as his criticisms. Some of his
Salons are so long that they cannot be
read at a single sitting. They exercise
every excuse for a digression. Still, their
acuteness of vision and moral purpose
continue to influence art criticism.

FiGurE 16.10 Jean-Baptiste-Siméon

Chardin, The Brioche, 1763, oil on canvas,
185” x 22"(47 x 55.9 cm), Musée du
Louvre, Paris. Reunion des Musées
Nationaux. Herve Lewandowski/Art
Resource, NY. A master of still life,
which in his day was considered the low-
est form of painting, Chardin was never-
theless recognized by his contemporaries
as applying paint and color as no one be-
fore him had ever done. But his tech-
nique was not, he thought, what mattered
most. “Who told you that one paints with
colors?” he once asked a fellow artist.
“One uses colors, but one paints with
feelings.”

I See TN eT Ie
NM aE RN eT ee ates ean an aaa acai eas
ea ea RE AN RO OE RO
ssa ep

preferred, he painted portraits to make a living and be- fete galante. She is impeccably dressed, elegant, possessing
came the most fashionable portraitist in British society. social poise and a self-confident air of distinction. Paint-
Gainsborough’s Mary, Countess Howe (fig. 16.12), of 1765, ing with dash and freedom, using a fresh and fluid tech-
like most eighteenth-century portraiture, flatters the sub- nique emphasizing lush textures in decorative colors,
ject. Set in a landscape worthy of Watteau, Gainsborough Gainsborough displays a technical virtuosity typical of the
depicts the countess of Howe as if she were strolling in a Rococo.
432 CHAPTER 16

Ficure 16.11 Sir Joshua Reynolds, Lady Elizabeth Delmé and FiGure 16.12 Thomas Gainsborough, Mary, Countess Howe,
Her Children, 1777-80, oil on canvas, 7'10” X 4'125" G39°x 1765, oil on canvas, 8’ X 5’ (2.59 X 1.52 m), London County
1.48 m), National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Andrew Council, Kenwood House (Iveagh Bequest). English Heritage,
W. Mellon Collection. Photograph © Board of Trustees, London. Although he thought of himself first and foremost as
Reynolds, Gainsborough’s rival, places his aristocratic sub- a landscape painter, Gainsborough is best known for largescale
jects in a landscape setting indicative of the eighteenth- portraits that present his subjects as aristocratic and refined.
century appreciation of nature.

beings are theoretically capable of being rational, few ac-

tually behave rationally. English poets in particular em-
ployed irony and sarcasm as weapons in their fiercely
During the eighteenth century, literary works throughout satirical verses on all manner of subjects, especially the be-
Europe reflected the rationalism of the Enlightenment. havior of courtiers.
The emphasis on reason occurred across genres, from es-
says and fiction to poetry and drama. Benjamin Franklin Samuel Fobnson’s “Club.” The London of Hogarth’s
and ‘Thomas Paine wrote essays that relied on careful rea- day was, above all, a city of contrasts. On the one hand,
soning and incisive logic to support their claims about there was Fleet Street, largely rebuilt after the Great Fire
human political and social behavior as well as humanity’s of 1666 and dominated at one end by Wren’s St. Paul’s
irrational beliefs, especially those concerning religious Cathedral. Fleet Street was the gathering place of the
faith. Novelists and satirists, including Daniel Defoe and Club, a group of London intellectuals, writers, editors,
Jonathan Swift, often used irony to satirize humans’ claim and publishers. One of its founders was Samuel Johnson
to reason. Swift suggested, in fact, that although human (1709-84), author of the 1755 Dictionary ofthe English Lan-
 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 433

guage and editor of Shakespeare’s complete plays. The only target. Like Hogarth, he attacked the morality of the
Club was also home to members of refined society. Artists, aristocracy. Perhaps his most famous poem is The Rape of
too, among them Sir. Joshua Reynolds, sought each other’s the Lock. This is a mock epic—that is, it treats a trivial in-
company at the Cock Tavern or at Ye Olde Cheshire cident in a heroic manner and style more suited to the tra-
Cheese. “When a man is tired of London, a man is tired ditional epic subjects of war and nation building. The Rape
of life,” Johnson boasted of the city’s intellectual and cul- of the Lock is based on an actual incident in which a young
tural stimulation. man from a prominent family clipped a lock of hair from
On the other hand, there was Grub Street, a lane just one Miss Arabella Fermor, an event that caused her fam-
outside the London Wall. AsJohnson put it in his Dictionary, ily considerable consternation. Pope describes the gentle-
Grub Street was “inhabited by writers of small histories, men and ladies of polite society in the same terms as the
dictionaries, and temporary poems”—the hacks of the bur- heroes and heroines of Homer’s epic I/iad and Odyssey, his
geoning publishing trade. A world of difference lay between translations of which first established his reputation. Pope’s
it and Fleet Street, Newgate Prison was between them, and “war” is chiefly one of the words and deeds exchanged be-
Bethlehem Royal Hospital, known as Bedlam, the lunatic tween the sexes, all described in heroic style. Applied to the
asylum, was nearby. This was the monstrous side of London, frivolous world of snuffboxes, porcelain, and cosmetics,
a side that members of Johnson’s Club witnessed every day the effect is undeniably comical, as if Sir Joshua Reynolds’s
as they strolled from Fleet Street to the tavern where they Grand Manner had been brought low.
met. On the way, they passed through Covent Garden,
Jonathan Swift. A far crueler satirist was Jonathan Swift
where the city’s street-walkers plied their trade.
(1667-1745). Born in Ireland, Swift traveled to London,
Alexander Pope. Alexander Pope (1688-1744) set the where he became a renowned poet and political writer, as
standard for satiric poetry in eighteenth-century England. well as an Anglican clergyman. After his appointment as
No work captures the spirit of Grub Street better than dean of St. Patrick’s Cathedral in Dublin in 1713, he spent
Pope’s Dunciad, written in 1743. Pope equates the Grub the rest of his life in Ireland. Best known for his satirical
Street writers with the lunacy of the city itself, and the prose work Gulliver's Travels, Swift for many years was con-
poem ends with a “dunces” parade through the city. sidered a cynical misanthrope—a person who hates the
In the face of the monstrosities of Grub Street, Pope human race. Much has been made of a comment from
writes, “Morality expires.” Satire was Pope’s chief tool, Gulliver’s Travels, spoken by the King of Brobdingnag (the
and the lowly hacks of Grub Street were by no means his. land of the giants). Addressing Lemuel Gulliver, Swift’s

Map 16.2 The Enlightenment in America and Europe.

GERMANY
© (1685-1750) Bach
© (1685-1759) Handel
© (1732-1809) Haydn
© (1756-1791) Mozart
© (1770-1827) Beethoven
Vy) © 1808 Goethe's Faust

GREAT BRITAIN
© 1662 Foundation of Royal Society
© 1687 Newton’s Principia
© 1690 Locke’s Human Understanding
© 1755 Johnson's Dictionary
© 1776 Smith’s Wealth of Nations

FRANCE
* 1666 Foundation of French Academy
° 1734 Voltaire’s Philosophical Letters
° 1751-1772 Diderot’s Encyclopédie
New York
© 1762 Rousseau’s Social Contract
V ashington © 1789 French Revolution
© 1793 Decimal system introduced
NORTH AMERICA
© 1636 Foundation of Harvard College
© 1776 Paine’s Common Sense
¢ 1776 Declaration of Independence
¢ (1706-1790) Franklin
e (1743-1826) Jefferson
434 CHAPTER 16

representative of humanity, the Brobdingnagian king de- that either God refused to prevent the existence of evil, in
scribes human beings as “the most pernicious race of lit- which case he was not benevolent, or he lacked the power
tle odious vermin that Nature ever suffered to crawl upon to avert evil, in which case he was not omnipotent. Voltaire
the face of the earth.” also rejected the Christian notion of a personal God.
This bitter satirical strain, however, is only one side of Voltaire was a Deist, one who subscribed to a belief system
Swift’s literary persona; his satirical imagination also had a that envisioned a divine being as the maker of the universe,
lighter, more playful dimension. Gulliver's Travels is full of but a creator who lacked interest in the world once it had
fantastic and marvelous events, delightful even to children. been. created. According to Deism, the creator was like a
The book recounts the adventures of a ship’s physician, clockmaker and the world like a complex machine, which
Lemuel Gulliver, over four voyages. His first voyage takes was set in motion by the creator but into which he did not
him to Lilliput, where the people are only six inches tall; the intervene. For Voltaire, religious traditions such as biblical
second to Brobdingnag, the land of giants; the third to La- Christianity that promise eternal joy, happiness, and salva-
puta, a region where thought and intellect are privileged; tion were responsible for creating unrealistic expectations
and the fourth and final voyage to the land inhabited by and vain hopes. In fact, one of the strongest impetuses for
the Yahoos and their masters the Houyhnhnins, horselike rationalism was a disillusionment with religious belief—
creatures whose lives are governed by reason, intelligence, faith and revelation—because differences among religious
and common sense. Nonetheless, throughout Gulliver's factions had accounted for more than 150 years of bloody
Travels, Swift uses his hero’s adventures to satirize the po- war throughout Europe.
litical, social, and academic institutions of his own time and
country, with their abundant display of human folly, stu-
pidity, baseness, and greed. Thus he contrasts the sensible NEOCLASSICISM
and wise Houyhnhnms with both the ignorant and filthy
Yahoos and with the impractical and eccentric Laputians, Many people in France were suspicious of the behavior
who are so far from living effectively in the real world that and tastes of their own aristocracy. To painters, it seemed
they carry a large sack filled with a multitude of objects, as if the sensuous color and brushwork of the rubénistes
which they need to communicate with one another. had led not merely to the excesses of the Rococo but had
themselves become the visual sign of a general moral de-
cline. Thus poussinistes once again began to take hold.
VOLTAIRE’S PHILOSOPHY Poussin’s intellectual classicism offered not merely an al-
ternative style to the Rococo but, in its rigor and orderli-
OF CYNICISM ness, a corrective to the social ills of the state.
One of the most important thinkers of the eighteenth cen- As early as 1746, in reviews of the exhibition of the
tury, Francois Marie Arouet, known by his pen name French Academy, critics bemoaned the fact that the
VOLTAIRE [Vole-TAIR] (1694-1778), shared Swift’s gen- grandiose history paintings had disappeared, replaced by
eral sense of human folly, as well as Hogarth and Pope’s the Rococo fantasies Diderot abhorred. Prompted in large
recognition of the moral bankruptcy of the aristocracy. measure by the rediscovery of the ancient Roman cities of
Voltaire was deeply influenced by English political Herculaneum and Pompeii, in 1738 and 1748 respectively,
thought, especially by the freedom of ideas that, among which were partially excavated from the ashes and volcanic
other things, allowed writers such as Pope and Swift to mud that had buried them when volcanic Mt. Vesuvius
publish without fear. Voltaire himself was jailed for a year, erupted in 79 C.E., many people began to reestablish clas-
then exiled to England in 1726, for criticizing the moral- sical values in art and state. People indentified with the
ity of the French aristocracy. When he returned to France, public-minded values of the Greek and Roman heroes who
in 1729, he promptly published his Philosophical Letters placed moral virtue, patriotic self-sacrifice, and “right ac-
Concerning the English, in which, once more, he criticized tion” above all else, and they wanted to see these virtues
French political and religious life. This time, his publisher displayed in painting. By 1775, the French Academy was
was jailed, and Voltaire himself retreated to Lorraine, in routinely turning down Rococo submissions to its bien-
eastern France, where he lived for the next fifteen years. nial Salon in favor of more classical subjects, just as
Voltaire’s best known work, Candide, is a scathing in- Madame du Barry was rejecting Fragonard’s panels for her
dictment of those who agreed with the philosopher Leib- new chateau. A new classicism—a Neoclassicism—re-
niz that this is the best of all possible worlds, regardless of placed the Rococo almost overnight.
occasional misfortunes, and that everything that happens is
part of the providential plan of a benevolent God. Candide
was written just after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, in which PAINTING
thousands were killed. Voltaire argued that those who ex- Jacques-Louis David. The French artist JACQUES-
plained the catastrophe away, minimizing its destructive LOUIS DAVID [dah-VEED] (1748-1825) was a follower
consequences, were deceiving themselves. Voltaire reasoned of Nicolas Poussin. When he left to study in Rome in
 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 435

1775, David asserted that antique art lacked fire and pas- When the painting was exhibited at the Salon of 1785,
sion; but, in fact, he was to be thoroughly seduced by it. it caused an immediate sensation, not so much because of
David offered his stark, simple painting as an antidote to its Neoclassical style, but because it promoted values that
Rococo frivolity. many people recognized were lacking in the king and his
His first major commission was for Louis XVI, the Oath court. By the time of the French Revolution in 1789, the
of the Horatii (fig. 16.13). Three brothers from Rome, the painting was read almost universally as an overtly anti-
Horatii, pledge an oath upon their weapons, which are monarchist statement, although David probably did not
being held by their father. They vow to fight to the death originally intend it as such. Interpreted as a call for a new
against the Curatii, three brothers from Alba, to resolve a moral commitment on the part of the French state, David’s
conflict between the two cities. All figures are accurately art quickly became that most closely associated with the
drawn, carefully modeled in cold light, as solid as sculpture. revolution. David himself was soon planning parades gala
In accordance with Neoclassical ideals, the scene is set festivals, and public demonstrations, all designed to rally
against the severe architecture of the Roman revival. the people behind the revolution’s cause. He persuaded
David, like Poussin, constructed his composition in a se- the revolutionary government to abolish the French Acad-
ries of horizontal planes arranged parallel to the picture emy, and in its stead to create a panel of experts charged
plane. Also like Poussin, David subordinated color to line, with reforming the public taste.
because he believed clarity of statement was most impor-
tant and was best achieved by drawing. As a result, his Angelica Kauffmann. The work of ANGELICA
paintings appear to be drawings that have been colored. KAUFFMANN [KOFF-mahn] (1741-1807) provides an
David’s subject is a display of Roman heroic stoicism and even clearer example of painterly representation of virtu-
high principles. The Horatii place patriotic duty above ous behavior and high moral conduct. The Swiss-born
concern for themselves and their family. Kauffmann was trained in Italy, where she modeled her

FIGuRE 16.13 Jacques-Louis David, Oath of the Horatii, 1785, oil on canvas, 4'3" * 6'5 -
(1.30 X 1.96 cm), Musée du Louvre, Paris, RMN Reunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Re-
source, NY. Neoclassical artists favored subjects taken from ancient literature and history that
illustrated high principles or ideals. Excavation of the ancient Roman cities of Herculaneum
and Pompeii generated a renewed and widespread interest in the antique.
436 CHAPTER 16

figures after the wall paintings at Pompeii and Hercula- uting it to the poor—precisely the spirit that drove the
neum. In 1766, she moved to England, and, with her friend leaders of the French Revolution.
Sir Joshua Reynolds, helped found the new British Royal
Academy. John Singleton Copley. An American expatriate work-
Kauffmann’s Cornelia Pointing to Her Children as Her ing in London, JOHN SINGLETON COPLEY [COP-
Treasures (fig. 16.14), of 1785, champions family values, lee] (1738-1815) of Boston was New England’s leading
simple dress, and austere interiors. Gone are Rococo de- portraitist. Copley went to England in 1774, studied in
pictions of women wearing the elegant and refined dress London, gained admission to the Royal Academy, and re-
of the Rococo salon. Instead, when a visitor asks to see her mained there the rest of his life. Copley’s Watson and the
family treasures, Cornelia points with pride to her two Shark (fig. 16.15), of 1778, depicts a contemporary event
sons (the Gracchi), both of whom were to grow up to be- with a kind of immediacy and realism that anticipates the
come leaders of the Roman Republic, repossessing public painting of the next century. The event depicted was real:
land from the decadent Roman aristocracy and redistrib- A man named Brook Watson had indeed encountered a

FicureE 16.14 Angelica Kauffmann, Cornelia Pointing to Her Children as Her Treasures, 1785,
oil on canvas, 3’ 4” x 4’ 2" (1.02 X 1.27 m), Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond. The
Adolph D. and Wilkins C. Williams Fund. Photo: Katherine Wetzel. In contrast to Rococo
frivolity, Neoclassical art was intended to serve a public role in encouraging virtue. In this
story from ancient republican Rome, when asked about her treasures, Cornelia points to her
children, who went on to do good deeds on behalf of the poor.
 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 437

FiGuRE 16.15 John Singleton Copley, Watson and the Shark, 1778, oil on canvas,
65" x iG," (1.84 X 2.29 m). Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Gift of Mrs. George von
Lengerke Meyer. Reproduced with permission. © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. All Rights
Reserved. Copley’s painting has all the drama of a modern adventure film—a struggle for sur-
vival against nature depicted at the climactic moment and with the outcome left uncertain—
combined with heroic nudity.

shark while swimming in the harbor of Havana, Cuba. The is said that as a child he would sneak into class, steal some
painting shows the shark lunging for Watson while two clay, and imitate what he saw. He learned well, for he won
men reach out for him, straining, their faces showing their the Prix de Rome, which enabled him to study in Italy
anguish, and another man grasps the shirt of one to pre- from 1764 to 1769.
vent him from falling overboard. The drama is increased Houdon was unrivaled in his day as a portrait sculptor.
by the dramatic lighting and the dynamic diagonal move- Even Americans ventured forth to commission him while
ments. Copley paints a cliff-hanger—the viewer is left they were in Paris: Benjamin Franklin (1778), John Paul
wondering whether Watson will survive. In fact, Watson Jones (1780), and Thomas Jefferson (1789). To create life-
had long escaped the shark when he commissioned the like images, Houdon took precise measurements of his sit-
painting years later as a publicity ploy while running for ters and usually made a terra cotta model while working
political office. with the sitter. This model was given to his assistants, who
blocked out the form in marble; then Houdon did the fine
carving and polishing.
In order to portray George Washington (fig. 16.16),
SCULPTURE Houdon went to America and stayed for two weeks in Oc-
Jean-Antoine Houdon. One of France’s greatest sculp- tober 1785 as a guest in Washington’s home at Mount Ver-
tors was JEAN-ANTOINE HOUDON [ooh-DON] non, Virginia. Houdon made a cast of Washington’s face
(1741-1828), born at the Palace of Versailles where his fa- and a plaster bust, but returned to Paris to carve the life-size
ther was a servant. Later his father became the caretaker figure in stone, working on the project from 1788 to 1792.
for the school for advanced students in the French Acad- During that time Houdon also made a statue of Wash-
emy of Painting and Sculpture, enabling Houdon to asso- ington in classical garb. Although the version finally selected
ciate with artists from the time he was eight years old. It shows Washington wearing contemporary attire, it, too, has
438 CHAPTER 16

FicurE 16.17 Lord Burlington and William Kent, Chiswick

House, west London, begun 1725. The architectural lineage
of this house, with its central dome, triangular pediment, and
columnar portico, can be traced back to the ancient Roman
Pantheon (see Chapter 4).

and William Kent (1685-1748). Burlington was himself an

amateur architect, but his team included trained architects.
Like its prototypes, including the Roman Pantheon (see
fig. 4.13) and Palladio’s Villa Rotundo in Vicenza, Italy
(see fig. 13.46), Chiswick House is geometrically simple
yet stately. The classical vocabulary and proportions are
most important. Symmetry is maintained at all costs, even
when it makes things inconvenient within the home. In
the academic Neoclassical style, regularity, reason, and
logic dominate imaginative variation. This is in marked
contrast to the emotion and drama of the Baroque and Ro-
coco styles. In Neoclassical buildings, the walls are flat and
FiGuRE 16.16 Jean-Antoine Houdon, George Washington, the decoration relatively austere compared to that of Ro-
State Capitol, Richmond, Virginia, 1788-92, marble, height coco interiors, with their abundantly ornamented, ani-
6’ 2" (1.88 m). Calm, composed, and commanding, this version
mated, even undulating architectural elements.
of Washington in his general’s attire was favored over another
version in classical garb. Still, antique echoes are seen in the La Madeleine. In France, the Neoclassical style was
contrapposto pose and the thirteen fasces (rods) bound together, promulgated in particular by Napoleon, who longed to re-
representing the states of the Union. build Paris as the new Rome. The church of La Madeleine
in Paris (fig. 16.18) had been started by Louis XVI, but
Napoleon rededicated it in 1806 as a Temple of Glory to
be designed by PIERRE-ALEXANDRE VIGNON
links to the classical past. Washington stands in the antique [VEE-nyonh] (1762-1829).
contrapposto pose. His left hand rests on thirteen bound rods, Napoleon conceived of La Madeleine as a monument
or ancient fasces, symbolizing both the original states of the to his military victories and as a repository for his trophies.
Union and the power and authority of ancient Rome. Behind Reflecting the great interest in archaeology at this time, the
the fasces are sword and plow, representing war and peace. exterior is an accurate reconstruction of an ancient Roman
temple. It has a raised base, steps across the front only, a
colonnade of the Corinthian order, entablature, pediments,
ARCHITECTURE
and a peaked roof. Although highly dignified, there is
Chiswick House. Chiswick House (fig. 16.17) is an ex- something stark about La Madeleine’s archaeological ac-
cellent example of Neoclassical architecture in England. It curacy. Individual imagination seems absent. The interior
was begun in 1725, built by Lord Burlington (1694-1753) belies the exterior, for its ceiling consists of three consec-
 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 439

FIGURE 16.18 Pierre-Alexandre Vignon, La Madeleine, Paris, 1806-42, main facade, length
350’ (106.68 m), width 147’ (44.81 m), height of podium 23’ (7.01 m), height of columns 63’
(19.20 m). La Madeleine is based on the ancient rectangular temple type, such as the Greek
Parthenon (see fig. 3.3).

utive domes; thus, unlike its ancient Greek and Roman the sun and added dignity and splendor to the building;
prototypes, the exterior and interior are not coordinated. the northern equivalent was much shallower. The plan of
After Napoleon’s death the building was once again used Monticello is almost perfectly symmetrical, with entrances
as a church. on each of the four sides, and the rooms laid out on either
side of a central hall and drawing room.
Monticello. “The Neoclassical style of architecture was
A leading architect of his time, Jefferson fostered clas-
prominent in the United States, where the new American
sical ideas in America. He studied the ancient Roman tem-
presidents, believing it to embody enlightened democratic
ple known as the Maison Carrée in Nimes, France, and
leadership, championed its use in public architecture. One
used it as the model for the Virginia state capitol (1785-98).
of the most notable Neoclassical designs in the United
An example of austere Neoclassicism, it represents a de-
States is the private home of President Thomas Jefferson
liberate rejection of the Baroque and the Rococo.
(1743-1826), known as Monticello [MON-tih-CHELL-o],
in Charlottesville, Virginia (fig. 16.19). Jefferson drew up
the designs for it himself in 1769. An adaptation of
LITERATURE
Burlington and Kent’s Chiswick House, it was built be-
tween 1770 and 1806. Monticello is constructed of brick The Rise of the Novel. Although the novel can be said to
and wood and capped with a polygonal dome. The deep have originated in the ancient world with stories told by
portico, or porch, here supported on Doric columns, was Greek and Roman writers, it did not rise to significance as
to become very popular in the southern United States, as a literary genre until the eighteenth century in Europe.
seen in some of the great antebellum homes in: Mississippi. Preceding the rise of the novel as a major literary genre
In southern climates the portico provided protection from were occasional earlier prose fiction masterpieces, most
440 CHAPTER 16

FiGurE 16.19 Thomas Jefferson, Monticello, Charlottesville, Virginia, main facade, 1770-1806.
Neoclassical architecture was favored in America for its formal symmetry and antique associations.
At Monticello a temple of stone and concrete, the ancient Roman Pantheon (see fig 4.13), via
Chiswick House (fig. 16.17), has been translated into a home of brick and wood.

notably Miguel Cervantes’ Don Quixote, the picaresque readers in periodicals, or magazines that come out monthly
tales of the famous knight of the woeful countenance and or quarterly, thus keeping readers’ interest keen as to what
his comic sidekick the paunchy Sancho Panza. was to happen in forthcoming episodes.
But Cervantes’ book and occasional other works of All of these novelists and many that followed in both
prose fiction did not manage to create an audience with France and England wrote about’a handful of basic sub-
an appetite for longer works of fiction. That did not hap- jects—mostly about love and marriage, money and class
pen until a leisured class of educated readers emerged in status. Novelists offered a panorama of society by depict-
eighteenth century Europe, particularly in England and ing the various social classes interacting with each other.
France. These readers had the time and the interest to Novelists recreated in fictional form their social worlds,
read longer prose fictional works created by writers such capturing the aura and ethos of city life and country life, of
as Henry Fielding and Samuel Richardson in England and the rich and the poor, of social changes that occurred dur-
Chaderlos la Clos in France. Fielding’s Tom ones, Richard- ing their lifetimes, as for example the shift from an agri-
son’s Pamela, and La Clos’ The Dangerous Liaisons (Les cultural to an industrial economy. What these eighteenth
Liaisons Dangereux) were immensely popular works. They century novelists began in earnest continued through the
were published in stages, one part at a time, and offered to nineteenth century, in England with Jane Austen and
 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 441

Critical Thinking
THE POPULARITY OF THE NOVEL of Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe and A Journal tory? What other factors contributed to
of the Plague Year, as well as with the case the appeal of novels for readers then?
he novel became a popular literary of his novel, Moll Flanders, the charac- To what extent do you think those ap-
genre in the eighteenth century ters and events seem as real as any actual pealing aspects of novels continue to
with the serial publication of books such person’s life story or any actual historical make the novel popular in the twenty-
as Tom Jones in England and Les Liaisons chronicle of events. first century? And, finally, as with the
Dangereux in France. These novels told ‘To what extent do you think that the eighteenth century, so today, the major-
the stories of fictional characters whose novel’s popularity in the eighteenth cen- ity of novel readers are women. Why do
adventures their authors chronicled as if tury can be attributed to authors’ at- you think this genre has always been
the characters were real and their stories tempts to make their books appear more popular with women than with
biography rather than fiction. In the case factual—either as biography or as his- men?

Charles Dickens among many other notable English nov- portraits of her characters and the time in which they lived.
elists, and with Honoré de Balzac and Gustave Flaubert, Many readers have found that her presentation of human
among noteworthy French novelists of the next century. beings, with all their foibles, attempting to enjoy and pros-
One of the great paradoxes of the rise of the novel in per in life with one another, is utterly convincing.
Europe was the extent to which novelists made an effort,
largely successful, to invest their characters with life-like-
ness, to the extent of giving them historical and biogra- CLASSICAL MUSIC
phical ballast. Daniel Defoe, the author of Robinson Crusoe,
another famous eighteenth century novel, based his fic- The Classical period of music is distinguished by the
tion on a factual account of a man, Alexander Selkirk, who growth of a popular audience for serious music, high-
experienced some of what Defoe describes as happening to lighted by the rise of the public concert. A middle class
Crusoe. In another novel, A fournal of the Plague Year, began to demand from composers a more accessible and
Defoe pretends to be chronicling actual history—what recognizable musical language than that provided by the
happened in London during the Great Plague in the 1660s, complex patterns of, say, a Baroque fugue. The classical
in which a large percentage of the city’s population suc- composers Haydn and Mozart developed this new musi-
cumbed to the ravages of the disease. In one case Defoe cal language by reshaping old forms like the concerto and
writes fiction as a kind of biography and in another as a establishing new forms, such as the symphony.
kind of history. And yet both works are fiction.
The Symphony. ‘The symphony is known as a large
Jane Austen. One of the most important novelists of her form: It consists of several distinct parts, called movements,
day, Jane Austen (1775-1817) was the daughter of a clergy- that proceed in a predictable pattern. The challenge the
man and spent the first twenty-five years of her life at her composer faces is to create fresh and inventive composi-
parents’ home in Hampshire, where she wrote her first nov- tions without diverging from the predictable format. A
els, Northanger Abbey, Sense and Sensibility, and Pride and symphony typically consists of four movements:
Prejudice. None of these works was actually published until
the second decade of the nineteenth century, when Austen First movement: The pace of the movement is fast, usu-
was almost forty. She came from a large and affectionate ally allegro, and its mood usually dramatic.
Second movement: This movement is slow (adagio or
family, and her novels reflect a delight in family life; they are
andante, for instance), and its mood reflective.
essentially social comedies. Above all else, they are about Third movement: The pace picks up moderately, and
manners, good and bad. They advocate the behavioral the period’s most popular dance, the stately and ele-
norms by which society deemed decent must and should gant aristocratic minuet, often serves as the basis for
operate. They are also deeply romantic books that have mar- the movement.
riage as their goal and end. Austen was not so naive as to be- Fourth movement: Once again, the fourth movement is
lieve good marriages could come from alliances built solely fast (allegro), spirited (vivace), or light and happy.
on social advantage; it is her scenes showing romantic love,
not expedient matrimony, that draw the reader’s sympathy. Over the course of the eighteenth century, audiences be-
Austen called herself a “miniaturist,” by which she came educated in these conventions; in part the excite-
meant her ambition was to capture realistic and intimate ment of hearing a new composition centered on the
442 CHAPTER 16

anticipation the listeners felt as the composer moved in- to be away from their loved ones for long periods at a time.
ventively through this predictable pattern. Performing one evening at court, the musicians played the
Each symphonic movement also possessed its own symphony’s three uneventful movements, but in the mid-
largely predictable internal form. The first and fourth dle of the fourth movement, the second horn player and
movements usually employed a sonata (or sonata-allegro) the first oboist suddenly stopped playing, packed up their
form, the second was sometimes in this form but just as instruments, blew out the candles that illuminated their
often a theme and variations or a rondo, and the third scores, and left the hall. Slowly, the rest of the orchestra
was generally a minuet and trio. followed suit until no one was left except two violinists,
The word sonata derives from the Italian sonare, “to who finished the symphony. The prince immediately un-
sound,” as distinguished from cantata, which derives from derstood the implications of the performance and granted
the Italian cantare, meaning “to sing.” Sonata form itself his musicians an extended leave to visit their families.
consists of three sections: exposition, development, and When Esterhazy died in 1790, his son, who did not
recapitulation, the last of which is sometimes followed by much care for music, disbanded the orchestra, and Haydn
a coda, or tailpiece. The overall structure suggests a pat- returned to Vienna. By now he was internationally
tern of departure and return. The exposition introduces renowned. A concert promoter from London, Johann
the movement’s themes, the development section modi- Peter Salomon, offered him a commission, and in 1791,
fies and advances them, and the recapitulation returns he left Vienna for England. There, he was received by the
home to the main theme. royal court, awarded an honorary doctorate at Oxford, and
Each of the other movements of the symphony employs began to reap the financial benefits by conducting public
this pattern of departure and return but in slightly differ- subscription concerts of new work, particularly the famous
ent terms. In the theme and variations (a second move- “London” symphonies, which were acclaimed by the pub-
ment form), the main theme is introduced and then recurs lic as no other symphonic music had been before.
again and again in varied form. In a rondo, used in the sec- Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Perhaps the greatest of the
ond and fourth movements, a single theme repeats itself Classical composers was WOLFGANG AMADEUS
with new material added between each repetition. The MOZART [MOAT-zart] (1756-91), born and raised in
minuet and trio (a third movement form) possesses an ABA
Salzburg, Austria. His first music teacher was his father,
structure. That is, a minuet (“A”) is presented, followed
Leopold, himself an accomplished musician and composer.
by a contrasting trio section (“B”), before the return of the
Young Mozart’s musical genius was immediately evident
minuet (“A”). The trio section contrasts with the minuet
in his early piano and violin playing and in his compos-
in that it is written for fewer instruments, although not
ing, which he began at the age of five. Although he had
necessarily for three instruments, as the name suggests.
enormous musical gifts, Mozart suffered from depression
and illness and as an adult had a difficult time securing a
Franz Joseph Haydn. Raised as a choirboy at St. regular income. He achieved stunning successes in Vienna,
Stephen’s Cathedral in Vienna, FRANZ JOSEPH especially with his operas, but when he died at the age of
HAYDN [HIGH-din] (1732-1809) served as a court mu- thirty-five he was heavily in debt.
sician for Prince Esterhazy for nearly thirty years, begin- During his brief life, Mozart composed more than six
ning in 1761. Haydn composed so many symphonies— hundred works. He wrote forty-one symphonies along
more than a hundred—in so many variations that he is with twenty-seven piano concertos and nine concertos for
known as the “father” of the form. It is Haydn to whom we other instruments. He composed large numbers of cham-
are indebted for the classical characteristics of musical clar- ber works and a significant volume of choral music, in-
ity, balance, and restraint. As his nickname implies, Papa cluding his great Requiem, or mass for the dead, which
Haydn developed the basic classic form of the sonata, the remained unfinished at his death. Mozart also composed
symphony, and the string quartet. He set the guidelines some of the most popular operas ever written, including
for the classical style while adapting his music to his pa- The Marriage of Figaro (1786), Don Giovanni (1787), and
trons’ needs and desires. His career not only defines this The Magic Flute (1791). Reviving the drama of the Baroque,
transition from court to public music, but it also marks the he created operas in both opera seria (usually with histor-
moment when musicians and composers finally attained ical or mythological stories) or opera buffa (comic operas).
the social status that painters, sculptors, and architects had His singspiels, which combined spoken dialogues and arias,
enjoyed since as early as the Renaissance. duets and ensembles, were his main contribution to Ger-
Haydn’s “Farewell” Symphony no. 45 of 1772 was con- man opera. .
ceived as an explicit protest at the living conditions at Don Giovanni is based on the story of the legendary
Eisenstadt palace, about thirty miles south of Vienna, Spanish nobleman, Don Juan, who was notorious for his
where the court musicians lived in isolation. Esterhazy did seduction of women. Mozart, well aware of the amorous
not allow his musicians to bring their families to the palace. goings-on in all the great courts of Europe, subtly mocks
Thus, living in crowded servant quarters, they were forced them in this work. His opera begins with Don Giovanni
 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 443

killing the outraged father of a young noblewoman he has tion, and died as the Romantic era was in full flower. His
just seduced. At the end of the opera, the dead man re- work and his life reveal a tension between the Classical
turns in the form of a statue that comes sufficiently alive style of the past and the newly emerging Romantic ten-
to drag Don Giovanni down to hell. Between these two dencies in art. In his middle period, Beethoven enlarged
dramatic episodes, Mozart portrays Don Giovanni's se- the scope of the Classical style; in his later works, he tran-
duction of three women, blending seriousness with humor. scended it, moving in new musical directions.
An early scene from Act I reveals Don Giovanni at work Beethoven was born and raised in Bonn, in the Ger-
in music that captures the Don’s persuasive appeal for the man Rhineland. At the age of twenty-one he went to Vi-
peasant girl Zerlina (fig. 16.20), whom he has promised to enna, where he remained for the rest of his life. He became
marry if she comes to his palace. Mozart has the would-be known for his prodigious ability on the piano, especially for
lovers sing a duet entitled “La ci darem la mano” (“There, his improvisational skill. By the time he was thirty,
you will give me your hand”). Don Giovanni begins with Beethoven was recognized as an innovative and creative
an attractive image of their intertwined future. Zerlina’s composer. Unlike other musicians and composers of his
ambivalent response indicates her desire for the Don and time, he was determined to remain a free artist, and, with
her fear that he may be tricking her. Following this initial the help of a number of sympathetic patrons, he supported
exchange, Mozart speeds up their interaction to show Zer- himself solely through composing and performing his
lina’s increasing acquiescence and then blends their voices music. Beethoven was aided by the growth of music pub-
to suggest their final mutual accord. The scene is doubly lishing and an increase in concert life fueled by the rise of
pleasing. It portrays an actual seduction, one that any au- a middle-class public with an appetite for serious music.
dience can enjoy, and it exposes Don Giovanni for the rake Among the most significant experiences of Beethoven’s
that he is, thus allowing the audience both to warm to and life was the onset of deafness, which began to afflict him
detest Mozart’s antihero. The wide range of feelings typ- around 1800, just as his music was attracting serious ac-
ifies Mozart’s music and in part accounts for his enduring claim. He nearly committed suicide. In 1802, he wrote his
popularity. famous Heiligenstadt testament, an agonized letter to his
brother describing his suicidal thoughts and his eventual
victory over them: “I would have ended my life—it was
TOWARD ROMANTICISM only my art that held me back. Ah, it seemed to me im-
possible to leave the world until I had brought forth all
BEETHOVEN: FROM CLASSICAL that I felt was within me.”
Living through this traumatic experience strengthened
TO ROMANTIC
Beethoven, and the music he wrote afterward exhibited a
LUDWIG VAN BEETHOVEN [BAY-tove-in] (1770- new depth of feeling and imaginative power. By 1815,
1827) was born during the age of the Enlightenment, came Beethoven was almost entirely deaf, but this did not stop
to maturity during a period of political and social revolu- him from composing and conducting his music. In the end,
Beethoven’s deafness was more of a social affliction than a
musical one. He increasingly separated himself from soci-
FicurE 16.20 A scene from Don Giovanni by Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart. The opera premiered in 1787. Here, in Act I,
ety, for which his rebellious and fiery temperament ill
Don Giovanni (played by Sherrill Milnes) seduces the inno- suited him.
cent Zerlina (Teresa Stratas) in the duet “La ci darem la mano.” Beethoven produced an abundance of music, including
thirty-two piano sonatas and nine symphonies, which set
the standard against which the symphonic efforts of all
subsequent composers have been measured.
The Three Periods of Beethoven’s Music. Beethoven’s
music can be divided into three periods, each reflecting
differences in stylistic development. During the first pe-
riod, which lasted until about 1802, Beethoven wrote
works mainly in the Classical style, adhering to the for-
mal elements established by Haydn and perfected by
Mozart before him. In the middle period (1803-14), re-
ferred to as the “heroic” phase, his works become more
dramatic; they are also noticeably longer than those of his
Classical predecessors, as they begin to stretch the re-
quirements of Classical form. The first movement of the
Third Symphony is, for instance, as long as many full sym-
phonies of Haydn and Mozart. And his compositions in
444. CHAPTER 16

Gre Calawaskas
military bands, composed of musicians itary.” Mozart included Turkish percus-
TURKISH MILITARY MUSIC
mounted on horseback playing drums sive musical elements in his opera The
AND VIENNESE COMPOSERS Abduction from the Seraglio. He also enti-
and shawms, long-tubed horns used in
estern Europeans had long been medieval Western as well as medieval tled the rondo movement from his piano
fascinated with the so-called exo- Turkish music. In the seventeenth cen- sonata K. 331 “Rondo alla Turca,” a spir-
tic. During the eighteenth century there tury, trumpets, cymbals, bells, and addi- ited piece with a section reflective of
was increased cultural interaction with tional types of drums were added to Turkish military music. Beethoven was
Turkey, then part of the Ottoman em- Turkish military bands. Later, during the also inspired by Turkish music, as is ev-
pire. Although at the time it represented nineteenth century, some pianos were idenced by his Turkish March and in
a threat to Austria, the Austrian Haps- equipped with a special pedal for creat- themes from the fourth movement of his
burg empire enjoyed a taste for things ing unusual percussive effects reminis- Ninth Symphony. Moreover, inspired by
Turkish and Ottoman. Viennese cuisine cent of these instruments. the whirling dance of Islamic Turks,
reflected the influence of Turkish spices. All three of the great Viennese com- Beethoven wrote his Chorus for Whirling
Viennese fashion exhibited Turkish in- posers of the time reveal the influence of Dervishes, a work whose theme is re-
fluence in flowing garments and brightly the Turkish military band. Haydn wrote peated in increasing intensity and in
decorative ribbons and braiding in three military symphonies, whose titles quicker tempos, imitating the trance in-
women’s attire. Viennese music incorpo- reflect the martial nature of their music, duced by the whirling dance of the Sufi
rated elements of the music of Turkish including the “Drum Roll” and the “Mil- dervishes (see Chapter 6).

this period modulate between the most gentle and ap- Beethoven repeats this musical motif relentlessly through-
pealing melodies and the most dynamic and forceful writ- out the exposition before a bridge passage leads to a sec-
ing—not only between works, but within each work. ond, contrasting, and more lyrical theme, which is
Beethoven’s final period of composition spans the years accompanied in the cellos and basses by the first fournote
1815-27, during which he was almost completely deaf. In theme. Additional musical ideas fill out the movement, in-
this period, Beethoven not only departed from the con- cluding a development section that breaks the main theme
straints of Classical compositional practice, but also en-
tered new musical territory and reached new levels of
spiritual profundity. Works from the late period include,
among many others, his Ninth Symphony, considered by
many the greatest symphony ever written; the last piano
sonatas; and the deeply spiritual Missa Solemnis.
Symphony no. 5 in C Minor; op. 67. Beethoven’s most
famous work remains his middle period Symphony no. 5
in C Minor, op. 67, a work that defines the idea of the into smaller and smaller units and a recapitulation that fea-
symphony in the popular imagination. He completed it in tures a surprising lyrical oboe solo.
1808. One of the most tightly unified compositions ‘The second movement, in theme and variations form,
Beethoven ever wrote, its opening four-note motif is per- provides relief from the unabating tension created in the
haps the best known of all symphonic themes. Out of that first. Two themes dominate the movement, the first sung by
brief fragment of musical material, Beethoven constructs cellos and violas, the second by clarinets. Both receive ex-
a dramatic and intense opening movement. He uses its tensive variation throughout the movement. The overall
rhythmic pattern of three short notes followed by a longer effect combines noble grandeur with sheer lyrical beauty.
one in each remaining movement and further unifies the The third movement, a scherzo, begins with a myste-
work by returning to the theme of the third movement rious theme introduced quietly by cellos and basses, fol-
during a dramatic passage in the fourth movement. Over- lowed by a loud theme blared out by the horns on a single
all, the symphony moves from struggle and dramatic con- repeated note. Instead of a break between movements,
flict to triumphant and majestic exultation. Beethoven creates a sense of tension with a long sustained
The first movement, marked Allegro con brio, “fast with tone that forms a bridge to the fourth and final movement.
spirit,” opens abruptly with the famous “Fate knocking on The fourth movement, a scherzo, in C major, is cast in
the door” theme—short-short-short-long: sonata form, with an extensive coda, one of the most dra-
 THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY 445

Cultural Impact
|eect and socially, the eighteenth impact on the development of Western lic buildings constructed in the nine-
century was a period of dramatic civilization. It was during this period that teenth and twentieth centuries in the
change. Government by aristocracy gave the ideals of “liberty, equality, and fra- United States and around the world.
way to more democratic political struc- ternity” animated the French Revolu- Classical ideals of balance, symmetry,
tures. Although absolutist forms of goy- tion. Similar ideals of “life, liberty, and and proportion were also important in
ernment persisted in Europe, they were the pursuit of happiness” provided the music and literature. So were qualities of
challenged by republican advocates of di- new American nation with its founda- wit and elegance: The spirit of the music
vided, complementary forms of political tional principles. and literature of the age is reflected in a
organization and by supporters of dem- The arts saw a return to the aesthetic propensity for irony, in sparkling dia-
ocratic rule. The seeds of democratic ideals of classical antiquity, especially logue between characters in novels,
government were sown not only in order, balance, symmetry, and propor- plays, and operas, and in a strong ten-
America, but also in Europe, where tion. Aspects of eighteenth-century ar- dency toward satire. Concern for ele-
democracy would eventually emerge as chitecture, for example, are modeled gance in the formal structure of musical
the prevalent form of government in the after that of ancient Greece and Rome. and literary works remains an important
modern Western world. Enormously influential, the Neoclassi- legacy of the Enlightenment.
The Enlightenment had a profound cal style is seen in government and pub-

matic Beethoven wrote. For this, he enlarged the orches- It is perhaps because Beethoven became isolated from
tra: A high-pitched piccolo extends the orchestral range the natural world by his deafness that he was able to re-
upward, a low-pitched contrabassoon extends it down- define the creative act of composition. It was no longer,
ward, and three extra trombones add power. Beethoven as it had been for centuries, considered a function of ob-
presents four themes first, then a stunning coda that ap- jective laws and rules of harmony, but the expression of
pears to end a number of times before he finally brings deeply personal and often introspective feelings. It is to
the movement and the symphony to a triumphant con- this interior world that artists of the nineteenth century,
clusion. the so-called Romantics, turned their attention.

KEY TERMS
Enlightenment Rococo Napoleonic Code rondo
philosophes fetes galantes Neoclassicism minuet and trio
rational humanism hotels novel requiem
revolution salons symphony Romantic
Industrial Revolution still life sonata
Encyclopédie mock epic theme and variations

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

http://www. infidels.org/library/historical/john_remsburg/six_historic_americans/chapter_2.html
(This is a site entitled Six Historic Americans, which includes Thomas Jefferson, as written by
John E. Remsburg.)
http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr1 61 /lect/history/newtongray. html
(A good physics site on Sir Issac Newton and studies on gravity.)
http://artchive.com/artchive/W/watteau. html
(This is the Artchive, a website with virtually every major artist in every style from every era in
art history. It is an excellent resource.)
http://w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/cmp/mozart.html
(A good site on Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's biography.)
 CHAPTER 17

1789-99 French Revolution

1804 Napoleon declared emperor

5
1848
RE E1054
Revolutions spread through Europe
Pasteur develops pasteurization iy er er eeee
1860s American Civil War
1868 German empire proclaimed

Art, ARCHITECTURE, AND Music

py, lBl4 Ingres, La Grande Odalisque
1814-15 Goya, The Third of May
seabithe Gericault, Raft of the Medusa
Pole2i a Constable, The Haywain
1824 Delacroix, Scenes from the Massacres at Chios
| 1830. Berlioz, Symphonie Fantastique
Ne a a Fe New York Philharmonic founded
ee 1633: Rude, La Marseillaise
Soa 03h Barry and Pugin, Houses of Parliament
Gare (ly Turner, The Slave Ship
Chopin, Polonaise in A—flat, Op. 53
Ld S
1849 Mozart’s Requiem played at Chopin’s funeral
Moss a 3 Teel 1849 : Bonheur, Plowing in the Nievernais
6 005.1051 Paxton, Crystal Palace
etic Cail Manet, Luncheon on the Grass
2 ee aon Brahms’ “Lullaby”
fe Seer ceeWe Lewis, The Old Indian Arrow Maker
nora (1) Whitney, Charles Sumner
Se MARGT. Verdi, Otello
. 1887 Brownscombe, Love's Young Dream

LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

1798 Wordsworth and Coleridge, Lyrical Ballads

- 1808 Goethe, Faust
1819-24 Lord Byron, Don Juan
1836 Emerson, Nature
1838 Dickens, Oliver Twist
1851 Melville, Moby Dick
1854 Thoreau, Walden
1855 Whitman, Leaves of Grass
1856 Flaubert, Madame Bovary
ee 1859 Darwin, On the Origin of the Species
Be a 1860s Dickinson, Poems
oS 1872 Rousseau, Confessions
1877, Tolstoy, Anna Karenina
ee 1881 Dostoyevsky, The Brothers Karamazov
Théodore Géricault, Raft ofthe Medusa, 1818-19, oil on canvas, 16’ 1” X 23’ 6" (4.9 X 7.16 m).
Musée du Louvre, Paris. Reunion des Musées Nationaux. Anauder/Art Resource, NY.

447
 French Empire, 1812
Ruled by members of Napoleon’s family #3
Other dependent states

EMPIRE

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Barcelona
BALEARIC
ISLANDS
&

AFRICA
500 Miles

500 Kilometers

Map 17.1 Napoleon’s Empire 1812

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

ROMANTICISM
The imagination runs wild

REALISM
The European sociopolitical scene turns the arts to everyday life

448
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 449

ROMANTICISM
Fy ¥ 1800, NEOCLASSICISM WAS THE dominant style in
ry European art and architecture, which suited
4” Napoleon well. As early as 1805, Napoleon had
begun to speak of his “Grand Empire,” conceiving of it as
a modern version of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1808, as
part of his strategy to subdue the entire European conti-
nent, his troops crossed the Pyrenees into Spain, ostensi-
bly on their way to Portugal, which was closely allied with
the British. But once in Spain, Napoleon took advantage
of the abdication of the unpopular Charles IV, refused to
recognize his successor, Ferdinand VII, and took control
of the country. At first, there was little resistance, but
Napoleon discovered that just because the Spanish did not
care for their king did not mean they were prepared to be
ruled by a French emperor. Skirmishes broke out across
the country. These “little wars,” or guerrillas (the origin
of our word for guerrilla warfare), forced Napoleon to
withdraw large numbers of troops from Germany to fight
in Spain, and soon full-scale war broke out.
In the meantime, an emerging new movement, Ro-
manticism, provided a countertendency to the Neoclas-
sical style. Romanticism is an attitude more than a style,
but it depends on a growing trust in subjective experience,
particularly in the emotions and feelings of individuals.
The Romantics had a love for anything that elicits such FiGURE 17.1 Caspar David Friedrich, The Wanderer Above a
feelings: the fantastic world of dreams, the exotic world of Sea of Fog, ca. 1817-18, oil on canvas, 2'5 in yl a (74.8 X
the Orient, the beauty of nature revealed in a sudden vista 94.8 cm). Hamburger Kunsthalle, Hamburg, Germany. Bil-
of hills exposed around a turn in an English garden, the darchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY. Friedrich
forces of nature in a magnificent or unpredictable mo- was the greatest of the German Romantic painters, noted for his
ment, such as a sunset after a storm. depictions of Gothic cathedrals in ruin, bleak metaphors for the
Inexactitude and indeterminacy characterize this view of crisis in religious faith experienced by many people of the era.
the world, and it can be discovered everywhere in this pe-
riod. The Romantic painter Eugéne Delacroix loved the
études by a contemporary composer, Frédéric Chopin, for The Romantic glorification of the self found expres-
“their floating, indefinite contour . . . destroying the rigid sion in many ways. Artists, composers, and writers were
frameworks of form . . . like sheets of mist.” Mist was actu- seen as divinely inspired visionaries with Promethean pow-
ally a favorite subject of many Romantic painters (fig. 17.1). ers of inspiration and illumination. Many compared the
The Romantic attitude depends particularly on the con- creative power of the artist to the power of the biblical
cept of originality. Just as no aspect of an English garden creator. They saw God’s power as residing within their
should be like any other, no painter or author should im- own creative genius.
itate any other. The new Romantic genius stands alone, Romantic artists were fascinated by the strange and
different from the rest, and unsurpassed—a true original. the marvelous, by dreams and the occult. They celebrated
In addition, the Romantic attitude is a mixture of belief the commonplace, seeing the extraordinary in the ordi-
in the natural goodness of man as expressed by Rousseau nary, infinity in a grain of sand and eternity in an hour,
and in the autonomy of rational beings. Emanating from to paraphrase William Blake. In addition, Romantic
these central Romantic conceptions was empathy for the artists expressed an abiding interest in folk traditions.
disadvantaged and the downtrodden apparent in the writ- And they were preoccupied as well with the uncanny and
ings of William Blake and the paintings of Géricault, the irrational, a fascination that would lead, by the end of
Turner, and Goya. The ethical law of Immanuel Kant the century, in the person of Sigmund Freud, to the rise
(1724-1804) never to treat another human being as a ob- of psychiatry as a respected branch of medicine. Accom-
ject bolsters these conceptions, as does Kant’s advice to modating all these varied tendencies, Romantic art is
behave as if the maxim that guides your action were to be- multiplicitous, as various as the temperaments that cre-
come a universal law. ated it.
450 CHAPTER 17

PAINTING 1808 (fig. 17.2). Painted several years after the event, the
painting marks Goya’s change of heart. The French pres-
Francisco Goya. The Spaniard FRANCISCO GOYA ence had brought Spain only savage atrocity, death, famine,
[GOY-uh] (1746-1828) began his career as a favorite por- and violence.
traitist of Madrid society and in 1789 was made a court The soldiers on the right, faceless, inhuman, and ma-
painter to Charles IV of Spain. Goya was a social and po- chine-like, turn their backs to the viewer in anonymity and
litical revolutionary, whose sympathies were with the En- raise their weapons to destroy. The lighting of this night
lightenment and the failed French Revolution; he worked scene is theatrical; the square light in front of the soldiers
for the king not out of loyalty but in order to make a good illuminates their next victim. Christlike, with arms ex-
living. In 1794, a serious illness left him totally deaf, and tended, his portrayal here evokes the image of the Savior,
within the isolation produced by his deafness he became but he is simply one man among many. Several lie dead in
ever more introspective. Slowly, gaiety and exuberance their own pools of blood to his right, and those about to
were replaced by bitterness. die await their turn. The Third ofMay, 1808 is a painting
At first, Goya was in favor of Napoleon’s invasion of that gives visual form to a sense of hopelessness. Although
Spain, hoping Spain would be modernized as a conse- it possesses all the emotional intensity of religious art, here
quence. But on May 2, 1808, the civilians of Madrid rose people die for liberty rather than for God; and they are
up in a guerrilla action against the French, and on the fol- killed by political tyranny, not Satan.
lowing day one of Napoleon’s generals executed his Span- The terror depicted in The Third of May, 1808 is no
ish hostages in retaliation. That execution is the subject match for the series of eighty-two prints known as Los
of one of Goya’s most powerful works, The Third ofMay, Desastres de la Guerra (The Disasters of War), produced be-

FIGURE 17.2 _Francisco Goya, The Third ofMay, 1808, 1814-15, oil on canvas, 8’ 9” x
13’ 4” (2.67 X 4.06 m), Museo del Prado, Madrid. One of the most powerful antiwar state-
ments ever made, Goya’s painting documents the execution of Madrid citizens for resisting
the French occupation of their city. The killers are faceless, dehumanized, mechanized; the
victim, Christlike in pose, dies for liberty rather than religion.
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 451

tween 1810 and 1823. The Disasters of War was inflamma-

tory, since it showed both the French and the Spanish as
unheroic. Goya found nothing noble or heroic in war. In-
stead, war was the very image of human brutality, even
bestiality, as his prints demonstrate. Number thirty-nine in
the series, called Great Courage! Against Corpses! (fig. 17.3),
shows war for what it is—a powerful demonstration of
humanity’s inhumanity.
Théodore Géricault. Goya’s equal among the French
painters of the Romantic movement is THEODORE
GERICAULT [jay-ree-COH] (1791-1824). Like Goya,
Géricault painted subjects that affected him emotionally.
His most famous painting, the Raft of the Medusa (fig.
17.4), painted 1818-19, was inspired by an infamous inci-
dent in 1816. The government ship Medusa set sail over-
FIGURE 17.3 Francisco Goya, Great Courage! Against loaded with settlers and soldiers bound for Senegal. When
Corpses!, from The Disasters of War, 1810-23, 55" moe i it sank on a reef off the coast of North Africa, the ship’s
(13.6 X 18.6 cm), © Copyright The British Museum, London.
captain and officers saved themselves in the six available
As in his paintings, Goya works in areas of light and dark in
lifeboats and left the 150 passengers and crew members
this etching, the stark contrast emphasizing the brutality of the
subject. Few artists have approached Goya’s fury. to fend for themselves on a makeshift raft. These people

FiGuRE 17.4 Théodore Géricault, Raft of the Medusa, 1818-19, oil on canvas, 16’ 1" X
23’ 6" (4.9 X 7.16 m). Musée du Louvre, Paris..Reunion des Musées Nationaux. Anauder/Art
Resource, NY. In this moving depiction of a tragedy in which many lives were lost after days at
sea, the impact is enhanced by the raft jutting obliquely into the viewer’s space, by the proxim-
ity of extremely realistic dead bodies, and by the dramatic contrasts of light and shadow.
452 CHAPTER 17

spent twelve days at sea before being rescued; only fifteen Dame Cathedral, seen through the smoke of battle across
survived, the others having died from exposure and star- the Seine River. The composition rises in a pyramid of
vation. Some went insane and there were even reports of human forms, the dead sprawled along the base of the
cannibalism. The actions of the captain and officers were painting, and Liberty herself, waving the French tricolor,
judged criminally negligent and intentionally cruel, and crowns the composition. Beside Liberty is a youth of the
the entire incident reflected poorly on the French monar- streets. To Liberty’s right, a working-class rebel in white
chy, newly restored to the throne after Napoleon’s defeat. and a bourgeois gentleman, distinguished by his tie, coat,
The captain had been commissioned on the basis not of his and top hat, advance with her. Delacroix depicts the cross-
ability but of his noble birth. His decision to save himself section of society that actually took part in the uprising.
was considered an act inspired by his belief in aristocratic
privilege. Jean-Auguste-Dominque Ingres. A pupil of David,
Géricault completed the enormous painting (16’ 1’’ x JEAN-AUGUSTE-DOMINIQUE INGRES [AN-gruh]
23’ 6'") in nine months. In an attempt to portray accu- (1780-1867) is perhaps the last Neoclassical painter, for
rately the raft and the people on it, Géricault interviewed he opposed all Romantics of his day, particularly Delacroix.
survivors, studied corpses in the morgue, and even had the Stubborn and plodding, he was described as a “pedantic
ship’s carpenter build a model raft, which he then floated. tyrant.” Through his position as head of the French Acad-
His search for the uncompromising truth led him to pro- emy, he restricted official art for generations.
duce a vividly realistic painting of powerfully heroic drama. In Ingres’s approach, precision of line is all important.
Géricault elected to portray the moment of greatest emo- His La Grande Odalisque (fig. 17.6), the word odalisque
tional intensity—when the survivors first sight the ship meaning “harem woman” in Turkish, painted in 1814, is
that will eventually rescue them, just visible on the hori- the kind of exotic subject also favored by the Romantics.
zon. It is a scene of extraordinary tension, a thrilling com- The odalisque is not an individual, and her anatomy is nei-
bination of hope and horror. Those who have died or given ther academic nor accurate. The elongated, large-hipped
up are shown at the bottom of the composition, close to proportions recall the Mannerist style (see Chapter 13)
the viewer, large, and extremely realistic. The strongest rather than the classical ideal. Ingres perhaps had more in
struggle hysterically upward, led by a black man in a di- common with the Romantics than he would have liked to
agonal surge of bodies that rises toward the upper right. admit, since it is hard to remove a// sensuality from such a
subject. He was shocked when the Neoclassical painters
found his work unclassical.
THE JULY MONARCHY Stull, compared to a Delacroix Odalisque (fig. 17.7) of
For Romantic painters such as Géricault and his friend 1845-50, Ingres’s painting seems positively tame.
EUGENE DELACROIX [duh-lah-KWA] (1798-1863), Delacroix’s nude is unabashedly sensual. His painting style
who served as the model for the central corpse lying face is loose, physical, not at all intellectual. Where Ingres ex-
down below the mast in the Raft ofthe “Medusa,” art could plores the external human form, Delacroix explores the
serve as an effective social and political tool. internal emotions the body can generate.
In France particularly, the plight of the working people John Constable. In England, painters were attracted to
was at issue throughout the reign of Louis-Philippe, who the physical aspects of nature. John Constable (1776-1837)
became king shortly after July 28, 1830, when violent fight- immersed himself in the scenery of his native land and
ing broke out in the streets of Paris, supported by almost painted places he knew and loved such as Suffolk and
every segment of society, and the rule of Charles X quickly Essex. The valley of the River Stour, which divides Suffolk
came to an end. Within days, Louis-Philippe, who was the from Essex, was his special haunt.
former king’s cousin, was named the head of what would In the 1820s, Constable began painting a series of “six-
come to be called the July Monarchy. Eugéne Delacroix footers,” which were large ambitious landscapes celebrat-
quickly went to work on a large painting to celebrate this ing rural life. The Haywain (fig. 17.8), of 1821, depicts a
new revolution, so reminiscent of the glorious days wagon mired beside Willy Lott’s cottage in the millstream
of 1789. at Flatford that ran beside the Stour proper, adjacent to
Delacroix named his painting The Twenty-Eighth ofFuly: Constable’s own property. Willy Lott lived in this cottage
Liberty Leading the People (fig. 17.5). It was finished in time
for eighty years and spent only four nights away from it
for the Salon of 1831, but instead of the accolades he during his entire life. He embodied, for Constable, the en-
thought he would receive, Delacroix was roundly attacked
during attachment to place so fundamental to rural life.
for the painting. It was purchased by the new government
Constable was interested in the transience of nature, the
of Louis-Philippe and quickly removed to storage. The
momentary effects of atmosphere and light, of storm and
scene is set in barricades of the kind traditionally built by
sunlight, and the contrast of dense foliage and open field.
Parisians by piling cobblestones up in the street, thus cre-
ating lines of defense against the advance of government Jj. M. W. Turner. Constable’s love of nature was shared
troops. Behind it, to the right, are the towers of Notre- by his fellow Englishman Joseph Mallord William Turner
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 453

FiGuRE 17.5 Eugéne Delacroix, The Twenty-Eighth ofJuly: Liberty Leading the People, 1830,
oil on canvas, 863" x 10’8” (2.59 X 3.25 m), Musée du Louvre, Paris. Reunion des Musées
Nationaux. Herve Lewandowski/Art Resource, NY. In this romanticized representation of
the Revolution of 1830, Liberty is personified by a seminaked woman leading her followers
through Paris. The revolution resulted in the abdication of Charles X and the formation of
a new government under Louis-Philippe.

FIGURE 17.6 Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, La Grande

Odalisque, 1814, oil on canvas, Dele Xx oo (89.7 X
162 cm), Musée du Louvre, Paris. Reunion des Musées
Nationaux. Art Resource, NY. The treatment of the
anatomy of this odalisque (harem woman), an exotic and
erotic subject, is less academic than Ingres might have
liked to believe. In fact, she has much in common with the
smooth elongated bodies created by Mannerist artists, such
as Parmigianino’s Madonna with the Long Neck (fig. 13.37).
454. CHAPTER 17

(1775-1851). The son of a barber, Turner had no formal

education but was interested in art from childhood. His
talent was quickly recognized for he was already a full
member of the Royal Academy in 1802, when he was only
twenty-seven. Opposing the Academy’s classicism, he was
to become England’s leading Romantic painter.
Although Turner worked from nature, he took even
greater liberties with the facts than Constable did. Con-
sequently, it is not always possible to recognize his sites or
fully to comprehend his subject. For example, Turner’s
painting The Slave Ship (fig. 17.9), of 1840, originally titled
Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying—Typhoon
Coming On, illustrates a specific contemporary event with
all the outrage of Géricault and Delacroix. A ship’s cap-
tain had thrown overboard slaves who were sick or dying
from an epidemic that had broken out on board. The cap-
FIGURE 17.7 Eugene Delacroix, Odalisque, 1845-50, oil on tain was insured against loss of slaves at sea, but not against
canvas, 142" x 184" (37.6 X 46.4 cm). Fitzwilliam Museum, their loss owing to disease.
Cambridge, England. It is hard to say which is more sensual in Turner’s figures are lost in the wash of colors of sea and
Delacroix’s painting, the subject or the brushwork. There is an sky, and the political subject threatens to become, in
obvious contrast with Ingres’s treatment of an odalisque sub- Turner’s hands, an excuse for a study of atmosphere. The
ject thirty-odd years earlier (see fig. 17.6). Whereas in Ingres’s forms dissolve into a haze of mist. The swirl of storm and
version the emphasis is very much on line, Delacroix is a colored light is the result of layers of oil glazes. So radical
rubéniste and delights in an ecstatic use of color.

FIGURE 17.8 John Constable, The Haywain, 1821, oil on canvas, 4'3 a il" GS x
1.90 m), National Gallery, London. The English penchant for landscape painting indicates a
growing interest in nature and weather conditions that prefigures late-nineteenth-century Im-
pressionism. Although Constable sketched from nature, he did the final painting in his studio.
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 455

FIGURE 17.9 Joseph Mallord William Turner, The Slave Ship, 1840, oil on canvas, 2'11 ve x
4’ (90.5 X 122 cm), Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Henry Lillie Pierce Fund. Reproduced
with permission, © 2005, All Rights Reserved. Constable called Turner’s paintings “tinted
steam.” The original title, Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying—Typhoon Coming
On, in spite of its unusual length, hardly clarifies the subject, which is, above all, Turner’s Ro-
mantic response to nature.
FIGURE 17.10 Thomas Cole, American Lake Scene, 1844, oil
on canvas, 185" x 245" (46.4 X 62.2 cm). Detroit Institute of
was Turner’s style that he was dubbed “the over- Turner.”
Arts, Detroit. Gift of Douglas F. Roby. Although his landscape
His distortion of the subject and interest in nature and
paintings were a popular success, they seemed less important to
light would pave the way to Impressionism. Cole than his historical and allegorical works, which were not
Thomas Cole. American landscape painting often fo- as enthusiastically received.
cuses on solitude. When figures are included in a scene, as,
for instance, in American Lake Scene of 1844 (fig. 17.10) by
Thomas Cole (1801-48), they are barely visible, dwarfed
by the landscape that surrounds them. Here a lone Native
American warrior sits between two trees on a small island
where he has brought his canoe to rest. We share his view,
enthralled by the combination of open space and light that
fills the scene. In an analogous moment, Cole described his
feelings as he looked out across two lakes in Franconia
Notch in the New Hampshire mountains, saying: “I was
overwhelmed with an emotion of the sublime such as I
have rarely felt. It was not that the jagged precipices were
lofty, that the encircling woods were of the dimmest shade,
or that the waters were profoundly deep; but that over all,
rocks, wood, and water, brooded the spirit of repose, and
456 CHAPTER 17

niaee Ba at nd a Aa er STD aD initia

= Bech eRESbatt t eR i tar SiR oat Maine naeSaSEetc +
seid: Serato u Testor

AMERICA’S NATIONAL PARKS Today the national park system is in- Smoky Mountains, Everglades, and
creasingly threatened. Automobiles have Glacier—most of these great parks were
‘Tn the early eighteenth century, the new been banned from Yosemite, parts of at one time pristine areas surrounded and
4. American nation prided itself on its Mesa Verde, and other parks as well. In protected by vast wilderness regions.
political system, but it lagged far behind the early 1980s, developers proposed Today, with their surrounding buffer
Europe in cultural achievement. Rather building a geothermal power plant fif- zones gradually disappearing, many of
than in authors and artists, the country teen miles west of Upper Geyser Basin these parks are experiencing significant
took pride in the one thing it had in and “Old Faithful” Geyser in Yellow- and widespread adverse effects associated
abundance—land. After Thomas Jeffer- stone. The project was halted only be- with external encroachment.”
son purchased the Louisiana territory cause no one could demonstrate the The nation is losing one of its
from Napoleon in 1803, the American exact boundaries of the Yellowstone ge- myths—the myth that people can live
landscape became, in effect, the nation’s othermal reservoirs. In 1980, the Na- harmoniously with nature, which was il-
cultural inheritance. And as the country tional Park Service explained the lustrated in the landscapes of American
was subsequently explored, the treasures situation this way: “Yellowstone, Great Romantic painters.
it held, in beauty as well as gold, excited
the American populace.
It was the artists and photographers
who accompanied the expeditions to the FIGURE 17.11 Thomas Moran, Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, 1872, oil on canvas, 7’ X
West who publicized the beauty of the 12’ (2.13 X 3.66 m), Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., Art Resource, NY. Lent
landscape. The painter ALBERT BIER- by the Department of the Interior Museum. Smithsonian American Art Museum, On a
STADT [BEER-shtaht] (1830-1902) ac- visit to England in 1862, Moran studied and copied the paintings ofJ.M. W. Turner,
companied Colonel Frederick Lander to whose use of light and color he particularly admired.
the Rockies in 1859. The photographer
C. E. Watkins (1829-1916) traveled to
Yosemite in 1861. The painter Thomas
Moran (1837-1926) went with Colonel
Ferdinand V. Hayden of the National
Geographic Survey through the Rockies
to Yellowstone in 1871.
Bierstadt’s paintings and Watkins’s
photographs were the primary reason
that Lincoln signed into law a bill estab-
lishing Yosemite as a national preserve
in 1864. In 1872, Congress purchased
Moran’s Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone
(fig. 17.11) for $10,000 and later hung
the massive painting in the lobby of the
Senate. On March 1, 1872, President
Ulysses S. Grant signed the Yellowstone
Park Act into law, establishing the na-
tional park system.
aa
sete etn deoan nos dc adesenecuaa A a ON

the silent energy of nature stirred the soul to its inmost ject, it asserts its objective reality too thoroughly. Baude-
depths.” The same spirit of repose infuses this depiction of laire summed up Romantic sculpture in the title of his
rock, wood, and water. essay, “Why Sculpture Is Boring.”
Baudelaire did argue, however, that sculpture could es-
SCULPTURE cape this fate in the service of architecture; attached to a
larger whole, it could evoke profound feelings. One ex-
Perhaps surprisingly, during the Romantic era, sculpture ample is The Departure of the Volunteers of 1792, popularly
fell out of favor. In fact, in 1846, the poet Charles Baude- known as La Marseillaise (fig. 17.12), by Francois Rude
laire argued that the idea of Romantic sculpture was im- (1784-1855), a huge stone sculpture made for the Arc de
possible. Sculpture, he suggested, can neither arouse ‘Triomphe in Paris. Although sculpted between 1833 and
subjective feelings in the viewer nor express the personal 1836, the subject refers to an event that occurred in 1792—
sensibility of the artist because, as a three-dimensional ob- the defense of the French Republic by volunteers rallying
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 457

in particular, were revived, and often several styles were

combined.
Houses of Parliament. ‘The Gothic Revival is seen in
the Houses of Parliament in London (fig. 17.13), begun
1836, by Sir Charles Barry (1795-1860) and Augustus W.
N. Pugin (1812-52). The Gothic revival was strongest in
England, where it was mistakenly believed to have origi-
nated. In fact, as discussed in Chapter 12, the Gothic style
originated in France and was associated primarily with ec-
clesiastical architecture. Somewhat incongruously, this
style was applied to the buildings of the British govern-
ment. Gothic features on the Houses of Parliament are
the irregular silhouette, broken surface, incessant accent-
ing of the vertical, and multiplicity of small delicate surface
forms. The whole was designed to evoke the spiritual and
ethical values of the Middle Ages.
Opéra. Incontrast, it was the Baroque that provided the
inspiration for Charles Garnier (1825-98) when he de-
signed the Opéra in Paris (fig. 17.14) between 1861 and
1874. Made to accommodate large audiences, the Opéra
was built on a grand scale. The quantity of sculptured or-
nament is neo-Baroque, and the overall effect is of extreme
sumptuousness. The three-story facade consists of a series
of arches, surmounted by a story with two sizes of orders,
topped by an ornamental attic. The forward-jutting cor-
ner pavilions are typically French.
ioe
By the second half of the nineteenth century, new tech-
FIGURE 17.12 Francois Rude, La Marseillaise (The Departure nological achievements, particularly the development of
of the Volunteers of 1792), Arc de Triomphe, Place de l’Etoile, cast iron as a construction material, offered architects and
Paris, 1833-36, limestone, ca. 42’ X 26’ (12.80 X 7.90 m). sculptors new possibilities. In fact, two of the most inno-
The use of a triumphal arch to commemorate a military vic- vative works of the day, Crystal Palace in London and the
tory, as well as the use of a winged female figure to represent Statue of Liberty in New York harbor, were considered by
victory, derives from Greek and Roman antiquity.
some to be more feats of engineering than works of art.
Crystal Palace. Built for the Great Exhibition of 1851,
Crystal Palace (fig. 17.15) was designed by Joseph Paxton
to repel invaders from abroad. For Rude, the subject was (1803-65), who was once gardener to the duke of Devon-
deeply emotional because his own father had been among shire and was trained neither as an architect nor as an en-
the volunteers. gineer. When Prince Albert called for a competition to
The figures are costumed in both ancient and medieval design the exhibition site, the judges, among them Charles
armor, and the nude youth in front is Neoclassical in pose Barry, who had designed the Gothic Revival Houses of
and physique. A winged female figure representing Vic- Parliament, deemed none of the large number of entries
tory (as in antiquity) leads the soldiers forward, and the suitable. ‘The judges themselves prepared a design, but it,
group below appears to surge upward with a diagonal force too, was rejected. Finally Paxton offered his proposal. In-
that points in the direction of the tip of her sword. Thus, stead of a giant brick edifice, as everyone else had pro-
in a rectangular format necessitated by the architecture of posed, Paxton extended the concept of the glassframe
the arch itself, Rude created a dynamic triangular thrust to greenhouse. Employing a cast-iron prefabricated modular
the left that creates an emotional thrust as well, one that framework—the first such building of its kind—Paxton
many French people associate with their national anthem used glass for his walls. Over 900,000 square feet of glass—
to this day. nearly a third of Britain’s total annual production—were
fitted into a building 1,851 feet long and 408 feet wide.
The result was not only in harmony with the building’s
ARCHITECTURE site in Hyde Park, but offered the simplest solution to the
Like painting and sculpture, architecture of the Romantic problem of lighting the interior of a vast exhibition space.
era also borrowed freely from the past, creating revivals Soon Paxton’s model was adapted to other similar spaces,
of earlier architectural styles.’ The Gothic and the Baroque, particularly to railway stations.
458 CHAPTER 17

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fa a

FIGURE 17.13. Sir Charles Barry and Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin, Houses of Parlia-
ment, London, 1836-60, length 940’ (286.5 m). The delicacy of Gothic religious architecture
is applied to government office buildings. Among the plethora of pointed pinnacles, turrets,
and towers is the clock known as Big Ben.

FIGURE 17.15 Joseph Paxton, Crystal Palace, London, 1851,

cast iron and glass, length 1851’ (564.18 m), width 408’
(124.36 m), height 108’ (32.92 m). Designed by a gardener,
FicureE 17.14 Charles Garnier, Opéra, facade, Paris, 1861-74, Crystal Palace was, in its time, the largest enclosed space ever
width ca. 200’ (62.96 m), height 95’ (28.96 m). The Opera, created. Built as an exhibition hall to display industrial and
with its Neo-Baroque combination of arcades, colonnades, and technological accomplishments, it was in itself an impressive
luxuriously opulent ornament, is well suited to performance of demonstration of new technology.
opera, a Baroque form of music.
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 459

PHILOSOPHY Ralph Waldo Emerson and Transcendentalism. ‘The

sentiments about nature expressed by the Romantic
Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the Concept of Self. The painters were quickly adopted in the United States, where
autobiographical Confessions of the French philosophi- in the nineteenth century more people lived in close com-
cal writer JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU [roo-SEW] munion with nature than in Europe. The union of hu-
(1712-78) was the first and most influential exploration of manity with nature was a special theme of Ralph Waldo
the self in the West outside the tradition of religious au- Emerson (1803-82), author of the widely influential essay
tobiography. As a Romantic rather than an Enlightenment “Nature,” first published in 1836. Emerson was one of a
figure, Rousseau stood in stark contrast to many of his number of American thinkers who called themselves Tran-
contemporaries, particularly Swift and Voltaire. Rousseau scendentalists. The Transcendentalists built a philosoph-
believed in the basic goodness of humanity, in naturally ical perspective from the poetry of William Wordsworth,
positive instincts rather than naturally negative ones. So- on the one hand, and the philosophy of the German Im-
ciety, he felt, corrupted a person’s basic instincts, making manuel Kant (1724-1804), on the other. Kant had argued
people competitive, greedy, and uncaring. Like the Ro- there are two basic elements, “those that we receive
mantic poets and painters who were to follow, he cele- through impressions, and those that our faculty of knowl-
brated the claims of the imagination above all else. edge supplies from itself.” The first he called phenomena,
Rousseau was most interested in the subjectivity of the the second noumena. We can never truly know the
self. His early works concern social themes. In his Discourse essence of the things that the mind creates for itself. “In the
on Inequality (1754), he provides a critique of the philoso- world of sense, however far we may carry our investigation,
phy of Thomas Hobbes, who argued that human beings we can never have anything before us but mere phenom-
are spurred by self-interest and that to exist in a state of na- ena... The transcendental object remains unknown to
ture is to exist in a state of war (see Chapter 15). Rousseau us.” The “transcendental object” is known only through
argued that although humans are motivated by self-inter- intuition. Emerson was able to intuit the transcendental
est, they also possess a natural instinct of compassion. in nature. As he puts it in the most famous passage in “Na-
Rousseau’s Confessions serves as a powerful example of ture”: “Standing on the bare ground,—my head bathed by
reflective self-analysis, a model for future philosophical the blithe air, and uplifted into infinite space,—all mean
self-explorations. This celebration of the self became so egotism vanishes. I become a transparent eyeball; I am
prevalent during the Romantic era that even in the face of nothing; I see all; the currents of the Universal Being cir-
crisis, as with the dashed hopes of many in Britain and culate through me; I am part or particle of God. . . . In the
France at the outcome of the French Revolution, there wilderness, I find something more dear and connate than
was a belief that those aspirations could be profitably re- in streets or villages. In the tranquil landscape, and espe-
defined. If the revolution did not create a better society, cially in the distant line of the horizon, one beholds some-
then the revolutionary ideal should be transferred from what as beautiful as one’s own nature.”
the social realm to the personal one to create a better mind.
If a transformation of political reality was more compli- Henry David Thoreau. ‘TVhe American wilderness was
cated than had been imagined, then a transformation of raw and vast, and even along the eastern seaboard, where
human consciousness could at least be effected. civilization had taken firm hold, it was still easy to leave the
city behind, as Henry David Thoreau (1817-62) did at
Walden Pond. “I went to the woods,” Thoreau wrote in
Hegel and Historical Change. Another key thinker of Walden (1854), “because I wished to live deliberately, to
the Romantic era, German philosopher George Friedrich front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not
Wilhelm Hegel (1770-1831) saw reality and history as a learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die, dis-
dynamic process rather than a series of static ideals. For cover that I had not lived.” Living close to nature was, for
Hegel, historical change reflects a dialectical process in Thoreau, the very source of humankind’s strength. In an
which opposing ideas collide to produce a new result, or essay entitled “Walking” he echoed the sentiments Emer-
synthesis, that combines elements of the original two con- son had expressed in “Nature”:
tradictory forces. Every thesis has its antithesis, with the
conflict between them resulting in a synthesis, which be- What I have been preparing to say is, that in Wildness is
comes the basis for a further synthesis, resulting in freedom the preservation of the world. Every tree sends its fibres
and rationality. Originally designed to explain the con- forth in search of the Wild. . . . From the forest and
wilderness come the tonics and barks which brace
flicting ideas and ideals of great men, Hegel’s dialectic was
mankind. Our ancestors were savages. The story of Ro-
later adapted to explain opposing economic forces and mulus and Remus being suckled by a wolf is not a mean-
class conflicts between owner/managers and labor. Karl ingless fable. The founders of every State which has risen
Marx and Friedrich Engels, in The Communist Manifesto to eminence have drawn their nourishment and vigor from
(1844), argued for the influence of economic factors on all a similar wild source. It was because the children of the
aspects of human experience, including social, political, Empire were not suckled by the wolf that they were con-
and intellectual matters. _ quered and displaced by the children of the Northern
460 CHAPTER 17

forests who were. I believe in the forest, and in the considered their right. Believing that they could sustain a
meadow, and in the night in which the corn grows. separate southern union of states on the backs of their
slaves, eleven southern states withdrew from the Union in
1860 and 1861. The war followed swiftly and became the
THE ANTISLAVERY MOVEMENT bloodiest ever fought on American soil, lasting four ago-
The growth of humanitarian feeling during the eighteenth nized years, until 1865.
century Age of Enlightenment and the spreading of dem- Midway through the war, President Lincoln announced
ocratic ideals through revolutions in France and the Amer- his Emancipation Proclamation, which promised freedom to
icas led to increased criticism of the slave trade. In the slaves and the abolition of the institution of slavery in all
United States, the prohibition of the foreign slave trade the United States. When the northern states finally pre-
was not realized until 1805. In Britain, slavery was abol- vailed, slavery was ended as an institution in the country,
ished with the Abolition Act of 1833, which was followed and the central government was strengthened. The issues
by its gradual abolition in all lands under British control. that divided the country, however, would do so in attenu-
In the northern United States a group opposed to slav- ated form for more than another century, as the problem
ery emerged, with members calling themselves “aboli- of freed slaves during the Reconstruction era and the rights
tionists.” Believing that slavery was evil, the abolitionists of blacks would become and long remain major social and
fought for its eradication on idealistic moral grounds, ar- political issues.
guing against its spread to the western U.S. territories and
in favor of its elimination in all states where it existed.
THE CRIMEAN WAR
Among the most famous of the abolitionists were William
Lloyd Garrison, who published an abolitionist newspaper, During the nineteenth century, European imperialist ten-
The Liberator, for thirty-five years, and Frederick Douglass, dencies increased. The first major Ottoman war, the
a former slave, whose Narrative of the Life revealed the Crimean War occurred from 1854 to 1856, with Russia,
shocking brutality and degradation slavery encouraged. which had been annexing Muslim lands in Central Asia.
Douglass’s autobiographical work was complemented by Eager to absorb Muslim provinces in Eastern Europe, Rus-
Harriet Beecher Stowe’s immensely successful novel Uncle sia attacked the Ottomans ostensibly over the right to de-
Tom’s Cabin (1852), the best-selling novel of the nineteenth fend Christian sites in the Holy Land. Alarmed at further
century. Upon meeting the author, President Abraham Russian expansionist tendencies, Britain and France sided
Lincoln is said to have remarked: “So this is the little lady with the Ottomans and declared war on Russia. Although
who wrote the big book that started this great war.” the Turks and their allies were victorious, both sides suf-
In other countries the emancipation of slaves was also fered heavy casualties.
at issue. As South American countries acquired their in- The Crimean War initiated a decline in Ottoman power
dependence, they abolished slavery. Some countries, such and influence. It was the first Ottoman war in which the
as Chile (1823), Mexico (1829), and Bolivia (1831) made Ottomans did not control the outcome. After the Crimean
the prohibition against slavery absolute. In other coun- War, the European powers no longer considered the Ot-
tries, however, including Argentina (1810), Colombia tomans a serious global political and military force. For
(1814), and Venezuela (1821), the abolition of slavery was Russia, the effects of the war were equally disastrous. In ad-
more gradual. In Brazil, the issue was explosive, and al- dition to losing more than 100,000 men and suffering hu-
though slavery was abolished in 1888, fierce opposition miliating military defeat on its own soil, Russia could no
fueled revolution there in 1889. longer sustain its expansionist ambitions. The war clearly
showed that Russia’s agrarian economy based on the labor
of serfs was no match for the European industrial powers.
THE CIVIL WAR
Civil War erupted in the United States over slavery and a
LITERATURE
suite of other factors, social, political, and economic. With
the election of Abraham Lincoln as president in 1860, a The theme of much nineteenth-century literature is our
number of tensions came to a head. Prominent among ignorance of things. In Herman Melville’s (1819-91) novel
them was the issue of slavery, with Lincoln a firm believer Moby Dick (1851), Captain Ahab is bent on capturing the
that slavery was immoral and in need of abolishment. great white whale, which comes to stand, in his imagina-
Equally important political issues, such as states rights ver- tion, for something close to a final truth or a first cause.
sus the authority of the federal government, and the com- But the whale eludes him, and even when Ahab does in-
peting claims of the agrarian south versus the industrial deed “capture” it, the whale drags him to his death. He
northern states, drove a wedge between the two parts of seeks a knowledge he cannot possess.
the country. Robert Louis Stevenson (1850-94), another important
A firm believer in the sacredness of the Union, Lincoln author of the era, wrote a short novel, Dr. Jekyll and Mr.
refused to allow the southern states to secede, which they Hyde (1886), which embodies the conflict between the clas-
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 461

sical mind, with its urge for order, and the new Romantic
mind, and in which the rational, scientific Dr. Jekyll has to
battle with his alter ego, the violent, irrational Mr. Hyde. ae
ae :
RAUL pn Hh
In other popular literature, the mystery tale rises into fash-
ion in France in the 1830s and is seen in America a decade
later, but culminates, at the end of the century, in the Eng-
lish writer Sir Arthur Conan Doyle’s great detective, Sher-
lock Holmes. In the typical mystery, everyone is,
metaphorically, thrown into a fog by murder. No one
knows “who done it,” a situation that has excited the pas-
sions of readers ever since. As a sort of Enlightenment
hero, the detective penetrates the fog, clarifies the situa-
tion, resolves the conflict, and explains it logically. If our
Romantic spirit is excited by inexactitude and indetermi-
nacy, we nonetheless long to be rescued from them.
William Blake. A product of the industrial slums, the
poet and artist William Blake (1757-1827) was born in
poverty and, unable to attend school, taught himself to
read and studied engravings of paintings by such Renais-
sance masters as Raphael, Diirer, and Michelangelo. At
the age of twenty-two, Blake entered the Royal Academy
as an engraving student, but unsettling clashes over artis-
tic differences returned him to a life of nonconformist
study.
Blake insisted that his “great task” as a poet was “To
open the Eternal Worlds, to open the immortal Eyes of
Man inwards into the Worlds of Thought.” His was a po-
etry of revelation, not technique. As a boy Blake saw “a FIGURE 17.16 William Blake, frontispiece to Europe: A
tree filled with angels, bright angelic wings bespangling Prophecy, 1794, 124" X 93" 31.1 X 24.1 cm), © The British
every bough with stars.” This ability to see beyond the Museum, London. British Museum Great Court Ltd. Blake’s
physical, what he called his “double vision,” fueled Blake’s idea of God, Urizen, is depicted here on the second day of
imaginative and poetic flights (fig. 17.16). Creation. He holds a pair of compasses as he measures out
Blake saw himself as a prophet, and he drew heavily on and delineates the firmament.
both the Hebrew and the Christian sacred texts. At the
core of Blake’s work are two contrary archetypal states of
the human soul: innocence and experience. Humanity’s
oscillation between these states forms the focus of much of
human nature and the natural world. Coleridge was par-
his poetry.
ticularly interested in folk idioms and songs. Wordsworth’s
For Blake, innocence and experience are psychological
ear was tuned to the everyday language of common folk,
states that carry political implications. “Che Chimney
“a language really used by men,” as he put it. He wrote
Sweeper” in Songs ofInnocence is a young boy who ration-
about everyday subjects, a poetry of the individual, of the
alizes his misery and naively declares, “Those that do their
inner life and “the essential passions of the heart.”
duty need not fear harm.” Historically, nothing could have
Exactly how the human imagination delineates a sense
been further from the truth. Young sweeps who endured
of place in nature, and by extension in daily reality, also
this forced labor rarely lived to reach adulthood. The irony
underlies Wordsworth’s lyric “I Wandered Lonely as a
of his final pronouncement escapes the innocent boy, un-
Cloud.” According to his sister Dorothy’s journal of April
aware of the horrors of the Industrial Revolution. Readers
15, 1802, they had gone for a walk “in the woods beyond
would have understood the implications nonetheless.
Gowbarrow Park.” ‘Together they stumbled upon a stretch
William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. of daffodils that “grew among the mossy stones . . . some
The year 1798 saw the publication of the Lyrical Ballads, rested their heads upon these stones as on a pillow for
co-authored by William Wordsworth (1770-1850) and weariness; and the rest tossed and reeled and danced, and
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834). Turning their backs seemed as if they verily laughed with the wind, that flew
on the sophisticated syntax and vocabulary of Neoclassi- upon them over the Lake; they looked so gay, ever glanc-
cal writing, they insisted that the language of poetry should ing, ever changing.” The daffodils of Wordsworth’s poem
be natural; as natural, in fact, as its subject, nature—both are the personified flowers of Dorothy’s journal entry, but
462 CHAPTER 17

in the end brother and sister witness different events.

Whereas Dorothy draws simple pleasure from her walk
among the flowers, the poet’s attention becomes fixed on
how the imagination interacts with nature. For although
Wordsworth takes pleasure in his walk, the “wealth” the
poem refers to comes into focus only with the “inward
eye” of the imagination. The poem reflects many of
Wordsworth’s Romantic preoccupations, particularly the
power of nature and of remembered experience to restore
the human spirit.
Jobn Keats. Probably no poet of the period was more
aware of his inability to know the world fully, yet at the
same time more compelled to explore it, than John Keats
(1795-1821). Like Wordsworth, Keats believed in the vi-
tality of sensation but did not limit himself to sight and
sound. Keats often uses imagery designating one sense in
place of imagery suggesting another. For example, he
writes of “fragrant and enwreathed light,” “pale and silver
silence,” “scarlet pain,” and “the touch of scent.” Keats’s
images register on palate and fingertip as well as within
the ear and eye, making the world, the poet, and the poem
one complete sensation. This blurring of borders reflects
the empathic power Keats termed “negative capability,”
the poet’s ability to empathize with other characters, or
entities, living or imagined, animate or inanimate. FiGurE 17.17 Thomas Philips, Lord Byron in Albanian Cos-
Perhaps the most affecting of Keats’s efforts at nega- tume, 1814, oil on canvas, 295" x 245" (75 X 62 cm), Na-
tive capability is “This Living Hand,” written shortly be- tional Portrait Gallery, London. Byron looks particularly
dashing in this costume, which signifies the love of the exotic
fore he died of tuberculosis at the age of twenty-five:
and interest in the cultures of the Balkans reflected in his
This living hand, now warm and capable writing.
Of earnest grasping, would, if it were cold
And in the icy silence of the tomb,
So haunt thy days and chill thy dreaming nights to know.” Byron died in the Balkans fighting for the
That thou wouldst wish thine own heart dry of blood Greeks in the war against Turkey in 1824, the same year
So in my veins red life might stream again, that Delacroix painted his Massacres at Chios.
And thou be conscience-calmed—see here it is—hold it
towards you.
Emily Bronté. Wuthering Heights (1847), the masterpiece
of EMILY BRONTE [BRON-tay] (1818—48), is organ-
Lord Byron. Another great English Romantic poet, ized with the same structural care in the classical manner
George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788-1824), embodies the of Jane Austen, but it is a fully Romantic work that breaks
Romantic self. A free spirit, he was notorious for his un- new ground in the violence of its scenes and the extrava-
conventional behavior. One of his first books of poems, gance of its style.
Hours ofIdleness (1807), was subjected to severe criticism in Gone is the decorum that marked Austen’s world (the
the Edinburgh Review, to which Byron retorted, in 1809, “artificial rudeness” of the English garden) and in its place
with a biting satire in the style of Swift and Pope, entitled is a world of storm and turmoil. The novel’s central char-
English Bards and Scotch Reviewers. It won him instant fame. acters display passionate and socially disruptive tenden-
That same year, he left England to travel extensively in cies entirely at odds with the rational and serene world of
Spain, Portugal, Italy, and the Balkans (fig. 17.17). Good- the Enlightenment, and it is as if the landscape around
looking and flamboyant, Byron socialized with a variety them responds. Reason and social decorum are replaced by
of upper-class and aristocratic women. His most famous intense feeling and individual expression. The demands
poem, Don Juan (1819-24), portrayed the seducer already and needs of the self are paramount. Nature is untamed,
well known to most audiences. Most of his followers as- unruly, and grand, exhibiting patterns of storm followed by
sumed the poem to be semiautobiographical, since it was calm, similar to the contrasting emotions displayed by
begun soon after he formed a relationship with Contessa Bronté’s characters, and analogous to the alternation of
Teresa Guicioli in Italy, who remained his mistress for the quiet lyricism and passionate drama heard in Romantic
rest of his life. As one female friend said of him, not with- music such as Schubert’s. Moreover, in the work of both
out some real admiration, “He is mad, bad, and dangerous artists, drama explodes in the midst of serenity and calm,
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 463

suggesting thereby the potential for abrupt change in both tative, philosophical cast of mind found in poems such as
inner and outer weather. Whitman’s “Crossing Brooklyn Ferry.” Later, Allen Gins-
berg exhibited something of Whitman’ early extravagance
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. Perhaps the most influ- and outrageousness.
ential writer of the Romantic era was JOHANN WOLF- Instead of using the poetic structures of his day, Whit-
GANG VON GOETHE [GUR-tuh] (1749-1832), who man developed more open, fluid forms. And rather than
lived half his life during the Enlightenment and half dur- using old-fashioned poetic diction, he wrote in familiar
ing the Romantic era. He witnessed the shift in con- and informal language, following Wordsworth’s “language
sciousness from the Enlightenment emphasis on reason, really used by men.” Whitman also mixed exalted language
objectivity, and scientific fact to the Romantic concern for with common speech, resulting in, as he remarked, a “new
emotion, subjectivity, and imaginative truth. style . . . necessitated by new theories, new themes,” far
Born and raised in Frankfurt, Goethe studied law at the removed from European models. Whitman’s stylistic in-
University of Strasbourg, where he met the German critic novations in Leaves of Grass, which he wrote and revised
and thinkerJ.G. Herder. With Herder and Friedrich over nearly fifty years and once described as “a language
Schiller, Goethe contributed to the beginnings of German experiment,” were intended to “give something to our lit-
Romanticism in the 1770s, leading what was called the erature which will be our own . . . strengthening and in-
Sturm und Drang (storm and stress) movement. Goethe’s tensifying the national.” In this he was like many
contribution to this movement was his novel The Sorrows nineteenth-century artists who expressed their national-
of Young Werther (1774). Enormously influential through- istic tendencies in music, painting, and literature.
out Europe, the work expressed discontent with Enlight-
enment ideals of objectivity, rationality, and restraint. In it, Emily Dickinson. In his exalted ambition, Whitman dif-
an educated young man, Werther, gives up a government fered markedly from Emily Dickinson (1830-86), whose
position to search for greater meaning in his life. He be- poetic inclination gravitated inward. Although Whitman
comes alienated and unhappy until he meets and falls in and Dickinson each brought something strikingly origi-
love with a young woman, who is unfortunately engaged nal to American poetry, their poems could not be more
to a businessman, whom she marries. Werther becomes different. A glance at a page of their poetry reveals a sig-
obsessed with her and finally commits suicide. nificant visual difference. Whitman’s poems are expansive,
‘The work for which Goethe is best known, Faust (1808), with long lines and ample stanzas. Dickinson’s poems, by
is based on the life of the medieval German scholar Jo- contrast, are very tight, with four-line stanzas that distill
hann Faust, who is reputed to have sold his soul to the feeling and thought.
devil in exchange for knowledge. Faust has been described The openness of Whitman’s form is paralleled by the
as a defining work of European Romanticism, one that openness of his stance, his outgoing public manner. Dick-
epitomizes the temper and spirit of the Romantic era and inson’s poetry, in contrast, is much more private. Her med-
serves to represent the anxiety-ridden Romantic imagina- itative poems are rooted partly in the metaphysical poetry
tion in all its teeming aspiration. of seventeenth-century writers such as John Donne and
Throughout his life and literary career, Goethe was torn partly in the tradition of Protestant hymnology. Dickinson
between the intellectual ideals of the Enlightenment and made frequent and ingenious use of Protestant hymn me-
the emotional passions of the Romantic period. In Faust, ters and followed their usual stanzaic pattern. Her adap-
readers confront alternative perspectives on life, repre- tation of hymn meter accords with her adaptation of the
sented by the characters Faust and the devil, Mephistophe- traditional religious doctrines of orthodox Christianity.
les. Faust is a man of the mind, a knowledgeable scholar, For although many of her poems reflect her Calvinist her-
who abandons himself to the exploration of physical ex- itage—particularly in the ways their religious disposition
perience, represented by Mephistopheles, who offers Faust intersects with intensely felt psychological experience—
the chance to live a more active life of sensation. Faust re- Dickinson was not an orthodox Christian. “Some keep the
mains a divided figure, one who cannot integrate harmo- Sabbath going to Church,” she wrote. “I keep it, staying
niously the two different aspects of his consciousness—his at Home.” Her love of nature separates her from her Pu-
scientific rationalism and his poetic intuition. ritan precursors, allying her instead with such ‘Transcen-
dentalist contemporaries as Emerson, Thoreau, and
Walt Whitman. Of the American poets writing during Whitman, although her vision of life was starker than
the nineteenth century, two stand out above all others: theirs.
Walt Whitman (1819-92) and Emily Dickinson. Unlike Dickinson spent nearly all of her life in one town,
Dickinson, whose idiosyncratic and elliptical style has Amherst, Massachusetts, living as a near recluse and dying
found few imitators, Whitman greatly influenced later in the house where she was born. Dickinson’s poems probe
American poets. William Carlos Williams emulated Whit- deeply into a few experiences—love, death, doubt, and
man’s attention to the commonplace and his experiments faith. In examining her experience, Dickinson makes a
with the poetic line. Wallace Stevens displayed the medi- scrupulous effort to tell the truth, but she tells it “slant,”
464. CHAPTER 17

as one of her poems puts it: “Tell all the Truth but tell it Program Music. Program music is a characteristic form
slant.” Part of her artistry includes the way she invites read- of Romantic composition. As opposed to absolute music,
ers to share her search for truth. Her poems’ qualified as- which does not refer to anything outside of musical sound,
sertions, along with their riddles and questioning stance, form, and tone color, program music describes, in musi-
cumulatively suggest that life is mysterious and complex, cal tones, a scene, story, event, or other nonmusical situa-
as it was for so many Romantic artists. tion. Exploiting the mind’s capacity to suggest and evoke,
program music attempts to imitate something beyond the
music itself by emphasizing an instrument’s special prop-
erties or tone.
MUuSsIC Earlier composers had used the flute to imitate bird-
Because it seems capable of unleashing emotions beyond song, as did the Baroque composer Antonio Vivaldi in The
mere words or images, music is perhaps the most “ro- Four Seasons. Renaissance composers such as Thomas
mantic” of Romantic art forms. Romantic music was not Weelkes had imitated human sighing with a downward
a break with the classical ideas of Haydn and Mozart but melodic motion. But composers of the Romantic era de-
an expansion of techniques to express emotion in sym- veloped the idea of musical description into something far
phonies and other absolute musical forms. Both in length more ambitious, creating a musical program that governed
and substance, Romantic music served as an aural palette an entire symphonic movement or work. In his Symphony
of new colors and expression. Romantic composers wrote no. 6, nicknamed “the Pastoral Symphony,” for example,
music that expressed individuality and innovation, exalted Beethoven provides all five movements with descriptive
nature, and broke new ground formally, harmonically, and titles, including “Awakening of joyful feelings upon arriv-
stylistically. They also developed a musical language that ing in the country” and “The thunderstorm.”
reflected changing political and social attitudes. Their con-
Hector Berlioz. One of the most innovative of Roman-
cern was with freedom and self-expression, with the
tic composers was HECTOR BERLIOZ [BEAR-lee-ohz}
grandeur of nature, with folk traditions, and with the vi-
(1803-69). After pursuing a medical degree, he turned in-
cissitudes of romantic love. And above all, their music ex-
stead to music, analyzing scores, attending operas, giving
pressed intense feeling.
lessons, singing in a theater chorus, and composing. Not
Some features of Romantic music resulted from tech-
long out of the Paris Conservatory of Music, Berlioz wrote
nological advances, such as the invention of valves for brass
his Symphonie Fantastique, a work that shocked Parisian
instruments and key systems for woodwinds, which in-
audiences with its innovative orchestration, its musical
creased their orchestral prominence, and the development
recreation of a bizarre witches’ sabbath, and its autobio-
of thicker strings for the piano, which deepened and en-
graphical theme about Berlioz’s own “endless and un-
hanced the instrument’s tonal properties. Other features of
quenchable passion” for the English actress, Harriet
the Romantic style reflected social changes, such as the
Smithson, whom he pursued and married against the
movement of musical performance from church and palace
wishes of both their families.
to the public concert hall, which occasioned opportuni-
The Symphonie Fantastique contains five movements:
ties for musical compositions of larger scope performed
(1) Reveries, Passions; (2) A Ball; (3) Scene in the Coun-
by bigger orchestras and choruses. This type of change
enriched the orchestral sound, along with new timbres. try; (4) March to the Scaffold; and (5) Dream of a Witches’
Although some Romantic works tended to be, on the Sabbath. Each movement uses distinctive musical mate-
rial. The first movement, for example, combines a mood
whole, larger and longer than their counterparts from ear-
lier centuries, there developed alongside the monumental of reverie with an agitated and impassioned section that
impulse one toward the miniature. Chopin and Schubert, employs dramatic crescendos and obsessive repetitions of
for example, wrote numerous short piano pieces of only a a musical theme Berlioz used throughout this movement
few minutes’ duration. Schubert and Schumann, among and the entire symphony. This “fixed idea,” or idée fixe,
others, developed the Lied (or art song), also a small form, as he called it, exemplifies musically the image of “the
designed for performance by a singer and accompanist in beloved one herself [who] becomes for him a melody, a
a room in someone’s house. The monumentality of Ro- recurrent theme that haunts him everywhere.” Berlioz
mantic music is evident in the size of the orchestra needed transforms the beloved’s theme of the idée fixe in each
to perform symphonic and choral works and the sheer movement according to the needs of the program. The
idée fixe unifies the symphony and carries it forward to a
magnitude of some of the works themselves. Some sym-
tragic conclusion. Throughout, Berlioz continually ex-
phonies of Gustave Mahler (1860-1911), for example, last
two hours, and require more than a hundred orchestral pands the orchestral palette, introducing a wide range of
players as well as a hundred choral singers. And four op- instruments including bells, cymbals, sponge-tipped drum-
eras of Richard Wagner (1813-83) create a linked cycle, sticks, a snare drum, and four harps.
the Ring of the Niebelung, which takes thirteen hours to Franz Schubert and Johannes Brahms. Inspired by the
perform. outburst of lyric poetry of the age, many composers turned
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 465

to writing songs. FRANZ SCHUBERT [SHU-bert] with her. After Robert Schumann’s death, Clara contin-
(1797-1828) lived in Vienna and was a contemporary of ued to champion his music, as well as that of Brahms, and
Beethoven’s. Over the course of his career, he wrote more is believed to have been a direct influence on the music of
than six hundred songs, many of which were settings of both composers.
Goethe’s verse. He also wrote three song cycles, or groups
of linked songs, including Die Schéne Miillerin (The Pretty Chopin and the Piano. If Berlioz represents one pole of
Miller-Maid) of 1824, which tells the story of a love affair the Romantic composer’s spectrum, FREDERIC
that starts joyously only to end in tragedy. CHOPIN [SHOW-Pan] (1810-49) represents the other.
Song was also one of the favorite forms of Johannes Where Berlioz wrote mostly in large forms, Chopin wrote
Brahms (1833-97), who composed later in the century. As in small ones. Where Berlioz composed for orchestra,
a boy he played piano in the bars and coffeehouses of his Chopin wrote almost exclusively for the piano. During the
native Hamburg, and during the Hungarian uprising of eighteenth and the early nineteenth centuries, the piano
1848, when the city was inundated with refugees, he be- (then called the pianoforte) was a smaller instrument than
came particularly intrigued by gypsy songs and melodies. the concert version of today. Throughout the Romantic
His most famous song, known today as “Brahms’s Lul- period, it was used as a solo instrument for short lyric
laby,” was written in 1868 for the baby son of a woman pieces, as an accompaniment to songs, and for orchestral
who sang in the Hamburg choir. Only just over two min- use. Unlike the harpsichord, which plucks its strings, the
utes long, the song is one of the most peaceful and serene piano strikes them with small felt-tipped hammers, giving
ever written. the musician the ability to modulate between soft and loud
In addition to his songs, Brahms wrote three signifi- simply by exerting more or less pressure on the keys—
cant concertos, two for piano and one for violin and or- hence the name, piano (soft) forte (loud), later shortened
chestra. He composed four important symphonies, along simply to piano.
with a multitude of chamber works and pieces for solo Chopin composed two piano concertos, two large-scale
piano. His orchestral music especially reflects the formal- piano sonatas, and a series of semilong works for solo
ist Romantic style, hewing more closely to classical musi- piano, as well as two sets of études (or studies), a group of
cal structures inherited from Beethoven. preludes in different keys, a set of nocturnes (or night
pieces) mostly melancholy in tone, along with waltzes,
Clara Schumann and Fanny Mendelssohn. “Two com- polonaises, and mazurkas, which capture the spirit and fla-
posers of the nineteenth century, whose works have been vor of the Parisian salon and of the Polish peasant world.
overshadowed in one case by a husband and in another by The polonaises and the mazurkas reflect Chopin’s na-
a brother, are Clara Wieck Schumann, wife of Robert tionalistic spirit during a time when Poland was partly
Schumann, and Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel, sister of Felix under Russian domination. The majestic Polonaise in
Mendelssohn. Fanny Mendelssohn (1805-47) was a Ger- A Flat, op. 53, one of Chopin’s best known pieces, ex-
man pianist and a composer of Lieder and chamber music. presses both joy and pride in a spirit of noble grandeur.
Her works were long neglected, but in recent years have The spirit of the polonaise ennobles it, its melody makes
begun to be published and performed. Her songs are par- it memorable, and its technical demands make it a bravura
ticularly accomplished, with the well-crafted piano ac- piece for the piano virtuoso.
companiments playing an important role as settings for Among his most lyrical and sensuous pieces, Chopin’s
the poetic texts set to music. Their lyricism appears as well nocturnes conjure up images of moonlight and reverie. Noc-
in her “songs without words,” short piano pieces in the turne no. 2 in E Flat, for example, is slow and suffused with
style of the Lied, a genre in which her brother Felix was a sense of melancholy that is sustained and embellished
also accomplished and which he is often credited with hav- throughout. A brief expression of excitement is followed by
ing invented (though Fanny may have an equal claim to a quiet ending in keeping with the work’s pervasive mood of
that honor). bittersweet and pensive sadness. Chopin’s ability to bring
Clara Schumann (1819-96), like her husband Robert out the piano’s rich palette of sound and to exploit its reso-
and also like Fanny Mendelssohn, was a pianist and com- nant musical possibilities revolutionized the way later com-
poser. Clara Schumann’s first public appearance as a pi- posers wrote for the instrument.
anist was at age nine, followed by a complete recital at age
eleven, and a concert tour a year later. Over the objections Giuseppe Verdi and Grand Opera. Opera first appeared
of her father, Clara Wieck married Robert Schumann as a distinct form early in the seventeenth century in Italy. Its
when she was twenty-one, and became a close musical col- popularity was increased by Claudio Monteverdi, who fur-
laborator, studying symphonic and chamber music scores ther contributed to its development. During the eighteenth
with him, and composing some pieces together, including century, it became popular in England and Austria, with
a series of songs with their Lied settings intertwined. Jo- Mozart composing his consummate operatic masterpieces,
hannes Brahms was a friend of both Robert and Clara including Don Giovanni and The Marriage of Figaro. It was
Schumann, and was acknowledged to have been in love during the nineteenth century, however, that opera became
466 CHAPTER 17

Connections

GOETHE AND SCHUBERT: POETRY FATHER Myson, why hide your face He reaches the courtyard weary and
AND SONG so anxiously? anxious:
Son Father, don’t you see the Erl- In his arms the child—was dead.
+9 mae the nineteenth century there king?
occurred an explosion of lyric po- The Erlking with his crown and his In setting Goethe’s poem, Schubert
etry fueled by the Romantic movement. train? was faced with the challenge of delineat-
In England, France, and Germany espe- FATHER My son, it is a streak of ing in music the lines and voices of four
cially, poetry poured from the pens of mist. characters—father, son, narrator, and Erl-
writers such as William Wordsworth, ERLKING — Dear child, come, go with king. His response to the challenge ex-
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, me! hibits his early musical genius. Schubert
Lord Byron, Alfred de Musset, Victor Pll play the prettiest games with you. differentiates the poem’s characters by
Hugo, and Heinrich Heine, among Many colored flowers grow along the giving them very different melodies and
many others. Of the German poets, the shore, by putting their music in different vocal
poetry of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe My mother has many golden gar- registers. The child’s vocal line is high
was especially inspiring to the young Vi- ments. pitched and fearful. The father’s is in a
ennese composer Franz Schubert. Son My father, my father, and don’t lower register and conveys confidence.
Schubert set many poems to music, you hear The Erlking’s melody is lilting and se-
perfecting a form of musical art called The Erlking whispering promises to ductive. Schubert also characterizes the
the Lied (plural Lieder). The Lied was a me? horse by using galloping triplets in
type of art song set to an accompani- FATHER Be quiet, stay quiet, my the piano accompaniment. Throughout
ment, usually for piano, that suited the child; the alternation of the characters’ lines,
tone, mood, and details of a poem. Schu- The wind is rustling in the dead Schubert builds tension by raising the
bert composed more than six hundred leaves. child’s vocal line in pitch and increasing
Lieder, more than fifty of them to poems its intensity. By altering the character of
by Goethe. Among the most accom- ERLKING [love you, your beautiful the Erlking’s music toward the end, he
plished of Schubert’s settings of Goethe figure delights me! suggests the Erlking’s shift from charm
texts is a song he wrote as a teenager: And if you’re not willing, then I shall and seduction to threatening menace.
Erlkonig (The Erlking). use force! Throughout his setting of Goethe’s
Based on a Danish legend, Goethe’s SON My father, my father, now he poem, Schubert finds musical analogues
narrative poem has the Romantic qualities is taking hold of me! for the poet’s language, imagery, and story.
of strangeness and awe. The poem tells the The Erlking has hurt me! One of his more dramatic strategies is to
story of a boy who is pursued, charmed, NarraToR The father shudders, he slow down the music at the end, and he
then violently abducted by the king of the rides swiftly on; actually stops singer and accompanist in a
elves, as the child rides on horseback He holds in his arms the groaning dramatic pause in the middle of the final
through the forest with his father. child, line: “In his arms the child—was dead.”

internationally popular, with Romantic composers of many Forza del Destino, and Don Carlos; and concluded tri-
countries participating in the grand flowering of the genre. umphantly with a series of grand operas in the 1870s and
The rise of the middle class after 1820 helped usher in 1880s—Aida, Otello (based on Shakespeare’s Othello), and
a new kind of opera, grand opera, which appealed to the Falstaff (based on Shakespeare’s Merry Wives of Windsor).
masses because of its spectacle as much as its music. Along- Rigoletto, composed in 1851, is one of Verdi’s most dra-
side the drama and passion of grand opera there remained matic works. Based on a play by the French Romantic
comic opera, which continued to flourish as it had in the writer Victor Hugo, Rigoletto depicts intense passion and
previous century. violence in a tale of seduction, revenge, and murder. Rigo-
Italy’s greatest and most important Romantic composer letto is a court jester, a hunchback who serves the duke of
of any kind was GIUSEPPE VERDI [VAIR-dee] Mantua. When the Duke seduces his daughter Gilda,
(1813-1901), whose music epitomizes dramatic energy, Rigoletto plans to kill him in revenge and lures the Duke
power, and passion. Born in northern Italy near Parma, to a quiet inn with Maddalena, the sister of his hired as-
Verdi had little formal musical training. Verdi’s career sassin, Sparafucile. He hopes that Gilda will renounce her
began with a series of early operas in the 1850s—Rigoletto, love for the Duke when she sees him attempt to seduce
Il Trovatore, and La Traviata; continued with a series of Maddalena. His hopes, however, are dashed when Gilda
popular operas in the 1860s—Un Ballo in Maschere, La sacrifices her own life to save the Duke.
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 467

The melodies Verdi provides for his characters perfectly eras—The Rhinegold, The Valkyries, Siegfried, and The Twilight
express their feelings. The Duke sings one of the most fa- of the Gods. Based on Norse myth, the opera is a profusion
mous of all operatic arias, “La donna é mobile” (“Woman is of grandeur, in the story it tells, in its singing and orches-
fickle”), which perfectly captures his frivolous and pleas- tration, and in its staging, sets, and costumes (fig. 17.18).
ure-loving nature. Following this song, Verdi provides a
quartet for the Duke, Maddalena, Gilda, and Rigoletto,
giving voice to their individual concerns. In response to MUSIC IN RUSSIA
the Duke’s elegantly seductive melodic line, Maddalena
Before Peter the Great’s Europeanization drive in the eigh-
voices a series of sharp broken laughs. Gilda’s melody is
teenth century, Russian music consisted primarily of reli-
fraught with pain and sorrow; Rigoletto’s reveals his heated
gious and folk music. After the czar’s return from the West,
anger as he curses the Duke. Verdi deftly balances the in-
however, European music, particularly that composed dur-
dividual singers so their ensemble singing is blended into
ing the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, greatly in-
a unified and dramatic expression of feeling.
fluenced what was being produced in Russia. Among the
Richard Wagner. As Beethoven had dominated the mu- composers who were able to synthesize the two musical
sical world of the first half of the nineteenth century, styles were Modest Mussorgsky, whose operas commem-
RICHARD WAGNER [VAHG-ner] (1813-83) domi- orate great Russian leaders, and Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky,
nated the musical world of the second half. It was, in fact, whose ballets, operas, symphonies, and chamber works
through intense study of Beethoven’s works that Wagner made him an internationally acclaimed figure.
became a composer. Late in life, Wagner explained that
he had wanted to do for opera what Beethoven had done Modest Mussorgsky. Supporting himself by working as
a government clerk, MODEST MUSSORGSKY (moo-
for symphonic music—to make it express a wide range of
ZORG-skee] (1839-81) composed relatively few works;
experience and to have it achieve overwhelming emotional
although each reflected important qualities of the Russ-
effects. Wagner called the new kind of opera he would cre-
ian national character. Mussorgsky led the school of Russ-
ate “music drama.” Unlike Beethoven, whose works ex-
ian nationalist music in the 1860s that incorporated
press a profound hope in human possibility, Wagner
elements of Russian folk music into its compositions and
displays a more pessimistic attitude toward life, empha-
used ancient Russian church modes in addition to the
sizing the blind forces of irrationality and passion that drive
Western major and minor scales.
human behavior. Wagner’s works include the comic Die
Most prominent among Mussorgsky’s works is Boris Go-
Meistersinger von Niirenberg, the mystical Lohengrin, and
dunov, an opera that reveals the human soul in all its pro-
the sensuous Tristan and Isolde, which influenced subse-
fundity. Boris Godunov is based on a poem by the Russian
quent European musical style perhaps more than any work
Alexander Pushkin (1799-1837). It is in four acts and opens
of the late nineteenth century. His operas portray charac-
with a prologue that contains two important choral scenes,
ters whose lives are made unhappy by circumstances they
set in front of the Kremlin churches, which convey the na-
cannot control, as in Tristan and Isolde, in which the two
tional and religious spirit of old Russia. Mussorgsky in-
lovers are kept apart only to be finally united in death.
cludes the sound of the church bells, almost as important
Wagnerian music drama brings together song and in-
an emblem of Russian religious fervor as religious icons.
strumental music, dance and drama and poetry in a single
unbroken stream of art. Wagner’s ambitious goals were to Peter Tchaikovsky. If Mussorgsky is to be considered
restore the importance of music in opera, to establish a one of the most nationalistic of Russian composers,
better balance between orchestra and singers, and to raise PETER ILYICH TCHAIKOVSKY [cheye-KOV-skee]
the quality of the librettos, or texts of operas. This last (1840-93) can be said to be one of the most European. At
Wagner accomplished by finding his subjects in medieval the age of thirty, Tchaikovsky was introduced to a wealthy
legend and Nordic mythology and by writing his own li- patron, Nadezhda von Meck. His patron agreed to attend
brettos, or little books, for his operatic music. to his material needs on condition that they never meet
Designed to do more than simply provide beautiful ac- but only correspond. The more than three thousand let-
companiments for arias, Wagner's operatic orchestral writ- ters they exchanged have given us an intimate picture of
ing was meant to arouse intense emotion, to comment on ‘Tchaikovsky, the artist and the man. Although he was often
stage action, to be associated with incidents in the plot, and reproached for his excessive sentimentality, his six sym-
to reflect characters’ behavior. Wagner accomplished these phonies are some of the most beautiful examples of West-
goals in part by using what were called leitmotifs. These ern influence on a Russian composer. ‘Ichaikovsky was one
were usually brief fragments of melody or rhythm that, of the first Russian composers to visit America, and his
when played, would remind the listeners of particular char- music remains popular in the United States as well as in his
acters and actions, somewhat in the way a movie or televi- homeland today. A favorite among Americans, his 1812
sion theme triggers associations in the mind of the audience. Overture was commissioned to celebrate the seventieth an-
Wagner's tetralogy The Ring of the Niebelung, which is niversary of Russia’s victory over Napoleon. With boom-
generally considered his greatest work, includes four op- ing cannons, familiar tunes, ringing bells, and fireworks,
468 CHAPTER 17

FicurE 17.18 Brunhilde enveloped in fire, in the 1989 staging of Wagner's tetralogy The
Ring of the Niebelung at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, London.

Table 17-1 ROMANTIC COMPOSERS exhibits a gift for melodic invention and demonstrates his
skill as an orchestrator, highlighting the tonal color and
AND REPRESENTATIVE WORKS varied expressive qualities of the full range of orchestral
Ludwig von Beethoven (1770-1827): Symphony no. 5 instruments. In its sense of drama and intense emotion,
Franz Schubert (1797-1828): The Erlking (Lied or art song) Tchaikovsky’s music shares important affinities with other
Hector Berlioz (1803-69): Symphonie Fantastique nineteenth-century Romantic composers from France,
Frederic Chopin (1810-49): Revolutionary Etude (piano piece) Italy, Germany, and Austria.
Richard Wagner (1813-83): Tristan and Isolde (music drama)
Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901): La Bohéme (opera)
Johannes Brahms (1833-97): Piano Concerto # 2
Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-93): The Nutcracker (ballet) Realism is the term used to describe a development in
the arts in which many artists tried to convey in a non-
idealized way the realities of modern life. The artist’s role
this piece is frequently performed at Fourth ofJuly cele- was no longer simply to reveal the beautiful and the sub-
brations. lime, but to open the public’s eyes to the world around
Tchaikovsky is best known for his ballet music, such as them, not just its grandeur but its brute reality as well. In
Swan Lake, Sleeping Beauty, and The Nutcracker. His work Realist art and literature, the aim is to tell the truth, not
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 469

GERMANY
© 1836 Needle-gun invented
ea)
* 1885 Daimler/Benz develop first automobile KY
¢ 1895 Invention of X-rays by Roentgen
¢ 1900 Planck evolves quantum theory v/

GREAT BRITAIN
© 1709 Darby invents coke smelting
° 1759 Wedgwood opens first
pottery factory
© 1769 Watt's steam engine
© 1769 Arkwright’s spinning frame
© 1792 Cartwright invents steam-powered
weaving loom
e 1821 Faraday’s electric motor and generator
© 1825 Stevenson: first steam passenger railway
© 1838 First electric telegraph
© 1856 Bessemer process for steel-making
© 1863 First underground railway
FRANCE
NORTH AMERICA
° 1793 Whitney's cotton gin * 1822 Niepce takes first photograph
* 1834 Mechanical reaper patented e 1895 First motion picture
¢ 1859 First oil well drilled (Pennsylvania) ¢ 1898 Curie discovers radioactivity
* 1869 First trans-continental railway completed
¢ 1874 First electric tram (New York)
© 1876 Telephone patented
® 1882 First hydro-electric plant (Wisconsin)
¢ 1903 Wright brothers: first powered flight e 1895 Marconi invents wireless telegraphy
¢ 1913 Ford introduces first automobile production line

Map 17.2 The Industrial Revolution in Europe and America.

to be true to some higher, perfect ideal. Ordinary events KARL MARX AND FRIEDRICH ENGELS
and objects were, to the Realist, as interesting as heroes
or the grand events of history. Increasingly, after the rev- It was precisely such conditions, common across Europe,
olution of 1789, it was no longer the aristocracy who made that influenced the thinking of Karl Marx (1818-83) and
history, but the ordinary working class people. And so it his colleague Friedrich Engels (1820-95). Workers, they
was to the lives of the working class that Realist art turns realized, had no effective political voice other than revo-
for its inspiration. lution and, alienated from their labor by an increasingly
In Lyons in 1831, silk workers had gone on strike for mechanized industrial system from which they also re-
better wages. The situation fomented for three years until, ceived no real economic benefit, they were bound to rebel.
in 1834, strikers fought police and national troops in a six-
day battle that resulted in hundreds of deaths. A few days FiGuRE 17.19 Honoré Daumier, Rue Transonain, April 15,
later, Louis-Philippe suspended publication of a radical 1834, 1834, lithograph, 115” X 173” (29.2 x 44.8 cm), The Art
newspaper and arrested the leaders of the working-class Institute of Chicago. Charles Derring Fund, 1953. 530. Photo-
graph © 2005, All Rights Reserved. Daumier wrote that “One
Society of the Rights of Man. In protest, workers again
must be part of one’s times.” This stark and moving image records
took to the streets, battling with government troops. In
the repression of the people by the troops of Louis-Philippe.
one working-class neighborhood, troops invaded an
apartment building from which, they claimed, shots had
been fired.

Honoré Daumier, The cartoonist HONORE DAU-

MIER [DOME-yay] (1801-79) depicted the aftermath in
a lithograph exhibited in a storefront window a few days
later, Rue Transonain, April 15, 1834 (fig. 17.19). A father,
in a nightshirt, lies dead by his bed. Beneath him, face
down, lies his child. His wife is sprawled in the shadows,
and another, older man, perhaps the child’s grandfather,
lies to the right. Such a slaughter of the innocent outraged
not only the Parisian working class but the intelligentsia
as well.
470 CHAPTER 17

“The bourgeoisie . . . has converted the physician, the a few brief weeks, Delacroix’s Liberty Leading the People was
lawyer, the priest, the poet, the people of science into its removed from storage and put on public view, and on De-
paid wage-laborers,” they wrote in The Communist Mani- cember 10,.1848, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of
festo (1848). “Constant revolutionizing of production, un- the first emperor, was elected president of France in a land-
interrupted disturbance of all social conditions, everlasting slide election.
uncertainty and agitation distinguish the bourgeois epoch.
... All that is solid melts into air, all that is holy is profaned,
FRENCH PAINTING
and one is at last compelled to face, with sober senses, the
real conditions of life.” Rosa Bonheur. One of the first truly successful painters of
Even as Marx was writing these words, Europe was un- working class subjects was ROSA BONHEUR [BON-ur]
dergoing an unprecedented economic decline. Revolution (1822-99). She disliked life in Paris, where she had grown
quickly followed, first in France in February 1848, then up, preferring the rural life. A student of zoology, Bonheur
in Germany, Austria, Hungary, Poland, and Italy. In made detailed studies out of doors and even painted there,
France, the government formed National Workshops, directly from nature, which was not yet common practice.
known as ateliers, in order to put the people back to work. When studying the anatomy of animals at the Paris slaugh-
But enrollment quickly swelled to a size that the govern- terhouses or when observing horses at the Paris horse fairs,
ment could not handle—120,000 by June—and, fearing Bonheur dressed in men’s suits because, she explained,
they had inadvertently created an army of the dissatisfied women’s clothing interfered with her work. By dressing as
and unemployed, the government disbanded the work- a man she was able to move in a world from which she
shops. The reaction was swift and, on June 23, the work- would have otherwise been excluded. She described her-
ing class rebelled. Three days later, after some of the self as of a “brusque and almost savage nature,” as well as
bloodiest street fighting in European history, the rebels “perfectly feminine” and proud of being a woman.
found themselves surrounded in their neighborhoods, with After winning a first-class medal at the 1848 French
an estimated ten thousand dead. More died in the strug- Salon, Bonheur was commissioned in 1849 by the French
gles that followed, and eleven thousand others were im- government to paint Plowing in the Nievernais: The Dress-
prisoned and deported to the French colonies, particularly ing ofthe Vines (fig. 17.20), which established her as a lead-
to North Africa. It was, Marx wrote, “the first great battle ing painter in France. The painting portrays peasant life in
... between the two classes that split modern society.” For harmony with nature, especially with the animal kingdom.

FiGuRE 17.20 Rosa Bonheur, Plowing in the Nivernais: The Dressing of the Vines, 1849, oil on
canvas, 5’ 9’’ x 8’ 8” (1.75 X 2.64 m), F. R. 64. Musée d’Orsay, Paris. Erich Lessing/Art Re-
source, NY. Bonheur studied directly from her subject to create this factual record of nature’s
grandeur. Previously, such subject matter was not considered worthy of an artist’s attention
and certainly would not have been depicted on such a large scale.
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 471

Depicted with almost photographic realism is a scene of tour. Even the grave seems an extension of the Loue val-
the good agrarian life in which the soil is fertile, the oxen ley that cuts through the plateau behind them. Neverthe-
are strong, and the weather is favorable. It seems to illus- less, the painting is emotionally unfocused. No one’s eyes
trate lines written by Bonheur’s contemporary George are fixed on the same place, not even on the grave or the
Sand (another woman who dressed in men’s clothing) in coffin. The dog stares away uninterestedly. The religious
her 1846 novel The Devil’s Pond, which describes “a truly import of the scene is undermined by the way the cross
beautiful sight, a noble subject for a painter. At the far end seems to sit askew on the far horizon. The emotional im-
of the flat ploughland, a handsome young man was driv- pact of death is entirely deromanticized as well. We are
ing a magnificent team [of] oxen.” witness here to a simple matter of fact.
The work’s lack of idealism is especially evident if we
Gustave Courbet. While Sand and Bonheur admired the
compare it to Bonheur’s Plowing in the Nivernais. Where
French peasantry, GUSTAVE COURBET [koor-BAY]
the figures in Courbet’s painting seem static, forming an
(1819-77) refused to idealize working life. A Realist,
almost flat wall of humanity in front of the viewer, Bon-
Courbet preferred simply to tell things as they were. A
heur’s similarly horizontal format is dynamic. On the left,
group of large paintings he exhibited in the Paris Salon of
the hills lead downward and away from the viewer; on the
1850-51 outraged conservative critics, and Courbet found
right, the oxen move upward and toward the viewer.
himself defending not only his works but the “honest
truth” of the people who were their subjects. He had, in Edouard Manet. ‘The most characteristic Realist painter
fact, returned to his native village, Ornans, in 1849, after was EDOUARD MANET [man-AY] (1832-83). Born
the revolution and painted the realities of life experienced into a well-to-do family, Manet was a sensitive and cul-
by the peasant farmers. tured man who studied literature and music (he married his
A Burial at Ornans (fig. 17.21) angered the public in piano teacher). After Manet twice failed the entrance exam
part because it seemed, at the very least, pretentious. At to the Naval Training School, his family permitted him to
10’ 3’’ x 20’ 10”, it is of a size generally reserved for only study art. Manet had an academic training, which included
the most serious allegories and histories. A distant relative copying paintings at the Louvre. He particularly admired
of Courbet’s, one C. E. Teste, is being buried, and the the artists Hals, Velazquez, and Goya, all of whom worked
mayor of Ornans, the justice of the peace, Courbet’s fa- in a painterly style, letting the brushstrokes show.
ther, and his three sisters are among the mourners who His Luncheon on the Grass (fig. 17.22), often referred to by
line up across the painting, echoing the horizon line’s con- its French title Le Déjeuner sur Vherbe, was painted in 1863.

FIGURE 17.21 Gustave Courbet, A Burial at Ornans, 1849, oil on canvas, ca. 10’ 3” X 20’
10” (3.10 X 6.40 m). Musée du Louvre, Paris. Reunion de Musées Nationaux. Art Resource,
NY. The extremely hostile reaction of the public to this painting was due to the fact that the
subject was not elevated, glorified, or romanticized—Courbet referred to this as the burial of
Romanticism. He said, “Show me an angel and I’ll paint one.”
472 CHAPTER 17

FIGURE 17.22 Edouard Manet, Luncheon on the Grass (Le Déjeuner sur l’herbe), 1863, oil on
canvas, 7’ X 8’ 10’ (2.10 X 2.60 m), Musée d’Orsay, Paris. An outraged public deemed this
painting indecent for depicting a naked woman out of doors with two clothed men. Actually
painted in Manet’s studio from models, it was based on a print by Marcantonio Raimondi after
a painting by Raphael, ca. 1520, of the Judgment of Paris.

That year, the official Salon jury rejected over four thousand sition was determined, he executed the final painting di-
paintings, producing such an uproar from disappointed rectly with large brushstrokes. Instead of the smooth sur-
painters and their supporters that Napoleon ILI set up a sep- faces admired by the public, Manet’s brushstrokes were
arate salon to exhibit the rejected paintings, the Salon des strong, quick, and remain fully visible.
Refusés (Salon of the Rejected). Thus, there were two sa- Manet’s way of painting was fresh and direct. Rather than
lons, and the monopoly of academicism had been broken. using carefully wrought highlights and shadows to make
But even at the Salon des Refusés, Luncheon on the Grass was forms appear three dimensional, Manet intentionally flat-
regarded as shocking and scandalous by many. In fact, Manet tened forms and used rapid, loose brushwork. This was crit-
had not painted an actual event, as the public thought, in- icized as carelessness or incompetence by many critics.
stead, his sources were highly respectable. The poses of the
three central figures were derived from an engraving made
about 1520 by the Italian artist Marcantonio Raimondi after AMERICAN PAINTING
a painting of the Judgment ofParis by Raphael. Winslow Homer. During the time that France and the
It was his painting style, above all, that offended many. rest of Europe were enduring class struggle and adjusting
He painted directly on the canvas with thinned oil paint, to the new industrial world, Americans had one thing on
which permitted him to wipe off any mistakes, the traces their minds—the Civil War, which gave impetus to Amer-
of which may sometimes still be seen. When the compo- ican Realism. Recording events in the Civil War for
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 473

Critical Thinking
REALISM AND FEMINISM paintings that include both men and relations of the men and women in the
women may show the men clothed and painting? What roles are assumed by
Az the last quarter century, feminist the women nude, as Edouard Manet’s each?
scholars of literature, music, and art Le Dejeuner sur Vherbe (fig. 17.22). In ‘To what extent do feminist consider-
began an intensive study of works cre- this painting, two fully clothed men sit ations enhance your understanding and
ated by women. Bringing sociological, in a park-like setting with a nude appreciation of a painting like Le
economic, and historical approaches to woman. Why, we might ask, are the Dejeuner sur Pherbe? To what extent does
the study of works by women, feminist men clothed, yet the woman unclothed? the painting reflect a particularly male
scholars raised questions about the ways Why is the nude woman looking di- or masculine sensibility? ‘To what extent
in which women have been portrayed rectly out at the viewer? Why is there a does the representation of women (and
in art created by men. One example of second woman, clothed, in the back- men) in the painting reflect the time and
this concern is the extent to which ground? What is suggested about the place in which it was created?

Harper’s Weekly was a young illustrator named Winslow ture is “just as varied and just as beautiful in our day as she
Homer (1836-1910). He specialized in camp life and was in the time of Phidias,” noting that “the Greeks did not
avoided the brutal scenes of battle captured by the new study the antique.”
medium of photography. Homer’s painting career began In The Swimming Hole (fig. 17.24), painted 1883-85,
soon after the war with Prisoners from the Front (fig. 17.23), Eakins creates a composition around a series of studies of
of 1866. This work depicts the surrender of three Con- nude boys seen from different angles and in different poses,
federate soldiers to a Union officer, a recognizable por- some still and other more active—especially the boy caught
trait of General Francis Channing Barlow, a distant cousin in mid-air as he dives off the rocks. Eakins was fascinated
of Homer’s. The painting was considered remarkable, even by the human body and dedicated to depicting it accu-
at the time, for the unrepentant, even arrogant attitude of rately in motion. He used photographs in his figure stud-
the central figure, who, hand on hip, stares defiantly at ies. Eakins taught at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine
General Barlow. Here, some felt, was an image of a na- Arts in Philadelphia from 1870 to 1886, until forced to re-
tion at odds with itself. sign because of a scandal he created by introducing a nude
After the painting’s exhibition at the National Academy male model to a women’s drawing class. Eakins had a se-
of Design in 1866, it was displayed in Paris at the World rious personality and his approach was intellectual and me-
Exposition of 1867. Homer accompanied it and, once thodical. But his realism was too harsh for most people
there, became acquainted with the work of Gustave and he sold few paintings during his lifetime.
Courbet and Edouard Manet. Manet’s willingness to paint Jennie Augusta Brownscombe. Another American. Jen-
everyday life in a direct and informal way especially ap- nie Augusta Btownscombe (1850-1936), after the death of
pealed to Homer. His later paintings continued to evoke her father when she was eighteen, earned a living by sell-
the aesthetics of photography, but they also showed bril- ing her paintings to be reproduced on Christmas cards and
liant color and brushwork, borrowed from Manet, which calendars. Consequently, her art became widely known.
insisted on their status as paintings by emphasizing the She moved to Manhattan, studied art, and was one of the
quality of pigment on canvas. founders of the Art Students League, where she later
Thomas Eakins. Another American Realist was taught.
THOMAS EAKINS [AY-kins] (1844-1916). Eakins, from The setting in her Love’s Young Dream (fig. 17.25),
Philadelphia, referred to himself as a scientific realist. He painted in 1887, must have been familiar to her, for she
was interested in human anatomy, in the construction of was born in rural Pennsylvania in a log cabin. She often
the human body, its muscles and bones, saying that he depicts country life, family, and tradition in sentimental
learned more from watching his fellow students wrestling ways. Her narrative paintings are realistic, the details en-
in the studio than he did from drawing a posed model. He hancing the appeal of a charming story—as the cat play-
even took medical courses in anatomy at Jefferson Medical ing with the ball of yarn that has fallen from the lap of
College in Philadelphia for two years. He saw no reason the older woman, presumably the mother in this family—
for artists to study the antique, as was customary in his which also recalls the artist’s own, as Brownscombe was an
time, favoring instead the study of nature, saying that na- only child.
474, CHAPTER 17

FIGURE 17.23, Winslow Homer, Prisoners from the Front, 1866, oil on canvas, 24” X 38”
(60.9 X 96.5 cm), signed and dated (lower right): HOMER 1866. Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York, gift of Mrs. Frank B. Porter, 1922. (22.207). Photograph © 1985 The Metro-
politan Museum of Art, NY. For such factual narrative depictions of aspects of life in America,
Homer was known during his lifetime as “the greatest American artist.”

FIGURE 17.24 Thomas Eakins, The Swimming Hole, ca.

1883-85, oil on canvas, 27” X 36” (68.5 X 91.4 cm), Purchased
by the Friends of Art, Fort Worth Art Association, 1925; ac- FiGuRE 17.25 Jennie Augusta Brownscombe, Love’s Young
quired by Amon Carter Museum, 1990 from the Modern Art Dream, 1887, oil on canvas, 21 x xX 32 iM (54 X 81.6 cm), Na-
Museum of Fort Worth through grants and donations. As part tional Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, D.C. Gift
of his quest for realistic factuality, in the foreground, Eakins of Wallace and Wilhelmina Holladay. Brownscombe suggests
painted himself as part of the group. complex stories and relationships through simple compositions
painted in a realistic detailed style.
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 475

THE RISE OF PHOTOGRAPHY had the advantage of capturing reality accurately and im-
mediately, and as its technology rapidly developed, mak-
Photography was invented simultaneously in England and ing it easier and easier to use, it captured the Realist
France: in 1839 by William Henry Fox Talbot (1800-77) imagination.
and LOUIS-JACQUES-MANDE DAGUERRE [duh-
GARE] (1787-1851). Before photography, an image could Mathew B. Brady. The American Civil War was the first
Jook spontaneous and immediate; now it could be sponta- war to be documented in the new medium of photography.
neous and immediate. Moreover, because the photographic It was not action, however, that the photographers cap-
image was the product of a machine, it had the aura, at tured—the time required to expose film was still too long
least, of being purely objective, lacking the subjective in- to permit that. Instead, it was the aftermath of war they
tervention of the artist. Talbot’s images made on sensitized recorded, and it was a gruesome sight. Mathew B. Brady
paper between 1833 and 1839 were precursors of modern (ca. 1823-96) was the best known of the war photogra-
photographic prints. phers, and his On the Antietam Battlefield (fig. 17.27) of
1862 is representative of his work. In the battle at Anti-
Daguerreotypes. ‘Vhrough competition from photogra- etam, Maryland, on September 17, nearly five thousand
phy, painted portraits underwent a rapid decline and pho- men died and eighteen thousand were wounded. Brady
tographs largely replaced them for a while. The makes dramatic use of the single vantage point that the
daguerreotype, named for Daguerre’s process, was the camera eye so rigorously asserts: Bodies lie beneath the
earliest photograph, produced on silver or silver-covered fenceline, stretching as if to infinity. This was the reality
copper plate. In Paris in 1849 alone, over a hundred thou- of war as it had never before been seen.
sand photographic daguerreotypes, mostly portraits, were
sold to people of every rank and class. In England, pho- Eadweard Muybridge. As camera technology quickly
tography studios sprang up everywhere to satisfy the craze improved, it revealed more and more about the nature of
for photographic portraits (fig. 17.26). The photograph reality. When, in 1872, the former governor of Califor-
nia, Leland Stanford, bet a friend $25,000 that a running
oe
horse had all four feet off the ground when either trotting
FIGURE 17.26 Richard Beard, Maria Edgeworth, 1841, da- or galloping, he hired EADWEARD MUYBRIDGE
guerreotype, ee Xx 17"6 4 X 4.4 cm), National Portrait [MWE-bridge] (1830-1904) to photograph one of his
Gallery, London. Beard’s was the first British portrait studio, horses in motion. Along a racetrack at Stanford’s ranch in
and the author Edgeworth one of his earliest customers. “It is a Palo Alto, California, Muybridge lined up a series of cam-
wonderful mysterious operation,” she wrote. Daguerre’s eras with trip wires that would snap the shutter as the horse
process was used until the end of the nineteenth century. ran by. For the first time, the muscular and physical

FIGURE 17.27 Mathew B. Brady, On the Antietam Battlefield,

1862, photograph, Library of Congress. In addition to his doc-
umentary photographs of the battle’s results, Brady photo-
graphed President Lincoln so often that he became known
as “the President’s Cameraman.”
476 CHAPTER 17

FIGURE 17.28 Eadweard Muybridge, Annie G. Cantering, Saddled, 1887, collotype print,
sheet: 19” x 24”; image: 75" x 163” (19 X 41.3 cm), Philadelphia Museum ofArt, City of
Philadelphia Trade and Convention Center, Dept. of Commerce (Commercial Museum).
Muybridge’s sequence studies would lead to the invention of the motion picture by the
century’s end.

movements of an animal in motion were recorded. Muy-

bridge’s studies of animal (fig. 17.28) and human locomo-
tion at the University of Pennsylvania in 1883 would have FIGURE 17.29 Alfred Stieglitz, Winter, Fifth Avenue, 1893,
photogravure, 82” x oe (21.9 X 15.4 cm), Museum of
a major impact on later painters.
Modern Art, New York/Licensed by SCALA, Art Resource,
Alfred Stieglitz. Photographer Alfred Stieglitz (1864— NY. Stieglitz was not only the leading photographer of his day
1946) had been interested in European modernist work but, through his Gallery 291 in New York, the person most re-
since the turn of the century. Stieglitz was the first Amer- sponsible for introducing European avant-garde art to the
ican to buy a Picasso. His own photographic talents cap- United States.
tured the early modern era, its hustle, streets, and skylines.
One classic photograph, Winter, Fifth Avenue (fig. 17.29),
records Manhattan’s main thoroughfare. Even progress
and the growth of industry cannot protect those unlucky
enough to be caught in this fierce snowstorm.
Gertrude Stanton Kasebier. ‘The American Gertrude
Stanton Kasebier (1852-1934) is considered among the
finest photographers. She opened a portrait studio on Fifth
Avenue, the most fashionable street in Manhattan. The
studio was an immediate success with clients, and her own
work exhibited there received favorable reviews.
Using photography as an aesthetic rather than a docu-
mentary medium, her subjects were frequently landscapes
and figure compositions. This approach, known as picto-
rialism, is seen in The Manger (fig. 17.30), a print made
around 1899. The lines are softened, the image inten-
tionally slightly out of focus, the details obscured. This
differs from the more frequent use of photography to cap-
ture a detailed record of a temporary scene. In fact, it has
been questioned if there was even a baby in this posed
photo. The reference to the birth ofJesus in a stable (the
setting was a stable in Newport, RI) is evident.
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 477

[EC ee, eens

oe ee
FiGuRE 17.31 Frédéric-Auguste Bartholdi, Statue of Liberty
FIGURE 17.30 Gertrude Stanton Kasebier (1852-1934), (Liberty Enlightening the World), Liberty Island, New York Har-
American, The Manger (Ideal Motherhood), ca. 1899, platinum bor, 1875-84, copper sheeting over iron armature, height of
print, 7 = x5 oy (19.4 X 14 cm), National Museum of figure 151’ 6” (46.18 m). A gift of the French people, the
Women in the Arts, Washington. D.C. Gift of the Holladay Statue ofLiberty has become the symbol of the United States.
Foundation. One of the most popular photographs taken by The monument portrays a crowned woman in classical garb,
Kasebier, this is an example of pictorialism in which photogra- holding the torch high, while breaking underfoot the shackles
phy is used, like other artistic media, to create an aesthetically of tyranny.
satisfying image, rather than a documentary record.

Working with the photographer Alfred Stieglitz (fig. the shape of Bartholdi’s model. All the components were
17.29). Kasebier founded the Photo-Secession in 1902, transported across the ocean, and in 1884, construction
which encouraged the pictorial, rather than the docu- began on Liberty Island in New York Harbor. The sculp-
mentary, use of photography. ture, dedicated in 1886, is itself over 151 feet high and rests
on a 150-feet-high concrete pedestal faced with granite.
Sculpture and pedestal in turn sit on an eleven-point star,
SCULPTURE the walls of which are part of old Fort Wood. The Statue
of Liberty remains a symbol of welcome and freedom to
The Statue of Liberty. In 1875, a year before the cen-
generations of people immigrating to the United States.
tennial celebration of the American Revolution, organizers
in France conceived the idea of commemorating the event Edmonia Lewis. Among the more interesting sculptors
with a colossal statue. A Franco-American Union was of the era was Edmonia Lewis (1845—after 1911), an Amer-
founded to raise funds, and the architect Frédéric-Auguste ican, born outside Albany, to an American Indian mother
Bartholdi (1834-1904) was hired to design the work. Liberty and an African-American father. After both parents died
Enlightening the World, commonly known as the Statue of while she was still a child, she was raised by aunts on her
Liberty (fig. 17.31), was the result. Bartholdi first made a mother’s side. Her brother financed her education, and, in
nine-foot model of the sculpture, and then GUSTAVE 1859, she entered Oberlin College in Ohio. There, how-
EIFFEL [EE-FELL] (1832—1923)—the French engineer ever, she was accused of poisoning two classmates, beaten,
who created the Eiffel Tower—designed a huge iron tried, and acquitted. She moved to Boston and then on to
framework to support the giant sheets of copper, molded in Rome in 1865, were she was highly successful as a sculptor.
478 CHAPTER 17

se scasbeS, > care SWRPLNAS ALE

FiGurRE 17.32 Edmonia Lewis, The Old Arrow Maker and His FicureE 17.33. Anne Whitney, Charles Sumner, Harvard
Daughter, ca. 1872, carved marble, Zh” S< 122" x ii8} a” Square, Cambridge, MA, modeled 1875, cast 1902, bronze, ca.
(54.75 X 34.5 X 34 cm) Smithsonian Institution, American 7’ 1" x 3'2" XK 4’ 8” (2.16 X .97 X 1.4 m) (without base).
Art Museum, Washington D.C.; Art Resource, NY. Lewis’s This realistic portrayal of the abolitionist senator is in the
mixed racial heritage is referenced in several of her sculptures. Neoclassical style, which returned to the ideals of harmony
This work relates to her mother, a Chippewa Indian, while and balance of the ancient Greeks and Romans, here used to
Lewis’s Forever Free, the title referring to the end of slavery, create a sense of stately, noble grandeur.
relates to her father, an African-American.

Lewis carved a variety of subjects, including portraits won the competition held by the Boston Art Committee
and religious themes, but perhaps most notable are those for this commission, but it was rescinded when the Com-
that relate to her biracial family background, such as The mittee learned that Whitney was a woman. She completed
Old Arrow Maker and his Daughter (Fig. 17.32), ca. 1872. the piece independently, many years later; it was her final
Lewis created, a series of contrasts with exquisite carving, work. In the Neoclassical style, the monument is grand in
between flesh and muscle structure of old and young, male scale, and Sumner impressively powerful in Whitney’s
and female. The natural poses of the figures, their atten- straightforward depiction.
tion seemingly caught by the viewer’s presence, convey a
sense of latent energy.
LITERATURE
Anne Whitney. From a very different background was
another American who moved to Rome to sculpt. ANNE Honoré de Balzac. Like the painters of modern life, Re-
WHITNEY (1821-1915), from Massachusetts, turned alist writers aimed, above all, to represent contemporary
from writing poetry to creating sculpture when she was in life and manners with precision. In the case of HONORE
her thirties. Independently wealthy and politically liberal, DE BALZAC [BALL-zak] (1779-1850), the project was
she was a member of a group of expatriate American extensive: Balzac sought to represent contemporary life
women sculptors working in Rome. She returned to the with encyclopedic completeness. In the nearly one hun-
United States in 1871, and made the model for the figure dred novels and stories that make up his series La Comédie
of the abolitionist senator Charles Sumner (fig. 17.33) in humaine, Balzac touched on virtually every aspect of
1875, although it was not cast in bronze until 1902. She French society, from the urban working class and the coun-
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 479

try peasant, to the middle-class merchant, the new indus- such as Germinal, which chronicled the life of French min-
trialists, and the bankrupt aristocracy. By 1816, while work- ers, and Nana, which detailed the life of a prostitute, Zola
ing as a law clerk in Paris, he would spend his evenings used naturalistic techniques to reflect his fatalistic vision of
wandering through the streets, gathering details for his the world.
novels. “In listening to these people,” he later recalled, “I
Realist Writing. Important English Realist novelists of
felt Icould champion their lives. I felt their rags upon my
the time include Charles Dickens (1812-70), Anthony
back. I walked with my feet in their tattered shoes; their de-
Trollope (1815-82), and George Eliot (1819-80), the pen
sires, their wants—everything passed into my soul.” His
name of Mary Ann Evans. Eliot’s Middlemarch (1872) is a
characters—there are over two thousand—often appear in
portrayal of nineteenth-century life in an English coun-
more than one novel, establishing a sense of the intercon-
try village. Trollope, an inspector of rural mail deliveries,
nectedness of French life. Chief among them is Eugéne
created an imaginary English country called Barsetshire,
Rastignac, the son of a poor provincial family who comes
the cathedral town of which he named Barchester, and he
to Paris, mixes with nobility, builds a career as a politician,
set a long series of novels in and around this fictional lo-
and generally leads a life of gambling and debauchery. At
cale. The Barchester novels capture the spirit of nine-
the climax of Le Pere Goriot, Rastignac climbs to the top of
teenth-century rural life in a series of similarly
the hill at Pere Lachaise cemetery and, in one of the most
interconnected tales. Where Trollope and Eliot chroni-
famous moments in French literature, faces the city that
cled country life, Dickens wrote mostly about the in-
threatens to consume him: “There lay the glittering world
creasingly dark urban environment epitomized by London,
that he had hoped to conquer. He stared at the humming
attacking conditions in the English workhouses in Oliver
hive as if sucking out its honey in advance and pronounced
Twist, published serially in 1837-38, and the evils brought
these impressive words, ‘It’s you or me now!’ ” Rastignac’s
on by industrialization in Hard Times (1854). Like their
moment on the top of the hill is entirely Romantic. Pitting
continental counterparts, the English novelists wrote about
himself against the world, he is caught in the web of his
the world in which they lived and that they knew most
own Romanticism: from a Realist’s point of view, a self-
thoroughly.
indulgent fate.
In America, nineteenth-century fiction writers tended
Gustave Flaubert. ‘The Realist novel that represents the toward Romantic themes and styles until very late in the
most thorough attack on the Romantic sensibility is century. While Realism was spreading through Europe,
Madame Bovary, published in 1857 after five years in the American writers, such as Edgar Allan Poe (1809-49),
writing, by GUSTAVE FLAUBERT [floh-BEAR] Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-64), and Herman Melville
(1821-80). Flaubert’s heroine—if, indeed, heroine is a word (1819-91), wrote fiction characterized, in Hawthorne’s
that can be used to describe her, she is such a banal fig- terms, as “romances” rather than as “novels.” In the fiction
ure—is Emma Bovary, the wife of a country doctor who of these romance writers, characters and settings were not
seeks to reinvent her life in the manner of the romantic depicted with the social realism of their European coun-
novels she reads so voraciously. terparts. In Hawthorne, dialogue borders on the archaic
Emma desperately takes lovers to overcome the inces- and in Melville on the theatrical. Description in the works
sant boredom of everyday life, spends money as if she were of both is highly symbolic and often poetic, rather than
nobility, falls into the deepest debt, and finally, in the most serving as a vehicle for a sharp-edged realism.
romantic gesture of all, commits suicide by swallowing ar-
senic.
The novel took five years to write because Flaubert RUSSIAN LITERATURE
sought, in every sentence, to find what he called “/e mot One of the glories of Russian art is the development of the
juste,” exactly the right word needed to describe each sit- Russian novel in the middle to late nineteenth century. Of
uation. In this, Flaubert felt, he was proceeding like the the many novels written during this half-century period,
modern scientist, investigating the lives of his characters those of Fyodor Dostoyevsky and Leo Tolstoy tower above
in precisely the same way that the scientist pursues re- the rest. Among the most accomplished of Realist writers,
search through careful and systematic observation. they wrote novels on a grand scale, covering all aspects of
Russian culture and society.
Emile Zola. Flaubert’s scientific approach to writing be-
came the standard for all subsequent French Realist writ- Fyodor Dostoyevsky. FYODOR DOSTOYEVSKY
ing, particularly the work of the so called French [doss-toh-YEF-skee] (1821-81) was the son of a Moscow
naturalists, who emphasized the influence of heredity and doctor and landowner who was murdered by his serfs when
environment in determining the fate of the literary char- Fyodor was eighteen. After studying military engineering,
acters they created. A prominent naturalist, EMILE Dostoyevsky spent a year in the army before taking up a
ZOLA [ZOH-la] (1840-1902) saw society as a kind of literary career, the most dramatic event of which was his
grand laboratory and the people in it as data for his study arrest and imprisonment for conspiring to set up a secret
of the ways in which humans were determined. In books printing press and discussing political and social ideas
480 CHAPTER 17

Then & Now

natural world by those who have long of civilization, a place to retreat for spir-
EMERSON, THOREAU, AND THE
made their living from its bountiful re- itual recreation.
AMERICAN ENVIRONMENT
sources. And his perspective is shared by In the thought and work of Emerson
uring the nineteenth century, the a number of contemporary groups con- and Thoreau lie the seeds of the modern
American landscape was considered cerned with finding the physical, spiri- environmental movement. Today’s Sierra
a source of consolation as well as of sus- tual, and intellectual common ground Club and other ecologically minded
tenance. Nature was celebrated in poems necessary for sustaining the earth’s life. groups are working to preserve the
and letters, essays, lectures, and books, Emerson’s spiritual counterpart in American land, to conserve the country’s
most notably by the New England Tran- appreciating nature, Henry David resources. They continue the tradition
scendentalist writers Ralph Waldo Emer- Thoreau, was less mystical in his attach- of valuing the natural world not for the
son and Henry David Thoreau. For ment to the natural world but no less de- profits that can be made from it or even
Emerson, nature was a moral teacher, a voted to it. Thoreau loved to ramble in for the solace it can provide, but simply
guide that contained lessons in how to the woods, to scrutinize their every nook for itself, for its beauty. Environmental-
live life properly. Nature was intimately and cranny to see what he could find ists lament the heedless destruction of
connected with the life of humanity, and there. At the same time, Thoreau found natural resources, recognizing they are
thus was not something to be conquered in nature time to deliberate about those limited. Environmentalists also view na-
or contested but a dimension of reality to few essentials things in life that really ture as a treasure to be preserved, en-
bond with. For Emerson, nature was less matter. “Let us spend one day as delib- joyed by all and owned by none, most
to be used as a resource than to be treas- erately as Nature,” he admonishes his truly possessed by those who have
ured as a gift from God. readers in Walden. For Thoreau, perhaps learned to understand the glory and the
Emerson’s embrace of the spirit of na- even more than for Emerson, nature grandeur Emerson and Thoreau discov-
ture reflects the reverence felt toward the provided an escape from the corruptions ered in nature.

banned by the czarist regime. After eight months, Dos- the trappings of high society, including servants, fine cui-
toyevsky was sentenced to death, only to receive a last- sine, extravagant clothing, and the manifold opportunities
minute reprieve; his sentence was commuted to four years that come with great wealth. As a young man, ‘Tolstoy stud-
of hard labor and an additional four years of military serv- ied oriental languages at the University of Kazan, but left
ice. His prison reading was restricted to the New Testa- without taking a degree, returning to run the family es-
ment, which he read avidly, and which informs the novels tate in Yosnaya Polyana, south of Moscow.
he wrote upon his release, especially Crime and Punishment War and Peace was published in 1869. Set in the
(1866) and The Brothers Karamazov (1881). Napoleonic age, the novel explores the nature of history
Dostoyevsky’s realism (which he described as a “higher and the role that great men play in influencing the devel-
realism”) is underpinned by the psychological rather than opment of historical events. The book combines specula-
the social. His interest lies not so much in presenting a tion on philosophical questions, such as necessity and free
panorama of Russian urban life, but in probing the ten- will, causation, and human destiny, with social concerns,
sions and anxieties that animate and motivate behavior. such as agrarian reform. It also dramatizes ideas about the
His narrative impulse is richly dramatic, realizing itself nature of the Russian state, as well as being a chronicle of
forcefully in scenes of conflict. The interview scenes with the lives of several Russian families, with an emphasis on
the ax-murderer Raskolnikov and the detective Porfiry the philosophy of marriage. The novel contrasts the glo-
Petrovich in Crime and Punishment exemplify the drama ries of nature and the simple life with the superficiality
inherent in his dialogue. Raskolnikov’s behavior through- and artifice of civilization, celebrating the natural, privi-
out the novel reflects Dostoyevsky’s acute understanding leging intuition over analysis, and emphasizing hope in
of human psychology, and reveals the author’s belief that the basic goodness of life rather than more studied forms
any transgression of the moral law—in Raskolnikov’s case, of civilized learning and behavior.
murder—no matter how reasonable it may appear, results During the writing of his second masterpiece, Anna
in the guilt of a tormented conscience. The punishment is Karenina (1873-77), Tolstoy experienced a moral and re-
internal, undeniable, and tortuous. ligious crisis that set him on a course that would change his
life. Anna Karenina possesses all the realism of Tolstoy’s
Leo Tolstoy. LEO TOLSTOY [TOHL-stoy] (1828- earlier novel, but during its writing, the author began to
1910) was born into an aristocratic world, one replete with have doubts about the book’s secular emphasis, and so in-
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 481

Critical Thinking
MEMOIR, FACT, AND TRUTH ics believe that these nonfiction prose about the extent to which an autobiog-
genres have now outstripped the novel rapher or memoirist was obliged to tell
Naan ole and memoir have in popularity and importance as a liter- the truth by sticking to facts and events,
ong been important as an overlap- ary genre—though other critics contest and leave invention and fiction to nov-
ping literary genre. Among the earliest that claim. elists—or to reclassify the work as a
autobiographies, St. Augustine’s Con- But there is no question as to the novel.
fessions set the standard for self-analysis popular appeal of memoir, so much so What is your view? To what extent do
and self-reflection. Autobiography con- that the television host Oprah Winfrey you think writers of autobiography and
tinued to be of interest to readers, par- chose a memoir, James Frey’s A Million memoir should include in their books
ticularly autobiographies of great men, Little Pieces for her enormously popular only actual facts and real events? Or
such as those of the religious writer John and influential Oprah’s Book Club. should they, perhaps, identify them as
Bunyan, the historian Edward Gibbon, When reports surfaced that the author fiction, instead? Is it possible for there to
the scientist Charles Darwin, and the so- had fabricated significant portions of his exist autobiographical works, such as
cial philosopher, such as Jean-Jacques memoir, wildly exaggerating some of his memoirs, that contain some invented
Rousseau. Autobiography and memoir experiences and brazenly inventing oth- parts or that exaggerate some details to
continue to draw readers into the ers, Oprah withdrew her endorsement get at what their authors have called a
twenty-first century. Some recent crit- of the book. A national debate ensued “larger truth”?

troduced a tone of moral criticism into the work, not only owning gentry as a source of authority and cultural value.
of Anna’s adultery, but also of other characters’ violations Yet the playwright’s interest lies in human nature, in indi-
of society’s moral norms. Even so, Tolstoy keeps the di- viduals caught in a world undergoing great transforma-
dactic impulse from overwhelming his literary artistry. Al- tion. The characters in plays like The Three Sisters and The
though he disapproves of Anna’s adulterous behavior, he Cherry Orchard are neither heroes nor villains. They do
portrays her as a powerfully attractive woman, the site of not operate as mouthpieces for the dramatist’s views. In-
struggle between his artistic sympathy and his moral deed, their very inability to articulate their feelings, or
judgment. even to act on them, adds poignancy to their suffering.
Chekhov’s insight into the truths of human experience is
Anton Chekhov. The finest examples of Russian drama
unmatched in modern drama.
are the plays of its foremost dramatist, ANTON
CHEKHOV [CHECK-off] (1860-1904). A short-story
writer as well as a playwright, Chekhov began publishing THE NEW SCIENCES: PASTEUR AND DARWIN
fiction and sketches in newspapers and journals while
studying medicine, in order to help support his large fam- The interest in the precise, objective description of things
ily. His fiction was well received, far better, initially, than evidenced in Realist painting and literature was shared as
the plays he would begin writing in the 1880s. Although well by the philosophers and scientists of the age. In
Chekhov is celebrated as a major influence for later writ- France, the scientist LOUIS PASTEUR [pass-TER]
ers such as James Joyce and Ernest Hemingway, his plays (1822-95) began to look at organisms smaller than the eye
are heralded in their own right as Modernist masterpieces can see—micro-organisms that he claimed were responsi-
and as precursors of important trends in modern theater. ble for the spread of disease. Sterile practices could radi-
Chekhov’s plays, such as The Three Sisters and The cally reduce the chance of infection in medical procedures,
Cherry Orchard, lack the intense melodramatic character of and by heating food, spoilage could be eliminated, a
those by other realist dramatists, such as Henrik Ibsen. process that led to the pasteurization of milk.
They don’t tell stories, nor do they build toward tragic cli- But by far the most influential scientist of the age was
maxes. Instead, Chekhov creates characters that are very Charles Darwin (1809-82). Darwin’s On the Origin of
lifelike in their inability to find happiness, their uncer- Species, drafted in 1844 but not published until 1859, laid
tainty about the future, and their indecisiveness in achiev- out his theory of evolution by natural selection. A land-
ing their desires. mark work, it had an immediate and profound impact on
Because Chekhov was writing at a time when the old late-nineteenth-century thought.
social order in Russia was dying, his plays have often been Darwin noted that, in the struggle for existence, since
seen as dramatizations of the disappearance of the land- nature cannot provide sufficiently for all the animals that
482 CHAPTER 17

Cultural Impact
he Romantic era saw radical migrating to large urban centers, where sical symphonic form established by
changes in the political makeup of they found work in manufacturing. Haydn and perfected by Mozart, clearing
Europe and America. Greece achieved Romanticism profoundly influenced the ground for more radical changes not
independence; Germany and Italy be- not only nineteenth-century political, so- only in musical forms, but also in har-
came unified nations. America, which cial, and artistic concerns, but also twen- mony, rhythm, and musical texture.
had gained its independence in the last tieth-century attitudes toward these Wagenerian music drama took opera in
quarter of the eighteenth century, be- aspects of life. During the Romantic era, new directions and was paralleled by the
came a political world power and estab- writers and artists continued to reflect the explosion of Romantic Italian opera,
lished itself as a distinctive artistic respect for human freedom that Enlight- which extended the scope and range of
presence, especially in painting, fiction, enment thinkers had celebrated, retain- opera far beyond what Handel and
and poetry. France, which shared with ing the Enlightenment’s belief in human Mozart had envisioned.
America the revolutionary ideals of free- possibility. With rare exception, Roman- The literature of the Romantic era
dom and equality, established the tic artists and writers avoided the satiric also reflected a significant break with the
Napoleonic Code, which continues to thrust of Enlightenment art and litera- past. Wordsworth and Coleridge changed
govern the legal system of the French- ture; nor did they emphasize the impor- the direction of English poetry by de-
speaking world today. tance of reason celebrated by the scribing familiar scenes from everyday
Deep social changes took root during Enlightenment predecessors. Instead, Ro- life in common, everyday language. The
the Romantic age and throughout the mantic-era artists and writers emphasized Romantic literary and artistic revolution
nineteenth century. The primary cause the primacy of feeling, making the heart had as significant an impact on literature
of social change was the Industrial Rev- as important as the head, emotion as sig- and art as the political and industrial rev-
olution, which altered the way in which nificant a human experience as thought. olutions had on society. The legacy of all
many people made their living; with the In music, the artistic forms and struc- four types of revolutions continues to af-
rise of industry, the demise of agrarian tures popular during the eighteenth cen- fect the way life is lived and art is pro-
life began. Instead of living on farms and tury significantly changed. Beethoven’s duced and enjoyed throughout the world
in small country villages, people began symphonies broke the mold of the clas- today.

come into being, only the fittest will survive, suggesting species of animal that has successfully adapted to its world,
that more than simple luck accounted for the survival of in- ensuring its capacity for survival. Moreover, there was no
dividual members of a species. Darwin proposed that, in indication that humans were the highest point of creation,
any given environment, those individuals best able to adapt nor was their survival assured in future centuries.
to that environment, have the greatest chance of surviving. Darwin did not deny that humankind represented the
He suggested it was the strongest members of the species high point of creation so far, only that its origins were
that survive long enough to breed and pass on to future other than had been believed for centuries. His The Descent
generations genes enabling them to survive as well. He of Man (1871) suggested that humans were derived from
also suggested that as an environment changes, those in- lower life-forms that evolved. The distinguishing feature
dividual members of a species that adapt to the changes of humans, their spiritual nature and their consciousness,
will survive to pass on their genetic inheritance. was diminished to emphasize their biological origins and
Darwin’s emphasis on the mechanism of natural selec- their relationship to their simian ancestors. At stake in this
tion undermined conventional theological and philosoph- revolutionary shift was humanity’s ultimate place in the
ical assumptions about the special place of human beings cosmos. At stake, too, were theological beliefs that had
in the divine order of creation. Instead of a world provi- withstood the scientific revolution of the seventeenth cen-
dentially designed by God with humankind as its guardian tury, but which seemed incompatible with Darwinian sci-
and guide, Darwin postulated a world that followed the entific explanation and the profusion of evidence he
blind laws of chance and saw human beings simply as a brought to support it.
 ROMANTICISM AND REALISM 483

KEY TERMS
Romanticism absolute music nocturnes atelier
études program music waltz daguerreotype
originality idée fixe polonaise pictorialism
odalisque song cycles mazurka pasteurization
phenomena/noumena piano leitmotif evolution
Sturm und Drang prelude Realism natural selection
Lied

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

http://artchive.com/artchive/I/ingres.htm|
(This is the Artchive, a website with virtually every major artist in every style from every era in
art history. It is an excellent resource.)
http://www. beautiful-london.co.uk/big-ben.htm
(An excellent site on the Houses of Parliament and many other London landmarks.)
http://www.wabash.edu/Rousseau/home.htm
(The Rousseau Association, where one can find a biography, his written works, and many as-
sociated links.)
hitp://www.r-cube.co.uk/fox-talbot/history.html
(William Henry Fox Talbot, philosopher, classicist, Egyptologist, mathematician, philologist,
transcriber and translator of Syrian and Chaldean cuneiform text, physicist, and photogra-
pher.) :
http://www.wagnersocietyny.org/
(The Wagner Society of New York, with many links and information about one of the greatest °
opera composers of all time.)
 1845-48 Mexican American War
1870 Haussmann rebuilds Paris
1877 Edison invents the phonograph
1880s Economic depression in England
1889 Paris International Exposition
1895 X-ray invented
1897-99 Thomson detects electrons in the atom
1898 Hawaiian Islands annexed
- 1898-99 Spanish American War

ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE

¥
1872 Monet, Impression, Sunrise
ft
meet TES Renoir, Dance at the Moulin de la Galette
pele?
zi

Morisot, Summer's Day

1884-86 Seurat, Sunday Afternoon on La Grande Jatte
1889 Eiffel Tower
1889 Rodin, The Thinker,
1889 van Gogh, Starry Night
1891 Sullivan, Wainwright Building
1892 Claudel, The Waltz
1893-94 Cassatt, The Boating Party
1894 Cézanne, Still Life with Peppermint Bottle
1894 Debussy, Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun

LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

1857 Baudelaire, The Flowers of Evil
1876 Mallarmé, “The Afternoon of a Faun”
1879 Ibsen, A Doll House
1883 Nietzsche, Thus Spoke Zarathustra
1887 Strindberg, The Father
1899 Chopin, The Awakening
1899 Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams
 Impressionism
and Post-Impressionism

Claude Monet, Impression, Sunrise, 1872, oil on canvas, 173" x 212” (48 X 63 cm),
Musée Marmottan, Paris.
 SEA
DENM
’’Gopénhagen ae
NETHERLANDS

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

BALEARIC
ISLANDS

Map 18.1 Europe

in 1871.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

IMPRESSIONISM
Art and science converge

POST-IMPRESSIONISM
Technology and nature influence the arts

IMPRESSIONISM GEORGES EUGENE HAUSSMANN [OUSE-mun]

(1809-91) was commissioned to rebuild the city. He had
Wy efore 1848, Paris was characterized by narrow three principal aims, the first being “to disencumber the
‘Sq streets and dark alleys, a maze that had been forti- large buildings, palaces, and barracks in such a way as to
* fied with rebel barricades nine times since 1830. make them more pleasing to the eye, afford easier access
 IMPRESSIONISM AND POST-IMPRESSIONISM 487

on days of celebration, and a simplified defense on days of PAINTING

riot.” Second, he recognizéd that slum conditions had a
detrimental effect on public health, a situation he sought In 1874, a group of artists organized a show of their work.
to rectify by the “systematic destruction of infected alley- They included Mary Cassatt, Edgar Degas, Claude Monet,
ways and centers of epidemics.” Finally, he stated his plans Berthe Morisot, Camille Pissarro, Pierre Renoir, and Al-
“to assure public peace by the creation of large boulevards fred Sisley. Although he did not exhibit with them,
which will permit the circulation not only of air and light Edouard Manet, who was particularly good friends with
but also of troops.” By the time Haussmann had completed Monet, worked closely with the Impressionists. Manet
his work in 1870, hundreds of miles of streets had been most clearly bridges the gap between the Realists and the
widened, new water and sewage systems were in place, the Impressionists. His Realist painting of 1863, Luncheon on
boulevards of modern Paris had been built, the banks of the Grass (see fig. 17.22) was a precursor of the new Im-
the Seine cleared of hovels, new bridges built, and tens of pressionist movement.
thousands of working-class poor evicted to the suburbs. Claude Monet. ‘The term “Impressionism” was derived
Due to Baron Haussmann, Paris was suddenly nearly from a painting by CLAUDE MONET [moh-NAY]
as much a park as it was a city. It was, moreover, purged of (1840-1926) shown at the first exhibition of Impression-
its politically dangerous working class. In 1850, there were ist art. Painted in 1872, it was called Impression, Sunrise
forty-seven acres of parkland in the city; by 1870, there (fig. 18.1). The painting encapsulates many of the features
were over 4,500, an increase of almost 100-fold. Hauss- characteristic of Impressionist art. The way the Impres-
mann doubled the number of trees lining the streets to sionist painters worked was as important to them as the
over 100,000. The Bois de Boulogne, a neglected royal subjects they painted. The traditional method of oil paint-
hunting ground to the west of the city, was redesigned be- ing was to begin with a dark background color and work
tween 1852 and 1858 as a giant English garden, with twist- up to the lighter colors. The Impressionists reversed this,
ing, meandering paths, and a racecourse, Longchamp, beginning with a white canvas and building up to dark col-
which was built to please the politically powerful Jockey ors. To convey a sense of natural light, they painted in the
Club. open air, rather than in the studio. They also tried to depict

FIGURE 18.1 Claude Monet, Impression, Sunrise, 1872, oil on canvas, ee Dil x" (48 X 63 cm),
Musée Marmottan, Paris. The term “Impressionism,” originally meant as an insult, derives from
the title of this painting. Critics objected to the style, saying artists created merely an impression of a
scene, without detail or compositional structure.
488 CHAPTER 18

a momentary impression of nature’s transitory light, at- exhibited in Paris in 1891, they caused an immediate sen-
mosphere, and weather conditions; in Monet’s painting sation. As the critic Gustave Geffroy wrote in the intro-
the sun rises on a misty day over the harbor at Le Havre duction to the show’s catalog, “[Monet] knows that the
on the northern French coast. Behind this painting, and artist can spend his life in the same place and look around
Impressionism as a whole, there also lies a major techno- himself without exhausting the constantly renewed spec-
logical advance—the availability of oil paint in small, tacle. . . These stacks, in this deserted field, are transient
portable tins and tubes, which allowed painters to transport objects whose surfaces, like mirrors, catch the mood of the
their paints out of doors. environment, the states of the atmosphere with the errant
Monet’s brushwork is deliberately sketchy, consisting breeze, the sudden glow.”
of broad dashes and dabs of paint. He suggests waves in the
water with strokes of black. He shows the reflection of the Pierre-Auguste Renoir. PIERRE-AUGUSTE RENOIR
sunrise in a series of orange and white strokes mixed to- [ren-WAH] (1841-1919) was a good friend of Monet when
gether while still wet, right on the canvas. Although both were poor and struggling, and the two often painted
Monet’s brushwork is loose, his composition is tightly con- together in Paris and at Argenteuil where Renoir was a
trolled. Everything is carefully placed within a grid, de- frequent visitor. His joyous personality and his zest for liv-
fined horizontally by the horizon and vertically by the ing, which reflect the age itself, inform his paintings.
masts and the pattern of light and shadow that forms ver- Impressionists changed the focus of artistic subject mat-
tical bands across the composition. ter. In turning away from traditional religious, mytholog-
Monet embarked on a number of projects designed to ical, historical, and literary subjects, they were similar to
investigate the way in which changes in light and weather the Realists in temperament, but instead of looking ob-
alter what we see by repeatedly painting the same subject jectively at the ordinary life of the working class, they
at different times of the day and in different seasons: Rouen looked to the good life and the entertainments of the mid-
Cathedral, poplars, water lillies, and haystacks. Among the dle class in a new “beautiful age”—the belle époque. It
most famous of these projects, begun in 1888, is the se- was an age of pleasure-seeking in which life focused on
ries of paintings of haystacks. In Haystacks at Giverny (fig. Paris’s grands boulevards, weekend outings in its suburbs
18.2), the color actually creates a feeling of heat. Monet re- and gardens, a day at the races, boating on the Seine, the
alized that natural light changes color constantly and that theatre, or dancing.
many different colors make up what is perceived to be a Dance at the Moulin de la Galette (fig. 18.3), of 1876, is
single one. The myriad dabs of “broken” color are in- a good example. The painting, of a restaurant and open-
tended to blend in the viewer’s eyes, creating sparkle and air dance hall in Montmartre, a northern section of Paris,
vibration. When a group of fifteen of these paintings was captures the sense of gaiety that marks the belle époque.

FiGurE 18.2 Claude Monet, Haystacks at Giverny (end ofsummer, morning), 1891, oil on
canvas, 23 a x 395" (60.5 x 100 cm), Musée d’Orsay, Paris. Reunion des Musées Nationaux.
B. Hatala/Art Resource, NY. Rather than painting in the studio as did earlier artists, Monet
painted out of doors. Instead of mixing colors on a palette beforehand, he applied paint in dabs
of pure color, referred to as “broken color.”
 IMPRESSIONISM AND POST-IMPRESSIONISM 489

FIGURE 18.3 Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Dance at the Moulin de la Galette, 1876, oil on canvas,
4'3 = x 5'9” (1.30 X 1.80 m), Musée d’Orsay, Paris. Reunion des Musées Nationaux. Herve
Lewandowski/Art Resource, NY. © 2005 Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY. Instead of choos-
ing traditional subjects, the Impressionists depicted pleasant places where people congregated.
In Renoir’s paintings the people are always attractive and the weather is usually good—here
the sun falls in patches through the leaves.

Renoir painted outdoors, working rapidly with his col- Berthe Morisot. ‘The only woman to exhibit at the first
ors to capture the atmosphere of the moment. Light Impressionist exhibition was BERTHE MORISOT
comes through the trees, falling in patches, dappling the [more-ee-SOH] (1841-95). Married to Manet’s younger
surface—note the pattern of round splotches of light on brother Eugéne, her work was almost immediately given
the back of the man in the foreground. Renoir’s figures the negative label “feminine” by the critics, perhaps be-
appear relaxed, rather than stiffly posed. Interestingly, cause her subject matter was, almost exclusively, women
the couple dancing on the left gaze at the viewer. They and children. Whatever she depicted, it is clear she was
seem aware they are being watched, a photographic ef- the most daring of all the Impressionist painters. Summer's
fect that lends the painting an aura of spontaneity. They Day (fig. 18.4), exhibited at the fifth show in 1880, is re-
are, in fact, friends of the artist: Margot, one of his mod- markable for the looseness of its brushwork, which is
els, and Solares, a Cuban painter. As in all of his paint- hardly contained within the contours of the forms it de-
ings, the men are handsome, the women are pretty, the picts. It zigs and zags across the surface in a seemingly ar-
activity in which they engage is pleasant, and the sun is bitrary manner. Yet in the small rapid movements of her
shining. According to Renoir, “A picture ought to be a strokes, we can almost feel the breeze on the water, see
lovable thing, joyous and pretty, yes, pretty. There are the lapping and splashing of the water on the oars, and
enough boring things in this world without our making hear the wisps of conversation between the two women as
more.” they enjoy their outing.
490 CHAPTER 18

Ficure 18.4 Berthe Morisot, Swmmer’s Day, 1879, oil on

canvas, 18” X 29%" (45.7 X 75.2 cm), National Gallery, Lon-
don. Note in particular Morisot’s handling of the three ducks
swimming on the right. They are so loosely painted that they
have become almost unrecognizable.

Edgar Degas. A very different type of French Impres-

sionism was created by EDGAR DEGAS [DAY-GAH]
(1834-1917). An aristocrat from a banking family, Degas
was independently wealthy and therefore able to paint to
suit himself. Many other painters disliked him, and with
FicurE 18.5 Edgar Degas, The Dancing Class, ca. 1874, oil
reason, for he was snobbish and unfriendly, with a nasty on canvas, 335” x 293” (85 <. 75 cm), Musée d’Orsay, Paris.
wit. Politically and socially conservative, Degas did not Degas was called a “linear Impressionist”—seemingly an oxy-
think art should be available to the lower class. moron. Interested in figures in motion, he made many pictures
Degas’s strict academic training resulted in a style based of ballerinas. He seems to have preferred them at their least
on draftsmanship. In 1865, he met Ingres, then eighty-five graceful, as when leaning tired against the barre, stooping over
years old. Ingres told him to “do lines and more lines, from their aching feet, or adjusting their costumes.
nature or from memory, and you will become a good
artist.” Because of this approach, Degas has been called a
ful—straining, stretching, scratching, and yawning. Known
“linear Impressionist,” which may seem at first to be a con-
for his unusual compositions, Degas constructs a boxlike
tradiction. Degas, however, hated the word “Impression-
space in which the walls are not parallel to the picture
ist” because of the negative connotations of “accidental” or
plane but instead on oblique angles. The point of view
“incomplete.” He worked methodically, sometimes deter-
from which the scene is recorded is striking—from above
mining the proportions of the work by ruling off squares
and to the side. It anticipates, in effect, the freedom of per-
and often making many sketches before painting. He once
spective that photographers would discover with the hand-
remarked, “No art was ever less spontaneous than mine.
held camera, an invention that the Kodak Corporation had
What I do is the result of reflection and study of the great
introduced by the end of the century.
masters; of inspiration, spontaneity, temperament, I know
nothing.” Mary Cassatt. In addition to French Impressionist
What makes Degas an Impressionist, nonetheless, is painters, there were a number of American Impression-
the sense of spontaneity visible in his work, not only in the ists. One of the foremost was MARY CASSATT [kah-
looseness of his brushwork, but also in the choice and SAHT] (1844-1925), who left her wealthy Pittsburgh
treatment of his subject matter. However calculatingly family and moved to Europe where she became absorbed
hard he worked, he aimed to appear unstudied. His effect in the art world. Her parents opposed her study of art so
is one of instantaneous and immediate vision. Degas seems strongly that her father is reported to have said, “I would
to have been influenced by photography, and by the snap- almost rather see you dead.” She soon gained recognition,
shot in particular. His paintings often appear severely however—she was called a madwoman because of her style.
cropped, cutting figures in half, as if they are just entering Cassatt was a close friend of Degas, who claimed he never
or leaving the viewfinder of a camera. would have believed a woman could draw so well. As early
In Degas’s depictions of ballet dancers, for which he is as 1879, Cassatt was exhibiting with the Impressionists.
perhaps best known, he takes us behind the scenes. In The Cassatt’s The Boating Party (fig. 18.6), painted 1893-94,
Dancing Class (fig. 18.5), of about 1874, he seems to have was criticized when first shown, for the foreground figure
tried deliberately to capture the dancers at their least grace- has rudely turned his back on for the viewer. Rather than
 IMPRESSIONISM AND POST-IMPRESSIONISM 491

FicurE 18.6 Mary Cassatt, The Boating Party, 1893-94, oil

on canvas, 35 ;" x 465" (90 < 117 cm), National Gallery of
Art, Washington, DC, Chester Dale Collection. Photograph
© Board ofTrustees, 1963. 10. 94 (1758)/PA. An American
working in France, Cassatt paints a typical Impressionist sub-
ject—pleasant and out of doors. The composition directs the FIGURE 18.7 James Abbott McNeill Whistler, Arrangement in
viewer's eyes to the squirming child. Black and Gray: The Artist’s Mother, 1871, oil on canvas, 4'9” <
5143" (1.50 X 1.60 m), Musée d’Orsay, Paris. Reunion des
Musées Nationaux. Jean Shormars/Art Resource, NY. Whistler’s
being the center of attention, however, he acts as a com- mother, as subject, is treated much the same as the other ele-
positional device directing the viewer’s gaze into the com- ments in this intellectual arrangement in restricted colors.
position. His arm and oar point inward, and he looks
toward the mother and child, just as the viewer does. The In 1863, his mother came to keep house for him (she
contours of the boat and sail also lead to the mother and supported him financially), and in 1871 he immortalized
child. A sense of realism is achieved in the squirming her in a work entitled Arrangement in Black and Gray: The
movement of the child. Artist’s Mother (fig. 18.7), known popularly as Whistler’s
The influence of Japanese prints is apparent in the Mother. Whistler referred to his paintings by musical terms
asymmetrical composition, the emphasis on sharp silhou- such as nocturnes, symphonies, and harmonies. ‘This paint-
ettes and linear rhythms, the broad flat areas of color, the ing is first and foremost an “arrangement,” and only sec-
snapshot quality of the scene, the high positioning of the ondarily a portrait. Abstract and formal, the pictorial space
horizon, and, moreover, the unusual perspective—we look is flattened, depth receives little emphasis, and light,
down into the boat, which is abruptly cut off. The bril- shadow, and modeling are minimal. Whistler maintained
liant light effects so typical of Impressionism are not that art should not be concerned with morality, education,
achieved through the use of broken color. Instead, Cas- or storytelling, but should appeal to the aesthetic sense.
satt juxtaposes large areas of bright color. The light ap- He believed in art for art’s sake.
pears intense, but is not realistic: the interior of the boat
should, in fact, be dark. Facts are manipulated for art, and
in this respect Cassatt’s painting, and that of other Im- LITERATURE
pressionists, can be seen as anticipating the art of the next
The Symbolists. Like the Impressionists, the Symbolist
century. poets also attempted to convey reality by impression and
James Abbott McNeill Whistler. “he work of another sensation. They felt liberated by their medium, words, and
expatriate American, James Abbott McNeill Whistler from the necessity of rendering the “facts” of vision.
(1834-1903), also foreshadows twentieth-century art. After Words, they believed, could do more than simply portray
a disappointing stint at West Point, and being fired from these “facts” of external experience; indeed, they could
a government job in Washington, D.C., Whistler went to capture a sense of the shifting and fluid nature of our en-
Paris in 1855, where he lived as a bohemian art student. tire mental experience. Language could encompass not
Then in 1859, he moved to London, and was to remain only our perceptions of the outside world, but our inter-
there for the rest of his life. He visited Paris several times nal lives as well. The Symbolists sought to evoke states of
and learned about Impressionism, but he never used Im- mind and feeling beyond the surface of everyday reality.
pressionistic broken color or light effects. And because they did not believe they could successfully
492 CHAPTER 18

DEBUSSY AND MALLARME: has actually been chasing nymphs or trumpets and trombones. Rather than
whether he has only been dreaming the clearly articulated, symmetrical
IMPRESSIONIST AND SYMBOLIST
about doing so. Equally ambiguous is the themes of the Classical and Romantic
laude Debussy’s chamber orchestral poem’s sense of time and place. Debussy’s styles that were developed and recapit-
composition Prelude to the Afternoon composition does not attempt to portray ulated, Debussy creates a more dream-
ofa Faun was inspired by Stéphane Mal- the content of the poem so much as to like and evocative music. His themes
larmé’s poem “The Afternoon of a evoke its atmosphere of languor and appear and disappear, often in misty
Faun.” Both composer and poet convey fantasy. fragments and brief orchestral swells.
the faun’s experience through suggestive Debussy wrote the music to suggest The music ebbs and flows continuously
uses of sound and language. Mallarmé’s “the successive scenes through which in a series of subtly shifting rhythms,
poem describes the reveries of a creature pass the desires and dreams of the faun the flute suggesting the musical pipes
from classical mythology, with the body in the heat of [an] afternoon.” He ac- associated with the mythological faun.
of a man and the horns, ears, legs, and complishes this with a musical language The overall musical effect is one of
tail of a goat. The poem’s dreamlike tone that includes the sounds of woodwind reverie, which suits the mood of Mal-
raises the question as to whether the faun and harp while excluding those of larmé’s poem.

render the external world objectively, they were free to selves would be suggestive in a musical sense rather than
present it from their own unique and idiosyncratic per- purely representational, a characteristic difficult to demon-
spectives. Reality was at best, they argued, an irretrievably strate in translation.
personal affair.
Poetry, they felt, had long been mired in the ordinary, Naturalism. ‘The impulse toward Romanticism in the
caught up in conventions of meaning and usage that nineteenth century was countered by the writing of a num-
blinded the reader to language’s potential to reveal the ex- ber of American women. Writers such as Sarah Orne Jew-
traordinary and the unknown. For the Symbolists, an ett (1849-1909), Charlotte Perkins Gilman (1851-1904),
image or symbol did not so much stand for something as and KATE CHOPIN [SHOW-panh] (1851-1904) all deal
suggest a cluster of ideas and feelings. They preferred the with the concerns of middle-class women in naturalistic
vagueness of symbolic suggestion to a more precise ren- detail, with a psychological realism often reminiscent of
dering of experience. As Stéphane Mallarmé wrote, “To Freud. Jewett’s stories center on the everyday lives of New
name an object is to do away with three-quarters of the England characters; Gilman focuses on the ways in which
enjoyment of the poem, which is derived from the satis- nineteenth-century attitudes toward women kept them
faction of guessing little by little; to suggest it, to evoke it, physically and psychologically imprisoned; and Chopin’s
this is what charms the imagination.” fiction depicts strong women who insist upon their inde-
Among the poets associated with the Symbolist move- pendence and their right to determine their own destinies.
ment, CHARLES BAUDELAIRE [bow-duh-LAIR] Kate Chopin was especially adept at depicting the lives
(1821-67) is an important precursor, but STEPHANE of the Creole, Cajun, African American, and Native Amer-
MALLARME [mal-are-MAY] (1842-98) was the group’s ican communities of Louisiana, and her popularity soared
leading theoretician and its most influential practitioner. as readers consumed her stories filled with local customs
Both Baudelaire and Mallarmé attempted to create poems and dialects. Chopin’s best known work is the short novel
using images that fuse the senses and attain the expres- The Awakening, published in 1899. It is intensely psycho-
siveness of music. In Baudelaire’s “Hair,” for example, the logical in its portrayal of its heroine Edna Pontellier’s pas-
speaker pays homage to a lover’s hair by describing it as “A sionate emotional life, her boredom with her constricting
port resounding where, in draughts untold, / My soul may marriage, and her flirtatious adventures with another man.
drink in colour, scent, and sound.” A similar combination But the novel was considered virtually obscene in its day,
of the senses occurs in Mallarmé’s “Windows,” in lines banned from most libraries, and Chopin’s reputation suf-
such as “His eye on the horizon gorged with light, / Sees fered until the 1950s, when the work was rediscovered.
golden ships, fine as swans, / On a scented river of pur- Drama, too, began to develop along naturalistic lines,
ple.” In addition to this attempt to convey the rich sensu- especially in Europe. Among the great nineteenth-century
ousness of imagined experience, Symbolist poets tried to realist dramatists was the Norwegian playwright Henrik
make their verse musical, so the sounds of the words them- Tbsen (1828-1906), whose plays touched on such themes
 IMPRESSIONISM AND POST-IMPRESSIONISM 493

as the roles and rights of women (A Doll House), the neously, creating a hazy but rich blend of sounds. He com-
scourge of venereal disease (Ghosts), and the death of a plemented this with a fluctuating sense of rhythm. In
child (Little Eyolf). Ibsen’s dramatic intensity and electri- masking the basic musical pulse, Debussy created music
fying revelations were matched by the Swedish playwright that avoided the familiar melodic, harmonic, and rhyth-
August Strindberg (1849-1912), whose plays The Father, mic patterns of the past. At the Paris International Expo-
Creditors, and Comrades were all written in a strongly real- sition in 1889, Debussy heard Javanese and Southeast
istic style. The plays of Russian writer ANTON Asian music that he could not duplicate on Western in-
CHEKHOV [CHECK-off] (1860-1904), such as The struments. In response, he explored a scale of six whole
Three Sisters and The Cherry Orchard, lack the intense melo- tones, entirely of whole-step intervals. The effect of using
dramatic character of those by Ibsen and Strindberg. They such a scale was to make all the scale tones equal in weight,
don’t have a clear cause and effect plot structure, and they without the strong pull of any one home key. The unfo-
do not build toward tragic climaxes. Instead, Chekhov’s cused quality of music that resulted from a whole-tone
characters are lifelike in their inability to find happiness, scale is comparable to the effects Impressionist painters
their uncertainty about the future, and their indecisive- used in creating a shimmering atmosphere across a canvas,
ness in achieving their desires. and to the lack of representation achieved by Symbolist
The plays of Ibsen, Strindberg, Chekhov, and the nu- poets in their deliberate avoidance of strict linguistic ref-
merous other naturalist dramatists of the time were staged erentiality.
to emphasize the authenticity of the characters, settings,
and situations. Chekhov’s plays were produced at the
Moscow Art Theater, which was run by Konstantin
Stanislavsky, whose theory of acting asked actors to “live”
POST-IMPRESSIONISM
their roles based on their own psychological reactions to As the nineteenth century came to a close, the Western
the characters. Chekhov's plays, with their complex por- world was overtaken by a sense that an era was ending. It
traits of character relationships, were particularly suited was a time of extraordinary material innovation: In the
to the Stanislavsky system. Together, Chekhov and 1880s and 1890s, the telegraph, telephone, bicycle, auto-
Stanislavsky profoundly influenced subsequent modern mobile, typewriter, phonograph, elevator, and electric lamp
realistic theater in the West. all came into being. At the 1889 World Fair in Paris, which
marked the one hundredth anniversary of the revolution,
the engineer Gustave Eiffel (1832-1923) constructed the
tallest structure in the world, a tower that stood 984 feet
MusIc
high (fig. 18.8). At first, many Parisians hated it. The au-
Debussy’s Musical Impressionism. ‘The composer thor Guy de Maupaussant, for instance, preferred to lunch
CLAUDE DEBUSSY [day-byou-SEE] (1862-1918) rev- at the restaurant in the Eiffel Tower because, he said, “It’s
olutionized his artistic medium. Just as Claude Monet al- the only place in Paris where I don’t have to see it.” De-
tered the way external reality was rendered in pigment, so spite the negative reception, its skeletal iron frame pre-
Debussy altered the way music suggested extramusical sen- pared the way for the most prevalent of twentieth-century
sations and impressions. Working with a palette of sound buildings—the skyscraper—which would define the terms
instead of color, he mixed musical tones, combining them of the new urban workplace as surely as the telephone and
in ways never heard before, thus influencing the music that the typewriter.
would be written after him. The end of the century was also a time of profound and
Debussy insisted that “French music is clearness, ele- disturbing social unrest and, to many, one of moral decay.
gance, simple and natural declamation. French music aims Starting in the 1880s, severe economic depression in Eng-
first of all to give pleasure.” This he did in a wide range of land marked the beginning of the end of the country’s su-
compositions—some for orchestra, such as Fétes (Festivals) premacy as a world power. The Dockers’ Strike of 1889 led
and La Mer (The Sea), and others for piano, including the to the unionization of unskilled workers, and by 1900, the
popular Clair de Lune (Moonlight), inspired by the Sym- Labour Party had been founded. In France, meanwhile,
bolist poet Paul Verlaine. Rather than duplicating the the working classes, it seemed, turned more and more to
poem’s images or details, Debussy created a parallel or alcohol for pleasure. Beginning in 1891 and continuing
analogous musical image of moonlight through beautiful for twenty more years, three thousand new bistros opened
sounds and suggestive harmonies, without a long lyrical in Paris every year, and by 1910, there was one for every
melodic line. eighty-two Parisians. By 1906, most French workmen
Debussy rejected the dramatic dynamics of theme em- drank over three liters of wine a day. Drug use was on the
ployed by Classical and Romantic composers in favor of rise, with opium, and its derivative morphine, finding spe-
greater tonal variety. He accomplished this effect partly cial favor. With addiction and poverty came crime, so
by encouraging the use of the piano’s damper pedal, which much so that electric light was championed more for its
allows the strings for different notes to resonate simulta- ability to deter criminal behavior than for anything else.
494 CHAPTER 18

sity for the right to vote. In the late nineteenth century,

many conventional standards of behavior were being ques-
tioned and reevaluated.

AMERICAN EXPANSION
Throughout the nineteenth century, the United States en-
gaged in territorial expansion. Territories had been added
through purchase, most famously with Thomas Jefferson’s
negotiated purchase of the Louisiana Territory from the
French in 1803, and later the purchase of Alaska from Rus-
sia in 1867. In addition to these land purchases, under the
banner of “manifest destiny,” Native American Indians
were routinely displaced from their lands and relegated to
reservations. Many lost their lives in the Indian Wars.
Other kinds of expansion proved equally troublesome.
When the United States accepted Texas, which had se-
ceded from Mexico in 1836, into the union, Mexico
protested and the resulting tensions led to the Mexican
American War of 1845-48. The main result of this war
was Mexico’s sale of its territories in California and New
Mexico and its recognition of the U.S. annexation of Texas.
One place where the United States did not succeed in
expanding was north into Canada. During the War of 1812
between the United States and Britain, Canadians consis-
tently repelled U.S. incursions, serving to unite the previ-
ously splintered French and British Canadians, and
propelling Canada toward political sovereignty.
The United States also had mixed experiences in ex-
panding its territory into other areas. The Hawaiian is-
lands were annexed in 1898, after the last Hawaiian
monarch was ousted in 1893. The United States took pos-
session of Cuba and Puerto Rico after a brief military en-
counter with Spain in the Spanish American War of
1898-99. Each of these has had a different fate, with
Hawaii becoming the fiftieth U.S. state in 1959, Puerto
Rico rejecting U.S. statehood and remaining a U.S.-asso-
ciated commonwealth, and Cuba becoming independent.
FIGURE 18.8 Gustave Eiffel, Eiffel Tower, Paris, 1889. This Spain also lost its colonial possessions in the Pacific to
demonstration of engineering technology, which was ex- the United States, with the Guam and the Philippine is-
tremely controversial when erected and has remained unique, lands coming under U.S. control in 1898. As a result of
is now considered the symbol of France. An elevator takes the Spanish American War, Spain lost control of the last
tourists up to enjoy a spectacular view of Paris. remnants of its overseas colonial empire, with a new im-
perialist force, the United States, recognized as a major
The period also witnessed a challenge on the part of world power.
European intellectuals to the accepted code of moral be-
havior of the day. Some writers styled themselves “deca-
dents.” Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) flaunted his
THE BOER WAR
homosexuality. This identifiable “type” suddenly became Seeking gold in South African mines, thousands of
visible to such a point that in Vienna, in 1905, Sigmund prospectors from Britain and other countries came to
Freud would include homosexuality in his Three Essays on South Africa. British imperialism also found expression in
the Theory of Sexuality. George Sand and Rosa Bonheur the Boer Wars, especially the Second Boer War, also
had worn men’s clothing in midcentury, but now, in the known as the South African War (1899-1902). The war
1890s, many women, particularly intellectuals, wore was fought between the British Empire and the two inde-
trousers, and they were consequently decried for betray- pendent Boer Republics in South Africa. Victorious,
ing their sex. Moreover, they asked with increasing inten- Britain absorbed into the British Empire the Orange Free
 IMPRESSIONISM AND POST-IMPRESSIONISM 495

State and the Transvaal Republic, as the Union of South

PHILOSOPHY AT THE TURN
Africa. caine
Although the war was fought among whites, many black OF THE CENTURY
Africans who served on both sides were killed. British con- Friedrich Nietzsche. The philosopher FRIEDRICH
centration camps held as many as 100,000 black Africans, NIETZSCHE [NEE-chuh] (1844-1900) emphasized the
10,000 of whom died. Other groups who suffered from rebellious nature of the superman, a superhuman being
severe treatment were Chinese laborers, or “coolies,” who, who refused to be confined within the traditional struc-
employed by the British colonial governor after the war, tures of nationalist ideology, Christian belief, scientific
were poorly paid, segregated from the local population, knowledge, and bourgeois values. Proclaiming “God is
and left to live in appalling conditions. dead,” Nietzsche asserted the complete freedom of the in-
dividual, who could now begin to channel Dionysian (in-
stinctual) and Apollonian (intellectual) tendencies in ways
NEw SCIENCE AND NEw TECHNOLOGIES that were unrestricted by social conventions. Early mod-
ernist art, in part, owes its rebellious antiauthoritarianism
Even as prosperity seemed to promise a limitless future, the to Nietzsche’s example. So too, in part, do developments in
technology it spawned contributed to the breakdown of es- literary theory and in philosophy, especially existentialism.
tablished patterns of social organization. New means of
communication, such as the telephone, and new forms of Sigmund Freud. ‘The psychology of SIGMUND
transportation, such as the automobile, complicated life FREUD [FROYD] (1856-1939) further influenced mod-
rather than simplifying it. The rules of the road remained ernist trends in culture and the arts. Freud’s analysis of un-
largely uncodified, and the continuing process of indus- conscious motives and his description of instinctual drives
trialization spurred the growth of urban centers at the ex- reflected an antirationalist perspective that undermined
pense of agrarian life. Modern intellectual developments faith in the apparent order and control in human individ-
greatly accelerated the transformation of traditional ways ual and social life. His emphasis on the irrational provided
of thinking. In particular, discoveries in quantum physics a quasi-scientific explanation of impulses and behaviors
and depth psychology transformed twentieth-century that had formerly been displayed in works of literature,
thought. The most important of these developments were which could now be analyzed with the language and con-
Freud’s invention of psychoanalysis and Einstein’s prom- cepts of psychoanalysis he developed. Freud’s splitting of
ulgation of his theory of relativity. the human psyche into the ego, the id, and the superego
provided a psychoanalytical analogue for the growing con-
The Theory of Relativity. In 1905, Albert Einstein cern with social fragmentation and cultural disharmony,
(1879-1955) proposed that space and time are not absolute the distressing feeling that all was not well, even if the pe-
as they appear to be, but are instead relative to each other riod was known as the belle époque.
in a “space-time continuum.” Not until 1919 could the
mathematical equations central to Einstein’s special theory
of relativity be confirmed through scientific experiment.
POST-IMPRESSIONIST PAINTING
Subsequent experiments further established the legitimacy
of his ideas. All modern developments in space technology By the early 1890s, the Impressionist style of painting was
were influenced by his discoveries, those developments widely accepted. However, since the time of Courbet,
proving the accuracy of his theory right into the 1980s. painters had defined themselves against the mainstream
Einstein’s notion of relativity was widely circulated even of approved art. The next wave of artists to challenge the
though it undermined traditional ways of thinking about public’s expectations were called the Post-Impressionists.
the universe, similar to the way in which Copernicus’ the- The term Post-Impressionism is, in fact, an extremely
ory had overturned the Ptolemaic concept of the universe. broad one, for the Post-Impressionists did not band to-
gether but worked in isolation. Rather than a rejection of
The Atom. Equally important in its implications was the Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, which began in
work ofJ.J. Thomson (1856-1940) in Cambridge, Eng- France in the 1880s, was an attempt to improve on it and
land, who between 1897 and 1899 managed to detect the to extend it. The Post-Impressionists considered Impres-
existence of separate components, which he called elec- sionism too objective, too impersonal, and lacking con-
trons, in the structure of the atom, which had previously trol. They did not think that recording a fleeting moment
been thought indivisible. By 1911, his colleague Ernest or portraying atmospheric conditions was sufficient. Plac-
Rutherford (1871-1937) had introduced his revolutionary ing greater emphasis on composition and form, the Post-
new model of the atom. It consisted of a small positively Impressionists worked to control reality, to organize,
charged nucleus, which contained most of the atom’s mass, arrange, and formalize. The Post-Impressionist painters
around which its electrons orbited. To many, the world no wanted more personal interpretation and expression, as
longer seemed a solid whole. well as greater psychological depth.
496 CHAPTER 18

Paul Cézanne. PAUL CEZANNE [say-ZAHN]

(1839-1906) was in Paris at the beginning of the Impres-
sionist phenomenon. Introverted to the point of being
reclusive, he led an almost completely isolated existence
in the south of France from 1877 to 1895. People there
considered him a madman and jeered at him. He became
ever more irritable as a consequence and turned increas-
ingly inward.
Reacting against the loose and unstructured quality of
Impressionist art, Cézanne’s greatest interest was in order,
stability, and permanence. He said he wanted “to make of
Impressionism something solid and durable, like the art
of the museums.” All of Cézanne’s paintings are carefully
constructed. His usual technique was to sketch with thin
blue paint and then apply the colors directly. He washed
his brush between strokes so that each color would be dis-
tinct, sometimes taking as long as twenty minutes between FiGure 18.10 Paul Cézanne, Stil] Life with Peppermint Bottle,
brushstrokes. In fact, he referred to his brushstrokes as ca. 1894, oil on canvas, 26” X g254 (66 X 82.3 cm), National
“Tittle planes.” An apple, for example, is viewed as a spher- Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, Chester Dale Collection,
ical form consisting of a series of small planes—each plane Photograph © Board of Trustees. Post-Impressionists perpetu-
is a specific color according to the apple’s form. ‘This rev- ated the bright colors of Impressionism, but for different pur-
olutionary style of painting would lead to the innovative poses. Using broken color in a more scientific and studied way,
ideas of the early twentieth century. Indeed, some histori- Cézanne referred to each brushstroke as a “little plane,” which
he used to establish the contours of an object in space.
ans feel Cézanne was the first artist to profoundly redirect
painting since Giotto (see Chapter 12) in the early four-
teenth century. made of this mountain, Cézanne used his “little planes” to
Cézanne’s favorite subjects were still life and landscape, analyze and carefully construct the view. Tree trunks mark
and indeed, landscape may be regarded as enlarged still life. the foreground plane, yet the curves of their branches echo
Inanimate objects permitted Cézanne’s intensive and lengthy the silhouette of the most distant hills, linking foreground
study. In his painting of Mount Sainte-Victoire from the Large and background, compressing pictorial space.
Pine Tree (fig. 18.9), of 1885-87, one of several paintings he In his Still Life with Peppermint Bottle (fig. 18.10), of ca.
1894, Cézanne makes apparent that the subject was not as
important to him as /ow he painted it, and he often com-
FiGurE 18.9 Paul Cézanne, Mount Sainte-Victoire from the Large bined unrelated objects in his still lifes. No attempt at pho-
Pine Tree, 1887, oil on canvas, 235" X 284" (60 X 73 cm), The tographic reproduction was made, for he consciously
Phillips Collection, Washington, DC, acquired 1925. Cézanne’s distorted edges and shapes, emphasizing the contours and
innovative approach to depicting objects in space, without using
the space between objects. Disregarding the conventions
traditional methods of perspective, would prove to be influential
of perspective, he created a tension between the three-di-
for twentieth-century painting.
mensional subject and the two-dimensional surface.
Always striving, yet chronically dissatisfied with his
work, Cézanne felt he did not reach his goal. “I am the
primitive of the way I have discovered,” he claimed. Yet
much of early twentieth-century painting is indebted to
Cézanne, who has been called the “Father of Abstract Art.”
His phrase, “You must see in nature the cylinder, the
sphere, and the cone,” became the basis of the Cubist
painting of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque.

Georges Seurat. Another important French Post-Im-

pressionist artist, GEORGES SEURAT [sir-AH] (1859-91),
had an approach to painting that was still more intellectual
and scientific, for he believed that art could be created by a
system of rules. Like Cézanne, he made many sketches and
studies before painting and worked very slowly.
Sunday Afternoon on La Grande atte (fig. 18.11), painted
between 1884 and 1886, is a monumental work. The sub-
 IMPRESSIONISM AND POST-IMPRESSIONISM 497

POINTILLISM AND ‘TELEVISION complete picture on the screen in one of the viewer's eye. If you look at the screen
the primary light colors—red, blue, and of a color television with a magnifying
C'eurat’s Pointillist technique involved green (not yellow as in surface primary glass before turning it on, you can see the
\J putting small dabs of different colored colors). The screen itself is made of small pattern of dots. Then look at the screen
paint next to one another and allowing dots, each dot capable of being hit by only after turning it on, and you can see how
the eye to blend them into a single tone. one of the guns. When the three primary the manufacturer has arranged the differ-
‘Television works in much the same way. A colors are projected simultaneously ent primary colors (every manufacturer
standard set contains one picture tube and through the dots on the screen, they employs a different pattern) in an array
three electron guns. Each gun makes a blend, projecting a full range of colors to intended to create vivid color images.

aaa eel ie aed caine blac

Ficure 18.11 Georges Seurat, A Sunday Afternoon on La Grande fatte, 1884-86, oil on can-
vas, 6193" x Mise (2 X 3m), The Art Institute of Chicago. Helen Birch Bartlett Memorial
Collection. Photograph © 2005, All Rights Reserved. Seurat systematically applied bright
color in tiny dots intended to blend in the viewer’s eyes when the painting is seen from a
distance. The technique is scientific, and the composition is carefully unified by the repetition
of curving shapes.
498 CHAPTER 18

Cross Currents
JAPANESE PRINTS AND WESTERN Japanese landscapes were the ways in and the space behind it, the gulf between
PAINTERS which they organized the natural ele- the nearby detail and the landscape be-
ments, such as rocks and trees. Perhaps yond. This is an effect that would dom-
; ‘he influence of the Japanese prints the clearest example of Monet’s enthusi- inate his paintings in the future.
) n Western painters of the nine- asm for Japanese art and culture is the
teenth century, especially on the Im- garden he created at Giverny and the
pressionists, is the direct result of the paintings it inspired. The Far Eastern in-
opening of Japan to trade with the West fluence is evident in the small pond he
after Commodore Matthew Perry sailed created, which was spanned by a little
into Tokyo Bay in 1853, demanding that arched bridge, with blue wisteria flow-
Japanese ports be opened to foreigners. ers arranged so as to hang down on ei-
Perry’s arrival ended over two hundred ther side. There were irises, bamboo, and
years ofJapanese isolationism, which had willows, all common plants in Japanese
started as a result of the negative recep- paintings.
tion of Christian ideas introduced into Perhaps the artist most thoroughly
the country by foreign missionaries. influenced by the Japanese print was
After trade began, Japanese prints Vincent van Gogh. He owned hundreds
flooded Europe to such an extent that of prints, and one of the reasons he went
they became commonplace. Western to Arles in 1888 was that he believed he
artists were attracted especially to the would find a landscape there similar to
flatness of Japanese forms, the com- that of Japan. His letters to his brother
pressed pictorial space, and the oblique Theo repeatedly refer to his idealized
perspective that characterizes Japanese image of Japanese life, in which painters
prints. The cropped but close-up ren- and printmakers lived in close contact
derings of occurrences in everyday life with ordinary people and in harmony
that so enthralled the Japanese artists in- with the rhythms and cycles of nature.
FiGureE 18.12 Vincent van Gogh,
fluenced, in particular, the work of Edgar While still in Paris, in 1887, van Gogh
Japonaiserie: The Tree, 1887, oil on canvas,
Degas and Mary Cassatt. copied a print by Ando Hiroshige, Plum 213" X 183” (55 X 46 cm), National
Claude Monet discovered the first of Estate, of 1857. Van Gogh’s painting, en- Museum Vincent van Gogh, Amsterdam.
the many Japanese prints that would dec- titled Japonaiserie: The Tree (fig. 18.12), Van Gogh was influenced in this painting
orate his house at Giverny wrapped is an almost exact copy. What particu- and in others by the unusual vantage
around a cheese purchased at the mar- larly impressed van Gogh was the rela- point, flat pattern, and dark outlines
ket. What especially attracted him to tion between the tree in the foreground, characteristic of Japanese prints.

ject is the type favored by the Impressionists—a sunny af- Seurat believed the human eye could optically mix the dif-
ternoon in a public park with a gathering of French soci- ferent colors he applied as dots. Thus, where a blue dot
ety. Yet, in an effort to give structure to the disintegrating was placed next to a red dot, theoretically the eye would see
forms of Impressionism, Seurat solidified and simplified purple. It is difficult to imagine the patience required to
them and defined their boundaries. Edges reappear and paint in this technique, which Seurat even used to sign his
silhouettes are sharp. All is tidy, balanced, and arranged name and to paint the frames. Each shape, its color, size,
with precision. and location, is calculated—very different from Impres-
Seurat’s working method was first to create silhouettes sionism’s informal, seemingly accidental quality.
of simple lines and precise contours. He then organized
the composition’s surface and depth. Spaces between fig- Vincent van Gogh. In contrast to Seurat, VINCENT
ures and shadows were considered part of the composi- VAN GOGH [van GOH] (1853-90) is famed for his rap-
tion, and shapes were repeated for unity. Finally, he painted idly executed paintings, which use expressive and emo-
in his petits points, a technique called “Pointillism,” al- tional color. Dutch by birth, van Gogh lived and worked
though Seurat called it “divisionism.” Pointillism is the in France for most of his life. His brother Theo, director
almost mathematical application of paint to the canvas in of a small art gallery, supported him. Van Gogh met the
small dots or points of uniform size, each dot precisely Impressionists and used their bright colors and vivid con-
placed. This technique is underpinned by color theory— trasts, not to capture light effects but to convey emotion.
 IMPRESSIONISM AND POST-IMPRESSIONISM 499

Critical Thinking
ARTISTS’ LIVES the work alone. Still others argue that a take another example, we might con-
work can be appreciated and understood sider the relevance of Vincent van
‘Ss question that has interested without knowing the details of an au- Gogh’s suicide for an analysis of his
readers of literature and viewers of thor’s or artist’s actual life, but that such paintings, particularly those he painted
art for centuries is the relationship be- biographical knowledge enriches that ap- near the end of his life. How important
tween a writer's or artist’s work and his or preciation and understanding without ei- is what van Gogh wrote in a letter to his
her life. Some scholars believe that a ther distracting us from or displacing the brother Theo in connection with his
thorough knowledge of an artist’s or work aesthetically. painting The Starry Night? “I go out at
writer’s life is essential to understanding We might consider, for example, the night to paint the stars, and I dream al-
a particular book or painting. Others weight we might give the knowledge ways of a picture like of the house with
contend, on the contrary, that such bi- that William Wordsworth wrote his a group of figures. . . . I have a terrible
ographical knowledge is not vital for poem “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud” lucidity at moments when nature is so
such understanding, and that it may ac- after having read in his sister Dorothy’s beautiful; I am not conscious of myself
tually distract readers and viewers from journal, an account of a walk he had any more, and the pictures come to me
the literary and artistic achievement of taken with her some years earlier. Or, to as in a dream.”

Van Gogh’s Starry Night (fig. 18.13), of 1889, was stop himself. The result is an emotional landscape, fren-
painted on a hillside overlooking St.-Rémy, a small town zied, passionate, flamelike, undulating, the sky swirling and
just south of Arles. Starry Night is anything but calm. In writhing. Yet, in fact, the composition was planned in ad-
this unusually turbulent landscape, his highly expressive vance and is organized and balanced by traditional meth-
brushwork implies the precarious balance of his emotions. ods. The composition flows from left to right, the trees and
Pigment appears slapped on, sometimes applied with a church steeple slowing the movement down, with the hills
brush, sometimes a palette knife, sometimes squeezed di- rising on the right-hand side of the picture for balance.
rectly from the tube—as if van Gogh were desperate to get Vincent wrote to Theo explaining his working method,
his ideas on canvas as quickly as possible. This appears saying he would think everything out “down to the last de-
spontaneous, almost as if he started painting and could not tail” and then quickly paint a number of canvases.
Van Gogh suffered from extreme emotional swings.
During one of his periods of depression, he shot himself
FIGURE 18.13. Vincent van Gogh, Starry Night, 1889, oil on in a field in Auvers. He died two days later, on July 21,
canvas, 232” x 365" (73 X 92 cm), The Museum of Modern 1890, in Theo’s arms. He was thirty-seven years old. He
Art, NY, acquired through the Lillie P. Bliss Bequest, Licensed by never knew fame, but today he is one of the most cele-
SCALA Art Resource, NY. Although seemingly conceived and ex-
brated of all painters.
ecuted without restraint, as if painted in a fevered rush, this paint-
ing was actually preceded by a complete preliminary drawing. Paul Gauguin. Fellow Post-Impressionist PAUL
GAUGUIN [go-GAN] (1848-1903) was born to a Peru-
vian mother and a French father. A successful banker and
stockbroker in Paris, Gauguin had a personal crisis at the
age of thirty-five. He decided to become a full-time artist,
leave his wife and five children, and embark on an exotic
life, which he recorded in his autobiography, Noa Noa
(Fragrance). Gauguin shared with the Symbolist poets a
desire to escape the everyday world and retreat into what
Mallarmé called metaphorically “the afternoon of a faun.”
To that end, he auctioned off about thirty of his paintings
and sailed to Tahiti in 1891. There he lived in a wooden
hut, painted all day, naked, and referred to himself as Mon-
sieur Sauvage (Mr. Savage). He learned the native language
and myths, took a Tahitian wife, and had a son.
Gauguin wrote about his painting Manao Tupapau
(Spirit of the Dead Watching) (fig. 18.14), of 1892, in Noa
500 CHAPTER 18

ity of solid forms, the picture plane is emphasized by the

areas of flat color and by the stress on outline.
Gauguin called this style of painting Synthetism, char-
acterized by heightened color, flattened forms, and heavy
outlines. The style is also called Symbolism, the intent
being to give concrete form to abstract ideas—Gauguin is
considered the leader of the French Symbolist movement.
Gauguin’s willingness to distort shapes and colors for sym-
bolic purposes was important for the future of painting.
By turning away from realistic academic painting, Gau-
guin led others to use arbitrary shape and color, and to
free art from the restraints of nature.

New DIRECTIONS IN SCULPTURE

AND ARCHITECTURE
Auguste Rodin. For the better part of the nineteenth
FicureE 18.14 Paul Gauguin, Manao Tupapau (Spirit of the
Dead Watching), 1892, oil on burlap mounted on canvas,
century, many sculptural concepts had amounted to little
284" X 362" (72.4 X 92.5 cm), Albright-Knox Art Gallery, more than variations on classicism, but toward the end of
Buffalo. A.Conger Goodyear Collection, 1965, The phospho- the century a major sculptor appeared. The Frenchman
rescent spots were believed by the Maoris to signify the spirits AUGUSTE RODIN [roh-DAN] (1840-1917) became the
of the dead. In spite of his claims, Gauguin remained a sophis- most influential sculptor in Europe. He studied the human
ticated artist, drawing more on the art of the museums than form from nude models in his studio, but rather than hav-
from his surroundings. ing them remain immobile as was the tradition, Rodin’s
models walked around so he could study the human body
in motion.
Noa. One night, he returned to his hut, only to find it in Rodin’s bronze sculpture The Thinker (fig. 18.15), made
complete darkness. Lighting a match, he found Tehura between 1879 and 1889, was intended to form part of a
lying as shown, terror-stricken by the dark. The woman in larger work for the entrance to the Museum of Decorative
the background is the “Spirit of the Dead.” The white Arts in Paris, The Gates ofHell, based on Dante’s Inferno (see
areas in the background are phosphorescent fungi which, Chapter 12), with The Thinker looking down on hell, brood-
according to Maori legend, symbolize the spirits of an- ing over the gates. Rodin’s superb understanding of “body
cestors. Gauguin wrote that he tried to convey fear language” can be seen in the details, for example, in the ten-
through “somber, sad, frightening” colors. The painting is sion in the toes of the figure that seem to grip the base.
treated as a pattern of rhythmically arranged colored Also created for this entrance was an over-lifesize mar-
shapes. Rather than emphasizing the three-dimensional- ble sculpture called The Kiss (fig. 18.16), made between

Impressionism Whistler Arrangement in Black and Gray, 1871

Degas The Dancing Class, ca. 1874
Renoir Dance at the Moulin de la Galette, 1876
Morisot Summer's Day, 1879
Monet Haystacks at Giverny, 1891
Cassatt The Boating Party, 1893-94

Post-Impressionism Seurat Sunday Afternoon on La Grande Jatte,1 884-86

van Gogh Starry Night, 1889
Gauguin Spirit of the Dead Watching, 1892
Cézanne Still Life with Peppermint Bottle, ca. 1894
 IMPRESSIONISM AND POST-IMPRESSIONISM 501

FIGuRE 18.15 Auguste Rodin, The Thinker, 1879-89, FIGURE 18.16 Auguste Rodin, The Kiss, 1886-98, marble,
bronze, height Lill (69.8 cm), Metropolitan Museum of Art, over-lifesize, height 6’ 2” (1.90 m), Musée Rodin, Paris. The
NY. Gift of Thomas F. Ryan Like the Impressionist painters’ seemingly warm soft flesh is emphasized in contrast to the
concern with light flickering over forms, Rodin’s broken sur- hard cold stone from which it was carved.
face creates a similarly dappled and unfinished effect.

1886 and 1898. In this work Rodin displays a sensuous Twenty-four years younger than Rodin, Claudel was first
love of the body as well as virtuosity in carving two inter- his student, then his collaborator, and soon his lover.
twined figures. The completed sculpture has portions of Claudel created a sculpture of a couple dancing, but,
stone that have been intentionally left rough, thereby em- because the nudity of the figures shocked the public, she
phasizing a contrast of textures between the illusion of soft added the costumes, creating the version of The Waltz seen
skin and the hard marble from which it came. Some of in fig. 18.17 in 1892. The work was very well received
Michelangelo’s work also has this contrast, but this is be- when it was exhibited in 1893 and various versions were
cause he lacked time to finish his work. Rodin, in contrast, created in later years.
did this as a conscious aesthetic. After Claudel’s definitive split with Rodin in 1898, she
Camille Claudel. Rodin’s art was closely linked with that freed herself from his influence and was at her most cre-
of the French sculptor CAMILLE CLAUDEL [ka-ME ative. Although she thrived artistically, she suffered emo-
claw-DEL] (1864-1943). She was a prodigy; when only tionally, and concerns about her mental health began with
thirteen years old she was presented to the Director of the initial signs of paranoia. In her “madness,” as it was called,
Ecole Nationale des Beaux-Arts. Claudel and Rodin both she destroyed what she had created. At her family’s request,
focused on the human body as a vehicle for emotional ex- she was institutionalized for the last thirty years of her life.
pression. Their styles were so similar that there were in- American Architecture. ‘“\oward the end of the nine-
stances in which he signed her work—and she was furious. teenth century, a new style developed in architecture. It
502 CHAPTER 18

Ficure 18.18 Louis Sullivan, Wainwright Building, St.

FIGURE 18.17 Camille Claudel, French, The Waltz, 1892,
Louis, Missouri, 1890-91. Moving in the direction of the sky-
bronze, height ge” (25 cm), Bayerische Staatsgemaldesammlun- scraper, the Wainwright Building has an underlying steel
gen, Neue Pinakothek, Munich. Claudel, long in the shadow of skeleton and brick skin. The architect Louis Sullivan’s now fa-
Rodin—her teacher, collaborator, and lover—was certainly his mous phrase, “form follows function” sums up his beliefs.
artistic equal. Her work is unmatched for the exquisite refine-
ment of the forms and the graceful fluidity of the movements.

was the public and commercial buildings—the stores, of- necessary, creating a dense effect. The corners are stressed
fices, and apartments—that defined the new architectural and thereby visually strengthened. Horizontals at the top
style. The use of iron, steel, concrete, and large sheets of and bottom provide a visual frame—in a sense, a start and
glass radically changed architectural language. As steel a conclusion to the compostion.
construction and concrete forms were developed, thick Sullivan saw a building as being like the human body:
masonry walls were no longer required to support the The steel is the bone; the brick is the flesh and skin. It was
whole structure of a building. Expression was given freely Sullivan who coined the phrase “form follows function.”
to the new underlying skeletal frames. The idea of the Yet this does not mean the decorative elements of the de-
building as a solid closed space was replaced by that of the sign are integral to the architectural design. For Sullivan,
building as an open airy environment. As height could be “the function of all functions is the Infinite Creative Spirit,”
more easily increased, tall buildings began to define the and this spirit could be revealed in the rhythm of growth
city skyline. and decay we find in nature. Thus the elaborate organic
‘The American architect Louis Sullivan (1856-1924) de- forms that cover his building were intended to evoke the in-
signed such a structure with the Wainwright Building in finite. For Sullivan, the primary function of a building was
St. Louis, Missouri (fig. 18.18). Built between 1890 and to elevate the spirit of those who worked in it. His ideas
1891, it uses a supporting steel structure and has a brick ex- led to a new school of Functionalist architecture.
terior. Sullivan’s design stresses the continuous verticals
that reflect the internal steel supports, thus emphasizing Art Nouveau. Sullivan’s belief in nature was mirrored in
the building’s height. Sullivan doubled the number of piers Art Nouveau (literally, New Art), a short-lived style that
 FIGURE 18.19 Victor Horta, staircase, Dr. Tassel’s house, Brus-
sels, 1893. Art Nouveau favored forms derived from nature such
as foliage and curling tendrils. To achieve a certain harmony,
Horta designed everything in the house, from the furniture and
rugs down to the small details such as the hinges.

FIGURE 18.20 Antoni Gaudi, Casa Mila Apartment Building, Barcelona, 1905-07. Although
made of traditional cut stone, the forms appear eroded by nature, weathered into curves, and
the metal balcony railings look like seaweed.
504 CHAPTER 18

Cultural Impact
|Bye the second half of the nine- tory. Karl Marx’s adaptation of Hegel’s color, and atmosphere redirected the his-
teenth century, Romanticism gave theory of historical change through con- tory of painting. In music, too, Impres-
way to Realism and then to Impression- flict and resolution provided the foun- sionism was a_ significat stylistic
ism and Post-Impressionism. These dation for the Russian Revolution of development: The French composers
artistic changes occurred in a climate of 1917. Finally, the emergence of liberal- Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel
political and social unrest. In America, ism as an applied political philosophy en- achieved the sonorous equivalent of the
the Civil War raged from 1861 to 1865, couraged the spread of middle-class color and light of Impressionist painting.
with a death toll of more than 658,000. values, including thrift, ambition, and Debussy created new harmonies and in-
The war was a watershed in American work, as well as an emphasis on the value troduced new melodic possibilities,
history, and its legacy continues in issues of the individual. partly influenced by the music of other
of race and regionalism in contemporary The rise of the middle class created cultures, especially those of Asia. Ravel
America. In Europe, German unification an audience for fiction and propelled it to exploited instrumental sonorities of in-
resulted in increased military and eco- primacy among the literary genres. In dividual instruments and combined them
nomic power, a precursor to the German the later nineteenth century, drama too in ways that expanded the orchestral
might of the Hitler era and to the con- became increasingly popular as Ibsen and sound palette.
solidation of German political and eco- Strindberg, among others, wrote plays The literary analogue of Impression-
nomic enterprises following the collapse that reflected the issues of the time, in- ism was Symbolism, which sought to
of communism and the fall of the Berlin cluding individual rights, inherited dis- achieve with words effects similar to
Wall in 1989. eases, and the struggle for power those of Impressionist painting and
Of intellectual currents important between men and women. Realism con- music. French Symbolist poetry at-
during the later nineteenth century, none tinues to be enormously influential. In tempted to create musicality with verbal
has been more significant than Darwin’s some senses, Realism has never gone out sounds, inspiring Impressionist com-
theory of evolution through the process of style, although other styles have posers such as Debussy, in turn, to cre-
of natural selection. Darwin’s ideas pro- emerged to compete with it. ate musical equivalents of Symbolist
foundly affected how human beings The Impressionist painters Claude poems. The work of Impressionist and
thought about themselves, unsettling Monet and Auguste Renoir enabled peo- Symbolist artists continue to influence
their religious beliefs and challenging ple to look at the everyday world in new contemporary painters, composers, and
their understanding of science and his- ways, and their experiments with light, poets.

began in Europe and was popular from the 1890s to the In Spain, another exponent of Art Nouveau was
early 1900s. It is characterized by decoration, especially ANTONI GAUDI [GOW-dee] (1852-1926), the archi-
curvilinear patterns, based on the forms of nature. The in- tect of the Casa Mila in Barcelona (fig. 18.20), built
fluence of Art Nouveau extended beyond architecture to 1905-07. This apartment building bears no relation to
include home furnishings, clothing, and typography. anything that had gone before. Gaudi’s Art Nouveau style
The home of Dr. Tassel in Brussels, designed by the ar- has few flat areas or straight lines, favoring instead con-
chitect VICTOR HORTA [OAR-ta] (1861-1947) and stantly curving lines and asymmetry over symmetry. Al-
built 1893, is an ideal example of the Art Nouveau style. though made of cut stone, the Casa Mila looks like it was
Horta liked to be able to design “each piece of furniture, molded from soft clay. Gaudi created an organic style in-
each hinge and door-latch, the rugs and the wall decora- fluenced by the forms of the natural world. The building
tion.” Consequently, in the ‘Tassel house every part is in appears eroded, as if nature has worn away all the sharp
harmony, characterized by curve and counter-curve, by its angles. The facade seems to ripple around the corner of
small scale, grace, and charm. The staircase (fig. 18.19) is the building, and the roof seems to undulate. The chim-
illuminated by a skylight and made with large amounts of neys look like abstract sculptures. Gaudi did much of his
glass and metal, used both for ornamentation and for struc- designing on the actual building site, which was unusual
ture. It is especially characteristic of the Art Nouveau style then (as it is now), and produced a highly personal and
with its swirling and sensuous forms. eccentric style.
 IMPRESSIONISM AND POST-IMPRESSIONISM 505

KEY TERMS
Impressionism ~ superman ego Pointillism
belle époque Dionysian id Symbolism
Symbolists Apollonian superego Art Nouveau
atom psychoanalysis Post-Impressionism

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

http://www.artchive.com/artchive/M/manet.html
(This is the Artchive, a website with virtually every major artist in every style from every era in
art history. It is an excellent resource.)
hitp://www.accd.edu/sac/english/bailey/jewett.html
(This is the Sarah Orne Jewett website, one of the more important woman authors of the late
nineteenth century.)
http://www.npr.org/programs/specials/milestones/991 110.motm.riteofspring. html
(A National Public Radio site featuring Stravinsky's Rite of Spring, including an audio excerpt
of the work.)
hitp://www.hf.vio.no/ibsensenteret/index_eng. html
(A comprehensive site on Henrik Ibsen, dramatist and author, with many links.)

hitp://www.westegg.com/einstein/
(An excellent, comprehensive site on all the work of Albert Einstein.)
7 1260-94 Kublai Khan reigns
— 1275-92 Marco Polo in China
rf . 1368-1644 Ming dynasty
1402-24
Ta,
Forbidden City rebuilt under Emperor Yongle’s rule
1405-33 Cheng Ho travels to India and Africa
. 1514 Portuguese appear off coast of Canton
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1644-1911 Qing dynasty
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1997 Control of Hong Kong reverts to China

ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE

eae Wu Zhen, Bamboo
———14th-T15 century Scholar's Rock
Early 15th century and later Forbidden City
ca. 1500 Shen Zhou, Poet on a Mountaintop
r Y : ca. 1740. Zheng Xie, A Country Temple

LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

ca. 1750 Cao Xuegin, The Dream of the Red Chamber
1991-%6 Bei Dao, Poems
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507
Chinese C ivl I1Zation

The Forbidden City, Beijing, seen from north.

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China
Sea

Map 19.1 China under the Qing Dynasty, ca. 1840.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

LATER CHINESE CULTURE

An isolated China reluctantly absorbs Western ideas

LATER CHINESE CULTURE kept the principal offices of governmental administration to

themselves, but appointed Chinese to the lowest posts. Al-
Pa PW he last of the great medieval dynasties of China was though the Mongols wanted to maintain their ethnic sepa-
| the Yuan, a Mongol dynasty. In 1271, the Mongolian rateness during their rule, they nonetheless needed Chinese
4. leader KUBLAI KHAN [koob-lie KON] (1214-94), officials to maintain order, collect taxes, and settle disputes.
a grandson of Genghis Khan, adopted the Chinese dynastic The period of Yuan rule was the shortest of China’s
name Yuan. By 1279, Kublai Khan had conquered the South- major dynasties, but it was culturally significant. A subtle
ern Song and ruled from Beijing [bay-JHING] as emperor and quiet resistance to the uneasy foreign occupation per-
of China. He turned Beijing into a walled city and extended vaded almost every aspect of Chinese life, including its
the Grand Canal to provision it. The Mongol ruling class painting. Bamboo (fig. 19.1) by WU ZHEN [WOO JUN]

508
 CHINESE CIVILIZATION AFTER THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY 509

thority figures. The entire Ming—Qing system, one of

unity and integration, benefited from the ability and com-
mitment of its governing officials, who became known as
mandarins, or counselors. ‘These officials, trained in po-
etry and calligraphy as well as Confucianism, also helped
create and support many arts.
Later Ming emperors reinforced the Great Wall, orig-
inally built by the first Qin Emperor in the third century
B.C.E. The Ming emperors made the wall a century-long
project, using thousands of workers to extend and repair
the 1,500-mile-long wall that reached heights of thirty to
fifty feet, and which included watchtowers, signal towers,
and accommodations for troops.
‘The Ming dynasty ended in 1644 with the invasion of
the Manchu from the north, who created the Qing
(“pure”) dynasty, which ruled until 1911. Two of the
a Joe a a 7
Manchu emperors, Kanxi (1661-1772) and Qianlong
FiGure 19.1 Wu Zhen, Bamboo, Yuan dynasty, 1350, album (1736-95) solidified Manchu control of China. Both of
leaf, ink on paper, 16 X 21” (40.5 X 53.3 cm), National Palace these emperors were sophisticated and learned men, ac-
Museum, ‘Taipei, Taiwan. Despite Mongol rule, Wu Zhen complished in the arts, while also being brilliant diplomats
worked in an intensely intellectual Chinese environment, dom-
and military tacticians. These and other Qing emperors
inated on the one hand by gatherings organized for the appre-
continued the governmental structure developed by their
ciation and criticism of poetry, calligraphy, painting, and wine,
and, on the other, by deep interest in Buddhist and Taoist
Ming predecessors, with a highly centralized state under
thought. the administrative control of Confucian mandarin schol-
ars. These scholar-bureaucrats, who earned their rank
through a complex series of competitive civil services ex-
aminations, controlled the political and social life of the
(1280-1354), one of the “Four Masters” of the Yuan dy- country. By focusing exclusively on Confucian classics and
nasty, is ostensibly a simple representation of the plant, neo-Confucianist commentaries on them, the examina-
but its social significance was widely recognized. Bamboo, tion system ensured the continued importance of Confu-
one of the strongest of materials and a symbol of survival, cianism to the cultural history of China.
is like the Chinese under foreign rule: They might bend, Among the many and varied developments that oc-
but they would never break. Similarly, orchids, which nur- curred during Qing rule was the arrival of Jesuit Catholic
ture themselves without soil surrounding their roots, are missionaries. Most notable of the Jesuits who came to
a common symbol of Chinese culture in this period. Like China was Matteo Ricci (1552-1610), a frequent presence
the nation, the orchid could survive, even though the na- at the Ming courts, a consequence of his mastery of the
tive Chinese soil had been stolen by the Mongol invaders. Chinese language and the Confucian classics. Among the
In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang drove the last Yuan emperor many ways that Ricci and his Jesuit colleagues and suc-
north into the deserts and declared himself the first em- cessors charmed their Chinese hosts was with their math-
peror of the new Ming dynasty. China was once again ruled ematical, scientific, and technical knowledge. Through
by the Chinese. these and other forms of Western knowledge brought by
the Jesuits to China, the Jesuits gained access. Although
this did not yield many converts, it did serve to build a
MING AND QING DYNASTIES metaphorical bridge of knowledge and understanding be-
The Ming (1368-1644) and Qing [CHING] (1644-1911), tween China and Europe, the first since the time of Marco
China’s last dynasties, maintained the centralized bureau- Polo.
cratic political organization developed by the earlier Tang Although China was generally self-sufficient during
and Song dynasties. Although the Qing was ruled by these centuries, it gradually became apparent that techni-
Manchus, rather than ethnic Chinese, the Ming and Qing cal and scientific advances in the West had left China be-
were remarkably alike in their reliance on Confucian ideals hind. By the end of the nineteenth century, China was
and in their high level of cultural achievement. The patri- politically weak, and European countries had established
archal nature of Confucian society (see Chapter 8) was ev- trading relations that were decidedly unfavorable to China.
ident at every level: The family, headed by the father, was Something had to be done, and in the early twentieth cen-
the model unit. Politically, the emperor, as the Son of tury, China abandoned the tradition of imperial rule that
Heaven, was the father of the country. The magistrates, had provided social stability for many centuries. First,
who carried out the rule of the emperor, also served as au- Confucian ideals of governance began to be discarded.
510 CHAPTER 19

Then, with the overthrow of the Qing dynasty in 1911, As striking as Ming dynasty furniture is to behold, it
came a period of political instability that lasted until the es- needs to be considered in light of the houses—the archi-
tablishment of the communist state in 1949. tecture—in which it was placed. The interior of a room was
Communism remains the dominant political system in often undivided, and when partitioned, was done so in ways
contemporary China. Despite the tumultuous Cultural Rev- that made it easy to revise the interior spatial configuration.
olution in the late 1960s—a period of upheaval in all aspects
of Chinese culture and society—and despite the Tiananmen
Square protests in 1989, which sought greater democratic LITERATI PAINTING
liberties for the Chinese people, the Communist Party has Many of the most important paintings created in China
maintained its political control. Nevertheless, a more liberal after the thirteenth century were by the scholar-official
attitude toward capitalistic economic growth has led in the amateurs called literati, such as Wu Zhen (see fig. 19.1).
last decades to many changes in China, including modern- During the Yuan, Ming, and Qing periods, these poet-
ization and emergence into the network of world trade. artists utilized brushwork to express their understanding of
Until a hundred years ago, however, the system that humankind and nature, usually communicating their po-
kept China organized was based on the national examina- etic vision in landscapes.
tion system. The examination system allowed the bright-
est and most capable men to join and advance in Shen Zhou. The literati movement in the Ming dynasty
government, and these scholar-officials were most influ- was exemplified by SHEN ZHOU [SHUN JOH]
ential in the arts. (1427-1509), who was less a professional artist than a gen-
tleman scholar. Unlike a typical member of his social class,
Ming Furniture ‘The Ming dynasty is renowned for he never held an official government position. Described
many things, not the least of which is the gracefully beau- as a “poet of the brush,” Shen Zhou was the founder of the
tiful furniture that was created during its reign. Often com- Wu school, a group of amateur scholar-painters for whom
pletely unornamented, Ming dynasty furniture exhibits a painting was an intimate expression of personal feeling. (The
perfection of line and an elegance of form unique in its name “Wu” derives from Wuhsien, the Yangtze river delta
austere beauty. The precious woods used to construct where Shen Zhou and other painters lived and worked.)
Ming furniture were typically left unlacquered, unlike fur-
niture from other periods, including that of the later Qing
dynasty. FIGURE 19.2 = Zitan wood, Southern Official’s Hat Armchair,
Ming furniture is constructed with complex joinery late Ming dynasty, before 1644. Height 36.75” (93.5 cm), seat
without the use of nails or glue. The pieces are held to- dimensions: height 18.5” (47 cm), width 22.5” (57 cm), depth
gether with elaborate mitre, mortise, and tenon joints, 18.5” (47 cm). Courtesy of Ming Furniture, Ltd., Inc. This is a
which enable them to be dissembled readily, which was of graceful and elegant example of a Ming dynasty chair.
great importance for their original Chinese mandarin own-
ers who were obligated to move on a regular basis.
The woods used in Ming dynasty furniture are espe-
cially beautiful and have long been highly valued. Most
Ming furniture was made from dense tropical hardwoods,
called “Ying mu,” which were notable for their striking
color and grain. One of the most popular woods and highly
sought after today is Huali, which includes Huanghuali
and Xinhuali. Though other woods were used, such as the
dark and striking zitan, as well as jichi and Elmwood,
Huanghuali is the wood most frequently seen in museum-
quality Ming dynasty furniture. Different woods and de-
sign variations gave each piece a unique character.
Ming furniture mingled form with function. Furniture
was designed to reflect and dramatize the purposes for
which it was designed. Ming beds, for example, were con-
sidered miniature houses with their covered tops and semi-
enclosed sides, and were envisioned as places where sons
were conceived. Ming tables were designed for the use of
scholars to write and paint as well as to dine. And Ming
chairs were designed less for comfort than for elegance of
design and strength of structure. Chairs were placed and
positioned according to the rank of the sitters. Where you
sat indicated who you were in terms of social rank.
 CHINESE CIVILIZATION AFTER THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY 511

FIGURE 19.3 The Studio of Gratifying Discourse, Qing dynasty, 1797, wood, ceramic tile,
stone, lacquer. Minneapolis Institute of Arts, gift of Ruth and Bruce Dayton. Scholar’s study
with desk and footrest in center and window grate looking out to garden.

Among Shen Zhou’s most striking compositions is Poet eled extensively through China, became a Ch’an (Zen)
on a Mountaintop (fig. 19.4), one of five album paintings monk, and finally returned to secular life. He became
mounted as a hand scroll. Using black ink with a few known for his eccentricities, such as naming one of his
touches of color, the artist balances white spaces (unpainted paintings, “Jen Thousand Ugly Ink Dots.” He excelled in
paper) with bold strokes and spots of black, to define the wet-brush technique in which the ink and colors merge
forms of rocks, trees, and other vegetation. He sets off the and fuzz out on the paper or silk as in his work Searching
poet and the mountain in the center against lighter sur- for the Past (fig. 19.5). His dramatic compositions often
roundings—washes of soft ink and white space. The poet, seem to put the viewer directly into the scene.
tiny and simply sketched, stands poised at the edge of a Like many literati, Shitao wrote about painting, em-
cliff on an inclined plane, propped up by his walking staff. phasizing that one could not rely on following the past
Tucked away on the right is a mountain pavilion, a part of styles of painting, but must find one’s own way based on
the natural scene, which is used as a place for people to timeless truths. His ideas rely on ‘Taoist and Zen ideals
put themselves in tune with the natural surroundings. Un- (see Chapter 8) but apply them in a new way to art. He
like many of his predecessors, Shen Zhou does not attempt wrote, “In ancient times there were no methods, since the
to portray nature in an especially beautiful fashion, nor state of natural simplicity had not been shattered. But
render the natural scene in carefully drawn, realistic detail. when this state was dispersed, methods arose. What was
Instead, his painting conveys a sense of nature’s serene their basis? The true single stroke of the brush! This is
grandeur. the origin of all methods for depicting anything in exis-
tence and it is the root of all images. Revealed through the
Shitao. The paintings of SHITAO (Shee-DOW) spirit, it is innate in all people but they do not realize this.
(1641-1707) are more overtly expressive than those of I have established for myself, this method of no-method,
Shen Zhou, reflecting an adventurous life in which he trav- from which all methods emerge.” More specifically, he
512 CHAPTER 19

iN AL Ae 1626-1705). Related to the Ming imperial family, he was

wy, a Ne: raised in wealth and privilege. At the age of eighteen, how-
4 aan F ever, he saw the downfall of the Ming dynasty to the
ee48)
bits Es cae

on,
Manchus and he became, or pretended to be, dumb for
fils vd,4a Ze
some years. He served as a Buddhist monk but began to act
as though he were insane; scholars still debate whether he
was truly mad or was pretending in order to live his life
without constraints. In his final years he turned more and
more to painting, sometimes depicting landscapes but
more often birds, animals, and plants in a distinctive ink
style all his own. His painting Fish and Rocks (fig. 19.6) il-
lustrates his unique style.

FiGure 19.4 Shen Zhou, Poet on a Mountaintop, Ming dy-

nasty, ca. 1500, album painting mounted as a hand scroll, ink CALLIGRAPHY
and color on paper, 15; X 234” (38.1 x 60.2 cm), Nelson- The Chinese have long believed that the flexible brush is
Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, MO. Like much Chinese
the perfect means to express one’s inner spirit. Thus cal-
nature painting, this work portrays human beings as a small el-
ement within a large natural scene.
ligraphy with ink on paper or silk, whether by scholars,
poets, monks, or government leaders, is often considered
the highest form of art. Great masterworks from earlier
periods such as the Tang dynasty were used as models for
wrote, “When the wrist does not move freely, the painting
the proper style and proportion of the more than fifty thou-
will not be alive, but if each single stroke is created with-
sand Chinese characters. There were also a number of dif-
out hesitation, all methods are mastered.”
ferent scripts to choose from. Ancient seal script, used even
Zhu Da. Another eccentric artist of the seventeenth cen- today for carving seals (or “chops”), conveys an archaic fla-
tury was ZHU DA (Joo-DAH) (also called Bada Shanren, vor, as does clerical script, developed in the Han Dynasty
by clerks to record government documents. Calligraphy,
FIGURE 19.5 Daoji, 1641-1707, Reminiscences of the Qin-Huai
however, could also be written in regular (printed), run-
River. Qing dynasty, 1704. From album of eight leaves. Ink and ning (more rapid), or cursive (with strokes joined together)
light color on paper, 105 xX 8” (25.5 X 20.2 em). © The Cleve- script, not unlike our own choices in English—for example,
land Museum of Art, John L. Severence Fund, 1966. 31.8. The most of us do not write the small letter a in this printed
scholar-sage is walking along the river, and according to his form, but in more rapid pencil or pen movement. Simi-
poem, he is searching for the remains of past dynasties while larly, Chinese calligraphers usually preferred less formal
composing poems. and more dramatic styles of brushwork to regular script.
Some masters, however, combined scripts, such as the
painter-poet-calligrapher ZHENG XIE [CHENG SHEE-
EH] (1693-1765), who enjoyed mixing clerical, regular,
running, and cursive scripts. Zheng’s eight-line verse (fig.
19.7) reflects the nostalgia for country life felt by the offi-
cial who must live and work in the city.

A COUNTRY TEMPLE
Outside the city, where is the foliage most lush?
By the decorated walls where the setting sunlight filters
through the pine forest.
A single note comes from the pure sounding-stone, the
sky seems like water;
On the evening river, the reflection of the moon is like
frost.
The monks are calm at this remote place, and I often visit,
Floating like a cloud from my government office; I am
pained when I must depart.
On the trellis are grapes like ten thousand pearls:
The autumn wind must have remembered that this old
man loves to eat them.
 CHINESE CIVILIZATION AFTER THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY 513

Anes
WES
av,
ib
b=
\<
aar
A
4
a
+
ce
i
&
§
x
he
4
ea
ay
4
cay
+
rs

FIGURE 19.7 Zheng Xie, A Country Temple, Qing Dynasty,

ca. 1740, hanging scroll, ink on paper, 62 X 343" (162.3 X
88.2 cm), Hsaio Hua Collection. Chinese is written in columns
from top to bottom and then right to left, so this poem begins
in the upper right and ends with the seals on the lower left.

Chinese Scholars’ Rocks In early times, prized rocks were

placed in the garden, but by the Song dynasty, favored
rocks were also taken into a scholar’s study. These most
FIGURE 19.6 Pa-ta-shan-jen (Chu Ta), 1626-1705, Fish and beautiful of rocks served as objects of contemplation. Like
Rocks, hanging scroll, ink on paper, 53 23 in (134.6 x landscape paintings, the scholars’ rocks reflected the uni-
60.6 cm), Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY, Bequest of John verse in microcosm, providing the scholar with a stimulus
M. Crawford, Jr., 1988 (1988. 363.137) Photograph © 1995 to meditation on nature while remaining in the confines of
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY. The fish swim around his study. The rocks’ abstract qualities appealed to Chi-
animistic rocks that seem to float in space, resembling the
nese scholar aesthetes, much in the way that abstract sculp-
heads of rabbits. The artist hides his skill with seemingly child-
ture might appeal to a Western aesthete today. (See
like strokes of the brush, but the result is hauntingly powerful
as well as whimsical.
fig. 19.8).
The rocks range in size from miniatures of a few inches
high to larger than human size, with the commonest being
514 CHAPTER 19

small enough to place on a desk or table. Typically made from its permanent position in the north, looks down on
of limestone, they are often found in caves that have been the cosmos. So long as the emperor fulfilled his function
eroded by underground streams. Scholars’ rocks differ as the Son of Heaven, peace and harmony, it was believed,
from garden rocks in exhibiting a higher degree of com- would be enjoyed by all.
plex interior surfaces. They are also placed on carved Under the rule of the Yongle Emperor (reigned
wooden stands that elevate them and complement their 1402-24), present-day Beijing was reconstructed as the
unique forms. The literati class that collected beautiful imperial capital (fig. 19.9). Following traditional architec-
and interesting rock specimens for their studies believed tural plans, the principal buildings and gates of the gov-
that Nature engaged in creating art by producing such ernment district, called the Imperial City, faced south, and
strange and evocative forms. almost all structures were arranged in a gridded square
(fig. 19.10). The palace enclosure where the emperor and
his court lived, called the Forbidden City, was approached
ARCHITECTURE: CITY PLANNING through a series of gates: The Gate of Heavenly Peace
Architecture in traditional China signified the connection (called Tiananmen) is first, then the Noon Gate, which
between the rule of the emperor and the order of the uni- opens into a giant courtyard. Next, the Meridian Gate
verse. Cities were constructed on a grid system, sur- leads into the city’s walled enclosure and opens out onto
rounded by walls, which represented stability. The ruler’s the first spacious courtyard, which has a waterway with
palace was generally situated at the north end, looking five arched marble bridges. These bridges represent the
south, so the emperor’s back was turned against the north five Confucian relationships as well as the five virtues (see
from which evil (including the Mongol invaders) was al- Chapter 8). Past the bridges, high on a marble platform,
ways believed to come, and so his gaze overlooked and stands the Gate of Supreme Harmony. Beyond the gate is
protected the people, who lived in the city’s southern half. the largest courtyard with three ceremonial halls. The
The emperor looked down on the city just as the Pole Star, most important is the Hall of Supreme Harmony, used for
the emperor’s audiences and special ceremonies.
With its series of interlocking gates and courtyards, its
walled-in sections within larger walled-in areas, Beijing
FIGURE 19.8 Chinese Scholar’s Rock. Legend has it that during gives the visitor a different experience from Western
the Ming dynasty the only Lingbis found were green rather cityscapes, which have open vistas with numerous oppor-
than black. tunities to see up and down thoroughfares. An analogy can
be made by comparing a Western landscape painting,
which is seen in totality from a fixed perspective, to a
Chinese landscape hand scroll, which must be viewed sec-
tion by section as it is unrolled. In Chinese architecture
and in such scrolls, the viewer experiences a series of dis-
crete visual incidents, which only cumulatively provide an
impression of totality.

FiGuRE 19.9 The Forbidden City, Beijing seen from the

north.
 CHINESE CIVILIZATION AFTER THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY 515

Then & Now

HONG KONG ways been a trading center, in part be- In 1984, an agreement between
cause the land is unsuitable for agricul- China and Britain called for the termi-
“ee history of Hong Kong, the island ture and lacks minerals and other natural nation of British rule in Hong Kong
city just off the coast of the Chinese resources. Since the 1960s, Hong Kong while maintaining its capitalist economy
mainland, has long been important to has developed one of the most successful and democratic governmental structure
China’s relations with the West. In the economies in Asia, outperforming those until 2047. Since 1997, with Hong
nineteenth century, the West began to of some Western countries, including Kong officially incorporated into the
pursue colonial ambitions in Asia, and the Great Britain. As Hong Kong’s eco- People’s Republic of China, it ostensibly
emperors of the declining Qing dynasty nomic value has increased, the city be- retains a social structure and democratic
were forced to make trade and territorial came a symbolic bone of contention government elected by the people of
concessions to encroaching Western pow- between China and Britain. Although Hong Kong. However, Beijing’s control
ers. Defeated by Great Britain in the the countries share an interest in Hong over the transitional governing council,
Opium War (1840-42), China ceded Kong’s stability and prosperity, they had and its increasing disregard for Hong
Hong Kong to Britain by the ‘Treaty of contrasting visions of Hong Kong’s pur- Kong’s democratic political culture,
Nanking (Nanjing) in 1842. In a renego- pose and management. For Britain, raise questions about the city’s future as
tiated settlement in 1898, Hong Kong, Hong Kong represented the crowning an engine of free economic enterprise.
along with two other local Chinese terri- achievement of its global economic ex- It remains to be seen whether, with its
tories, was “leased” to Britain until 1997, pansion. For China, Hong Kong stands new political status, Hong Kong will
when control of the city reverted to China. as an economic catalyst for the rest of the sustain its economic vitality and global
With one of the greatest deep-water country. influence.
harbors in the world, Hong Kong has al-

Ficure 19.10 Plan of the Imperial Palace, Beijing. Outside the

palace enclosure is Tiananmen Square. 1 Gate of Divine Pride; 2
Pavilion of Earthly Peace; 3 Imperial Garden; 4 Palace of Earthly
Tranquillity; 5 Hall of Union; 6 Palace of Heavenly Purity; 7 Gate
of Heavenly Purity; 8 Hall of the Preservation of Harmony; 9 Hall
of Perfect Harmony; 10 Hall of Supreme Harmony; 11 Gate of
Supreme Harmony; 12 Meridian Gate; 13 Kitchens; 14 Gardens; 15
Water
___Golden
River
Former Imperial Printing House; 16 Flower Gate; 17 Palace of the
Culture of the Mind; 18 Hall of the Worship of the Ancestors; 19
Pavilion of Arrows; 20 Imperial Library; 21 Palace of Culture; 22
Palace of Peace and Longevity; 23 Nine Dragon Screen.

Corner tower
516 CHAPTER 19

Critical Thinking
FENG SHUI to build a temple or a home, or where to because the Feng Shui master, who ad-
situate a grave, the topography of ter- vised the Li Ka Shing family who own
en the British handed Hong rain, its hills and fields and bodies of it, believed it would have a favorable ef-
Kong over to the Chinese in 1997, water, and their relationships to each fect on their wealth and fortune.
the new Chinese governor of the other are analyzed. Such considerations What do you think of the idea of
province, Tung Chee-hwa, had to select a and calculations can be quite complex; Feng Shui and the beliefs associated with
site for his offices. In order to do so, he hence the need for an expert geomancer it? To what extent do you agree that it is
brought with him a Feng Shui (Fung- with the requisite esoteric knowledge. important to consider the placement of a
SHWAY) master, who advised him re- Feng Shui, though not so popular home, tomb, or building with respect to
garding the appropriateness of various among young Chinese in the People’s its natural environment? And how does
prospective office locations. Feng Shui, Republic, is still used in rural China, this concept of Feng Shui compare with
which combines the Chinese words for Hong Kong, ‘Taiwan, Singapore, and the principles guiding the work of an ar-
“wind” and “water,” is the Chinese art of Malaysia, and it has practitioners in chitect such as Frank Lloyd Wright, es-
harmonizing people and their environ- Japan and Korea as well. One example pecially in the location of homes that he
ment. With its origins in Daoism and a of a building purportedly built with Feng designed?
three-thousand-year-old heritage, Feng Shui in mind is the Citigroup building In recent years, the practice of Feng
Shui addresses the design and layout of in Hong Kong, which was designed with Shui has become quite popular in the
cities and villages as well as houses and a curved facade to shield it from and de- West. Decisions in the West, however,
public buildings to achieve harmony with flect negative elements emanating from about where to build offices and houses,
the environment. a neighboring Bank of China building. may need to take into account historical
Feng Shui is grounded in the idea that Another is the Cheonk Kung Tower, factors or practical environmental con-
influences in the natural environment af- which is a “green” building inside and siderations. How important do you think
fect people’s fortunes. In deciding where built with its major entrance facing east these other factors are, and why?

LITERATURE of clouds would cause the landscape’s robe to fall open and
reveal its natural beauty to the poet’s eye, offering the
Traditional Poetry. Much of the poetry written during promise of human intimacy—which the image on its own
the Ming dynasty was used in other art forms such as does not even begin to suggest.
drama, fiction, music, and painting. The calligraphy at the
upper left of Shen Zhou’s Poet on a Mountaintop (fig. 19.4)
Yuan Hong-dao. Shen Zhou’s poem continues a long
is, in fact, a poem. Shen Zhou was not only an accom-
tradition of Chinese poetry and fits comfortably within it.
plished painter but a fine poet and, like many of his fellow
But by the late Ming dynasty, poetry began to change. The
artists of the Yuan and Ming dynasties, he was skilled at
finest poet of the era was Yuan Hong-dao (1568-1610),
many of the literati arts, which include music, seal carving,
who wrote, “The good painter learns from things, not
and prose essays. Shen Zhou’s poem reads:
from other painters. The good philosopher learns from
White clouds like a belt encircle the mountain’s waist his mind, not from some doctrine. The good poet learns
A stone ledge flying in space and the far thin road. from the panoply of images, not from writers of the past.”
I lean alone on my bramble staff and gazing contented into Yuan served, as did so many literati, as an official, but he
space semihumorously complained that “Superiors visit you like
Wish the sounding torrent would answer your flute. gathering clouds, travelers stop by like drops of rain, pa-
pers pile up like mountains, and oceans of taxes in cash or
Not only does the poem express an affinity for nature, grain must be collected; if you work and write morning
it contrasts the speaker’s isolation with the need for com- and night, you still can’t keep up with all of it! Misery, mis-
panionship, the sound of the flute announcing the arrival ery!” Nevertheless Yuan was able to write a number of
of a companion along the “far thin road” shrouded in mist. poems as well as prose on subjects as unusual as spider
The comparison of the fog to a belt, furthermore, trans- fights, before his death at the age of forty-two. His brother
forms the landscape into human terms. Removing the belt Yuan Zhong-dao was also an excellent poet, and he too
 CHINESE CIVILIZATION AFTER THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY 517

sometimes chose unusual subjects for his verse: One poem, Chinese poets, who sometimes feel lost between old tra-
for example, is about keeping’a pet rooster. ditions and new realities.
The Chinese poetry tradition continued into the Qing
dyasty, including among the Manchus who now ruled the
country. Almost all of the emperors themselves were poets, I’M FOREVER A STRANGER
and some wrote vast quantities. For example, over 42,000 I’m forever a stranger
poems have been attributed to the emperor Qianlong to this world.
(1736-96). However, prose fiction, focusing on the lives I don’t understand its language.
of merchants, servants, and petty officials, was the most It doesn’t understand my silence.
innovative literary development of the Qing dynasty. As if we’d met in a mirror,
a shadow of contempt
Cao Xueqin’s Dream of the Red Chamber. The most is all we exchange.
I’m forever a stranger
important work of Chinese literature written in the eigh-
to myself.
teenth century, considered by some the greatest Chinese Afraid of the dark,
novel, is The Dream of the Red Chamber by CAO XUE- I block with my body
QIN [TSAO SOOEH-CHIN] (1715-63). The novel is the only light.
enormous, with 120 chapters. The “red chamber” is where My only lover is my shadow,
the female characters live; the “dream” refers to the fore- my only enemy my heart.
telling of the fates of these characters.
The Dream of the Red Chamber has been read as a story
about the decline of a family, an allegory of Buddhist atti- MUSIC
tudes toward the world, and an autobiographical fiction
Chinese Theater Music. From the fourteenth through
adhering closely to the life of its author. It has also been
the seventeenth centuries, Chinese music was largely as-
considered a love story, a search for identity, and a quest
sociated with drama, especially with a form of musical
for understanding the purpose of human existence. The
drama known as Hsi-wen, which included musical arias or
book can be seen as a reflection of the many elements of
lyrical songs, spoken dialogue, dance, and mime—all with
mid-Qing elite life, including politics and religion, eco-
instrumental accompaniment. Two different styles devel-
nomics and aesthetics, love and family. Blending realism
oped. There was a northern style, ’e¢-chu, in which a pear-
with dream and fantasy, The Dream of the Red Chamber has
shaped lute (pipa) was the primary instrument for
been hailed as one of the most revealing works ever writ-
accompaniment, and singing was performed by one indi-
ten about Chinese civilization.
vidual. In the southern style, ti, the transverse flute (dizi)
was the primary instrument for accompaniment and nearly
Modern Chinese Poetry. Although fiction and drama
all the characters sang.
have long been a part of Chinese literary tradition, pride
During the 1500s, these two styles of musical drama
of place has always been accorded to poetry. Even when
merged in the Kun opera, which incorporated elaborate
poets swerved away from refined classical Chinese and
poetic texts and intricate plots with numerous scenes. Al-
began to write in the modern vernacular, poetry continued
though Kun opera became a more or less elitist form of
to command more respect than other literary genres.
musical drama owing to its intricacy and complexity, it did
While frequently working within ancient Chinese tradi-
have an influence on more popular forms of musical drama
tions, modern Chinese poets have also experimented with
that emerged in later centuries, including the Beijing
free verse and other styles and forms that emerged in Eu-
opera, a nineteenth-century development.
rope during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. With-
out directly imitating the literature of the Western world, Beijing Opera. Beijing opera has become one of the most
modern Chinese writers absorbed Western influences to popular musical forms of the twentieth century. Incorpo-
express contemporary Chinese cultural experiences, in- rating traditional styles of acting absorbed from the history
cluding the political circumstances of the age. Chairman of Chinese drama, Beijing opera possesses a distinctive
MAO ZEDONG [ZAY-DUNG] (1893-1976), the father liveliness, with colorful, fast-paced scenes based on ancient
of Chinese communism, wrote a number of poems cele- Chinese myths, legends, and fables.
brating the revolutionary ideal. Also political, but in di- The dramatic action of Beijing opera is highly stylized.
rect opposition to the established order of contemporary There are, for example, twenty-six distinct ways to laugh and
China, the poems of BEI DAO [BAY DOW] (b. 1949) re- thirty-nine specific ways to manipulate the twenty different
pudiate the oppressiveness of a society that, if it does not types of beards. The performers’ roles are divided into four
execute its dissenters, jails them. The Tiananmen Square major categories: male (sheng), female (dan), painted male
massacre of 1989 gives urgent meaning to the sentiments face (jing), and clown (chou). The male and female roles,
expressed in the poems by Bei and other contemporary all performed by men, are subdivided into roles for old men
518 CHAPTER 19

KANGXI AND QTANLONG: tity by outlawing intermarriage with flood control, for example, was based on
CHINESE RULERS, WRITERS, Chinese and by forbidding the Chinese Confucian precepts. In addition, he was
AND SCHOLARS to travel to Manchuria or to learn the an avid supporter of Confucian schools.
Manchus’ language. Kangxi’s grandson, Qianlong, contin-
“| ‘wo of the most important Chinese The emperor Kangxi was a strong ued his grandfather’s expansion of the
4 emperors, KANGXI [KANNG- ruler, who helped the Manchus consoli- empire into Turkestan and made Viet-
shi] (1661-1722) and QIANLONG date their power early in the Qing dy- nam, Burma, and Nepal vassal states.
[SHIEN- lahng] (1736-95), reigned dur- nasty. He expanded the Qing empire, Like Kangzi, Qianlong was well versed
ing the Qing dynasty (1644-1911). Both absorbing the island of ‘Taiwan, con- in scholarship. In addition to being a
were members of the Manchu, a people quering nomadic peoples of Mongolia more prolific poet than his grandfather
from Manchuria, who had been given and central China, and establishing a (he is reputed to have composed 100,000
important court responsibilities under protectorate in Tibet. A voracious reader, poems), Qianlong was a connoisseur of
the Ming emperors (1368-1644), espe- Kangxi was also a poet, and an advocate painting and calligraphy. Under his
cially toward the end of Ming rule, when of the Confucian classics, whose teach- reign, China prospered, remaining a
Manchu rulers supplanted them. Manchu ings he incorporated into his political well-organized, efficient, and extremely
rulers preserved their own cultural iden- policies. His agricultural program of wealthy country.

and roles without beards for young men, including the flir- FIGURE 19.11 An actor from the Beijing opera performing
tatious female and the lady of propriety (fig. 19.11). as the heroine Mu Guiying, a popular character who comes
The music for Beijing opera is performed by an or- from the Yang family of the eleventh century. She is the most
chestra arranged in two parts: a percussion section com- important of the women generals of the family—women who
posed of gongs and drums, and a melodic section of strings fought their enemies from the north.
and wind instruments. The percussion instruments play
introductory music prior to the characters’ entrances; they
also play between the singing and acting. The melodic in-
struments accompany the singing. Although the melodies
for the Beijing opera arias derive from traditional music,
there is often originality in their embellishment.
With the founding of the Communist People’s Repub-
lic of China in 1949, Chinese music was directed toward
social revolutionary purposes. Mao Zedong conscripted
all the arts, remarking that they “operate as powerful
weapons in unifying and educating the people and for at-
tacking and destroying the enemy.” Mao introduced two
influential artistic directives: (1) a return to folk tradition
and (2) an emphasis on political ideals and content in
music. From 1966 to 1969, at the height of the Cultural
Revolution, the only opera performances permitted in

Table 19-1 CHINESE ARTS

Landscape painting: Shen Zhou
Calligraphy: Zheng Xie
City planning: The Forbidden City
Theater music: Beijing Opera
Fiction: The Dream of the Red Chamber
Poetry: Bei Dao
 CHINESE CIVILIZATION AFTER THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY 519

Cross Curre nts

Se ee ae ee ae eR ge eee ee

THE PIPA AND THE GUITAR string tunings in common: A, D, and E. Another Chinese professional musi-
And performers on the two instruments cian, Xuefei Yang, a classical guitarist,
he pipa is a four-stringed lute of share some plucking techniques, includ- plays traditional Western classical guitar
middle-eastern origin with a pear- ing rapidly wheeling the fingers of the repertoire and also makes her own
shaped body of different sizes and which right hand over a string to create a sus- arrangements for guitar of traditional
included differing numbers of frets, as tained tremolo effect. Chinese music as well as contemporary
few as 10 and as many as 30. The pipa’s Contemporary professional players of music of Chinese composers. A recent
frets are made of wood, ivory, or jade and the pipa perform both traditional music album, Si Ji, which translates as “Four
its strings are made of silk. The pipa’s and modern compositions written for the Seasons,” is an example of this kind of
history is a long one, being mentioned instrument. They also play music of musical cross current. Sharon Isbin, still
in texts dating from the Han dynasty other cultures, including western music, another contemporary classical guitarist,
(206 B.C.E.-220 C.E.). Since the Tang dy- both popular and classical. The contem- has played in concert and has recorded a
nasty, the pipa has been among the most porary performers Wu Man and Liu guitar concerto by the contemporary
popular of Chinese musical instruments, Fang play pieces that embrace a variety Chinese composer Tan Dun. In her live
maintaining its appeal as both a cham- of world music, including the Indian and recorded performances of this music,
ber instrument and as a solo instrument. music of Ravi Shankar, as well as music she has, in certain moments, attempted
The popularity of the pipa can be from Korea, Japan, Ethiopia, Europe, to imitate the sound of the pipa with her
compared to that of the Spanish or clas- and the United States. Both of these guitar, yet another example of how these
sical guitar. Both instruments are plucked artists also play traditional Chinese two stringed instruments, one of ancient
with the fingernails, with the pipa pro- music, such as “Dance of the Yi People,” Chinese lineage, and the other develop-
ducing a sound resembling that of a a popular favorite often required by con- ing its repertory in nineteenth-century
harpsichord. They have three open- servatory juries of prospective students. Spain, continue to influence each other.

FiGuRE 19.12 Wu Man playing the Chinese pipa during a

performance of “Night Banquet,” directed by Cher Shi-Zheng,
Lincoln Center Festival, LaGuardia Concert Hall, NY.
Photograph © 2002 Linda Vartoogian/FrontRowPhotos. All
Rights Reserved. Since her move to the United States, in 1990,
Ms. Wu has greatly expanded her repertory and knowledge of
world music.
520 CHAPTER 19

Cultural Impact
hina’s impact on the rest of the pecially by the ceramic artisans of the particularly in interior design and decor,
world continues to be felt in many Tang, Song, and Ming dynasties.
The with modern and contemporary archi-
ways. Politically, China has developed its impact of China on Vietnam has been tects and interior designers following
own version of Marxist-Leninist com- both cultural and political. Well into the Chinese aesthetic principles of simplic-
munism. Economically, it has become a eighteenth century, the most important ity, balance, elegance, and harmony.
major player on the international scene, Vietnamese poetry, including the coun- Chinese furniture of the Ming dynasty
having joined the World Trade Organi- try’s epic, The Tale of Kieu, existed pri- continues to be popular in Western
zation and established trade relationships marily in Chinese. Politically, modern countries, as do various period styles of
with a number of important African, Vietnam inherited Chinese communism. ceramic ware. In the earlier twentieth
Asian, and European countries. In addition, both Vietnam and Korea ex- century, Chinese poetry, with its em-
Chinese cultural influence has ex- hibit the influence of Confucianism and phasis on images rather than discur-
tended into Asian countries, including Taoism, although Buddhism is a stronger siveneness, influenced American poets
Korea and Vietnam. Korean ceramics religious presence in Vietman. such as Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, and
owe a debt to China’s long tradition of The impact of the Chinese aesthetic William Carlos Williams.
ceramic ware, having been influenced es- ideal has been felt in the West as well,

China were eight revolutionary works deemed pure of the morning. China’s best known composer, XIAN XING-
taint of so-called bourgeois ideas and influences. HAI (SHEE-EN SHINH-he) (1905-40), wrote Yellow
Music played an important role throughout the Cul- River Cantata, which continued the persistent theme of
tural Revolution in extolling the glories of China and pro- revolutionary music by combining folk songs that extolled
viding ceremonial background to public events. One early the beauty of China and memorialized the hardships of
revolutionary song has been adapted for several purposes. the people.
“East Is Red” was written by a peasant in 1946 and per- In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries,
formed by three thousand workers, students, and soldiers the necessity for such strict adherence to political ideology
in 1964 to celebrate the fifteenth anniversary of the Pro- for musical composition and performance has diminished.
letarian Republic of China. This same song played as back- Although revolutionary themes dominate many modern
ground music in radio broadcasts of the time and as a Chinese musical works, Western influences, instruments,
wake-up call—from loudspeakers in the streets—every and performance practices are now apparent.
 CHINESE CIVILIZATION AFTER THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY 521

KEY TERMS
literati ’ei-chu sheng chou
wet-brush technique ti dan pipa
Hsi-wen Ching-hsi jing feng shui

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

hitp://www-chaos.umd.edu/history/imperial3.html
(An article that summarizes the Mongol and Ming dynasties ruling in China.)
hitp://www.chinats.com/beijing/ index.html
(The Forbidden City, Beijing, China.)
http://www.sinologic.com/literature.
html
(A page devoted to the poetry of Bei Dao and a brief biography.)
 CHAPTER 20

1542 Portuguese merchants first reach Japan

1868 —_—_Meiji Restoration establishes imperial government
fi . 1894-95 First Sino-Japanese War
Aee 1904-05 Russo-Japanese War
. 1937-45 _ Second Sino-Japanese War
1s Jopan at war with Western Allies

Se o ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE

~ Hees
:ia ne:a a7 Golden Pavilion of Kinkakuji erected ‘oe Be
es ; ake 1470s Sesshu, Winter Landscape
1581-1609 Himeji Castle
fe fe. wre casl83l Hokusai Katsushika, Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji
, 1857 — Ando Hiroshige, One Hundred Views of Edo

a 1689 Basho Matsuo, The Narrow Road of Oku

aie

1967 Takemitsu Toru, November Steps

1994 Oe Kenzaburo wins Nobel Prize for Literature

. ¥ . bi uva ‘ cs :
; rs tS ie ‘ e

j6
 Japanese Culture
after the Fifteenth Century

Katsushika Hokusai, The Great Wave ofKanagawa, from the series Thirty-Six Views ofMount Fuji,
Tokugawa period, ca. 1831, color woodblock print, 97 x 142" (25.5 X 37.1 cm). Private
Collection, Art Resource, NY.
ares ae

; Foreign ships attempt to |;

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Noshiro}, :
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100 Kilometers

Japan in 1853, when Commodore Perry reopened trade with the West.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

LATER JAPANESE CULTURE

Japan carefully gleans from the West what will make it an international power,
while maintaining its own cultural identity
524
 JAPANESE CULTURE AFTER THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 525

LATER JAPANESE CULTURE cially its mountain regions, and views the Japanese land
and people as superior to all others.
oward the end of over a century of feudal war- Accompanying the revival of Shinto was the rise of the
fare, known as the Warring States period (1477- feudal knight, or samurai, who was idealized as a native
1600), TOKUGAWA IEYASU [TOH-KOO- hero. Much like the medieval knight of Christendom, the
GAH-WA HYEH-YAH-SOO] (1542-1616) became the samurai was held to a strict code of conduct that empha-
shogun, or military ruler, of a newly unified Japan. The sized loyalty, self-sacrifice, and honor. The rejuvenation
Tokugawa family ruled the country from 1600 until 1868, of Shinto and of the samurai reflected an intense Japanese
retaining emperors as cultural and symbolic figures in Kyoto ethnocentrism and contributed to the isolationism of the
while making Edo (present-day Tokyo) the effective capital Tokugawa dynasty.
of the country. Under Confucian influence, society was or-
dered into classes of samurai (who during an age of peace
became government officials), farmers, artisans, and mer- LANDSCAPE PAINTING
chants, who theoretically had the lowest status but who rose
in power and importance in this period. The Tokugawa The respect for the land that distinguishes the Shinto re-
shogunate both unified the country and isolated it from ligion, combined with literati and Zen Chinese ink-style -
the outside world. Only the Dutch, relegated to a small is- painting traditions, were developed in the landscape paint-
land off Nagasaki, were permitted to trade with Japanese ing of the Muromachi period (1392-1568), which shows
merchants. It was through Dutch traders that Japan was ap- reverence for the grace and grandeur of nature and the
prised of developments in the West, but the government humble place of human beings within it. Japanese paint-
did its best to preserve Japan’s distinctive national culture ing suggests less a naturalistically rendered scene than an
and identity almost immune to outside influence. extension of unseen vistas beyond the explicity depicted
After the American military expedition led by Com- view. This pictorial tradition characterizes the Zen ideal of
modore Perry forced the Tokugawa regime to open its “capturing the principle of things as they move on.”
trade doors in the 1850s, Japan began to look to the West, Sesshu. Of Japanese Muromachi artists, the priest/painter
instead of to China, in its effort to transform itself into a SESSHU [SES-SHU] (1420-1506), more than anyone else,
modern nation-state. In 1868, Japan returned to rule by an took Chinese ink-style painting and made it Japanese. In
emperor and a parliament, inaugurating a period known as 1467-69, he traveled to China, where examples of landscape
the Meiji era (1868-1912), during which it enjoyed rapid painting greatly influenced his work. However, Sesshu was
economic development and a growth in national power. to put a distinctive, Zenlike mark upon the tradition, writ-
Japan adopted a constitution modeled on that of Germany; ing on his return that he had learned more from viewing
it eliminated the power of the shogunate, the samurai, and China’s mountains than from its painters, and the Japanese
their local vassals; and it began programs of industrializa- monk-artists of the past were his true teachers.
tion and universal education. His Winter Landscape (fig. 20.1) suggests the cold, brit-
Japan also began to exert its influence throughout the tle mood that the season inspires. Sesshu’s bold brush-
western Pacific. Through its victory in the war with China strokes and diagonal lines suggest the power of nature, as
of 189495, it acquired the island of ‘Taiwan (then called patches of blank paper signify snow and depict winter’s
Formosa) and gained influence over Korea. After its tri- starkness. In striking contrasts of black and white, the
umph in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5) and its alliance painting’s bold angular outlines convey a chilly strength;
with the victorious nations in World War I, Japan colo- the tiny figure travels through this dynamic scene as a pil-
nized Korea and parts of the Chinese mainland. When grim through the world.
Japan had to face the consequences of its defeat after Sesshu’s landscape scrolls possess some of the boldness
World War I, it turned to economic rather than military of his Chinese contemporary, Shen Zhou. Sesshu’s work,
means to achieve international power and influence. however, emphasizes strong lines. His extended vistas are
consistently subordinated to visual drama and experience,
reflecting the Zen qualities of immediate apprehension
and intuitive understanding.
THE SHINTO REVIVAL In Sesshu’s era, the shogunate favored Zen painting,
With the rise of the Tokugawa dynasty, Shinto was resur- just as they favored Zen monks as advisers and teachers.
rected as a state religion. Shinto, which literally means After 1600, however, the government turned to neo-Con-
“the way of the gods,” is a belief system indigenous to fucianists to be their advisers and teachers, and Zen be-
Japan; it involves rituals and veneration of local deities, came less dominant as a cultural force, although it was still
known as kami. In its most general sense, Shinto is a “re- significant. Instead of painter-monks, the leading Zen mas-
ligion” of Japanese patriotism. Less a system of doctrines ters now created paintings and calligraphy for their fol-
than a reverential attitude toward things Japanese, Shinto lowers, rather than to decorate palaces, mansions, and
emphasizes the beauty of the Japanese landscape, espe- castles.
526 CHAPTER 20

= a ee Os € Ys ne :

FIGURE 20.1 Sesshu, Winter Landscape, Japan, Ashikaga pe-

riod, ca. 1470s, hanging scroll, ink and slight color on paper,
184 x 115” (46.3 X 29.3 cm), Tokyo National Museum,
Tokyo. The harshness of the pictorial style, seen in this unsen-
timental representation of a wintry world, is characteristic of
Sesshu.

Hakuin Ekaku and Zen. Uakuin Ekaku (1685-1769) is

considered the most important Zen master of the past five
hundred years. Hakuin reached a wide audience, from FiGuRE 20.2. Hakuin Ekaku (1685-1768), Meditating Daruma,
farmers to samurai, with his paintings and writings. 49 x 21'’ (126 X 55 cm), ink on paper, Chikusei Collection.
Hakuin was only seven or eight years old when his The inscription comes from words attributed to Bodhidharma
mother, a devout Buddhist, took him to a fire-and-brim- (Daruma), the first Zen Patriarch: “Pointing directly to the
stone sermon by a famous traveling preacher. Deeply af- human heart/See your own nature and become Buddha.”
fected by the sermon. Hakuin determined that in order to
save his soul he would become a monk. He began his for-
mal Buddhist training at the age of fourteen, learning clas-
sical Chinese texts and Zen practice. He continued his This koan is traditionally the first that Zen monks begin
training for many years, practicing zazen (seated Zen med- meditating on trying to break though to their own Bud-
itation) and meditating on the koan (Zen riddle) in which dha-nature. Such koans, seemingly nonsensical questions
the Zen master Joshu is asked, “Does a dog have the Bud- and statements, are used by Zen masters to help their stu-
dha-nature?” Although all living beings possess this Bud- dents achieve enlightenment by breaking through the bar-
dha-nature, Joshu replies, “Mu” (literally, “no” or riers of rational dualistic thought. Students do not solve
“nothing”). koans logically, but rather dissolve them by transcending
 JAPANESE CULTURE AFTER THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 527

their illogicality without providing a logical explanation. In Japanese landscape, providing fresh interpretations of na-
understanding a koan, students bypass logic to arrive at an ture.
intuitive understanding. Woodblock prints were closely linked with the world
Hakuin began having enlightenment experiences at the of the Kabuki theater, which had a large and enthusiastic
age of twenty-four and eventually established himself as a audience. Prints of Kabuki actors were popular, as were
Zen master and teacher. He strove to convert complex Zen posters and programs featuring the actors in Kabuki roles.
ideas into everyday form by writing folk songs and poems In fact, print publishers frequently asked artists to create
that could be easily understood, such as his Song ofMedi- up-to-date images of the actors to sell during the run of a
tation. Just as significantly, he painted images that con- play. These prints usually showed the most dramatic mo-
veyed Zen teachings clearly, simply, directly, and often ments, such as when an actor paused in a crucial action to
humorously. Hakuin produced thousands of paintings and cross his eyes and hold a dramatic pose.
calligraphies and gave them to his monk and lay followers Utamaro Kitagawa. Of the artists producing woodblock
to help guide them on their own Zen journeys. In his prints for popular consumption, UTAMARO KITA-
painting of Daruma Meditating (fig. 20.2), Hakuin reveals GAWA [O0O-TAH-MAH-ROH] (1753-1806) is among
the intense concentration of the first Zen patriarch with the best known. Utamaro’s elegant, willowy, and lan-
bold brushstrokes and a tight composition. guorous women are typically rendered in full-length por-
Hakuin also created his own Zen koan, “What is the traits characterized by delicacy and refinement, but he also
sound of one hand clapping?” which has gained notoriety helped to develop the close-up print showing little more
in contemporary Western society. Although Hakuin than the face of some beautiful courtesan, often with a
stressed the importance of traditional zazen and koan study, mica background to enhance the decorative quality of the
he also strongly believed Zen should not be an isolated, portraits. One of the full-color woodblock prints, Painting
solitary experience, but should take place within every as- the Lips (fig. 20.3), shows a woman who has just blackened
pect of one’s existence. He taught that meditation within her teeth now applying color to her lips before a mirror.
the activities of daily life was just as important as seated She has not shaved her eyebrows, however, which women
silent meditation, and his influence continues to the pres- did when they married, so she can be identified as a cour-
ent day. tesan. The slightly turned position of her head and torso
adds visual drama without disrupting the elegance of her
posture.
WOODBLOCK PRINTS Hokusai Katsushika. HOKUSAI KATSUSHIKA [HOK-
KOO-SAT] (1760-1849), created a multitude of designs
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a style
of art called ukiyo-e became especially associated with and prints, which were produced in large editions. Hoku-
sai created some of his finest works after age seventy, in-
woodblock prints. Ukiyo means “floating world” in the
cluding his popular series Thirty-Six Views ofMount Fuji.
Buddhist sense of “transient” or “evanescent,” and
His The Great Wave off Kanagawa (fig. 20.4) is remarkable
ukiyo-e means “pictures of the floating world.” The Im-
for its depiction of the power of nature, with Mount Fuji,
pressionist painters of nineteenth-century Europe admired
a symbol of Japan’s enduring beauty and stability, small in
ukiyo-e prints enormously because, like them, Japanese
the distance. Although almost centered in the print, Fuji
artists were concerned with the world of everyday life, par-
is dwarfed by a giant wave, which threatens to crash on
ticularly of cultural enjoyments, such as dance, theater,
the boat beneath it. In this image, which is now known
music, games, and travel.
worldwide, Hokusai contrasts the transience of everyday
Prior to the seventeenth century, woodblock prints were
existence, the fragility of life, to the more enduring majesty
used almost exclusively to make inexpensive Buddhist im-
ages for the public. With the increased interest in every-
of Fuji.
day life of the Tokugawa period, the subject matter of Ando Hiroshige. HIROSHIGE [HE-ROH SHEE-
prints expanded, and the spread of literacy meant a wider GUH] (1797-1858), like Hokusai preferred landscapes to
public for woodblock-printed books, often with illustra- portraits. Also like Hokusai, Hiroshige produced many
tions. Gradually, single-sheet prints of the “floating world” prints as parts of various series of woodblock prints of land-
became popular, and new techniques for color reproduc- scapes. Among his most famous and important works are
tion were developed. the series of prints One Hundred Views ofEdo. Number 58
For the expanding public in big cities such as Edo of that series shows a characteristic scene of high summer
(Tokyo) with an appetite for entertainment, color wood- when the humid heat dissolves into streaking slanting rain.
block prints represented the world of human pleasures. Hiroshige captures the suddenness of the downpour, show-
Many eighteenth-century prints celebrated the beautiful ing elegant ladies and bare-legged men caught unawares
courtesans of the Yoshiwara, the pleasure district of Tokyo; on a bridge, while other figures are depicted crouching
a significant percentage of prints were erotic. In the nine- under umbrellas, huddling under straw capes, or rushing
teenth century, artists also turned their attention to the for the nearest protection.
528 CHAPTER 20

FiGuRE 20.4 Katsushika Hokusai, The Great Wave ofKana-

gawa, Japan, from the series Thirty-Six Views ofMount Fuji,
Tokugawa period, ca. 1831, color woodblock print, 97 x 143"
(25.5 X 37.2 cm), Private Collection, Art Resource, NY.
Among the best known of allJapanese woodblock prints, this
image, an icon representing Japan, contrasts the powerful en-
ergy of the ocean’s waves with the stable serenity of the distant
snow-capped mountain in the background.

FicureE 20.5 Ando Hiroshige, Sudden Shower Over Atake,

Number 58 of One Hundred Views of Edo, 1857. Woodblock
print, color, 105 x 15” (26.7 X 38 cm). British Museum,
London. As with many of Hiroshige’s masterpieces, this mint
represents not just the view, but also mood and atmosphere.

FiGuRE 20.3. Utamaro Kitagawa, Kuchi-bini (Painting the

Lips), Tokugawa period, color woodcut with printed glue,
ca.1794-95. 144 x gin (36.5 X 24.8 cm). New York Public
Library Photographic Services, Art Resource, NY. The strong
composition contrasts with the delicate face of this woman as
she applies her makeup.

ARCHITECTURE
Architectural styles in early modern Japan differ from those
of previous eras and from one another. During the Muro-
machi period, the Ashikaga shoguns attempted to fuse
styles inherited from their predecessors. During the next
era, the Momoyama era, secular architecture became in-
creasingly grandiose and elaborate. This architectural ex-
uberance was tempered during the Tokugawa, with a more
restrained aesthetic.

The Temple of the Golden Pavilion (Kinkakuji). One of

the most interesting and elegant buildings constructed
during the Muromachi period was the Kyoto landmark,
Kinkakuji, known as the Temple of the Golden Pavilion
(fig. 20.6). Erected in 1397 under the shogun Yoshimitsu
(1358-1408), the Golden Pavilion, so named because parts
of the exterior are covered with gold leaf, was originally a
private chapel designed for Yoshimitsu’s villa in Kyoto.
After his death, it was converted into a Buddhist temple
 JAPANESE CULTURE AFTER THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 529

FiGureE 20.6 ‘Temple of the Golden Pavilion (Kinkakuji), Kyoto, Muromachi period, 1397.
The building was constructed for the shogun as a retreat and converted to a temple after his
retirement.

and monastery, with a Zen meditation hall and rooms for

contemplating the landscape and the moon. Its three sto-
ries culminate in a curving Chinese-pyramidal and Japan- FIGURE 20.7 Himeji Castle, Hyogo (near Osaka), Mo-
ese-shingled roof. The pavilion is set on a platform that moyama period (1581-1609). Popularly known as White
juts into a pond surrounded by trees, which are carefully Heron Castle, Himeji was built as a fortress by powerful
planted to create a look of natural variety and profusion. Japanese warlords.
The structure seems simultaneously set off from and into
the landscape in a harmonious blending of nature and civ-
ilization. The overall effect is one of spontaneous sim-
plicity.

Himeji Castle. In contrast to the elegant simplicity of

Muromachi religious and domestic architecture, military
architecture developed in the Momoyama period. In ear-
lier military fortresses, the living quarters of the daimyo,
or lord, were separated from the defensive fortifications.
During the Momoyama, home and fortifications were
combined into a single massive edifice designed to dis-
courage attack. The interior, however, was richly deco-
rated to impress visitors with its owner’s wealth.
Himeji (fig. 20.7), begun by the shogun Hideyoshi in
1581 and enlarged and completed in 1609, is an
530 CHAPTER 20

Ora Glawu-thas
East MEETS WEST: ments such as the biwa (lute) and the instrumental in organizing cultural ex-
shakuhachi (bamboo flute originally changes between Japan and the United
TAKEMITSU TORU
played by Zen monks). States. Takemitsu enriched his harmonic
f contemporary Japanese com- Takemitsu became known in the West palette through the influence of French
posers, among the best known in through Igor Stravinsky (see Chapter Impressionist composers such as De-
the West is TAKEMITSU TORU 18), who championed his work, and bussy. He also found inspiration for his
[TAH-KEY-MEET-SOO] (1930-1996). Aaron Copland (see Chapter 21), who music in nature, at one time describing
Takemitsu wrote for film and television considered him “one of the outstanding himself as “a gardener of music,” a title
as well as for the concert hall. His con- composers of our time.” Serving as that reflects his interest in the combina-
cert works include symphonic orchestral a bridge between East and West, tion of natural beauty and cultured for-
pieces, compositions for chamber or- Takemitsu brought works by Japanese mality typical of Japanese landscape
chestras, and works for voices. Takemitsu composers to the attention of Western gardens. Titles of his works often reflect
scored his orchestral works for both performers and introduced Western mu- connotations of nature, as in “Riverrun,”
Western and traditional Japanese instru- sical innovations to Japan. He was also “Eclipse,” and “Toward the Sea.”

outstanding example of castle architecture. The exterior of meant to evoke the essence of the Japanese landscape as
the castle’s main building is constructed of massive ma- well as to follow representations of nature in Japanese art.
sonry, made necessary by the introduction of Western Asa result, gardens reflect Japanese cultural aesthetics, in-
firearms and cannons. The castle rises from a moat, with cluding asymmetrical balance, subtle proportion, overall
towers soaring fifty to sixty feet above the water. Atop this unity, and visual harmony.
impregnable masonry foundation sits a four-story wooden
structure reminiscent of temple architecture.
LITERATURE
THE JAPANESE GARDEN Prior to 1600, literature in Japan had been aristocratic or
religious in focus, written by court figures or monks for
The Japanese garden is essentially landscape architecture. an educated audience. After 1600, however, literature de-
Aesthetically, it is tied to Japanese painting. Many Muro- veloped more popular subject matter and was produced
machi gardens were designed by prominent artists, in- by writers from a wider social spectrum.
cluding Sesshu, who shaped the raw materials of nature to
appear like a carefully inked scroll. Some gardens were de- Saikaku Ihara. While Murasaki’s twelfth-century The
signed for contemplation, others for meandering. In ei- Tale of Genji (see Chapter 9) is generally considered the
ther case, with their neatly raked patterns of sand and first great Japanese novel, the novels of SAIKAKU IHARA
carefully positioned shrubs and stones, Japanese gardens [SIGH-KAY-KOO] (1642-1693), especially his The Life
are conducive to meditation. of an Amorous Man, The Life of an Amorous Woman, and
Larger-scale gardens might also be carved out of na- Five Women Who Loved Love, achieved great popularity in
ture in the manner of the large glen surrounding the their day. Earlier adventure novels had explored sexuality,
Golden Pavilion of Kinkakuji. Other types include moss but Saikaku’s inventive technical experiments with style
gardens, which present nature in microcosm. A Zen-style and point of view were largely responsible for the legit-
“dry” garden might be designed with sand, which was used imization of the subject matter.
to suggest water, punctuated by “islands” of rocks. Five Women Who Loved Love remains Saikaku’s most
One of the most famous of the Zen-inspired gardens is highly regarded book. By exploring the desires of his five
the Daisen-in monastery garden (fig. 20.8) in Kyoto, de- female protagonists, Saikaku suggests their kinship with
signed by the painter Soami (d. 1525). This 1,100-square- the court ladies of earlier Japanese literature. His mer-
foot garden lies alongside the priest’s house. Its vertical chant wives experience the same passions as courtesans,
rocks represent cliffs; horizontal stones represent em- but they are more willing to sacrifice everything, even their
bankments and bridges. The trees in the background sym- lives, for love. Although modeled on actual people,
bolize distant mountains. Saikaku’s five heroines are not as highly individualized as
Larger, more elaborate Japanese gardens include characters from nineteenth-century European novels such
bridges and pagodas as well as plants. These designs are as Flaubert’s Emma Bovary or ‘Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina.
 THE SAMURAI CODE selves to a single company for their rank carries with it a set of responsibilities
working lives. Japanese baseball players, such that honor is always at stake. In sit-
’T “he code of the samurai consisted of too, play for a single team in Japan rather uations where an individual has failed or
LL five aspects: loyalty, hierarchy, brav- than looking for better and better deals disappointed his superiors, there is a
ery, self-control, and shame. Samurai with different teams, as players do in the sense of shame and dishonor. In medieval
were loyal to their aristocratic lords, who United States. To some extent, this kind times, the failed samurai warrior would
rewarded them with land in return for of total loyalty is beginning to break commit ritual suicide with his own sword.
military service. The samurai themselves down, as global markets undermine During the financial setbacks of the
were watrior aristocrats with a keen Japanese businesses and some Japanese 1990s, a number of Japanese businessmen
sense of rank and hierarchy. And al- ball players come to America to play in committed suicide for failing their com-
though the age of the samurai ended in the major leagues. Nonetheless the cul- panies, families, and coworkers.
the late twelfth century during the Ka- tural ideal of loyalty to a single entity re- The Japanese warrior code, bushido,
makura shogunate, the samurai ideal has mains pervasive in Japan. was apparent during World War II as
had a strong influence on Japanese cul- Hierarchy, too, remains pervasive in Japanese kamikaze pilots defended the
ture, both in peacetime and during Japanese culture. It can be found in rela- honor of country and emperor by flying
wartime. Many samurai values, in fact, tionships in every sector and level of so- their airplanes on suicide missions into
remain embedded in the fabric of con- ciety, from business and government to enemy ships. And although contemporary
temporary Japanese society. university life, from religion to the mili- Japanese are questioning their allegiance
The importance of loyalty, for exam- tary, and among spouses and relatives of to the ancient samurai code of bushido, its
ple, can be seen in the way Japanese those holding positions of rank and au- cultural values continue to exert a strong
workers and businesspeople bind them- thority. The flip side of the emphasis on pull, even in the midst of cultural change.

eaeea a aca a

FIGURE 20.8 Attributed to Kagaku Soku, Garden of the Daisen-in monastery, Daitokuji
temple, Kyoto, Japan, sixteenth century. Although used primarily for meditation, this garden
served also as a place of assembly for Zen priests and samurai to compose renga, linked verses
of poetry composed communally.
532 CHAPTER 20

Saikaku’s characters, however, are engaging figures, whose while traveling, and metaphorically, for the journey of life.
actions anticipate the behavior of more modern Japanese The final word kakemeguru, translated here as “withered
fictional heroines. fields,” brings home with precision and elegance the in-
evitable fact of his dying.
Haiku. Haiku are three-line poems consisting of a total Yosa Buson and Kobayashi Issa. Haiku master Yosa
of 17 syllables in a pattern of 5, 7, and 5 syllables per line. Buson (1716-1784) was equally well known as a literati
In the past four hundred years, haiku has been the most painter. Many of his haiku have a strong visual element.
popular form of poetry in Japan, and in the past century it Buson taught that the poet should use ordinary language
has also been extremely influential in the West. The to express what is beyond the ordinary.
essence of a good haiku is a momentary, implicitly spiritual,
insight presented without explicit comment. According to Shojo to shite Bleak and lonely
Ishi ni hi no ireru the sun penetrates the rocks
conventions established in the seventeenth century, the
kareno kana in the withered field
haiku must have imagery from nature, and usually includes
reference to a season while avoiding rhyme. The haiku Poet Kobayashi Issa (1763-1827) lived a tragic life; his
poet attempts to create an emotional response in the reader wife and several children died before he did. Issa, who in-
by penetrating to the heart of the poem’s subject, thus vested his poetry with great compassion for all living crea-
evoking a sudden moment of awareness. tures, may be the best loved of all Japanese poets.
Yare utsu na “Don’t hit me!”
Basho Matsuo. Haiku reached its greatest artistic hae ga te wo suru the fly wrings his hands
heights with the poems of BASHO MATSUO [BAH- ashi wo suru and wrings his feet
SHOH] (1644-94). Basho began his life as a member of
In more modern times, the poet and critic Masaoka
the samurai class, but he gave up this life to become a
Shiki (1867-1902) admired Buson for his ability to express
wandering poet. Strongly influenced by the Tang masters
emotion through imagery; his own haiku often convey a
Du Fu and Li Bai (see Chapter 3), Basho took from his
tinge of melancholy. One of Shiki’s finest haiku has been
Chinese predecessors their austerity and loneliness while
misattributed to Buson:
absorbing their sense of humor. His poems, like theirs,
convey an enjoyment of life and express regret at life’s im- Yuku ware ni For me leaving
permanence, in Basho’s case with a minimum of words todomaru nare ni and you staying—
aki futatsu two autumns
and images.
In his desire to distance himself from the clever haiku Haiku in modern Japan has gone in two directions. A
popular in his day, Basho developed a distinctive style that great number of poets strive to follow the traditional rules
reflected the realities of everyday living while suggesting of seventeen syllables and a seasonal reference; others ad-
spiritual depths and intellectual insights. Humor is read- vocate an approach that breaks the formal rules in order to
ily apparent in this haiku, written on a journey Basho made follow the spirit of haiku: a subtle expression of meaning
in 1689. On the road he saw a monkey caught in a sudden through natural images through which the reader becomes
rain shower, and moved by its evident distress, he com- an equal partner with the poet.
posed the following: The monk ‘Taneda Santoka (1882-1940) was a leading
exponent of free haiku. He wrote of himself, “A foolish
hatsushigure First rain of winter— traveler, I have only a life of wandering, like grasses float-
saru mo komino wo the monkey too seems to want ing from one bank to the other, the shadows of my heart
hoshige nari a little straw raincoat.
changing as life provides for me.” One of his rule-break-
ing poems has a combination of eight and seven syllables
Even in this humorous vision, we can detect Basho’s pro-
in its two lines:
found sense of what the Latin poet Virgil called “the tears
of things.” When Basho was ill and approaching death, he Yama no shizukasa e ‘To the mountain silence—
composed the following haiku, which evokes his sense of shikuzanaru ae silent rain
solitude. Haiku has become the most international of all forms
of poetry. Most writers in other countries do not follow
tabi ni yande Sick on a journey, the 5-7-5 rule, since languages such as English compress
yume wa kareno wo my dreams wander over
more meaning in fewer syllables, but the ideal of brief
kakemeguru withered fields.
poems expressing meaning indirectly through images from
This haiku, the last Basho ever wrote, was titled “Com- nature, including human nature, continues to inspire peo-
posed in Illness” by the poet. Providing a title was highly ple all over the world.
unusual; Basho knew the severity of his illness. He used Modern Fiction. Modern Japanese literature is tradi-
the image of the journey both literally, for he became ill tionally dated from the beginning of the reign of the Meiji
 JAPANESE CULTURE AFTER THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 533

Connections

BUNRAKU: JAPANESE PUPPET nied by a samisen (three-string banjo) gle actor-speaker recounts tales from the
THEATER player, both of whom typically sit on a ancient myths and legends. In Bunraku
dais set off to the side of the stage. Un- the narrator is the voice of all the puppets,
Ithough puppets were used in Japan- like Kabuki actors, who are the main at- whose movements are controlled by pup-
se ceremonies and festivals at least traction for a Kabuki audience, the pet masters dressed in black. Like their
as early as the eleventh century, it was puppeteers, the samisen accompanist, and ancient Greek counterparts, the early
during the Tokugawa period that the the narrator are all self-effacing. Their Bunraku plays celebrate ancient tales of
puppet theater, or Bunraku, developed job is not to impress the audience and Japanese culture, such as stories from The
and flourished. The texts of Bunraku win applause, but rather to bring the play Tale ofGenji (see Chapter 9). Chikamatsu,
plays were more distinguished than those to the audience in such a way that they however, shifted the grounds of Bunraku
of Kabuki, with the best of them com- are all but forgotten while the audience from an emphasis on heroic stories of the
posed by CHIKAMATSU MONZAE- concentrates on the action of the pup- past to situations involving ordinary peo-
MON [CHICK-A-MAHT-SU] (1653- pets and the language of the play. ple in his own time. Foreigners who view
1724), who is considered by many the In its reliance on the rhythmic pacing Bunraku are usually amazed how much
greatest Japanese dramatist. Written in of the stringed samisen and the narrator’s depth of feeling can be evoked in a form
poetic language, Chikamatsu’s Bunraku chanting, Bunraku can be compared with of theater that in the West is usually per-
plays had a narrator and were accompa- the earliest Greek dramas, in which a sin- formed as entertainment for children.

emperor in 1868. During the Mejji era (1868-1912) a THEATER

number of Westernizing reforms were introduced into
Japanese economic, social, educational, and cultural life. There are two primary types of Japanese music for the-
Literacy was increasing dramatically, and writers began to ater: Noh and Kabuki. Each is a distinctive form, with dif-
use colloquial Japanese rather than the language of classi- ferent musical conventions. Noh drama was developed in
cal Japan. These changes, which parallel those in China the fifteenth century, during the age of warrior control;
at the turn of the twentieth century, inaugurated a period Kabuki theater emerged in the seventeenth century under
of modern fiction that is recognized for its elegance, sub- the influence of merchant culture.
tlety, and grace. Japanese authors, such as Nobel Prize Nob. Literally meaning “an accomplishment,” Noh con-
winner Oe Kenzaburo, have frequently written what are sists of dances, dialogue and songs by the main actors, and
called “confessional novels” centering on the experience of music from a ji, or chorus. The instruments used to ac-
the protagonist told from his or her own point of view. In company the singing are collectively referred to as the
most cases, however, modern Japanese novels reflect a hayashi. The hayashi ensemble consists of a nokan, or
larger-scale struggle between traditional Japanese values flute; an 0-tsuzumi, a type of hourglass drum held on the
and new influences from the Western world. hip; a ko-tsuzumi, a shoulder drum; and a taiko, or stick
The fiction of modern Japan therefore reflects a strong drum on a stand. During the entire time actors perform a
concern with identity, both cultural and individual. Prizing Noh drama, the musicians of the /ayashi remain on stage,
communal values, Japanese have wondered at the West- their musical actions choreographed as part of the drama
ern emphasis on the autonomy of the individual self. alongside the words and gestures of the actors.
TANIZAKI JUN’ICHIRO [TAH-NEE-ZAH-KEE] Noh is distinguished from other forms of drama by its
(1886-1965) explored these themes. Depicting Japan’s solemnity. Even the happier moments are performed with
changing cultural terrain, his works examine the conse- a seriousness and gravity that make them sound ritualistic.
quences individuals face when set free from cultural con- Originally, Noh plays were performed by Shinto priests to
straints to pursue personal ambitions and desires. Many placate the gods. Later, from the fourteenth through the
of Tanizaki’s characters live as modern Japanese, and the seventeenth centuries, the plays were performed by pro-
results of their self-assertion and self-aggrandizement pro- fessional actors wearing masks, one of the genre’s distin-
duce guilt and alienation: guilt for abandoning long-valued guishing features. The limited plot action, the highly poetic
cultural norms, and alienation as a result of being cut off texts, and the understated stylized gestures differentiate
from the solidarity of the group. Noh plays from the realistic plays of Western theater.
534 CHAPTER 20

Cross Currents

East MEETS WEST: THE FILMS ranchers and farmers familiar from plete with ambiguity, uncertainty, and
American Westerns. The film depicts the contradiction, the four versions under-
OF AKIRA KUROSAWA
breakdown of social barriers, as aristo- cut the attempt to fix the truth with any
ethesof the greatest Japanese film di- cratic samurai fight victoriously along- certainty.
rectors, producers, and screenwrit- side peasants against an alien enemy. A number of Kurosawa’s films were
ers, Akira Kurosawa (1910-98), is also Rashomon, based on a story by Ryuno- inspired by, or adapted from, Western
one of the most popular in the West. His suke Akutagawa, is a very different kind literary works. His Throne of Blood was
Rashomon (1950) was remade by Holly- of film. Set in the Heian period inspired by Shakespeare’s Macbeth; Ran
wood as The Outrage (1964) and his Seven (794-1184), the film depicts an en- by King Lear; and The Bad Sleep Well by
Samurai (1954) as the Magnificent Seven counter between a husband, wife, and Hamlet. Tolstoy’s The Death ofIvan llych
(1960). Both Hollywood versions of bandit, during which the wife is raped inspired Kurosawa’s [kiru, and another
Kurosawa’s films were Westerns, a cine- and the husband killed. The film’s nar- of his films adapted Dostoyevsky’s The
matic form that Kurosawa himself knew rative action is described four times from Idiot. In addition, Kurosawa was influ-
well and to which he was deeply in- four points of view, that of each of its enced by the American film maker John
debted. Seven Samurai, notable for its three protagonists and a fourth narrated Ford, who made many Westerns, and
dramatic and violent action, closeups, by a woodcutter who witnessed the Kurosawa was himself a significant in-
moving cameras, and contrasting scenes event. Kurosawa’s film calls truth and ob- fluence on a number of American film-
of lyricism, presents a Japanese variation jectivity into question, as each of the four makers, including George Lucas, maker
on the opposition between Western tells a different version of the story. Re- of the Star Wars films.

Kabuki. During the first years of the Tokugawa period, The golden era of Japanese filmmaking began in 1950
a type of theater that includes more lively song and dance with the production of Rashomon by the acclaimed direc-
was performed in Kyoto. The first Kabuki were short dra- tor Akira Kurosawa, which won a number of international
matic dances, performed by women, accompanied by song prizes. Kurosawa also based a number of films on the plays
and percussion, that celebrated the exploits of heroes, es- of Shakespeare, most notably, perhaps, Throne of Blood, a
pecially the samurai. However, scandals concerning rela- modernized samurai adaptation of Macbeth. Other Japan-
tions between noblemen and the actresses led to this form ese directors of the 1950s include Mizoguchi Kenji, whose
of theater, like Noh, being performed only by men. Dur- Tales of Ugetsu and The Life of Oharu joined Kurosawa’s
ing the eighteenth century, with the works of Chikamatsu, Seven Samurai as popular films in both Japan and abroad.
Kabuki developed a repertoire of plays based on the daily A contemporary cinematic development in Japan is
lives of peasants and merchants. Unlike Noh drama, which anime, a word derived from French and English and de-
looked back to the glories of the Middle Ages, Kabuki fo- noting highly sophisticated animated films. InJapan ani-
cused on the present. In contrast to the solemnity and mated films occupy a place of pride in the film genre
decorum of Noh drama, Kabuki performances were melo- hierarchy, and they are taken as seriously as any other kind
dramatic and suggestive of the actors’ seductive charms. of film. Anime films in Japan are not just cartoons for chil-
Developed in response to the needs of an urban audience, dren, but rather extend to many genres, including science
Kabuki includes popular drama along with various types of fiction, action and adventure films, as well as romantic
dance and music, some of which are performed onstage films and historical dramas. Targeting all age groups,
and some offstage.
Cinema/Anime. Japan has long had a vibrant film in-
dustry and a proud cinematic tradition. In the early
twentieth century, most Japanese films were simply cin- Landscape painting: Sesshu
ematic renditions of staged plays and other theatrical Woodblock prints: Hokusai
performances. During the 1920s, however, Japanese Architecture: Golden Pavilion
films began to deal with both period and modern themes Landscape gardens: Garden of the Daisen-in Monastery
and to exist independently of theater productions. Samu-
Haiku poetry: Basho
rai films became a staple, and they remain an important
film genre to this day. Theater: Noh and Kabuki
 JAPANESE CULTURE AFTER THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 535

Critical Thinking
THE ECONOMIC FUTURE dle range auto market from American in the auto market both from a resurgence
OF JAPAN auto manufacturers. of makers of luxury cars, including Mer-
Japan had a similar success with con- cedes, Audi, and BMW, as well as from
fter the Second World War, Japan sumer electronics goods, especially with South Korean manufacturers of mid and
mbarked on a program of educa- televisions, radios, and the “Sony Walk- lower priced cars, such as Hyundai.
tion and business innovation that led the man,” at least until the Apple Computer What does Japan need to regain its
country to develop one of the world’s Corporation displaced the Walkman with position as a market leader in these in-
most successful economies. Japanese its ubiquitous and wildly successful Ipod. dustries? To what extent is it possible for
auto manufacturers modeled their prod- Japan is facing fierce competition in con- Japan to become a world leader again? ‘To
ucts on luxury cars made in Germany, sumer electronics both from American what extent does the rise of China as an
and before long were taking a large per- companies like Apple and from South Ko- economic power complicate Japan’s eco-
centage of the high-end auto market rean companies like Samsung, which has nomic future? How much time, effort,
from the Germans, after having success- surpassed Japan as the leading electronics initiative, and investment will be needed
fully taken much of the lower and mid- company. And it is also facing competition for Japan to achieve economic success?

anime films explore philosophical questions and social is- bana), along with literature, especially poetry, which has
sues, develop complex plots, and provide stunningly real- long been popular in Japan.
istic animated visuals.

The World of the Geisha. Historically, geisha, or women

CONTEMPORARY MUSIC
who served as “professional entertainers,” or “artist en- Oe Hikari. ‘The story of the contemporary composer
tertainers,” were skilled at art, music, dance, storytelling, OE HIKARI [OH-AY HEE-KAH-REE] (b. 1963), son
and even a simple kind of juggling. They are typically hired of the Nobel Laureate for Literature in 1994, Oe Kenz-
to attend parties, sometimes at tea houses, sometimes at aburo, is one of the more unusual accounts of the making
traditional Japanese restaurants. Arrangements are made of an artist. Oe Hikari was born with a life-threatening
through a geisha union office. Geisha originated as skilled growth on his brain. Against the advice of doctors, his par-
professional entertainers, with most of them being male. ents decided to have the growth removed, even though
Over time, the number of male geisha dwindled, and by part of Hikari’s brain had to be sacrificed. The surgery
the early nineteenth century, female geisha vastly out- saved his life but left him severely brain damaged, so that
numbered them. it was difficult for him to communicate using language.
Popular Western misconceptions of geisha confuse He did not make a sound until the age of six, when he re-
them with prostitutes. However, this has not, historically, sponded to bird calls in the wild by imitating them per-
been the case, but rather the exception. This confusion fectly, an early indication that he possessed an unusual
has been exacerbated by Japanese prostitutes, who have aural ability. His parents soon realized he had memorized
traded on the image of the geisha by presenting themselves more than seventy distinctive bird calls from a recording
to tourists as “geisha.” Additional confusion has resulted given to him at the age of four.
from the portrayal of geishas in popular novels and films Although Oe’s verbal language remains limited, his
like the recent Memoirs ofa Geisha. imagination has allowed him to compose music, begin-
Like other kinds of work involving the development of ning after piano lessons at the age of eleven. His work
skills, such as the skilled trades in western countries, the shows an instinctive appreciation of melody and an incli-
path for the maika, or geisha in training, to full geisha sta- nation toward the harmonic traditions of Western music
tus was long and arduous. It required dedication and com- from the seventeenth through the nineteenth centuries.
mitment over a span of many years. Traditionally, geisha Oe’s music is deeply indebted to the musical styles of Bach,
began their training while very young, with some girls sold Mozart, and Chopin. Most of his compositions are brief
to geisha houses as children. Today, however, many women and lyrical, conveying sorrow and joy, serenity and exu-
begin their careers as geisha in adulthood, while others berance.
begin their training after high school. Geisha, today, still
study traditional Japanese musical instruments, such as the Koto Music. Like much else in Japanese culture, a pred-
shamisen and the shakuhachi, and they still learn classical ecessor of the koto came to Japan from China during the
Japanese dance, the tea ceremony, flower arranging (ike- late seventh and early eighth centuries. Chinese and
536 CHAPTER 20

Korean musicians came with this zither-like instrument to musicians, most of whom were blind, and who belonged to
play it in the Japanese court orchestra. About two hun- a special guild. As with other crafts, the koto repertoire
dred years later, the koto was being used as a solo instru- was passed down through apprenticeship and was played
ment of the aristocracy. The earliest extant koto music from memory. The most famous of the koto masters was
dates from the sixteenth century and was used in Buddhist a blind musician named Yatsuhashi Kengyo, considered
temple ceremonies. Performance of koto music at that the father of modern koto music; like other koto masters,
time was restricted to priests, scholars, and aristocrats. he was also a teacher of young women from wealthy Japan-
The best known and most important traditional koto ese families.
music dates from the Edo period (1615-1868) when Japan’s The koto is used for solos, for duets, often with the
capital moved to Edo, currently Tokyo. Although Japan- shakuhachi, a five-holed end-blown bamboo flute, and for
ese society was isolated during most of this period, Japan- vocal accompaniments. It is also sometimes coupled with
ese merchants served as catalysts for artistic developments the shamisen, a plucked lute-like instrument with three
in music, kabuki, and woodblock prints. Music for the koto strings. Most koto music is based on pentatonic (five-tone)
during the early Edo was intended for entertainment scales that correspond to CDEGA or CDEbGAb on the
rather than to accompany religious ceremonies. It was piano. In fact, the koto is to Japanese music what the piano
composed not by priests or scholars but by professional is to western music—an extremely important instrument.

FiGuRE 20.9 Yuki Yamada, playing the Japanese koto with the Kifu Mitsuhashi Ensemble at
the Japan Society, NY. Photograph © 2003 Jack Vartoogian/FrontRowPhotos. All Rights Re-
served.
 JAPANESE CULTURE AFTER THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY 537

Cultural Impact
apan’s impact on the rest of the on Japanese themes, emphasizing the el- In filmmaking, director Akiru Kuro-
world continues to be felt in various egance and graceful lines of Japanese art. sawa’s samurai films have influenced
ways. Since the 1950s, Japan has been Van Gogh collected Hokusai’s wood- American Westerns, especially the films
an important world economic power block prints, many of which can be seen of John Ford and Sam Peckinpah, and
and a significant trading partner of the today, hanging alongside van Gogh’s own can be seen in the recent The Last Samu-
United States and Europe as well as of paintings in the van Gogh museum in rai, although Kurosawa’s influence ex-
Asian countries. Its dominance of elec- Amsterdam. Other Western painters, in- tends beyond this genre. His Rashomon,
tronics, particularly CD players, radios, cluding the American James McNeill which presents a single story told from
speakers, and stereo equipment, is par- Whistler, introduced Japanese elements the perspectives of a narrator and each
alleled by the popularity of its automo- into their works. of its three characters, remains influen-
biles across a range of price categories, Japanese music influenced Western tial as an example of multiple perspec-
_ from the Lexus and Infiniti at higher composers of both the nineteenth and tivism and the relativity of truth.
prices to its Hondas and ‘Toyotas at twentieth centuries. The Impressionist Finally, the influence of Zen contin-
midrange. composers Claude Debussy and Maurice ues to reverberate in both Europe and
In the previous century, European Ravel experimented with Japanese America. Zen meditation practices have
painters, in particular Claude Monet and melodic and harmonic elements. Con- been adapted by contemporary spiritual
Vincent van Gogh, were inspired by temporary composers such as Steve and psychological movements such as
Japanese woodblock prints, especially Reich incorporate Japanese musical mo- EST. Zen aesthetics, especially floral ar-
those of Hokusai, to produce paintings tifs into their compositions. Japanese ranging and the tea ceremony, continue
that imitated particular Hokusai prints music for flute, especially, remains pop- to have their adherents in the West, as
or incorporated details from them. ular, as CDs by flutists Jean Pierre Ram- does Zen-inspired calligraphy, painting,
Monet produced a number of paintings pal and James Galway attest. and poetry, particularly haiku.

KEY TERMS
shogun koan samisen taiko
samurai ukiyo-e Noh Kabuki
shogunate daimyo yl anime
Shinto biwa hayashi maika
kami shakuhachi nokan geisha
ink-style painting haiku o-tsuzumi
ZaZen Bunraku ko-tsuzumi

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

http://www. japan-zone.com/omnibus/shinto.shtml
(A history of Shinto: from its early history through the revival and to modern Shinto.)
http://web-japan.org/atlas/architecture/arc] 6.html
(Himeji Castle, Hyogo [near Osaka], Japan, Momoyama period, 1581-1609.)
http://web.kyoto-inet.or.jp/org/orion/eng/hstj/hist).
html
(History of architecture in Kyoto, including the Daisen-in Gardens.)
 CHAPTER 21

1900 Labour Party founded in England

1905 _ Einstein formulates theory of relativity
. 1908 Ford introduces Model T
Ca 1913 Assembly line introduced at Ford plant
a 1914 World War |begins
1917 —_ Russian Revolution
1920 Nineteenth Amendment grants women the right to vote
1920s Harlem Renaissance flourishes
1920s “Roaring Twenties” and prohibition
1927 _Lindbergh’s solo flight across Atlantic Ocean
4 1929 Stock Market crashes; Depression begins
| 1933 FDR introduces New Deal
Nazis gain control of Germany
; 7 1935 WPA begun: FSA begins photography program
; 1936-39 Spanish Civil War
iy 1939 World War 1! begins
¢ 1941 United States enters World War II

ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE

1905 Matisse, Woman with a Hat
1907 _ Picasso, Les Demoiselles d’Avignon
1913 Stravinsky, The Rite of Spring
1915 Severini, Suburban Train Arriving at Paris
1917 — Duchamp, Fountain
1920 Mondrian, Composition in Red, Yellow, and Blue
1924 Gershwin, Rhapsody in Blue
1926 O'Keeffe, Yellow Calla
1928 Armstrong, West End Blues
1928 — Brancusi, Bird in Space
193] Dali, The Persistence of Memory
193] Schoenberg, Variations for Orchestra
1933 Rivera, Detroit Industry
1936 Oppenheim, Breakfast in Fur
8 1937 Picasso, Guernica
é 1938 Moore, Recumbent Figure
1939-41 Lawrence, The Migration of the Negro
1940 Ellington, Concerto for Cootie
1942 — Hopper, Nighthawks
1944 — Copland, Appalachian Spring

- LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

1905 Freud, Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality

1922 Eliot, The Waste Land
1922 —_ Joyce, Ulysses
1926 Hemingway, The Sun Also Rises
1927. Woolf, To the Lighthouse
1929 Cocteau, Les Enfants Terribles
YY 1929 Faulkner, The Sound and the Fury
1939 Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath
Constantin Brancusi, Bird in Space, 1920, bronze (unique cast),
54 X 85 X 63" (137.2 X 21.6 X 16.5 cm). Museum of Mod-
ern Art/Licensed by SCALA-Art Resource, NY. Given Annony-
-mously. Photograph © 2000 The Museum of Modern Art, NY.
© 2000 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York ADAGP, Paris. 539
 ATLANTIC

OCEAN

BALEARIC
pee
Qo

500 Kilometers

Map 21.1 Europe after World War I, ca. 1920.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

NEW DIRECTIONS IN THE ARTS

Picasso and Cubism impact the arts

THE GREAT WAR AND AFTER

Changes in a civilization altered by war

REPRESSION AND DEPRESSION

The thirties: global instability infuses the arts

540
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 541

PICASSO AND CUBISM IMPACT THE ARTS

By the early twentieth century, the Impressionist and Post-
Impressionists wereno longer regarded as radical or shock-
ing; they were now accepted by the official French Salon
that had previously scorned them. In 1901, a huge retro-
spective exhibition of van Gogh’s work was held in Paris.
The 1907 Salon featured Cézanne’s paintings. The Im-
pressionists and Post-Impressionists were now the lead-
ers of art that went against tradition and expectation,
preferring to seek what was unique and innovative, even
startling or shocking, the avant garde. In the never-end-
ing quest for the new, movement after movement, “ism”
after “ism,” came and went. Thus, Romanticism, Realism,
Impressionism, and Post-Impressionism were followed in
the early twentieth century by Fauvism, Cubism, Fut-
urism, and German Expressionism. In general, the later
nineteenth-century trend toward abstraction of the visual
world, the willingness to distort its form and color, was
still more extreme in early twentieth-century art.
The interest in abstraction takes three forms: (1) an
expressive art that is emotional, gestural, and free in its use
of color; (2) a formalist art that is concerned with structure
and order; and (3) an art of fantasy that is concerned with
the individual imagination and the realm of dreams. In all
three, the world of surface appearances is gradually left a b ree ae eine hase —_ —— ae
behind. Abstract art is based less and less on the artist’s
FIGURE 21.1 Henri Matisse, Femme ou chapeau (Woman with
perception and increasingly on the artist’s conception of the Hat). 1905, oil on canvas, 313 ”X 234” (80.65 X 59.69 cm).
things. Bequest of Elise S. Haas, San Francisco Museum of Modern
Art. © Succession H. Matisse, Paris/Artists Rights Society
FAUVISM (ARS), New York. Photography: Ben Blackwell. The American
author Getrude Stein and her brother Leo purchased this
The 1905 Salon d’Automne (Autumn Salon) in Paris was painting at the Autumn Salon in 1905, inaugurating one of the
liberal in its acceptance policy and included a room of greatest collections of modern art in Paris in the twentieth
paintings by Henri Matisse, Maurice de Vlaminck, André century. Americans, in particular, flocked to Stein’s evening
Derain, Georges Rouault, and others who were exhibit- gatherings in her apartment on the Rue des Fleurs to see the
work of Matisse and Picasso and to meet the artists themselves,
ing together for the first time. The art critic Louis Vaux-
who were in regular attendance.
celles reviewed the show and was quick to label these artists
Les Fauves (The Wild Beasts) because of their paintings’ vi- peared to many viewers to be little more than a smearing
olent and arbitrary colors. The artists who launched Fauv- of brilliant, arbitrary, and unnatural colors across the sub-
ism, like van Gogh and Gauguin, believed color could be ject’s face and background. In its subject matter, this could
an expressive force in its own right and it could corre- be an Impressionist painting depicting Madame Matisse
spond, not to reality, but to what van Gogh had called “the dressed for an outing in gloves and an enormous hat, yet
artist’s temperament.” Furthermore, they rejected the it bears almost no resemblance to any earlier work. Rather
small “dots and dashes” of color that characterized Im- than employing dabs of color, Matisse broke the color into
pressionist painting and, particularly, the Post-Impres- broad zones. Not only are the colors seemingly arbitrary,
sionist paintings of Seurat. Their work was intended to the artist makes no attempt to harmonize them. Red,
shock the viewer, visually and psychologically, with its in- green, and purple are used at maximum intensity.
tensely surprising color. It was, above all, new. Matisse soon realized that Woman with a Hat lacked
Henri Matisse. The leader of the Fauves was HENRI something that profoundly interested him—drawing. Be-
MATISSE [mah-TEES] (1869-1954). At the age of yond depicting raw contrasts of pure color in flat planes, he
twenty-two, Matisse had abandoned a career in law for wanted to emphasize line. Through the expressive use of
one in art. At the 1905 Autumn Salon, he exhibited Woman color and line, Matisse gave even the most ordinary subject
with a Hat (fig. 21.1), a portrait of Madame Matisse. It ap- expressive force. Harmony in Red (Red Room) (fig. 21.2),
542 CHAPTER 21

FIGURE 21.2. Henri Matisse (1869-1954, Harmony in Red (The Red Room), 1908-1909, oil on
canvas, 70% X 863in. Leningrad, Hermitage. Copyright Alinari/Art Resource, NY. © 2007
Succession H. Matusse, Paris/Artists Rights Society, (ARS), NY. Traditional methods of creat-
ing an illusion of three dimensions on a two-dimensional surface are not used in many twenti-
eth-century paintings. Here, indications that the table top is horizontal and the wall vertical
are avoided, creating a flat and decorative
effect.

painted 1908-09, is an everyday scene distinguished by pat- CUBISM

tern and harmony between the colors, shapes, and lines.
This painting oscillates between two-dimensional pattern The Fauvist emphasis on the reality of the picture plane is
and three-dimensional representation. ‘The tablecloth and also apparent in the work of the Cubist painters. Derived
the wall share the same pattern and colors; the only indi- from Cézanne’s famous dictum, “You must see in nature
cation Matisse provides that the table is a horizontal surface the cylinder, the sphere, and the cone,” Cubism differs,
is the placement of fruit on it. Are we looking out of a win- first, in its depiction of objects in their most reduced geo-
dow on the left or at a flat painting hanging on the wall? metric form, particularly, as its name implies, in cubes. It
Every object plays a role in forming an overall surface pat- differs, secondly, in the way in which objects are repre-
tern. This differs from the efforts made by earlier artists to sented simultaneously from several different points of view.
construct an illusion of space behind the picture plane. Ma- Rather than presenting the object from a single vantage
tisse, like many later painters, intentionally compressed the point, the Cubists wanted to present all aspects of the ob-
space and emphasized the picture plane, making clear this ject simultaneously. Reality, they argued, is not just what
is a painting, not an illusion of the visible world. we see, but what we know about what we see, in the same
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 543

way that when we see a person’s back, we can infer that French word coller, “to glue” or “to paste”). Picasso’s Still
person’s face. atl Life with Chair Caning (fig. 21.5), of 1912, contains rope
Cubism was the invention of two relatively unknown and a piece of oilcloth with imitation chair caning printed
painters at the time, Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, on it, a cigarette, and a fragment of a newspaper (Le Jour-
both of whom arrived separately at the same conclusions nal). All we see are the first three letters, a fragment of the
about the nature of our experience of the world. They soon whole, but this fragment tells us much about Braque and
discovered one another’s shared convictions and proceeded Picasso’s intentions. The letters “jou” also form the be-
to work together for seven years until the outbreak of ginning of the verb jouer, the French for “to play.” Col-
World War I. lage became the new playground of the artist.
Pablo Picasso. Often considered the single most impor- Sonia Terk Delaunay. Sonia ‘Terk Delaunay
tant painter of the twentieth century, PABLO PICASSO (1885-1979) was born Sarah Stern in the Ukraine, but
[pi-KAH-soh] (1881-1973) never ceased searching for the grew up in St. Petersburg under the care of a relative, the
new. He went through many styles in his long life and art collector Heinrich Terk. In 1909, she married an art
worked in a wide variety of media including painting, dealer, Wilhelm Uhde, who exhibited her work in his
graphics, sculpture, and ceramics. He might draw and Paris gallery. In 1910, she married again, now to the artist
paint with extraordinary realism one day and with a high Robert Delaunay, with whom she formed a long creative
degree of abstraction the next—although he never aban- partnership.
doned a subject entirely. The couple developed a style of abstract painting called
Picasso’s famous Les Demoiselles d’Avignon (The Ladies of Simultanéisme based on color theory, using vivid colors
Avignon) (fig. 21.3), of 1907, was a turning point in the his- and geometric shapes, intended to be experienced simul-
tory of painting. Although the word demoiselles means “gentle- taneously. Sonia Delaunay’s Tango au Bal Bullier (fig. 21.6),
women,” here it refers to prostitutes, and Avignon refers to 1913, conveys the rapid graceful movement of dancers, in-
Avignon Street in Barcelona rather than the city of the cluding a sense of their animation and energy. She applied
popes in southern France. The anatomy of the figures this style to clothing created from various materials, thereby
shows distorted proportions, their bodies turned into rhyth- combining art and attire, blurring the traditional distinction
mic shapes and broken angular pieces. Space is treated in between Fine Art and Applied Art. She designed costumes
the same way. Solid and void are depicted in terms of struc- for Diaghilev’s Russian Ballet and for ‘Tristna Tzara’s play
tural units, similar to Cézanne’s “little planes.” The style is Le Coeur a Gaz. With the fashion designer Jacques Heim,
also deliberately “primitive.” African sculpture, particularly she opened the Boutique Simultané in Paris in 1925, fea-
masks, inundated Paris in the first decade of the century, turing garments and accessories in this style.
and Picasso took full advantage of their expressive force.
Georges Braque. One of the first people to see Les
Demoiselles, and to approve of it, was GEORGES FUTURISM
BRAQUE [BRAHK] (1882-1963). Braque had worked The Futurism movement, based in Italy before World
with Matisse as a member of the Fauves, and it was prob- War I, used Cubist forms in a dynamic way. It was the first
ably Matisse, who was himself horrified by Les Demoiselles, art movement to have been founded almost exclusively in
who introduced him to Picasso. But Braque saw in it a flat- the popular press, conceived by its creator, the poet
tening and simplification of form that he believed Cézanne FILIPPO MARINETTI [mah-ri- NET-ee] (1876-1944),
had championed. in his “Manifesto of Futurism,” published on February 20,
Braque’s The Portuguese (fig. 21.4), of 1911, depicts a 1909, in the French newspaper Le Figaro.
guitarist playing at a café, but there is no fully realized fig- The “Manifesto” outlines an eleven-point pledge, in-
ure. We can see the guitar’s soundhole and strings in the cluding the Futurists’ intention to “sing the love of dan-
lower-middle part of the painting. There are fragments of ger,” to “affirm that the world’s magnificence has been
lettering—OCO and BAL—and something is offered at a enriched by a new beauty, the beauty of speed,” to “glorify
price of 10.40 francs. A rope is wrapped around a post, and war—the world’s only hygiene,” to “destroy the museums,
perhaps that is the guitarist’s broad smile in the upper- libraries, and academies of every kind,” and, finally, to “sing
middle part of the piece. All is a fleeting glance as if seen of great crowds excited by work, by pleasure, and by riot.”
through a window in which the reflections of activity and
movement outside distort everything seen inside. Gino Severini. In February 1910, seven painters, in-
Both Braque and Picasso began to introduce recogniz- cluding GINO SEVERINI [sev-err-EE-nee] (1883-1966),
able pieces of material reality into their compositions, ask- signed a “Manifesto of Futurist Painters” that pledged,
ing the questions: What is real and what is art? If among other things, “to rebel against the tyranny of terms
something is real, can it be art? And vice versa, if some- like ‘harmony’ and ‘good taste,’ ” “to demolish the works
thing is art, is it real? By pasting real materials on the can- of Rembrandt, of Goya, and of Rodin,” and, most impor-
vas they engaged in a technique called collage (from the tantly, “to express our whirling life of steel, of pride, of
544 CHAPTER 2l

FIGURE 21.3. Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d’Avignon, 1907, oil on canvas, 8’ X 7’ 8” (2.40
x 2.30 m), Museum of Modern Art, New York. With motifs that echo African art, the angular
lines and overlapping planes of this painting initiated a new way of analyzing three-dimen-
sional forms in space. The work’s primitive energy sent shock waves through the art world
when it was first shown in Paris, allying it with Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring, which had a similar
effect on the world of music six years later.

fever, and of speed.” The Furturists wanted, they claimed, stills, or to a multiple exposure photograph, the artist ex-
to render “universal dynamism” in painting. presses the direction of the force by the abstract fragmen-
The Futurists’ interest in expressing speed was aided by tation of the speeding forms. The Futurists valued
the forms of Cubism. Severini’s Suburban Train Arriving at simultaneous perspective, as did the Cubists, but the Fu-
Paris (fig. 21.7), of 1915, depicts speed as a sequence of po- turists recorded the various aspects of a moving object,
sitions of multifaceted forms. Similar to a series of movie whereas the analytical Cubists recorded those of a static one.
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 545

FIGURE 21.5 Pablo Picasso, Still Life with Chair Caning,

1912, oil, oilcloth, and pasted aper simulating chair caning on
canvas, rope frame, 10> X 134” (26.7 X 35 cm), Musée Pi-
casso, Paris. Reunion des Musées Nationaux. Art Resource,
NY. © 2005 Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society
(ARS), NY. This collage (from the French for “to paste” or
“to glue”) is created from scraps of ordinary materials that
became art when arranged into a composition.

Matisse—helps create a sense of violence, fury, and wan-

ton sexuality that is alien to Matisse’s vision. This rough-
hewn, purposefully inelegant approach is typical of Die
Briicke work, and it owes much to the example of Picasso’s
FIGURE 21.4 Georges Braque, The Portuguese, 1911, oil on Les Demoiselles and its so-called primitivism.
canvas, 45 i" Xx ee (114.5 X 81.5 cm), Kunstmuseum, Basel,
Switzerland. © 2005 Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY. Vassily Kandinsky. ‘The leader of Der Blaue Reiter was
© ADAGBP, Paris and DACS, London 1998. In cubism the VASSILY KANDINSKY [kan-DIN-skee] (1866-1944),
forms are broken and faceted as if portions of cubes, and the who was born in Moscow. A practicing lawyer with a pro-
forms are portrayed from multiple viewpoints. The range of fessorship in Moscow, Kandinsky saw one of Monet’s
color is restricted so it will not distract from this new way of Haystacks paintings in 1895 and was so moved by the ex-
analyzing form in space.
perience that he traveled to Munich to study art. He be-
came friendly with the Fauves and the Cubists, bringing
their work to Germany in 1911 for a major exhibition.
GERMAN EXPRESSIONISM The name Der Blaue Reiter refers to St. George slaying
the dragon, the image that appeared on the city emblem
The last of the great prewar avant-garde movements was
of Moscow. Tradition held that Moscow would be the cap-
German Expressionism which consisted of two separate
ital of the world during the millennium, the thousand-year
branches, Die Briicke (The Bridge), established in Dres-
reign of Jesus on earth after the Apocalypse. Improvisation
den in 1905, and Der Blaue Reiter (The Blue Rider) formed
No. 30 (Warlike Theme) (fig. 21.9) includes, at the bottom
in Munich in 1911. Both were directly indebted to the ex-
of the composition, two firing cannons, which announce
ample of the Fauves in Paris, especially in terms of the lib-
the second coming of Jesus. Crowds of people march to-
eration of color and the celebration of sexuality.
ward the millennium across the canvas. Above them are
Emil Nolde. One of the most daring members of Die the churches of the Kremlin and, circling around the hori-
Briicke was EMIL NOLDE [NOHL-(duh)] (1867-1956). zon, the streets of Moscow itself. Kandinsky did not so
What distinguishes his Dancing Around the Golden Calf (fig. much want to convey the meaning of his work through its
21.8) from the work of Matisse and the Fauves is the paint- imagery as through its color. Color, he believed, caused
ing’s lack of contour and outline. Instead, emphasis is on “vibrations (in German, K/angen) in the soul,” and his
the use of color, which fully exploits the dissonances be- painting was designed, he wrote in 1912 in his Concerning
tween its bright reds, orange-yellows, and red-violets. The the Spiritual in Art, to “urge” the viewer to a spiritual awak-
energy of this style—almost slapdash in comparison to ening in preparation for the second coming.
546 CHAPTER 21

FIGURE 21.6 Sonia Delaunany-Terk, Tango au Bal Bullier, 1913, oil on canvas 3' 2” X
12’ 8” (97 X 390 cm), Musée National d’Art Moderne, Centre National d’Art et de Culture,
Georges Pompidou. Philippe Megeat/Reunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY. The
title of this painting is the name of a dance hall in Paris where the artist danced the tango wearing
her simultanéiste costumes, which her husband Robert Delaunay described as “living paintings.”

MusIc of Spring) of 1913. The Rite of Spring broke new ground.

The music was filled with harmonic shifts, rhythmic sur-
Igor Stravinsky. IGOR STRAVINSKY [strah-VIN- prises, and melodic irregularities. The public was shocked
skee] (1882-1971) is considered the most influential com- by the near violence of the sound and by its disruption of
poser of the modern era. His works revolutionized their emotional expectations.
twentieth-century musical styles and affected artists such The origin of The Rite of Spring came to Stravinsky in
as Picasso, writers such as T-. S. Eliot, and ballet choreog- a vision: “a solemn pagan rite: wise elders, seated in a cir-
raphers such as George Balanchine. Stravinsky was born in cle, watch a young girl dance herself to death. They are
Russia, near St. Petersburg. Although groomed for a law sacrificing her to propitiate the god of spring.” Stravin-
career, Stravinsky studied music and achieved early suc- sky linked this vision to his childhood memories of the
cess composing for the Ballets Russes, a Russian ballet “violent Russian spring that seemed to begin in an hour
troupe performing in Paris under the artistic direction of and was like the whole earth cracking.” The work de-
Serge Diaghilev. His early scores, The Firebird (1910) and picts the fertility rites of a primitive tribe in pagan Rus-
Petrushka (1911), were both ballets based on Russian sia. The first part, “The Fertility of the Earth,” opens
themes and musically influenced by Debussy. with a suggestion of the rebirth of spring. A bassoon solo
begins the introductory section and is soon followed by
The Rite of Spring. ‘The most spectacular of Stravin- other woodwinds, and then the brasses that play the
sky’s early ballet scores was Le Sacre du Printemps (The Rite melody, all without a home key, that is, without a har-

FIGURE 21.7 Gino Severini, Suburban Train Arriving at FiGuRE 21.8 Emil Nolde, Dancing Around the Golden Calf,
Paris, 1915, oil on canvas, 35 X 455" (88.6 X 115.6 cm), Tate 1910, oil on canvas, 343" x 395" (88 xX 100 cm), Staatsgalerie
Gallery, London. © 2005 Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY. Moderner Kunst, Munich. Much of the shock of this painting
The Italian Futurists sought to destroy museums and anything derives from its depiction of a biblical subject in such openly
old, praised what they called the “beauty of speed,” glorified sexual terms.
war and machinery, and favored the “masculine” over the
“feminine.”
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 547

FIGURE 21.9 Vassily Kandinsky, Improvisation No. 30 (Warlike Theme), 1913, oil on canvas,
43 rid x 43 ra (110 x 110 cm), Art Institute of Chicago. Photograph © 2005, All Rights Re-
served. © 2005 Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY. Although Kandinsky did produce completely
nonrepresentational paintings, beginning in 1910, that were intended to stir the viewer’s emo-
tions, this painting includes recognizable subjects having political and religious implications.

monic center. The music builds to a climax and then of percussion, sharply irregular rhythmic accents, and the
abruptly stops, leaving the solo bassoon to echo the in- shrill syncopation of the horns. All this is emphasized fur-
troductory notes. ther by both polytonal harmonies and strong dissonance.
Without pause, a brief four-note theme repeated softly Stravinsky’s “Introduction” to The Rite of Spring reflects
by the violins opens the second part, “The Sacrifice.” Im- the modern composer’s new directions in melody and har-
mediately comes the “Dance of the Youths and Maidens,” mony; “The Dance of the Youths and Maidens” displays a
in which Stravinsky builds intensity through the heavy use corresponding rhythmic freedom.
548 CHAPTER 21

THE GREAT WAR AND AFTER Another chronicler of the war, the German Erich Maria
Remarque, described in his novel A// Quiet on the Western
“ON OR ABOUT DECEMBER 1910 HUMAN character Front (1929) the sense of doom that dominated the German
changed,” wrote English novelist Virginia Woolf. “All lines: “Monotonously the lorries sway, monotonously come
human relations shifted, those between masters and ser- the calls, monotonously falls the rain. It falls on our heads and
vants, husbands and wives, parents and children. And when on the heads of the dead up the line, on the body of the lit-
human relations shift there is at the same time a change in tle recruit with the wound that is so much too big for his
religion, conduct, politics and literature.” These changes hip; it falls on Kemerich’s grave; it falls in our hearts.” After
were dramatized by the Great War (as World War I was the Great War, it seemed as if the whole world mourned, a
then called), which began in August 1914. As another Eng- mood evoked in this lithograph by the German artist
lish novelist, D. H. Lawrence, wrote, “in 1915 the old KATHE KOLLWITZ [KOL-~vits] (1867-1945) (fig. 21.10).
world ended.” The war gave frightening meaning to the
radical changes of the early twentieth century. It was a time
of “disorder and early sorrow,” as German writer Thomas THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION AND AFTER
Mann wrote in one of his stories; where “things fall apart; The influence of the West on Russia, so evident in St. Pe-
the centre cannot hold,” as the Irish poet William Butler tersburg, was counterbalanced by later political develop-
Yeats noted. Change, disorder, sorrow, and disintegration: ments that undermined the autocratic monarchy of the
These forebodings ushered in an age of anxiety. Tsars. The Russian Revolution officially began when the
last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, abdicated in 1917. How-
ever, it had in fact started earlier, on Bloody Sunday, Jan-
WORLD WAR I uary 9, 1905, when government troops fired on a peaceful
On June 28, 1914, a Serbian nationalist named Gavrilo demonstration by workers outside the Winter Palace in
Princip assassinated the Habsburg archduke, Francis Fer- St. Petersburg. The workers quickly organized themselves
dinand, heir to the throne of Austria and Hungary, and his into “soviets,” or councils of workers elected in the facto-
wife, Sophie Chotek, on the street in Sarajevo, Bosnia. ries, while the police responded swiftly by arresting dis-
Within weeks, Europe was at war, the Central Powers senters. Most leaders were either sent to Siberia or chose
(Austria, Hungary, Germany, Turkey, and later, Bulgaria) self-imposed exile, as did Lenin, removing himself with
against the Allies (Serbia, Russia, France, and Britain, and many others to Switzerland.
later, the United States). Yet it was World War I that precipitated the real crisis.
It is hard to overstate the impact of the Great War on The Russian army was crushed in the fight with Germany,
the public in the West. It took the lives of over eight mil- resulting in over five million casualties between 1914 and
lion soldiers in action, and many millions more through
malnutrition and disease. Along the Western Front, which
extended from the English Channel to the Swiss border FIGURE 21.10 Kathe Kollwitz, The Mothers, 1919, lithograph,
with Alsace, near Basel, hundreds of thousands of soldiers 17% X 23" (45 X 58.4 cm), Philadelphia Museum of Art. ©
faced each other in parallel trenches across a stationary DACS 1998. © 2005 Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY. Kollwitz
line. British historian Charles Carrington (1897-1981) re- captures the tragedy of World War I in this image of lower-
members life in the trenches on the Somme, as a young class German mothers left to fend for themselves and their
children after the war. The black-and-white medium empha-
man barely twenty years of age:
sizes the harshness of their reality.
The killed and wounded were all lost by harassing fire,
mostly on their way up or down the line. Once in position
... you could not show a finger by daylight, and by night
every path by which you might be supposed to move was
raked by machine-guns which had been trained on it by
day. . . . If you could reach your funk-hole and crouch in
it, there was a fair chance of your coming out of it alive
next day to run the gauntlet . . . again. In your funk-hole,
with no room to move, no hot food, and no chance of get-
ting any, there was nothing worse to suffer than a steady
drizzle of wintry rain and temperature just above the freez-
ing point. A little colder and the mud would have been
more manageable. Life was entirely numbed; you could
do nothing. There could be no fighting since the com-
batants could not get at one another, no improvement of
the trenches since any new work would instantly be de-
molished by a storm of shell-fire.
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 549

1917. Germany penetrated deep into western Russia. The DADA

flow of refugees into Moscow could almost not be sup-
ported. The war had an immense impact on art. Profoundly af-
In February 1917, popular demonstrations forced fected by the destruction, a group of artists, writers, and
Nicholas from power. (He and his family were later exe- musicians founded a new art movement—Dada, from a
cuted on the night of July 16, 1918.) A democracy was nonsense word indicating a child’s first utterance of ‘Da,
promised, the nature of which was to be determined by a da’ or ‘yes, yes’ to life. Beginning in Zurich and New
constituent assembly, elected by the people at the earliest York during the war, it flourished in Paris and Germany
opportunity. From February to October 1917, Russia was after it.
ruled by a provisional government, but in October, to As early as 1916, artists and intellectuals who had es-
cries of “all power to the soviets,” the Bolshevik party caped the war gathered regularly at the Café Voltaire in
seized power, led by Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (1870-1924). Zurich. Swiss sculptor Hans Arp (1886-1966) defined
The Bolsheviks were Marxists—that is, those who be- Dada in the following way: “Repelled by the slaughter-
lieved in the writings of Karl Marx and called for a new so- houses of the world war, we turned to art. We searched
ciety ruled by the proletariat, the working class. In Marx for an elementary art that would, we thought, save
and Engels’s words, from The Communist Manifesto: “In mankind from the furious madness of these times.” This
place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class it attempted to do in an irreverent manner. Arp himself
antagonisms, we shall have an association, in which the made relief sculptures by dropping liquid into a series of
free development of each is the condition for the free de- small puddles, outlining each, and then cutting out wooden
velopment of all.” replicas and finally putting them together. His Portrait of
Within a few months, Russia was embroiled in a bitter Tristan Tzara (fig. 21.11) portrays his friend, a Dada poet.
civil war, which would last for three years. The war pitted TRISTAN TZARA [ZAHR-ah] (1896-1963) wrote poems
the Red Army of the working proletariat against the White using these same “laws of chance.” Tzara would cut up a
Army of the anti-Bolshevik bourgeoisie. The Reds won, but newspaper article word by word, then draw the words out
since Britain and France had openly supported the Whites,
and Japan and the United States had sent troops to Siberia,
the new Bolshevik government was almost totally isolated
from the West. It nationalized almost all industry, organiz-
ing the workers, and created what it called a “dictatorship — FiGurRE 21.11 Hans Arp, Portrait of Tristan Tzara, 1916,
of the proletariat.” Yet a deep economic crisis soon followed, relief of painted wood, 205 x 19% x 4” (51 X 50 X 10 cm).
and Lenin, recognizing that he had moved too quickly, in- Jean-Marc Yersin/Musée d’Art et d’Histoire, Geneva, Inv. No
augurated a New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921, legaliz- 1982/13 ©2005 Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY. Like Dada
ing private trade, abandoning the nationalization of industry, poetry created by random combinations of words, this so-called
portrait is created by combining random shapes and colors.
and allowing the private sector of the economy to reestab-
lish itself. It was a full retreat from Communist principles,
but one necessitated, Lenin believed, by reality.
Meanwhile, the new Soviet bureaucracy began to es-
tablish itself. Rising to the position of General Secre-
tary of the Bolshevik party was Joseph Stalin
(1879-1953). When Lenin died in 1924, Stalin overcame
his rival Leon Trotsky (1879-1940) and took over, mak-
ing it clear that the primary goal of the Soviet Union
was industrialization. His Five-Year Plan, implemented
in 1929, modernized the country and built the basic
structure of Soviet society, which remained intact until
December 1991.
The Russian Revolution created a new order that af-
fected not only Russians, but other peoples around the
globe. Its complex web of causes included popular griev-
ances, radical ideas espoused by intellectuals, idealism cou-
pled with a lust for power, and a breakdown of public
order. Its consequences included helping to prevent the
restoration of peace after World War I—which con-
tributed to the rise of Nazi Germany and the outbreak of
World War II—and increasing world tension throughout
the twentieth century, resulting in a “cold war.”
550 CHAPTER 21

of a hat, and write a poem. Tzara also performed a kind In 1917, Duchamp submitted a “sculpture” to the In-
of poetry at the Café Voltaire—bruitisme, he called it, dependents exhibition in New York. Entitled Fountain (fig.
after the French word for “noise”—consisting of vowels, 21.12), it was a porcelain urinal signed with a pseudonym,
consonants, and guttural sounds, strung together in a non- “R. Mutt.” It caused an uproar. Duchamp let it be known
sense parody of German Lieder (songs). The Dadaists that he was “Mutt” himself, suggesting that what mattered
thought that if tradition was responsible for the madness most about a “work of art” was not aesthetic concerns, but
of the Great War, then tradition deserved no respect. The who made it. Furthermore, the significance of the urinal
childlike, absurd behavior of the Dadaists was a conscious changed in different contexts. It was one thing in a plumb-
attempt to start again from square one. ing shop or bathroom, quite another on a plinth in an art
exhibition, demonstrating that where things were seen
changed how they were understood. Duchamp had taken
Marcel Duchamp. One of the most important Dadaists, something mundane and, by reframing it, had revealed its
MARCEL DUCHAMP [doo-SHAHM] (1883-1968), aesthetic dimension.
worked as a painter before the war. When Duchamp ar- Duchamp engaged in many other demonstrations and
rived in New York in 1915, he said that Dada meant attacks on traditional aesthetics. He retouched a poster of
“hobby horse” in French (yet another meaning), and Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa, (see fig. 13.21) adding a
claimed he had picked the word at random from a French mustache and goatee, and a series of letters which, when
dictionary (yet another conflicting story of its origins). pronounced phonetically result in an off-color pun.
Duchamp saw Dada as a kind of anti-art one that em- Duchamp used puns in many of his works because he
bodied imagination, chance, and irrationality, and opposed thought that wordplay undermined the stability of mean-
all recognized values in art and literature. ing, and in so doing encouraged new ways of seeing.

FIGURE 21.12 Marcel Duchamp, The Fountain, 1917, height 243" (62.2 cm), porcelain urinal
Photograph by Alfred Stieglitz in The Blind Man, no. 2, May 1917; original lost. © Philadel-
phia Museum of Art: The Louise and Walter Arensberg Collection. Duchamp argued that
he “created a new thought for that object” by forcing the viewer to see it in a new context.
He labeled such works “ready-mades.”
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 551

SURREALISM Freud considered neurosis as an illness demanding psy-

choanalysis and cure, Breton found it liberating. The neu-
rotic person, for Breton, was free to behave in any manner,
The spirit of the avant-garde continued to thrive after the
and the dreams opened up whole new vistas of subject mat-
war. Paris was its center, “the laboratory of ideas in the
ter, many of them previously taboo.
arts,” as the American poet Ezra Pound put it. Tristan
‘There were two approaches to this new subject matter:
Tzara organized a massive Dada festival in Paris in 1920.
one abstract, the other representational. The abstract vein
In May 1917, Diaghilev’s Ballets Russes performed Parade,
was based on Breton’s notion of psychic automatism—
a dance with music by French composer Eric Satie and
that is, drawing liberated from the necessity of plan. Sur-
complete with the sounds of dynamos, sirens, express
realists, according to this idea, should accept any apparent
trains, airplanes, and typewriters. The stage set was de-
accident as psychologically predetermined and therefore
signed by Picasso (fig. 21.13). The whole creation seemed
revelatory. The second approach was focused on repre-
to the poet Guillaume Apollinaire like the space of a sur-
senting the world of dreams accurately, deliberately, and
réalisme, or “super-realism.”
particularly without self-censorship.
In 1924, the poet André Breton appropriated the word
sur-réalisme to name his own new movement in the arts. Joan Miro. One of the practitioners of automatism is
Delighting in the irrational, and its lack of “aesthetic or JOAN MIRO [mee-ROH] (1893-1983). Although Miré
moral concern,” Surrealism was indebted to Dada. Where never called himself a Surrealist, he acknowledged the Sur-
it differed was in its fascination with the realm of dreams, realist influence on his art. Soon after arriving in Paris
supported by a willful misunderstanding of Freud. Where from his native Spain in 1922, he was, he said, “carried

FIGURE 21.13 Pablo Picasso, curtain for the ballet Parade, 1917, tempera, 35'3 ;" xa Gu
(10.60 X 17.24 m), Musées Nationaux, Paris. © Succession Picasso/DACS 1998. Art Re-
source, NY. © 2005 Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artist Rights Society (ARS) NY. The ballet was
based on a poem by Jean Cocteau, another member of the avant-garde circle. It is a “realistic
ballet,” meaning its concerns arise within an everyday street setting, complete with street mu-
sicians and performers, car horns and sirens, businesspeople, tabloids, and skyscrapers.
552 CHAPTER 21

FIGURE 21.15 Salvador Dali, The Persistence ofMemory,

1931, oil on canvas, gt x 13” (24.1 X 33 cm). Museum of
FiGuRE 21.14 Joan Mir, Painting, 1933, oil on canvas, Modern Art, NY. Licensed by Scala/Art Resource, NY. (162.
Cresi x 513 a (1.30 X 1.61 m), Wadsworth Atheneum, Hart- 1934). Given anonymously. © 2002 Kingdom of Spain. ©
ford, Connecticut. © 2005 Artists Rights Society (ARS) NY. 2005 Salvador Dail, Gala/Salvador Dali Foundation/Artists
ADAGBP, Paris/DACS, London 1998. One of the reasons this Rights Society (ARS), NY. Combining psychology and art,
painting, when it is seen in real life, seems so alive, as if inhab- Surrealist artists sought to express the unconscious. Intention-
ited by abstract creatures, is that it is very large, so the forms ally enigmatic and mysterious, Dali’s painting depicts the im-
depicted in it are on a human scale. possible and irrational with absolute conviction.

away” by their example, and by 1925 “was drawing almost with his meticulous technique, the inconceivable becomes
entirely from hallucinations. At the time I was living on a real.
few dried figs a day.”
His Painting (fig. 21.14) of 1933 is a rendering of ma- Meret Oppenheim. Surrealist artists did not limit them-
chine forms he saw in a catalog, transformed into abstract selves to painting. One of the best-known Surrealist works
shapes, more organic than mechanical. The two bands of is the Object (Le Déjeuner en Fourrure) (Luncheon in Fur)
color in the background create a landscape, which the (fig. 21.16), 1936, created by MERET OPPENHEIM
forms inhabit, existing at the very edge of rational thought. [OP-pen-hime] (1913-1985). Born in Berlin, she moved to

Salvador Dali. The most famous Surrealist is SAL- FIGURE 21.16 Méret Oppenheim, Object (Le Déjeuner en
VADOR DALI [DAH-lee] (1904-89), also from Spain, Fourrure) (Luncheon in Fur), 1936, fur-covered cup, saucer, and
who arrived in Paris in 1929 and consciously invented him- spoon, diameter of saucer ge" (23.7 cm), overall height 25Zn
self as a Surrealist cult figure. He manipulated his foot- (7.3 cm), Museum of Modern Art, NY/Licenced by Scala Ate
long mustache into various shapes. He claimed he could Resource, NY. © 2007 Artists Rights Society. In this paradigm
remember life in his mother’s womb. He had himself of the peculiar, this icon of incongruous materials, Oppenheim
buried and resurrected. Dali’s life of irrational behavior combined tableware and fur, making this one of the most
garnered fame and fortune—highly rational results. memorable examples of Surrealist sculpture.
Dali’s painting The Persistence ofMemory (fig. 21.15), of
1931, depicts four watches that are limp, corroded by rust,
and attacked by ants. What can this puzzling vision mean?
Is time itself wilting, even as it causes decay and destruc-
tion? Has time become flexible, or is it distorted? Can the
artist “bend time”? Is creativity a means to immortality?
Can art defeat time? Such are the questions the painting
seems to pose.
The slug-like object on the ground, appears to be a dis-
torted self-portrait. “I want to paint like a madman,” Dali
said. As he pointed out, if Surrealism were to investigate
the unconscious, then it had to explore whatever the un-
conscious had to offer. In this painting and others, Dali
depicted illogically juxtaposed objects, impossibly distorted
forms, and undefined spatial settings. Yet when rendered
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 553

her mother’s native Switzerland, and continued on to

Rome when eighteen or nineteen years old, to study art.
As Surrealist painters combined ordinary objects in ex-
traordinary ways, Oppenheim combined the refined
teacup, saucer, and spoon with the wildness of animal fur.
This evokes the intentionally disturbing thought of drink-
ing from a fur-lined cup: imagine the sensation of sipping
tea through the fur of a Chinese gazelle. Or might the fur
keep the tea warm? The title of the work, Le Déjeuner en
fourrure, was given by Andre Breton, one of the leaders of
the Surrealists, as a reference to Le Dé&euner sur l’herbe
painted by Manet in 1863 (fig. 17.22), which certainly dis-
turbed the public when first exhibited. Oppenheim also
created Surrealist drawings, paintings, sculptures, appli-
ances, furniture, and clothing as well as poems and de-
scriptions of dreams.

FIGURE 21.17 Piet Mondrian, Composition in Red, Yellow, and

DE STIL
Blue, 1920, oil on canvas, 205 x 23 an (52 X 60 cm), Stedelijk
If Dada represents a nihilistic reaction to World War I, Museum, Amsterdam. Giraudon/Art Resource, NY/© 2004
De Stijl (“The Style” in Dutch), sometimes called Neo- Mondrian/Holtzman Trust. Mondrian actually called his style
Plasticism, represents an affirmative, hopeful response. Neo-Plasticism, but the name De Szij/, the title of the Dutch
Founded in 1917 in Holland, the movement sought to inte- magazine that published not only his own but also the writings
of other figures from the movement, is now generally used.
grate painting, sculpture, architecture, and industrial design,
and championed a “pure” abstraction. In the movement’s
first manifesto, the De Stijl artists wrote, “The war is de-
their work appears mysterious and elemental, universal in
stroying the old world with its contents. . . . The new art has
brought forward what the new consciousness of the time its simplicity.
contains: balance between the universal and the individual.” Constantin Brancusi. A Romanian who moved to Paris
in 1904, CONSTANTIN BRANCUSI [Bran-KOO-zee]
Piet Mondrian. ‘The leading painter of the De Stil (1876-1957) “rediscovered” primitive sculpture while
school was PIET MONDRIAN [MON-dree-on] working with the Expressionist painters. Brancusi favored
(1872-1944). Dutch by birth, he moved to Paris in 1912 simple geometric forms—rectangles, ovals, and verticals.
and turned his attention to Cubism, which he quickly took His Bird in Space (fig. 21.18), in polished bronze, for ex-
to its logical conclusion. His work referred less and less to ample, is an elongated vertical shape. Its purity of form
nature, until it finally became completely nonobjective ab- does not depict a bird, but rather evokes the flight of the
straction. bird. The work is completely abstract; its expressive qual-
By 1920, Mondrian had defined a mature style, as seen ity is completed by our knowing the title. “Don’t look for
in Composition in Red, Yellow, and Blue (fig. 21.17). Believ- obscure formulas or mystery,” Brancusi said of his work. “It
ing the flat plane was integral to painting and that it must is pure joy that I am giving you.”
be respected rather than falsified by perspective, and seek-
ing perfection within strictly imposed limitations, Mon- Barbara Hepworth. ‘The British sculptor Barbara Hep-
drian created a surface grid of horizontal and vertical lines; worth (1903-1975) perfected abstraction. Her Three Forms
the rectangle and square are its basic shapes. The colors are (fig. 21.19) was carved in 1935 of white serravezza mar-
restricted to the primary colors—red, yellow, and blue— ble. Hepworth’s sculptures have a biological quality, as if
plus black, white, and, in a few places, gray. Using these nature created this organic abstraction of three egglike
simple elements, Mondrian established a sense of balance. ovoids, molding and shaping not only the masses but also
As he would assert, while writing about a drawing of this the spaces between them. Hepworth said she was “ab-
time, “If one does not represent things, a place remains sorbed .. . in tensions between forms.” Although these
for the Divine.” forms are simplified to the point of severity, they are gen-
tly rounded, the surfaces perfectly finished.
Henry Moore. The human figure was the point of de-
ABSTRACTION IN SCULPTURE parture for British sculptor Henry Moore (1898-1986).
A number of sculptors sought to explore the possibilities Yet Moore’ figures are so simplified and abstract that they
of abstraction in three dimensions. They created shapes are barely identifiable, often appearing to be forms of na-
that were organic and fluid, suggesting natural forms. ‘Thus ture, capable of growth but beaten by the elements. He
554 CHAPTER 21

admired prehistoric Stonehenge and similar forms eroded

by nature and time. His Recumbent Figure (fig. 21.20), of
1938, looks weathered and suggests the power of natural
forces at work. Moore’s sculptures are often more effective
when seen in a park than in a museum.
Moore’s smooth flowing forms include large openings
and hollows. He shapes the solids but gives equal impor-
tance to the voids. The masses can be viewed as “positive
volumes” and the depressions and holes may be seen as
“negative spaces.”

ARCHITECTURE
Unlike the other modern arts, in architecture a single
international style developed over the first half of the
twentieth century that almost all architects acknowledged,
if not wholly accepted. The Museum of Modern Art in
New York held an exhibition of modern architecture in
1932 that identified a new “International Style . . . based
primarily on the nature of modern materials and structure
... slender steel posts and beams, and concrete reinforced
by steel.” Many leading architects fled the worsening sit-
uation in Europe in the 1930s and came to the United
States. The booming economic climate after the war called
for many new buildings.

FIGURE 21.18 Constantin Brancusi, Bird in Space, 1920, bronze

Walter Gropius. A \eading architect in Germany before
(unique cast), 54 X 85 X 65" (137.2 X 21.6 X 16.5 cm). Mu- World War II, Walter Gropius (1883-1969) directed the
seum of Modern Art, NY/Licensed by Scala/Art Resource, NY. Bauhaus art school in Dessau, Germany, and designed its
Given anonymously. Photograph © 2000 The Museum of Mod- chief buildings (fig. 21.21), built 1925-26. When Adolf
ern Art, NY. One of Brancusi’s Bird in Space sculptures was the Hitler closed the Bauhaus, Gropius moved to America and
center of a battle between Brancusi and the U.S. Customs Office became the chair of the Architecture Department at Har-
in 1927. Customs officials called it “bric-a-brac” and said it should vard University.
therefore be taxed, whereas Brancusi said it was a work of art and The main principle of the Bauhaus was to interrelate
was thus duty free. Brancusi won—a victory for modern art, now art, science, and technology so there was no dividing line
officially recognized as abstract art.
between the fine arts, architecture, and industrially pro-
FIGURE 21.19 Barbara Hepworth, Three Forms, 1935, marble,
Tate Gallery, London. Art Resource, NY. Hepworth created this
soon after the birth of her triplets in 1934. Her work achieves a FiGurE 21.20 Henry Moore, Recumbent Figure, 1938, green
timelessness—primitive in its elemental simplicity, classical in its hornton stone, length 55” (141 cm), Henry Moore Founda-
subtle refinement while simultaneously modern in its organic tion/Tate Picture Gallery, London. Moore’s monumental
quality and tense spatial relationships. figure, although in a classical reclining pose, appears to
have been weathered into this organic shape.
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 555

FiGuRE 21.21 Walter Gropius, Bauhaus, Dessau, Germany,

1925-26. Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art
Resource, NY. The Bauhaus (House of Building), closed by the
Nazis in 1933, was a school that sought to adapt to the modern
world by combining the methods and disciplines of fine art, FIGURE 21.22 Le Corbusier (Charles Edouard Jeanneret),
craft, graphic design, architecture, and industry. Built of rein- Savoye House, Poissy-sur-Seine, France, 1929-30. Le Cor-
forced concrete, steel, and glass, the Bauhaus building itself busier called the functional homes he designed machines a
looked like a painting by Mondrian made three dimensional. habiter—“machines for living.” Made of reinforced concrete
and glass in simple geometric shapes, this home is an example
of the International Style of the 1920s.
duced functional objects. The artist, the architect, the
craftsperson, and the engineer were brought together.
The Bauhaus building is essentially a cage of glass. Its is oriented to the outdoors with windows that extend floor
steel frame makes possible walls entirely of glass because to ceiling. Walls are made of screens. The furniture, as in
the walls do not support the structure. The cornice at the other Wright homes, is largely built-in.
top is not functionally necessary to protect a building of
glass, steel, and concrete from the elements, but it is aes-
thetically necessary as a visual conclusion to the architec- AMERICAN MODERNISM
tural composition, to frame the building. In 1913, just before World War I, a number of American
Le Corbusier. Another influential architect of the inter- artists worked together to plan an International Exhibition
national style was Charles Edouard Jeanneret, known as of Modern Art at the 69th Street Regiment Armory, in New
LE CORBUSIER [cor-BOO-see-ay] (1886-1965). The York City. Thousands of people jammed into what was soon
Savoye House in Poissy-sur-Seine in France (fig. 21.22), known as “the Armory Show” to see the Post-Impressionist,
built 1929-30, is a private home that caused a revolution Fauve, and Cubist works. Most visitors gawked at the show
in domestic architecture. Corbusier called such houses he and ridiculed it, but some American artists were inspired, es-
designed machines a habiter (“machines for living”), re- pecially those who frequented the New York City gallery
flecting Corbusier’s admiration for the neatness and pre- known simply as 291, run by Alfred Stieglitz.
cision of machines.
Georgia O’Keeffe. Among the painters most influenced
The Savoye House is elevated on stilts of reinforced con-
by Stieglitz’s style was Georgia O’Keeffe (1887-1986).
crete. Smooth walls in pure geometric shapes enclose space
Born in Wisconsin, O’Keeffe was a student at the Art In-
in an abstract composition of simple planes and clean lines,
stitute of Chicago and the Art Students League in New
like a large sculpture that can be inhabited. Because the house
York. When, in 1915, she sent Stieglitz a bundle of draw-
is elevated, outsiders cannot see in, although the inhabitants
ings and watercolors, he immediately exhibited them.
can see out. The materials used are ornamental, without ex-
They later married.
traneous decoration.
Favoring flowers and animal bones as her subjects,
Frank Lloyd Wright. The American Frank Lloyd Wright O’Keeffe is best known for the type of painting represented
(1867-1959) believed that a building must be related to by Yellow Calla (fig. 21.25), of 1929, a large-scale abstraction
its site and blend with the terrain. Contrary to critics who of a natural form. Yellow Calla is a flower seen close up and
call modern architecture “impersonal,” Wright used the painted large scale, emphasizing its abstract form and pat-
term “organic” to describe his buildings. Wright’s best tern. Simple yet carefully designed, O’Keeffe’s painting
known home is Fallingwater, in Bear Run, Pennsylvania makes use of shading to create filmy, translucent, fluttering
(fig. 21.23), built in 1936 for the Kaufmann family. The forms that are rich and sensuous. Intrigued by light and
house projects out over a waterfall and blends into the ris- color, she said, “Color is one of the great things in the world
ing cliffs of the landscape. Inside, Fallingwater is open and that makes life worth living to me.” Although many saw
556 CHAPTER 2]

Ore Catewusshas

RUSSIA AND THE WEST: of the West, moving to Paris to do so. In range of cultures and art forms. Com-
THE BALLETS RUSSES 1906, he held a large-scale exhibition of posers who produced music for the Russ-
Russian art, and in 1907, he began a se- ian ballet included Claude Debussy,
Bes as a dance form did not originate ries of concerts of Russian music. It was Maurice Ravel, and the Russian Serge
in Russia, but it certainly flourished his presentation of Mussorgsky’s Boris Prokofiev.
there. The most influential nineteenth- Godunov in 1908 that dazzled Western The international acclaim of Russian
century choreographer in Russia was the audiences with its originality and splen- ballet was furthered when George Bal-
French-born MARIUS PETIPA [PET- dor. In 1909, he ventured a second sea- anchine defected from Russia in 1924
ee-pah] (1819-1910), who worked for the son, which featured some ballets that and eventually came to the United States
czar in St. Petersburg. Petipa collaborated included scenes from Borodin’s opera in 1933 to choreograph. He founded and
with Tchaikovsky on both Sleeping Beauty Prince Igor, arranged for dancers rather directed his own company, The New
and The Nutcracker to create two of the than singers. The Russian ballerina York City Ballet, and his own school.
most popular ballets ever. After Petipa, ‘Tamara Karsavina and her male coun- Here, Balanchine created a style of bal-
Michel Fokine rose to prominence and terpart, Vaslav Nijinsky, so stunned and let that suited the American ethos—fast,
became the principal choreographer of enthralled Parisian audiences that they sleek, conceptual, and thoroughly mod-
the Ballets Russes, a Russian dance com- streamed onto the stage during the in- ern. During the communist era, many
pany set up in Paris under the direction termission of the first performance. dancers, including Rudolf Nureyev and
of the impresario SERGEI DIAGHILEV With dancers like Nijinsky and chore- Mikhail Barishnikov, defected from the
[dee-AHG-uh-LEF] (1872-1929), who ographers that included George Balan- Soviet Union to enjoy the artistic free-
was responsible for popularizing ballet chine, and with set designs commissioned dom of the West, much to the delight of
throughout Europe. by painters such as Pablo Picasso and Western audiences.
Diaghilev set himself the goal of Henri Matisse, the Ballets Russes brought
bringing Russian culture to the attention together a wealth of talent from a wide

sexual symbols in her work, O’Keeffe repeatedly made clear

that this was not true. She was, she explained a painter of
FIGURE 21.23. Frank Lloyd Wright, Fallingwater, Bear Run, nature and of nature’s forms and colors.
Pennsylvania, 1936. Seeking to unite structure and site, The same year she painted Yellow Calla, O’Keeffe began
Wright used cantilevered construction to build this home over spending her summers near Taos, New Mexico. After
a waterfall. As in contemporary painting and structure, solid Stieglitz’s death in 1946, she moved there permanently.
and void are given equal consideration in this composition. The forms of the desert Southwest became her primary
subject matter and its colors her palette.
Charles Demuth. Among the other American artists cham-
pioned by Stieglitz was Charles Demuth (1883— 1935). Un-
like O’Keeffe, whose primary interest was in natural forms
and colors, Demuth was concerned with the architectural
forms of the American scene. He reduced them to flat com-
positions in a manner reminiscent of the Cubist landscape
paintings of Picasso and Braque. InAucassin and Nicolette (fig.
21.26), of 1921, for instance, the geometric shapes of the in-
dustrial landscape near Demuth’s home in Lancaster, Penn-
sylvania, are rendered in flat, hard-edged forms, the lines of
which extend into the sky like facets on a polished gem.

MODERNIST LITERATURE
American expatriates flocked to Paris and Europe to es-
cape Prohibition and other social restrictions at home.
There, they discovered liberation from what they consid-
ered the stultifying Puritanism of America.
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 557

GRAHAM AND NOGUCHI: Her dances showed humans interacting Noguchi later explained, “but the space
THE SCULPTURE OF DANCE with art. that it creates that is the sculpture. It is
In 1935, for the dance Frontier (fig. an illusion of space. . . . It is in that spa-
Teo the pioneer of modern dance 21.24), Graham initiated what was to be tial concept that Martha moves and cre-
4 Martha Graham (1894-1991), mod- a long-lasting relationship with Isamu ates her dances. In that sense, Martha is
ern sculpture proved to be a useful way Noguchi. (See Chapter 23, fig. 23.12) a sculptor herself.” Graham herself forms
of thinking about the movement of the Noguchi devised a simple fence, set at the apex of the V as the dance opens, and
body in space. Dance was, for Graham, center stage, with two ropes attached to as she moves forward and backward in
a trajectory into space, a composition of it, extending from each end of the fence front of the fence, it is as if she is in a vast
mass moving through void. She also per- forward and upward to the portals of the landscape, the prairies and basins of the
ceived that set design could move from theater. This giant V shape created the American frontier.
its position as backdrop to occupy the illusion of space when viewed from a tra- “Isamu Noguchi’s vision of space,”
territory of the dance itself. Dancers ditional, single-point perspective, reced- Graham later said, “and the integral
could move in it, around it, over it, under ing in a steep plane toward a vanishing meaning of his sculpture set me on a di-
it, through it, and beside it. They could point below and behind the fence rail. rection which sustained me throughout
lean on it, jump over it, hide behind it. “It’s not the rope that is the sculpture,” my career.”

FIGURE 21.24 Martha Graham in Frontier, set by Isamu Noguchi, 1935. © ADAGP Paris
and DACS, London 1998. Noguchi designed over thirty-five sets for Graham, this being his
first. To create sculptural forms with her body, Graham had her costume designed with a full
circle skirt to swoop and arc through the air, creating linear curves as she moved.
558 CHAPTER 21

FIGURE 21.25 Georgia O’Keeffe, Yellow Calla, 1926, oil on fiberboard, 9 X 12)” (22.9 X
32.4 cm), Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington, D.C. © 2005 Artists Rights Soci-
ety (ARS), NY. Concerned with expressive organic abstractions of nature throughout her long
career, O’Keeffe made it clear she was an artist—not a “woman artist.”

During and after the war the most adventurous new writ- Pound and Eliot are sometimes considered difficult for
ing in English was published in Paris: James Joyce’s Ulysses, all but the most learned and experienced readers. Both
in 1922, banned for obscenity in America and Britain until poets believed poetry should be difficult, in part to reflect
1933; ’T. S. Eliot’s The Waste Land, in 1922; William Carlos the difficulty of experience, especially that of World War
Williams’s prose and poetry Spring and All, in 1923; F. Scott I, which Eliot once described as an “immense panorama of
Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, in 1925; Ezra Pound’s first futility and anarchy.” Eliot’s most influential poem, The
sixteen Cantos, in 1926; and Ernest Hemingway’s The Sun Waste Land, burst onto the literary scene in 1922. Eliot
Also Rises, also in 1926. It was Hemingway who defined the was aided in his work by his friend Ezra Pound, who cut
mood of what he called the “lost generation.” more than a hundred lines from an early draft and sug-
gested alterations to help unify the poem. In appreciation
Ezra Pound and T: S. Eliot. Ezra Pound (1885-1972) Eliot dedicated the poem to Pound and honored him fur-
and T. S. Eliot (1888-1965), two influential American ther as i/ miglior fabbro (“the better maker”).
Modernist poets, wrote complex, multifaceted poems that “T had not thought death,” Eliot writes in the poem,
were technically innovative and densely allusive. Pound “had undone so many,” speaking of the benumbed peo-
and Eliot relied heavily on rapidly shifting images, typically ple inhabiting the “unreal city” of postwar London. To
presented without explanation. Readers are left to make Eliot, London seemed as if it had been stricken by the
connections among the poems’ images and allusions and gas warfare on the Western Front. His poem is but a
to arrive at understanding for themselves. holding action, to stop the bleeding, so to speak—“frag-
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 559

writers including Hemingway, Williams, and Eliot, he was

released, and returned to Italy, where he died in 1972.
James Foyce. James Joyce (1882-1941) accomplished for
modern fiction what T. S. Eliot did for modern poetry:
He changed its direction by introducing startling innova-
tions. Like Eliot, who employed abundant and wide-rang-
ing literary and historical allusions in The Waste Land,
Joyce, in his monumental Ulysses, published in the same
year, complicated the texture and structure of his narra-
tive with intricate mythic and literary references.
Joyce used a stream of consciousness narrative tech-
nique to take readers into the minds of his characters. His
innovations include shifting abruptly from one character’s
mind to another; moving from description of an action to
a character’s response to it; mixing different styles and
voices in a single paragraph or sentence; combining events
from the past and the present in one passage. These and
similar devices convey a sense of a mind alive, a con-
sciousness that is absorbing and connecting the experi-
ences it perceives—what one critic has described as “the
shifting, kaleidoscopic nature of human awareness.” In his
Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, for example, Joyce
uses stream of consciousness to recreate the early memo-
ries of his protagonist partly by imitating the toddler’s baby
talk and partly by emphasizing the sights, smells, and tastes
of a young child’s consciousness. Despite the modernist
FIGURE 21.26 Charles Demuth, Aucassin and Nicolette, 1921, style, Joyce still casts his novel in the tradition of the bild-
oil on canvas, 23 x 195" (59.8 X 49.5 cm), Ferdinand How- ungsroman, or the novel of education, the preferred genre
land Collection, Columbus Gallery of Fine Arts, Columbus, of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century novelists.
Ohio. The painting’s ironic title, referring to the famous lovers Ulysses grows out of the tradition of the nineteenth-cen-
of medieval romance, is attributed to another member of the tury realist novel. Combining a microscopic factual accu-
Stieglitz circle during World War I, Marcel Duchamp. In fact,
racy in depicting Dublin with a rich language, it is an
Demuth records the industrialization of rural Pennsylvania.
intricate recreation of the events of one day (June 16, 1904)
in the life of Leopold Bloom. Organized into eighteen in-
creasingly complex chapters, it echoes major events in
Homer’s Odyssey.
ments I have shored against my ruin,” as he describes it
Virginia Woolf. As James Joyce was experimenting with
at poem’s end.
techniques in fiction, Virginia Woolf (1882-1941), one of
Pound’s early poetry is a concerted attack on World
the founders of the Bloomsbury group in London, was de-
War I. The five-part “Hugh Selwyn Mauberley,” published
veloping ways of rendering a literary character’s inner
in 1920, ends with this indictment of the cause the sol-
thoughts. Both writers explored techniques for conveying
diers had been fighting for:
stream of consciousness, the representation of the flow of
There died a myriad, mental impressions and perceptions through an individual's
And of the best, among them, consciousness, conveying a sense of his or her subjective
For an old bitch gone in the teeth, psychic reality. Woolf, in particular, was interested in re-
For a botched civilization . . . vealing a character’s inner being through what that char-
So disillusioned was Pound with the political and eco- acter thinks and feels, rather than what that character says
nomic policies of England, France, and the other Allies or does.
that, when Mussolini took power in Italy in the early Mrs. Dalloway (1925) and To the Lighthouse (1927) are
1930s, he became one of his champions. Fascism, and the two of Woolf’s novels that illustrate her use of the stream
anti-Semitism that went with it, appealed to Pound, and he of consciousness technique. Like Joyce, Woolf in Mrs. Dal-
supported Mussolini throughout World War II. After the loway focuses on a single day in the life of a person, in this
war he was imprisoned, tried for treason, and certified in- case a middle-aged Englishwoman, Clarissa Dalloway.
sane. For thirteen years, he was kept at St. Elizabeth’s men- Readers overhear Mrs. Dalloway’s thoughts and feelings as
tal hospital in Washington, D.C. Finally, at the request of she reflects on her life, especially her marriage. External
560 CHAPTER 2l

events are indicated only through the characters’ subjec- Franz Kafka. The fiction of Franz Kafka (1883-1924)
tive impressions of them. The novel’s point of view shifts does not form part of a school; nor does it represent a par-
among a series of characters, including Septimus Warren ticular type of technical innovation. Kafka’s fiction is so
Smith, a shell-shocked war veteran, who functions to a distinctive—a blend of the real and the fanciful, the ordi-
certain extent as her alter ego. nary and the fantastic—that a word has been coined to
In To the Lighthouse, Woolf commemorates her mother characterize it: Kafkaesque. This term also refers to night-
Julia Stephen, who had died in 1895. The novel explores marish events that wheel out of control and to individuals
aspects of gender and sexual difference by contrasting Mrs. who, driven by guilt and anxiety, experience a sense of
Ramsay, the book’s central character, with her husband, a alienation and helplessness in the face of forces they can
philosopher. Another central character, Lily Briscoe, is an neither explain nor control. Kafka’s is a frightening uni-
artist who paints a portrait of Mrs. Ramsay. As critic Lyall verse, one in which characters suffer without cause, look-
Gordon notes, “The artist behind her easel, the biogra- ing for answers they never find.
pher behind her novel reproduce the action of the light- Despite the small output, Kafka’s writings loom large in
house: together they light up a woman’s uncharted nature.” modern literature. His three novels, The Trial (1925), The
To the Lighthouse is a masterpiece of literary modernism, Castle (1926), and Amerika (1927), were all published
full of the subjective experiences of a central character who posthumously—against his wishes, for he had left instruc-
is at odds with the world, and replete with poetic symbols tions that his manuscripts be destroyed. The best known
that reveal the character’s true nature. of these, The Trial, is the only one that contains an ending.
Its beginning, one of the most frightening in modern lit-
Ernest Hemingway. One of the most imitated Ameri-
erature, presents Joseph K., a man accused of a crime
can writers, Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961) wrote nov-
whose nature is never revealed to him. As he awaits his
els and short stories in a manner that came to characterize
trial and execution one year later, Joseph K. tries to un-
one pole of the modern fictional idiom. His language is
derstand what has happened to him, eventually coming to
laconic and spare. His plots are simple. The complexity of
believe in his guilt. He gradually realizes his guilt or in-
his fiction lies in its suggestiveness, in the implications of
nocence is immaterial, since he feels he deserves his pun-
what is said and of what is left unspoken. Hemingway be-
ishment. Kafka renders a world riddled with anxiety and
lieved fiction should reveal less rather than more, like an
incomprehension, irrational, absurd, confused, lonely, and
iceberg with only its tip exposed above water.
lost.
Thus Hemingway’s style, tone, and manner provide the
index to his literary achievement. His first significant book,
In Our Time (1925), is a series of sketches depicting the re- RUSSIAN FILM
alities of war and the violence, skill, and grace of bullfight-
ing. The book’s eighteen vignettes range in length from a SERGEI EISENSTEIN [EYE-zen-stine] (1898-1948)
paragraph to a page. The following is a typical example. was a film theorist as well as a film director. His widerang-
ing knowledge of history, philosophy, science, and the arts
is reflected in his films. For Eisenstein, film was the most
INTERCHAPTER VII complete of the arts. It included all the various artistic ex-
While the bombardment was knocking the trench to pieces pressions of conflict—the kinetic conflict of dance, the vi-
at Fossalta, he lay very flat and sweated and prayed oh jesus sual conflict of painting, the verbal conflict of literature
christ get me out of here. Dear jesus please get me out. and theater, and the conflicts of character essential to fic-
Christ please please please christ. If you’ll only keep me tion and drama.
from getting killed I'll do anything you say. I believe in you Eisenstein built his films shot by shot and frame by
and I'll tell every one in the world that you are the only frame, calculating the dramatic tension until it finally ex-
one that matters. Please please dear jesus. The shelling
ploded on film. Eisenstein achieved striking effects with
moved further up the line. We went to work on the trench
and in the morning the sun came up and the day was hot lighting, time lapses, designs, and backgrounds in various
and muggy and cheerful and quiet. The next night back at camera shots, using narratives that were loosely structured
Mestre he did not tell the girl he went upstairs with at the and episodic in construction.
Villa Rossa about Jesus. And he never told anybody. In his silent film Battleship Potemkin, first shown in 1926,
Eisenstein dramatizes the mutiny on board the czarist ship
Concise and direct, this sketch is remarkable for its Potemkin in 1905, and the ensuing street demonstrations
modernist assumptions. An unglamorous pair of incidents in the port of Odessa. Eisenstein was commissioned to
demythologizes war, love, and religion. Instead of courage, make the film as part of the twentieth anniversary cele-
there is fear; instead of love, a casual encounter with a brations of the 1905 Revolution. Eisenstein structures his
prostitute. And instead of religious faith, the narrator bar- film like a symphony. The first section presents the bloody
gains with a God he forgets once he is out of danger. In a mutiny and the conditions that precipitated it. The sec-
few swift strokes, Hemingway delineates the modern atti- ond provides a respite as the ship drops anchor in the har-
tude, so different from the past. bor after the revolt. Following this lull, a third section
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 561

Then & Now

ROBIN HOOD AT THE MOVIES pace, since a silent film required many
stills of narrative and dialogue.
he adventures of Robin Hood are Perhaps the greatest contrast between
often retold in movies, and Robin the two early versions lies in the change
Hood is one of the most popular screen in the country’s ethos and in the studio
characters of all time. When the 1938 system’s effort to promote Errol Flynn
version, 7 he Adventures ofRobin Hood, ap- as the embodiment of the hero. In the
peared, audiences raved about the charis- depressed 1930s, Americans needed a Bia

matic Errol Flynn as Robin Hood and man who “steals from the rich to give to
Olivia de Haviland as the demure Maid the poor.” Flynn’s flashing smile and
Marian (fig. 21.27). good looks reinforced the appeal. When
An earlier version had been made in the film was released, newspapers and
1922 with Douglas Fairbanks and Mary magazines covered it, radio shows dram-
Pickford, two of the four co-founders of atized parts of the story, and a paperback
United Artists. It ran 170 minutes, long edition was published with Errol Flynn
for a silent film. It cost over $1.5 mil- as Robin Hood on the cover.
lion—unheard of in 1922; even Warner Over the years, new versions have
Brothers lavished only $2 million on the been produced. Disney created an ani-
Flynn remake in 1938. mated feature in 1973 in which Robin
The Warner Brothers version, in Hood is a fox. Mel Brooks spoofed the
1938, added sound and color, and Robin legend in Robin Hood: Men in Tights
Hood came to life. Filmed in Techni- (1993). Brooks’s film parodied a previ-
color, it contained deep blacks, dark pur- ous film, Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves
ples, and luscious greens, and utilized (1991), directed by Kevin Costner, in Figure 21.27 Errol Flynn and Olivia
which Robin and his band of Merry de Haviland in Warner Brothers’ 1938
stunning contrasts of light and dark that
movie The Adventures ofRobin Hood.
dazzled audiences. The addition of Men are portrayed as politically correct
sound made it possible to speed up the rebels.

focuses on the people of Odessa. Here Eisenstein creates created dissonance and harmonic disorientation. Fleeing to
his most brilliant editing effects, alternating between the Switzerland during the war, and returning to Paris in 1920,
panic-stricken and defenseless masses who support the Stravinsky began work on a new ballet for Diaghilev, en-
mutinous sailors and the Cossack soldiers, armed with bay- titled Pulcinella. Taking a number of sonatas by Classical
onets, who march relentlessly through the crowd, mas- composers, Stravinsky reworked their harmonies to make
sacring those who fall in their path. The final section shows them dissonant, changed their phrase lengths to make
the ship returning to sea, with cheers coming from other them irregular, and altered their rhythms to make them
ships in the fleet. It marks a call to action. lively and syncopated. “Pulcinella,” he would later admit,
Eisenstein’s Odessa sequence (fig. 21.28) includes a for- “was my discovery of the past.” But his was a past thor-
mal technique called montage, a set of impressions ed- oughly modernized.
ited to achieve dramatic effect or, here, to increase tension
to the point of “emotional saturation.” Eisenstein believed Arnold Schoenberg. ‘The Viennese composer ARNOLD
viewer tension would find release in an emotional bond- SCHOENBERG [SHONE-berg] (1874-1951) under-
ing with the victims depicted on screen. Yet, for all its in- mined the stability of Western classical music even fur-
novations, the film is intentional propaganda and was made ther by writing music that lacked a tonal center, or home
to legitimize and celebrate the revolution. key. Atonality, he called it. Much of this work was done
before the war and badly received. He was convinced
tonality was a “straitjacket,” but also realized that atonal-
MOopDERN MUSIC ity was structureless. Consequently, he developed a twelve-
Music too embodied the discord and disharmony of this tone musical scale, as used in the Variation for Orchestra
anxious age. Before the war, Stravinsky’s The Rite ofSpring (1931). The twelve-tone scale was based on the traditional
had shaken the foundations of tonality, and hence tradi- octave, counting all the half steps. Twelve-tone composi-
tional harmony. Stravinsky’s-use of multiple tonal centers tion would “level” each tone, giving none more weight
562 CHAPTER 2l

FIGURE 21.28 These consecutive film stills from Sergei Eisenstein’s Battleship Potemkin
(1924) reveal the director’s dramatic use of close-up and the contrast between human and
inanimate images.

than any other, by predetermining the order in which the identity. When worldwide economic depression struck in
tones would be played. This order would be used for the 1929, simplistic explanations, such as blaming bankers for
entire composition, sequence after sequence. all economic woes, appealed to many.
The music is difficult to listen to for audiences accus-
tomed to traditional harmony, but, given the proper
theme, it can be moving. Jewish by birth, Schoenberg FASCISM IN EUROPE
based many of his works on Jewish liturgy, including his Benito Mussolini. In many respects, BENITO MUS-
opera Moses und Aaron (1923), which is based on a single SOLINI [moo-soh-LEE-nee] (1883-1945) is responsible
twelve-tone series. for the invention of fascism, which was first established in
Italy. Expelled from the Italian Socialist Party for advo-
cating Italian entry into World War I, Mussolini formed
REPRESSION AND DEPRESSION: groups of so-called fasci (from the Latin word for the bun-
THE THIRTIES dle of rods that symbolize the Roman Republic). These
groups consisted of young men like himself who called for
World War I was meant to be “the war to end all wars.” In- Italy’s entry into the war in 1915.
stead it left a sense of disillusionment and fear that led Mussolini’s power base expanded rapidly after the war.
many to crave security. Some found security in authori- He organized Italians who were dissatisfied with the gov-
tarian leadership and in inflated national pride, which ernment and who opposed the socialist cause as Bolshevik.
blamed adverse conditions on others. Although the end of Mussolini’s fascist bands, with the support of the Italian
the war brought a semblance of peace, it did not bring har- police, openly attacked labor union offices, opposition
mony. As the Russian communist experiment took hold, it newspapers, and antifascist politicians. Nearly two thou-
threatened other nations. Workers throughout Europe sand people were killed between October 1920 and Oc-
looked to the Russian communists for a new vision and tober 1922. Meanwhile, Mussolini gained power, and on
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 563

October 29, 1922, he was named premier. By the late the value of the German currency decreased from a few
1920s, the government was totally controlled by the Fas- thousand marks to the dollar to literally trillions of marks
cist Party, and Mussolini had become more dictator than to the dollar by the end of the year. Lifetime savings were
premier, both head of the party and chief of state. He out- suddenly worthless. Workers found themselves earning
lawed emigration, advocated the largest possible families starvation wages as even the price of bread rocketed. In
by reducing taxes with each successive child, and taxed Munich, Adolf Hitler created the National Socialist Party
bachelors in an attempt to encourage them to marry. His of the German Workers—the Nazi (abbreviation for “Na-
dream was to create, in a single generation, a huge Italian tional”) Party.
army and a country thoroughly loyal to the goals of the In 1921, Hitler named himself fuibrer (or leader) of the
fascist state. Education, from textbooks to professors, be- Nazi Party. He became chancellor of the Nazi Party in
came a propaganda arm of the government itself. The po- January 1933, backed by the party’s new Schutzstaffel, or SS
lice sought out dissenters and eliminated them. (literally, “Defense Force”), an elite honor guard, and by
the Sturmabteilung, or SA (literally, “Storm Troops”), a
Adolf Hitler. Meanwhile, the fascist approach to gov- huge private army. A month later, a fire broke out in the
ernment spread to Germany, where Adolf Hitler Reichstag, the central buildings of German government,
(1889-1945) took advantage of public despair over the and Hitler quickly blamed it on the communists. By noon
state of Germany’s economy after World War I. In 1923, the next day, four thousand members of the Communist

Map 21.2 Left- and right-wing Europe, 1918-39.

Fascist state by 1939

[__] Right-wing state by 1939
aa
__| Liberal democracy
Communist

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

BALEARIC
ISLANDS
QR

AFRICA

; 500 Miles

250. 500 Kilometers

564 CHAPTER 2l

Party had been arrested, and their citizenship rights had Beginning at half past four in the afternoon and lasting for
been suspended. three and a half hours, a strike force of thirty-three planes,
In August 1934, Hitler became president and chancel- each loaded with three thousand pounds of bombs, pum-
lor of Germany. Every political party that opposed him was meled the city. By the time the fires subsided three days
banned. Like Mussolini in Italy, Hitler was convinced the later, the town center had been razed to the ground—fif-
Bolsheviks were responsible for the catastrophic state of teen square blocks—and a thousand innocent citizens had
the German economy. The Jews became Hitler’s primary been killed. As news of the event spread, Pablo Picasso,
target. The “Nuremberg Laws” of September 1935 de- living in Paris, began work on a giant canvas commemo-
fined a Jew as anyone with one Jewish grandparent. It de- rating the massacre, a disaster that foreshadowed the
nounced marriage between Jews and non-Jews as “racial bombing of cities in World War II.
pollution” and prohibited it. Jews were forbidden to teach Guernica (fig. 21.29) is the culmination of Picasso’s Sur-
in educational institutions and were banned from writing, realist style. Painted only in black, white, and grays, it con-
publishing, acting, painting, and performing music. Nor tains a Pieta theme, and many elements of Surrealist dream
were they allowed to work in hospitals or banks, bookstores symbolism. The horse, speared and dying in anguish, rep-
or law offices. In November 1938, after a seventeen-year- resents the fate of creativity. The entire scene is surveyed
old Jewish boy shot and killed the secretary of the German by a bull, which represents Spain and the bullfight—the
Embassy in Paris, mobs looted and burned Jewish shops struggle of life and death. The bull also represents the
and synagogues all over Germany. They swept through the Minotaur, the bull-man of Greek mythology, which stands
streets, entering Jewish homes, beating the occupants, and for the animalistic forces of the human psyche. The elec-
stealing their possessions. After this night, known as tric light bulb, at the top center of the painting, and the oil
Kristallnacht (literally, “Night of Glass”), the extent of Ger- lamp, held by the woman reaching outof the window, have
man anti-Semitism was apparent to the world. been much debated, and represent, on a fundamental level,
From the beginning, Hitler’s Nazi Party was militaris- old and new ways of seeing.
tic in its discipline, organization, and goals. Nazis were Franco captured the Republican strongholds of Madrid
proponents of the policy of Lebensraum (“living space”), and Barcelona in 1939 and ruled Spain as a fascist dictator
which they claimed justified the geographic expansion of until his death in 1975. The attack on Guernica and other
the state into other countries’ territories to make room for fascist victories in Spain outraged the Allies, but they
what they believed was the “superior” German race of peo- proved to Hitler just how effective his military forces and
ple. By the mid-1930s, Hitler was preparing for war. tactics were. While the Spanish Civil War was winding
down, Hitler sent troops into Czechoslovakia, in March
Francisco Franco. Spain had been in disarray since the 1939. Meeting with little or no resistance, shortly there-
king’s overthrow in 1931. Spain’s Popular Front, consist- after Hitler set his designs on Poland—and the world.
ing of a coalition of Republicans, Socialists, labor unions,
Communists, and anarchists, won an electoral victory in
February 1936. Shortly thereafter, however, Spain’s right FRANKLIN DELANO ROOSEVELT
formed the Falange (“Phalanx”), a coalition of monarchists,
AND THE NEW DEAL
clerics (whose church schools had been closed), and the
military, who desired to overthrow the new Republican Throughout the 1920s, the United States had enjoyed un-
government. At the Falange’s head was General Francisco precedented prosperity, fueled by speculation on the stock
Franco (1892-1975), who on July 17, 1936, with his right- market and the extraordinary expansion of the industrial
wing army, led a coordinated revolt in Spanish Morocco infrastructure. For the first time in history, a country could
and in a number of towns in mainland Spain—Céordoba, define itself not as an agricultural society, nor as an indus-
Seville, and Burgos, among them. trial one, but as a consumer society. Houses, automobiles,
The Spanish Civil War had begun. Within a few weeks, and everyday goods were purchased on credit, in an al-
about a third of the country was under Franco’s control, most unregulated economic climate. Unfortunately, this
but Barcelona, Madrid, and Valencia remained Republican prosperity was built on a house of cards, and on October
strongholds, as did the Basque provinces in the north. The 29, 1929, it all came tumbling down in a stock market
Soviet Union supported the Republican cause, furnishing crash. Many of the wealthiest people in America were dev-
them with military advisers and organizing international astated, as $30 billion of assets disappeared within two
brigades of volunteers (among them Ernest Hemingway). weeks. Faced with massive withdrawals they could not sus-
Mussolini and Hitler supported Franco. Hitler even tain, banks closed. Families lost their life savings. By the
provided Franco with an air force. On April 26, 1937, Wol- early 1930s, over sixteen million American men were un-
fram von Richthofen, the cousin of the German ace Man- employed, nearly a third of the workforce. To make mat-
fred von Richthofen, the Red Baron of World War I, ters worse, whole areas of the Midwest suffered severe
planned an attack on the town of Guernica in northern drought. The effect, exacerbated by overplowing, was the
Spain, where Basque Republican forces were retreating. creation of a giant Dust Bowl. Whole populations left the
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 565

FIGURE 21.29 Pablo Picasso, Guernica, 1937, oil on canvas, es 5” x SY (3.49 X 7.75 m).
Centro de Arte Reina Sofia, Madrid/Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY. © 2005 Estate of
Pablo Picasso/Artsts Rights Society, NY. After Franco’s victory in 1939, Guernica was exhibited at
the Museum of Modern Art in New York where Picasso placed it on “extended loan.” He did,
however, affirm that the painting belonged “to the Spanish Republic,” but he forbade its return
to Spain until such time that democracy and “individual liberties” were restored there. With the
death of Franco in 1975, the subsequent crowning of Juan Carlos as constitutional monarch in
1977, and the adoption of a democratic constitution in 1978, the painting was finally returned
to Spainin 1981.

hardest hit areas of Arkansas and Oklahoma for California, American farmers and sharecroppers devastated by De-
an exodus depicted by John Steinbeck in his novel The pression and drought.
Grapes of Wrath.
Dorothea Lange. One of the photographers to be part of
Fearing that economic catastrophe would lead to the
the plan was Dorothea Lange (1895-1965). Lange’s doc-
rise of fascism as seen in Europe, or worse, communism,
umentary style, although seemingly objective, was driven
the U.S. government decided to intervene. President
by a social reformist impulse. Lange’s most famous pho-
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945), or “FDR” as he
tograph, Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California (fig. 21.30),
was called, declared a bank holiday in 1933; gradually those
depicts a young widow with three of her ten forlorn chil-
institutions that were financially sound reopened. Roo-
dren, migrants on the way to California, the sort that
sevelt recognized that at the root of the Depression was
Steinbeck described. She stares into space, pensive and
a deep imbalance between the haves and the have-nots.
anxious, her glance avoiding the camera. She looks much
He wanted to give the have-nots what he called a “New
older than her thirty-two years. Her children turn inward,
Deal.” In 1935, a Social Security Act inaugurated unem-
seeking shelter beside their mother, who has none for her-
ployment insurance and old-age pensions. ‘Tax codes were
self. The picture’s grainy gray tones complete the mood of
revised to increase the tax burden on wealthier Americans
resignation.
in an effort to close the gap. Agricultural subsidies were
given to farmers to maintain agricultural production and Walker Evans. Another FSA photographer, Walker
to steady the economy. For the arts, the Works Progress Evans (1903-1975), is best known for his photographs for
Administration (WPA) was established to subsidize au- Let Us Now Praise Famous Men by James Agee published in
thors, artists, and musicians. 1941, which details Evans and Agee’s life with a family of
sharecroppers in Hale County, Alabama, in 1936. Agee’s
“famous” men are the forgotten people of poverty. He de-
PHOTOGRAPHY AND THE FSA scribes, for instance, the sharecroppers’ house as nightfall
To create a sense of national consensus for Roosevelt’s so- creeps over it: “The house and all that was in it had now
cial reforms, photographers were subsidized by the Farm descended deep beneath the gradual spiral it had sunk
Security Administration (FSA) to portray the plight of through; it lay formal under the order of entire silence.”
566 CHAPTER 21

FiGurE 21.30 Dorothea Lange, Migrant Mother; Nipomo,

California, 1936, gelatin silver print, Library of Congress,
Washington, D.C. Lange chose to include only three of the
mother’s ten children in this photograph because she did not
want to add to widespread resentment in wealthier parts of
ba Se
American society about overpopulation among the poor.
FIGURE 21.31 Walker Evans, Washroom and Dining Area of
Floyd Burroughs’s Home, Hale County, Alabama, 1936, photo-
Evans’s Washroom and Dining Area of Floyd Burroughs’s graph, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. The power of
Home, Hale County, Alabama (fig. 21.31) is dominated by a this photograph rests not only in its formal coherence, but in it
grid of verticals and horizontals, punctuated by a single stunning focus, its ability to capture the texture of wood, cloth,
glass, and vinyl in a manner that makes everything almost real
oval washbowl on the right and an oil lamp on the left.
enough to touch.
The work echoes Mondrian’s “pure” abstractions. As it
embodies the stark poverty of a sharecropper’s life, Evans’s
photograph reveals a dignity in the clean lines of this sparse
world, a dignity that also marks Agee’s accompanying assignment for Life, Bourke-White arrived on the last
prose. flight before the airfield was closed, and she hitchhiked on
rescue rowboats shooting photo after photo of the scene.
Margaret Bourke-White. Like Evans, Margaret Bourke-
At the Time of the Louisville Flood juxtaposes a soup line of
White (1904-1971) collaborated with a writer, her hus-
African Americans displaced by disaster against the gov-
band Erskine Caldwell, to depict the social realities of the
ernment billboard behind them, thus seeming to indict
Depression. Their best known project is You Have Seen
the American dream as mere government propaganda.
Their Face (1937). But it was Bourke-White’s photo-jour-
Bourke-White worked throughout the world, covering
nalism that earned her worldwide recognition. One of the
World War II and the Korean War as a correspondent.
first photographers hired by Life magazine after its found-
She was the first woman photographer attached to the U.S.
ing in 1936, Bourke-White came to define the profession.
armed forces, and the only U.S. photographer to cover the
Her photographs of the Depression depict the harsh
siege of Moscow in 1941.
conditions of the time. At the Time of the Louisville Flood
(fig. 21.32) records the aftermath of the great flood of the Louise Dahl-Wolfe. ‘The American LOUISE DAHL-
Ohio River in January 1937. Inundating Louisville, Ken- WOLFE (1895-1989), although known for her fashion
tucky, it left over nine hundred people dead or injured. On photography, preferred portraiture. Her photograph of
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 567

SS
herself and was among the first to work with color pho-
tography. She enjoyed her many successes during a long
and productive life.

Lola Alvarez Bravo. Born Dolores (Lola) Martinez

Vianda in Jalisco. Mexico, an orphan at the age of eight,
Lola Alvarez Bravo (1907-93) married the Mexican pho-
tographer Manuel Alvarez Bravo, from whom she was
later divorced. Her photographs record daily life in Mex-
ico, in the city as well as in the country, for example, her
print From Generation to Generation (fig. 21.34), taken
around 1950, and of the famous people as well as of the
ordinary. Highly successful as a photographer, Bravo also
had an art gallery in Mexico City where, in 1953, she gave
a Pea ee OS ee
Frida Kahlo a one-woman exhibition—the only one held
FIGURE 21.32 Margaret Bourke-White, At the Time of the in Mexico during Kahlo’s lifetime. Bravo taught photog-
Louisville Flood, 1937, photograph. Life magazine offered many raphy at the Academia de San Carlos in Mexico City.
photographers the opportunity to work professionally. React-
ing to the arrival of Life magazine on the publishing scene,
Bourke-White said, “I could almost feel the horizon widening
and the great rush of wind sweeping in. . . . This was the kind FIGURE 21.34 Lola Alvarez Bravo, From Generation to Gener-
of magazine that could be anything we chose to make it.” ation, gelatin silver print, ca. 1950, 9 X 65" (22.9 X 15.6 cm).
National Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, D.C. In
this charming photo, a wide-eyed child stares inquisitively at
Colette (fig. 21.33) is among those of famous writers Dahl- the viewer. Bravo created a contrast between young and old,
Wolfe took while on staff for many years (1936-58) at the small and large, front and back. Aesthetically striking, this could
magazine Harper’s Bazaar. This casual and intimate portrait be analyzed as a carefully composed arrangement in blacks,
shows Colette, the French novelist, interrupted while writ- grays, and whites.
ing in bed, in her apartment in Paris. Known for her tech-
nical perfection, Dahl-Wolfe developed her photographs

FIGURE 21.33 Louise Dahl-Wolfe, American, Colette, 1951,

gelatin silver print, 102 x 134" (27.6 X 33.3 cm), National
Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, D.C. Gift of
Helen Cumming Ziegler. © 1989 Center for Creative Photog-
raphy, Arizona Board of Regents. As Colette glances up, pen
in hand, Dahl-Wolfe’s photo skillfully and subtly suggests that
the viewer is standing very close to the famous French au-
thor—and has disturbed her as she writes.
568 CHAPTER 21

Critical Thinking
PHOTOGRAPHY AND TRUTH To what extent are photographs lim- vey the truth of a situation, such as a
ited by the moment of their shooting? love relationship or a social situation,
picture, it has been said, is worth a By the angle or perspective from which such as racial harmony or racial tension,
housand words. And it has often they are taken? for example? How would you determine
been remarked how photographs capture To what extent can photographs be if a photograph was telling the “truth,”
the truth of a scene, rendering it as the “arranged” to suggest something that or if it was revealing only a partial, and
scene exists in real life. However, we supposedly happened spontaneously, therefore slanted, truth? How do you
might want to ask a few questions about but was actually “staged” by the pho- distinguish between photographs that
these commonly accepted notions. tographer? How would you go about portray truth and those that convey
To what extent do photographs, deciding what was “staged” and what propaganda?
snapshots of a moment of time, tell the was unvarnished reality? And can a
truth? “staged” or “arranged” photograph con-

REGIONALISM IN AMERICAN PAINTING house atmosphere of an imported, and for our country,
functionless aesthetic.”
The success achieved by photographers working for the One of his most ambitious undertakings was a set of
FSA was underpinned by the realist impulse in American murals for the Missouri State Capitol, recording the social
culture. Many American artists, especially in the Midwest, history of Missouri (fig. 21.36). Almost every aspect of
rejected abstraction and turned instead to a more natura- Missouri life is depicted. In a domestic scene, an old
listic representation of the American experience through woman rolls out dough while an old man reads and a
regional scenes. young boy drinks a glass of milk. To the left are various
Edward Hopper. Although he had traveled to Europe farming scenes; a cow is milked; pigs are fed; a farmer sits
several times between 1906 and 1910, for his 1933 exhi- atop his tractor. To the right a lawyer argues a case before
bition at the Museum of Modern Art, Edward Hopper the jury in a courtroom.
(1882-1967) wrote, “A nation’s art is greatest when it most
reflects the character of its people. ... We are not French Jacob Lawrence. Another, earlier migration, reminiscent
and never can be and any attempt to be so is to deny our of the migration of Oklahoma farmworkers, was that of
inheritance and to try to impose upon ourselves a charac- African Americans after World War I. They moved
ter that can be nothing but a veneer upon surface.” steadily from the South to the North seeking employment
Hopper’s paintings record the American scene. Its cafés, in rapidly expanding industries. Between 1916 and 1923,
restaurants, stores, and barber-shops are his subject matter. the African American population in major northern cities
Hopper paints places inhabited by the middle class, repre- doubled. African-American artist Jacob Lawrence
senting ordinary things that had previously been deemed (1917-2000), supported by the WPA, captured this move-
unworthy of an artist’s attention. He is adept at conveying ment in a series of tempera paintings, The Migration of the
disquieting isolation and regret. Nighthawks (fig. 21.35), of Negro, made between 1939 and 1941.
1942, portrays the bleak loneliness and the alienation of Those who migrated first found jobs in the north be-
city life after hours. Stark and still, few human figures ap- cause of labor shortages resulting from World War I, but
pear in Hopper’s paintings; often, there is no one at all. as others followed, life in the north soon revealed itself to
be little different from life in the south. The Migration se-
Thomas Hart Benton. ‘The regionalist impulse was sup- ries depicts the entire saga. The migrants arriving in
ported by the Works Progress Administration (WPA), Chicago, St. Louis, Pittsburgh, and New York encounter
which initiated a mural project to decorate public buildings injustice, racism, and inadequate housing. Race riots re-
across the country. The murals were to represent Ameri- sult. In one panel, They Also Found Discrimination (fig.
can themes and experiences. Over two thousand murals 21.37), Lawrence depicts the racial divide the African
were painted between 1935 and 1939, and among the best Americans encountered in the north. A subtle, yet star-
were those by Thomas Hart Benton (1889-1975). Benton tling effect is the facelessness of the African Americans.
was radically anti-European. “The fact that our art was ar- They are anonymous, undifferentiated, “invisible,” to use
guable in the language of the street,” he wrote, “was proof the word of African American writer Ralph Ellison, who
to us that we had succeeded in separating it from the hot- explored this experience in his classic novel, Invisible Man.
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 569

FIGURE 21.35 Edward Hopper, Nighthawks, 1942, oil on canvas, 2'6" X 4'gi"
(76.2 X 143.9 cm), Friends of American Art Collection, 1942. 1 © 1997 Art Institute of
Chicago. Photograph © 2005, The Art Institute of Chicago. All Rights Reserved. Using care-
fully constructed compositions to depict ordinary subjects, especially the loneliness of urban
life, the artist documented the American scene.

SOUTHERN REGIONALIST WRITING William Faulkner. Unlike Hemingway, who chose fic-
tional settings in various parts of the world, William
Regionalism is also identifiable in American fiction between Faulkner (1897-1962) chose to remain a chronicler of the
the two world wars. Especially in the South, a distinct brand American South. Set in fictional Yoknapatawpha County—
of writing developed. The South’s “tall-tale” tradition was very much like his native Lafayette County, Mississippi—
enhanced by colorful dialect and usage and, in no small Faulkner’s work describes the decline of local families. His
part, by the memory of the Civil War, which fostered a work, which ranges widely in style, tone, and technique,
sense of hurt pride and regional identity. The writing of earned him a Nobel Prize in 1950.
southern regionalists is marked by violent and grotesque Faulkner novels experiment with narrative. In The
characters who are often treated with colloquial humor. It Sound and the Fury, for instance, he tells the story of the
is also distinguished, in particular, by a sense of place. increasing misfortunes of the Compson family from four

Table 21-1 IMPORTANT STYLES OF PAINTING DURING THE AGE OF ANXIETY

Style Artist Painting and Date
Dada Arp Portrait of Tristan Tzara, 1916
De Stijl Mondrian Composition in Red, Yellow, and Blue, 1920
Surrealism Miré Painting, 1933
Dali The Persistence of Memory, 1931
American modernism O'Keeffe Yellow Calla, 1926
Demuth Aucassin and Nicolette, 1921
American regionalism Hopper Nighthawks, 1942
Benton Missouri Mural, 1936
Lawrence They Also Found Discrimination, 1940-41
570 CHAPTER 2Il

FIGURE 21.36 Thomas Hart Benton, Missouri Mural (section), 1936, Missouri State Capitol,
Jefferson City, Missouri, oil on canvas, © T:H. Benton and R.P. Benton Testamentary Trusts/
Licensed by VAGA, New York, NY. The WPA’ mural project was directly inspired by the
example of the Mexican muralists, one of whom, Diego Rivera, is discussed in the Cross
Currents box in this chapter, and whose efforts were supported by the Mexican government.

different points of view. Each narrative perspective pro- satires challenge American attitudes about violence, race,
vides a context for the others, so the whole story becomes and class.
known through compilation. He also uses a stream of con- Although O’Connor set her fiction in the South, she
sciousness technique. explored Christian beliefs that transcend the confines of
Faulkner understood that in exploring the world close one region. “The woods are full of regional writers,” she
to him he was also exploring ideas that resonated beyond once said, “and it is the great horror of every serious
the locales he was describing. As he himself put it, “I dis- Southern writer that he will become one of them.” Several
covered that my own little postage stamp of native soil of O’Connor’s stories begin with a comic protagonist who
was worth writing about and that I would never live long indulges in fantasies of moral or social superiority or who
enough to exhaust it.” For all its experimental form and has a false sense of the certainty of things. The protago-
rhetorical brilliance, Faulkner’s work derives its power nist then has a traumatic encounter with other characters
from his depiction of characters, whose struggle to en- or with ironic situations that suggest a disturbing and in-
dure remains familiar and remarkable. In his Nobel Prize comprehensible universe. Although her stories blend com-
acceptance speech, Faulkner noted that “man will not edy and tragedy, several end quite gruesomely.
merely endure: he will prevail . . . because he has a soul,
a spirit capable of compassion and sacrifice and en-
durance.” THE AMERICAN SOUND
Flannery O’Connor. ‘The stories of Flannery O’Connor Just as American painters and writers evoked the distinct
(1925-64) explore humor, irony, and paradox, especially character of America’s regions, a number of composers
the paradox of evil and redemption. O’Connor’s social and musicians sought to convey their own sense of a dis-
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 571

cal music tradition, Ives wrote distinctively American

music, which, like the poetry of Walt Whitman, expresses
the multiplicity of American life. Ives’s music echoes Amer-
ican folk songs, marches, fiddle tunes, spirtuals, and pa-
triotic songs while also evoking snatches of Beethoven and
Brahms. Like Whitman, Ives could “hear America
singing,” and he captured a multitude of American voices
in his collection 114 Songs, which includes sentimental bal-
lads, war songs, street songs, religious songs, folk tunes,
cowboy songs, humorous songs, and dramatic poems.
Ives was influenced by the writings of the American
‘Transcendentalists, especially Ralph Waldo Emerson and
Henry David Thoreau. Transcendentalism’s optimism, its
belief in the innate goodness of human beings, its empha-
sis on individualism and self-reliance, and its appreciation
of nature all captured Ives’s imagination. These ideals find
expression in Ives’s songs and symphonies, and especially
in his Concord Sonata for piano, with its movements de-
voted to Emerson and Thoreau, in his Unanswered Ques-
tion, subtitled philosophically “A Cosmic Landscape,” and
in his Universe Symphony, which Ives once described as “a
presentation and contemplation in tones . . . of the mys-
terious creation of the earth and firmament, the evolution
of all life in nature, in humanity to the Divine.”

Aaron Copland. Born in Brooklyn, New York, AARON

COPLAND [COPE-land] (1900-90) is an esteemed
American composer. After his early training, Copland went
to Paris for four years, where he experienced firsthand the
artistic energy of Picasso, Stravinsky, Hemingway, Pound,
and many other modernist writers, artists, and composers.
Returning to America in the mid-1920s, Copland was de-
FIGURE 21.37 Jacob Lawrence, They Also Found Discrimina- termined to compose music with a distinctively American
tion, from the series The Migration of the Negro, panel 49. style that would appeal to a wide audience. He achieved
1940-41, tempera on wood, Nes x 18” (54 X 45.7 cm), Philips this with a series of ballet scores that relied on American
Collection, Washington, DC. Courtesy of the Jacob and Gwen- folk elements. Copland worked with two leading chore-
dolyn Lawrence Foundation. When the series was exhibited in ographers who were themselves striving for uniquely
1941, Lawrence achieved instant fame, and the series was pur- American dance aesthetics. Agnes de Mille choreographed
chased jointly by the Philips Collection and the Museum of the ballet Rodeo to Copland’s music in 1942; in 1944,
Modern Art, in New York, who divided the panels between
Martha Graham choreographed Appalachian Spring. De
them. It was reassembled as a complete series in the mid-1990s
when it toured the country—once again to national acclaim.
Mille went on to arrange the stage dance for several lead-
ing Broadway musicals, including Oklahoma! (1943) and
tinctively American “sound.” For over two centuries, peo- had her own touring company for years.
ple had brought their own musical customs and instru- Although Copland’s score for the ballet Rodeo has been
ments from many different countries, and, as they settled a favorite among American audiences, his Appalachian
into communities, different folk sounds developed across Spring is performed more frequently as a concert piece.
The work’s subject is, as he said, “a pioneer celebration in
the land. Spirited banjo and fiddle music grew popular in
the Appalachian mountains; cowboy songs thrived on the spring around a newly built farmhouse in the Pennsylva-
American prairie; gospel music arose in African American nia hills” in the early nineteenth century. A bride and
communities in the South; and jazz, which developed in groom, their neighbor, and a preacher and his congrega-
New Orleans, spread to big cities around the country, in- tion constitute the piece’s characters. Copland’s music im-
cluding New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles. itates American fiddle tunes and hymns, including Szmple
Gifts, the traditional Shaker hymn.
Charles Ives. Charles Ives (1874-1954) was an Ameri-
can original, an insurance executive who was.at the same George Gershwin. Inspired by African-American blues
time an innovative composer. While steeped in the classi- and jazz, George Gershwin (1898-1937) fused classical
572 CHAPTER 21

Connections

ART AS POLITICS fascinated by film, and Lenin quickly re- ers, and peasants, a development that
alized the power of the medium as prop- foreshadowed the fate of Russian mod-
Ne art as abstract as that of Malevich aganda. Sitting on the train, the people ernist art as a whole. Abstraction did not
nd E] Lissitzky might seem inef- watched newsreels of Lenin—enter- speak to the masses after all. At the end
fectual as a political tool, but it was con- tained, but also indoctrinated in the Bol- of the first Five-Year Plan in 1932, Stalin
ceived in quite the opposite terms, as a shevik cause. outlawed independent artistic organiza-
means of bringing art to the masses. In At first, the Agit-trains were deco- tions, and in 1934 he proclaimed “So-
the late nineteenth century, a number of rated with abstract Russian art, but the cialist Realism” as the official Soviet
St. Petersburg artists, calling themselves peasants objected. So they were re- style. Abstraction was permanently
the Wanderers, sought to champion the painted with pictures of soldiers, work- banned in the Soviet Union.
newly emancipated peasant class by
bringing art to the people through trav-
eling exhibitions. This initiative took FIGURE 21.38 El Lissitzky, Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge, 1919-20, lithograph,
new form soon after the disturbances of 202 x 275 (53 X 70 cm), Stedelijk Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, The Nether-
1905, when the Bolsheviks began to use lands. Russian poster design would soon begin to incorporate photographic images
wall posters extensively: They were in- in photomontages.
expensive, and appealed to the mostly il-
literate masses. By 1917, the poster was
a major Russian art form. EI Lissitzky’s
Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge (fig.
21.38), of 1919, is a perfect example.
Using basic geometric shapes, the Red
Army is represented by the triangle that
pierces the circular form, which in turn
represents the White Army. The sense
of aggression, originating both figura-
tively and literally from “the left,” is un-
mistakable.
Such propaganda art was soon dis-
seminated throughout Russia, primarily
by means of Agit-trains. These consisted
of seven or eight railway cars sent “to es-
tablish ties between the localities and the
center, to agitate, to carry out propa-
ganda, to bring information, and to sup-
ply literature.” Each was also equipped
with a film projector. The peasants were

and jazz elements, mingling a wide range of sounds. traveled to South Carolina to familiarize himself with the
Gershwin’s work stands for the sound of the modern age, local dialect and the region’s performance rituals, witnessed
as signified by the four taxi horns in An American in Paris in church services and public gatherings.
(1928), his tribute to the expatriate scene.
An accomplished jazz pianist himself, Gershwin’s
Rhapsody in Blue (1924) and his Piano Concerto in F (1925)
THE JAZZ AGE
were both composed with a view to taking advantage of The origins of American jazz go back to the rhythms and
his own skill at the keyboard, and both include long piano songs of Africa. In vocal music, the call and response pat-
solos accompanied by full orchestra. Gershwin is best tern of ritual tribal practice, in which the leader sings a
known for Porgy and Bess (1935), one of the earliest and phrase to which the community replies, can be heard in
most important American operas (fig. 21.40). It addresses gospel, jazz, and even rock and roll. The jazz riff, a short
the lives of poor black people in Charleston, South Car- phrase improvised over and over, often unifies the music,
olina, and contains some of the most widely heard songs as can the so-called samples that are the basis of today’s
of the 1930s, including the hit “Summertime.” Gershwin rap and hip-hop. Syncopated and offbeat rhythms, to-
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 573

Cross Current's
cin SEEN) eset AE SON PUREE OLEeee SEN.POU

DIEGO RIVERA AND THE the Caucasian and Asian races. The main workers punch into a time clock. At the
DETROIT MURALS part of the north panel depicts the as- bottom right, they eat lunch. Between
sembly line of automobile manufactur- the two, Rivera captures the extraordi-
Jn the early 1920s, the Mexican gov- ing, showing people molding engine nary exertion and strength required of
JLernment initiated a mural movement blocks, boring cylinders, and making the these workers, all day, every day.
designed to’ give the Mexican people a final touches. At the bottom left, a line of
sense of identity and national pride. A
leading painter of this movement, Diego
Rivera (1886-1957), had lived in Paris, FIGURE 21.39 Diego Rivera, Detroit Industry (north wall), 1932-33, fresco, main panel
studying the work of Picasso and Braque, 17'8$" x 45’ (5.40 X 13.20 m). Detroit Institute of Arts. Gift of Edsel B. Ford. © 2003
and had developed a fluid Cubist style. Banco de Mexico, Diego Rivera & Frida Kahlo Museums ‘Trust. D.F. Reproduction au-
But when confronted with the task of thorized by the Instituto National de Bellas Artesy Literatura. At once a celebration of
industry and an exposé of the workers’ plight, Rivera’s mural is a relatively optimistic
creating a national revolutionary art, he plea for social and economic reform through, and by means of, industrial progress.
traveled to Italy to study the Italian
fresco and immersed himself in Mexico’s
pre-Columbian heritage.
In 1931, Rivera was commissioned by
Edsel B. Ford and the Detroit Institute
of Arts to create a series of frescoes de-
picting Detroit for the museum’s Gar-
den Court. Being fascinated by both the
promise of modern industry and the
plight of industrial workers, Rivera
decided to represent Detroit’s industry—
its famous automobile factories, phar-
maceutical and chemical! companies, its
aviation facilities and power plants.
Working from drawings and photo-
graphs, Rivera made panels for all four
walls of the court, with large panels for
the north and south walls. At the top of
the north panel (fig. 21.39) are depictions
of two of what he regarded as the four
races of humanity—the Native Ameri-
can and the African American. Opposite
them, on the south panel, are images of

ean ee ne a Nea a NS re

gether with improvisation of a basic melody or phrase, are “Satchmo,” Armstrong was a vocalist and a trumpeter.
the characteristic features of jazz. Born and raised in New Orleans, a mecca for jazz in Amer-
ica, Armstrong first played in a New Orleans jazz combo.
Scott Foplin. Scott Joplin (1868-1917) made famous
A few years later, Armstrong left to play cornet in Chicago
ragtime, a type of jazz piano composition in which the
with King Oliver’s Creole Jazz Band. In no time, he was
left hand plays a steady beat while the right improvises on
recording with his own bands and secured his place as the
a melody in a syncopated rhythm. Syncopation means ac-
premier jazz trumpeter.
centing a beat where it is not expected, in particular off
A stunning improviser, Armstrong could take a simple
beat or in between beats. Joplin, the son of a slave, began
melody and transform it into a singing, swinging piece by
his career as the pianist at the Maple Leaf Saloon in
changing its rhythm and altering its pitches. He could also
Sedalia, Missouri. His score of the “Maple Leaf Rag,” pub-
play the trumpet in higher registers than anyone else, and
lished in 1899, quickly sold hundreds of thousands of
he made his music distinctive with an array of vibratos and
copies and ranks as one of the first pop hits.
note-altering variations.
Louis Armstrong. One of the best-loved jazz musicians His gravelly voice, neither elegant nor beautiful, con-
of all time is Louis Armstrong (1900-71). Also known as veyed spirit and fire. Among his vocal techniques was scat
574 CHAPTER 21

singing, in which Armstrong vocalized nonsense syllables

on a melody. Ella Fitzgerald, after him, was to take scat to
new heights.

Duke Ellington. The great jazz pianist and arranger Ed-

ward Kennedy (“Duke”) Ellington (1899-1974) was a
composer and conductor of a jazz ensemble, or swing band
(fig. 21.41). Unlike the New Orleans-style combo featur-
ing improvisations by each of the five to eight members of
the group, swing music was played by big bands of ap-
proximately fifteen musicians arranged in three groups:
saxophones/clarinets, brasses (trumpets/trombones), and
rhythm (piano, percussion, guitar, and bass). Although
swing often included improvised solos, its music was most
often arranged due to the larger size of the group. The
members of the swing band did more ensemble playing,
with each section taking its turn: saxes, brasses, and
rhythm, playing in unison. The saxophone became a pop-
ular solo instrument during the swing era (1925-45), with
percussion instruments and the piano also becoming
prominent instruments of jazz expression.
Ellington composed mini-concertos within pieces. One
example, his Concerto for Cootie (1940), showcases Elling-
ton’s trumpeter Cootie Williams, whose command of tonal
color differed markedly from Louis Armstrong.

FiGurE 21.40 A scene from a production of George

Gershwin’s Porgy and Bess at Glyndebourne, England.

FiGurE 21.41 The Duke Ellington Orchestra in 1949. Ellington was a dynamic and creative
performer. He and his band were immensely popular at the famous Cotton Club in Harlem.
 EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY 575

Cultural Impact
he early Modernist spirit took root their fiction and poetry, respectively, cap- ties were undermined and new forms of
in the first years of the twentieth tured something of the complexity of explanation and representation were
century when late-nineteenth-century modern life. emerging.
artistic styles seemed tame in compari- With the advent of Einsteinian The greatest legacy of Modernism,
son with styles such as Fauvism and Cu- physics and Freudian psychology, con- perhaps, was this uprooting and upheaval
bism. Early Modernism was a time of ceptions of the external world of nature of the past. Painting was no longer re-
cultural energy and artistic revolution. and the internal world of human nature quired to be representational. Poetry no
Braque and Picasso pushed painting to- were fundamentally altered. Fixed points longer required rhyme and symmetrical
ward abstraction. Severini’s seemingly of reference gave way to a relativity of stanzas. Music moved past harmony and
animate painting typified the energy of perspective, both physically and psycho- tonality into dissonance and atonality.
the period, as did the hard-driving logically. Conventional explanations Because of Modernism, contemporary
propulsive music of Igor Stravinsky. made way for psychological forces de- artists, whatever their medium of ex-
Modernism celebrated the speed and en- rived from early childhood experience pression, have a multitude of options in
ergy of modern life. Literary artists, such and manifested in dreams. Old certain- pursuing their art.
as Joyce and Wolfe, Eliot and Pound, in

KEY TERMS
avant garde Dada reinforced concrete Depression
Fauvism anti-art stream of consciousness jazz
Cubism Surrealism montage riff
collage automatism iy atonality ragtime —
Futurism De Styl (Neo-Plasticism) Nazi syncopation
Simultanéisme International style Lebensraum scat
German Expressionism Bauhaus Dust Bowl swing

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

http://artchive.com/artchive/P/picasso.html
(This is the Artchive, a website with virtually every major artist in every style from every era in
art history. It is an excellent resource.)
http://collections.sfmoma.org/obj2583$ 12965
(Perhaps no work is more singularly identified with the transformation of art in the twentieth
century than Fountain [1917] by Marcel Duchamp [1887-1968].)
http://www.mces.csuhayward.edu/~malek/Surrealism/index.html
(An unusual but interestingly good site on Surrealism.)
http://www.masters-of-photography.com/S/stieglitz/stieglitz_equivalent_1926.html
(A good site on Stieglitz and photography in general.)
http://www.allaboutjazz.com/timeline.htm
(This site features a brief history of jazz with associated links, written by Doug Ronallo and
Michael Ricci.)
CHAPTER 22
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HisTORY
1801 l'Ouverture conquers present-day Hispaniola and abolishes slavery
1807 Great Britain and United States outlaw transatlantic slave trade
1830-47 _ French invasion of Algeria
1846-48 Mexican War
ca. 1875 Slave trade to Americas ends
1884-85 Conference of Berlin sets rules for European colonization of Africa
1898 Spanish-American War
1899-1902 Boer War in South Africa
1914 Panama Canal completed
1943-56 Perén rules in Argentina
1948 Apartheid formalized in South Africa
1960 Congo gains full independence from Belgium
1961 U.S. Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba fails
1970 Allende elected president of Chile
1990 Nelson Mandela released from prison
1991 Apartheid abolished in South Africa
ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE
ca. 1660 —_‘Followers of Quispe Tito, Corpus Christi Procession with the Parishioners of Santa Ana
1909 Yoruba gelede mask
1919 Villa-Lobos, Cancées Tipicas Brasileirias
1929 Kahlo, Diego andI
1932-44 Villa-Lobos, Bachianas Brasileiras
1943 Lam, The Jungle
1944 Siqueiros, Cuauhtémoc against the Myth
1959 Botero, Mona Lisa at the Age of Twelve
1970s Kane Kwei, Cocoa-Pod-Shaped Coffin
1978 Sonny Okosun, Fire in Soweto

LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY

1958 — Chinua Achebe, Things Fall Apart

1967 Garcia Marquez, One Hundred Years of Solitude
1980 Coetzee, Waiting for the Barbarians
1984 Wole Soyinka, A Play for Giants
 ee

Modern Africa
and Latin America

David Alfaro Siqueiros, Cuauhtémoc Against the Myth, Teepan Union Housing Project,
Tlatelco, Mexico, 1944, mural, pyroxylin on celtex and plywood, 1,000 sq. ft. (92.9 sq. m).
Photo by Dr. Desmond Rochfort. © Estate of David Alfaro Siqueiros/SOMAAP/Licensed by
VAGA, NY. Reproduction authorized by the Institute Nacional de Bellas Artes y Literatura.
 250 500 750 1000Miles Lo
500 1000 Kilometers

ATLANTIC
OCEAN

DJIBOUTI
WHEE 2

SOMALIA
1960
ny
LIBERIA “TOGO
aco
BENIN
1960 °
EQUATORIAL
GUINEA
1968
INDIAN
OCEAN

ATLANTIC ~\Simpaswt MOZAMBIQUE

OCEAN NAMIBIA | ¢ MA

SWAZILAND
1968
( : LESOTHO
AFRICA 1965
DECOLONIZATION ae
$BBy 1950 - 1959
[BM 1960 - 1970 0 250 500 750 1000Miles
a After 1970 i} 500 1000 Kilometers

Map 22.1 ‘The decolonization of Africa in the twentieth century

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

MODERN AFRICA
The “Dark Continent” moves into the light of modern culture despite European attempts at colonialism

MODERN LATIN AMERICA

Central American culture is enriched through a multiracial society composed of indigenous
and colonial peoples

578
 MODERN AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA 579

MODERN AFRICA Africa’s tropical regions because of a disease environment

particularly hostile to peoples with no resistance to either
N 1800, THE TRANSATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE was reach- malaria or yellow fever. Similarly, a relative technological
i its peak, with nearly 100,000 enslaved Africans parity between Africans and Europeans meant European
transported to the Americas each year. Most were des- military forces were unlikely to defeat African armies. The
tined for Brazil and the Carribean, although some 5 percent few examples of European attempts to penetrate beyond
were taken to North America. Profits from this trade were the coasts of Africa before the 1870s generally met with
high for slave traders; the cost was high for Africa. Where failure. For example, in 1824, a British army was defeated
once the inhabitants of Western and Central Africa had when it attempted to attack the Asante kingdom in the
provided largely for their own needs in terms of industry, Gold Coast (now modern Ghana). However, three im-
the economy of the regions had increasingly turned toward portant technological innovations changed this balance of
slave trading. Now, rather than making iron, textiles, and power. The first was the discovery of quinine, a drug that
household implements, many African states chose to cap- allowed Europeans to both prevent and cure malaria. In-
ture slaves and sell them in exchange for materials and fin- terestingly, quinine was originally used by Andean soci-
ished goods from European traders. Firearms, in particular, eties in South America, and it was not so much discovered
were an important part of this system of exchange. Ironi- as it was refined by Europeans after they witnessed its use.
cally, even those African states that determined the trade in Nonetheless, now Europeans could hope to live in malar-
human beings to be immoral, such as Benin in south-cen- ial regions without it being the equivalent of a death sen-
tral Nigeria, were eventually forced to take part, since one tence. Second was the development of breech-loading
of the few ways to acquire enough firearms and powder to cartridgefiring rifles. These weapons were far more reliable
protect their people from enslavement was to sell slaves. than flintlocks, especially in wet environments, and they
Many historians believe the increased sense of insecurity also allowed individual soldiers to fire more rapidly and
created by the slave trade undermined existing systems of with greater range and accuracy than before. European
political legitimacy because new rulers were increasingly soldiers, even in small numbers, were now far more deadly
selected only for their ability to organize military force. than their counterparts anywhere else in the world. Fi-
Such a political system tended to concentrate power in the nally, the development of steam power and metalhulled
hands of the few, rather than the many. boats allowed the rapid transport of European troops any-
Changing economics and the rise of an abolitionist where in the world, including up previously unnavigable
movement in Europe and the Americas, however, began to rivers.
turn the tide against the slave trade in the early 1800s. In Thus, by the 1880s, there was, for the first time, a pos-
1807, Great Britain and the United States unilaterally out- sibility that tropical Africa could be conquered by Euro-
lawed the transatlantic slave trade, treating any slave ship peans. Growing competition among European states,
found on the high seas as a pirate vessel (neither country particularly Great Britain, France and Germany, for
outlawed slavery within its borders for some decades, how- African trade and territories was leading to tension and
ever). By the 1820s, a large percentage of the British navy even the threat of war. To prevent such a conflict, Bismark,
was involved in interdicting the slave trade. After 1850, the German chancellor, called the “Conference of Berlin.”
the Atlantic slave trade had been reduced to a trickle, with Held from 1884 to 1885, this meeting resulted in a divi-
only a few Portuguese, Brazilian, and Cuban slave traders sion of the continent among Great Britain, France, Ger-
risking the antislaving squadrons. Notably, any enslaved many, Belgium, Italy, Portugal, and Spain. Areas were
Africans rescued on the high seas were dropped at the assigned to different European states based on a variety of
small British protectorate of Sierra Leone in West Africa, criteria, ranging from previous explorations of the regions
creating a remarkable pan-African society known as “Krio” by European agents to treaties allegedly signed by African
[KREE-oh] (creole). The era of the slave trade gave way leaders who surrendered their sovereignty over to Euro-
to a period known as “Legitimate Trade.” Running roughly pean “protectors.” By and large, most African rulers had
from 1850 to 1880, the regions of West and Central Africa no idea they had been labeled as subjects of the various
saw substantial economic growth as European demand European powers. Ironically, the European powers in-
shifted from human labor to commodities such as palm oil volved declared they were partitioning the continent for
(used to lubricate machinery), latex (natural rubber), and the Africans’ own good, specifically stating they were doing
gum arabic (a dye fixer). so to help bring an end to slavery and to bring the bene-
fits of civilization to Africa.
THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA Of course, declaring the partition of Africa on paper
was different from actually colonizing the continent, and
AND COLONIAL RULE the final declaration of the Conference of Berlin demanded
By the latter 1800s, the relationship between Africa and that the various European states establish “effective occu-
Europe was changing once again. For centuries, European pation” of the regions assigned to them if the other states
traders had been largely relegated to the coastlines of were to respect the assigned boundaries. The outcome
580 CHAPTER 22

was, in effect, a declaration of war on Africans by Euro- the region’s inhabitants. So great was the demand that hun-
peans. From the mid-1880s to the early 1900s, European dreds of thousands died each year from overwork, starva-
armies (sometimes largely consisting of African troops tion, or in rebellion against the colony’s brutal policies.
under European command) sought to establish European Not until missionaries helped expose the brutality of the
control over the areas allotted by the Conference of Berlin. system did other colonial powers raise protests. Dubbed
These campaigns were often bloody and hard fought. Even the “red rubber scandal,” this situation resulted in the dis-
with their newfound technology, European armies were solution of the Congo Free State and the creation of a Bel-
not guaranteed an easy victory. For example, a West gian government-run colony in the region. King Leopold
African leader named Samori Ture led his people against and his agents had already left their mark, however. At
the French from 1882 to 1898, winning numerous battles least a million people had died (some estimate the total as
before eventually being overcome by his enemies. In 1896, high as ten million) as a result of policies that had greatly
the Ethiopians successfully defeated the Italians at the Bat- enriched the Belgian king and his government.
tle of Adowa, guaranteeing their independence from colo-
nial occupation. They were the only African country to
VARIETIES OF COLONIAL RULE
do so. However, even stateless societies, such as the Igbo
of Nigeria or the Herero of Namibia, often proved par- The various colonial powers shared similar economic
ticularly difficult for European forces to defeat, in part be- goals, but they often had very different ideas about the
cause the absence of a single leader or even a capital made sort of political and administrative systems to use to at-
it hard to overthrow these societies’ flexible systems of po- tain these financial ends. In general, these policies can
litical authority. As a result the British spent more than a be distinguished as direct rule, as practiced by the French,
decade before defeating the Igbo. Germans, Belgians, and Portuguese, and indirect rule, as
The horrors of colonialism did not come to a close with practiced by the British. Under direct rule, the colonial
the successful military occupation of the continent. Under power established a top-to-bottom bureaucracy staffed
even the most benevolent colonial regimes, African sub- with nationals of the ruling country and organized along
jects were faced with a denial of the most basic rights en- European lines. Thus, for a French West African colony
joyed by the citizens of the states that had colonized them. such as Senegal, a post office would be run by a French
Colonial governments used forced labor, a sort of tempo- postal officer, a police detachment by a French lieutenant,
rary slavery, to build roads, railways, and harbors that and a court presided over by a French judge. Each of
helped facilitate the export of African commodities and these officials probably oversaw numerous African clerks
the import of finished goods from Europe. Similarly, and functionaries, but the immediate source of authority
African farmers were often required to grow fixed quan- was still a French official. Similarly, all laws, rules and
tities of crops (such as cotton, cocoa, peanuts, or palm oil) practices were as French as possible. More so, the lan-
in demand in Europe and sell them to the new colonial guage of government was French as well. Thus, in order
government at non-negotiable prices. All colonial powers to have any interaction with the new colonial state,
sought to make colonialism profitable by supporting in- Africans under French colonial authority had to learn to
dustries in Europe with cheap materials from Africa and speak French.
control over African markets. The principle behind this system was known as assimi-
Perhaps the greatest abuse of colonial political and eco- lation, the idea that the more French (or Belgian or Por-
nomic power came in the Congo Free State, a Central tuguese) the Africans learned to act, the more civilized
African region roughly the size of Western Europe that they were considered. Such standards included not just
the Conference of Berlin made the personal property of language, but what and how people ate, how they dressed,
King Leopold of Belgium. The potential wealth of the the music they listened to, and so on. The colonial pow-
Congo Free State was largely in the form of latex (natural ers practicing direct rule argued that once Africans assim-
rubber). Following the imposition of colonial rule, the ilated, they would be granted full rights of citizenship, and
traders and agents of the Congo Free State ordered adult the colonies would eventually become, for example, part of
males in the colony to produce a weekly quota of latex. If an expanded “Greater France.” In reality, very few Africans
a town or village failed to meet its collective quota, women were ever deemed adequately assimilated to receive full
and children might be taken hostage and homes might be rights. By 1922, only about a hundred Africans had been
burned down. If production still failed to meet demand, the granted French citizenship, for example. Nonetheless, with
hostages could be shot—with their hands cut off and re- all government jobs and even schools biased toward the
turned to company officials along with the spent bullet exclusion of those who did not accept and embrace the
casing—just to prove no ammunition had been wasted. As culture of the ruling country, there was considerable pres-
demand for latex in Europe and the United States sky- sure to adopt some degree of European culture. Not sur-
rocketed in the 1890s and early 1900s (thanks to the grow- prisingly, in former French, Belgian, and Portuguese
ing demand for bicycle tires), the Congo Free State’s colonies (the Germans lost their colonies after World War
administrators simply increased the quotas demanded of I), a wide variety of European cultural practices are to be
 MODERN AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA 581

found. Anywhere in former French Africa, for example, it established in North Africa, the West African savannahs,
is easy to buy French bread-and even croissants for break- and the East African coast, but its expansion elsewhere in
fast. Similarly, French is the near universal language in the continent had been slow. Colonialism, however,
former French colonies. In Belgian colonies, in particu- changed this situation. In only a few decades, colonial rule
lar, the Catholic Church was used as a major tool to help facilitated the spread of Islam deep into the East African
people assimilate, and it continues to be very influential interior and also into the forest and coastal regions of West
in those regions today. Africa. This growth occurred for two main reasons. First,
Quite different from direct rule was the British policy colonial economic systems, no matter how abusive, served
of indirect rule, based on the assumption it was better to to help connect regions of Africa previously separated by
rule through existing African systems of political author- distance and natural barriers. As such, rail lines extending
ity than to replace them with European-style bureaucra- from the coastal ports to the interior were not only con-
cies. Thus, wherever possible, the British incorporated duits for goods, but also culture. Muslim traders not only
local rulers into the British colonial governments. For ex- exported products from the West African savannahs, but
ample, after defeating the Sokoto Caliphate (a precolonial they also brought Islam to the people of the coastline.
state located largely in the region of contemporary north- Conversely, Swahili Muslims used similar railway links in
ern Nigeria) and killing the sultan of Sokoto in 1903, the East Africa to carry Islam into the interior. Similarly, since
British then built the administration of the region around assimilationist colonial powers saw Islam as a potential
the structures of the Caliphate, keeping the local emirs barrier to making Africans “more European,” they often
(kings) as the heads of local government and tasking them sought to repress or restrict the religion, which often had
with such duties as maintaining police forces and courts the effect of making conversion to Islam a means of re-
and collecting taxes. Thus, rather than overthrowing local sisting colonial cultural imperialism.
political systems, the British often reinforced them. No-
tably, however, in regions previously inhabited by state- Nationalism. One of the most important cultural de-
less societies, the British created “chiefs” where none had velopments that came out of Africa’s colonization was
existed before, simply as a means to facilitate colonial ad- African identity and nationalism. Faced with the common
ministration. In general, British rule rested more lightly on experience of colonization, and also taking advantage of
the shoulders of colonized Africans, in part because it was the expanded opportunities for travel and communication
more familiar and not so culturally disruptive. Rather than afforded by colonial infrastructures, an increasingly large
demanding that Africans learn to speak English, for ex- number of Africans, particularly those who were able to
ample, British colonial officers were required to learn local acquire European-style educations, began to think of
languages themselves. themselves as a single people.
For example, the Senegalese scholar (and later presi-
dent) Leopold Senghor was one of the few Africans
COLONIALISM AND CULTURE granted full French citizenship. Nonetheless, he became a
Religion. Many of the outcomes of colonialism, how- leading founder of the movement called negritude, which,
ever, were different from what the colonial powers ex- beginning in the 1930s, stressed the cultural unity and
pected. Although the British, French, and Belgians achievements of all people of African descent. Elsewhere,
ultimately held political and economic power, they were many Western-educated Africans began to use the very
often at a loss to control the cultural path of their colonies. rhetoric of colonialism as a tool to destroy it. It did not
For example, although European missionaries sought to take long for Africans who read about democracy, human
bring established European churches to the continent, rights, or free-market capitalism to understand that they
Africans soon created their own independent forms of were receiving little of these so-called benefits of mod-
Christianity. Indeed, the most successful forms of Chris- ernization under colonial rule. Thus African nationalists
tianity in Africa came to be known as “independent such as Kwame Nkruma (who would become president of
churches,” which had no institutional ties to European de- Ghana) and Jomo Kenyatta (first president of Kenya) were
nominations of Christianity. Today, for example, the able to use the very underpinnings of Western philosophy
Aladura churches are prevalent in coastal West Africa and to demand an end to colonialism. It was an argument that
the Zion churches are found throughout southern Africa. European democracies could not deny.
Both denominations emphasize ecstatic possession by the Beginning in the 1940s and becoming increasingly vocal
Holy Spirit, the power of God to heal the sick, and the in the 1950s, these nationalists built upon Europe’s weak-
ability of belief to protect church members from witch- ened position following World War II to demand greater
craft. Colonialism certainly introduced Christianity to self-determination and even an end to colonialism. In this
many Africans, but it could not define the final form Chris- they shared in the mid-twentieth-century phenomenon of
tianity would take. liberation movements that included the end of colonial-
Another outcome of colonialism, interestingly, was the ism in Asia and the Middle East and the civil rights and
rapid expansion of Islam in Africa. Islam had long been women’s rights movements in the United States.
582 CHAPTER 22

By 1960, it was clear the winds of change were blowing Africa’s economic and political upheaval, however, has
in Africa, and most colonial powers took steps to end their not meant Africa has failed to make a substantial cultural
formal administrations in Africa. Portugal, itself ruled by contribution to the modern world. Indeed, the artistic ex-
a fascist dictatorship, refused to relinquish its African pression of African artists, authors, and musicians contin-
colonies despite years of war. Only with the overthrow of ues to change and develop in response to new influences
the Salazar government in 1974 did Portugal withdraw and contemporary needs.
from Africa. The white minority government of Southern
Rhodesia was replaced with a new nonracial government
following years of bloody conflict in 1980. In South Africa, SCULPTURE
decades of internal and international protest against the As we saw in Chapter 10, Africans have long produced sig-
system of racial oppression and segregation known as nificant works of sculpture in wood, metal, and clay. Mod-
apartheid came to a head when Nelson Mandela was re- ern African sculpture reflects both the preservation of local
leased from prison in 1990 after twenty-seven years of in- sculptural traditions and the introduction of styles and
carceration. Mandela was soon elected president of a new techniques from outside the continent. For example, the
South Africa. gelede masking tradition (fig. 22.1) shows the continuity
of older artistic forms even in the present. Indeed, the
gelede performances of the Yoruba are still popular, and the
INDEPENDENT AFRICA
masks continue to be made. Other forms of physical art
Euphoria greeted African independence in the 1960s. are quite innovative. African art enjoys huge markets in
Decades of colonial occupation and exploitation were fi- the West, and African artists have responded by creating
nally at an end, and the expectations for economic growth tourist art, which combines African styles with the expec-
and improved quality of life were great. For most Africans, tations of international customers. Still, some art histori-
however, these hopes have not yet come to pass. The rea- ans argue that even as the form of the artwork changes,
sons for this failure lie both outside of Africa and within. the purpose of the art remains consistent. Susan Vogel, a
Externally, the Cold War made it difficult for new countries prominent African art historian, explains,
to find their footing, particularly in Africa. During this pe- Content. . . is of prime importance for African artists, crit-
riod the United States and the Soviet Union both inter- ics and audiences, who tend to share an expectation that
fered in African political affairs, often arming and shoring works of art will have a readable message or story. African
up brutal dictators and fostering civil wars to pursue their art of all kinds is likely to be explainable in terms of a nar-
own international political and economic agendas. Inter- rative or a religious, social or political text known to both
nally, many of Africa’s new rulers focused on enriching
themselves rather than helping the people they were elected
to serve. One-party states and military regimes increasingly
became the norm in Africa over the course of the latter
twentieth century. Many, such as Idi Amin in Uganda and
Robert Mugabe in Zimbabwe, oversaw brutal abuses of
human rights. Some countries, such as Somalia and the
Democratic Republic of the Congo, effectively collapsed
from the combined pressures of international meddling
and internal corruption, leaving large areas under the con-
trol of local warlords. In recent years, the pandemic of HIV
has added greatly to Africa’s suffering, especially in the
southern regions of the continent, where infection rates
sometimes exceed 25 percent of the population.
There have been notable success stories, however. De-
spite an economic collapse in the 1970s, Ghana’s economy
has rebounded in recent years. The country also returned
to democracy in 1992, after over a decade of military rule.
Current annual “happiness surveys” now list Ghanaians as
among the most cheerful people on the face of the earth.
Similarly, in countries such as Uganda, aggressive public-
education campaigns have helped reverse the spread of
FIGURE 22.1 Mask, Yoruba, Republic of Benin, polychrome,
HIV. Elsewhere the end of apartheid in South Africa and
wood, height 145" (37 cm), Musée du Quai Branley. Paris, re-
a resurgence of democratically elected governments served rights. The reference to the moon in the crescent-
around the continent have been seen as signs that Africa’s shaped horns of this mask echoes a ge/ede song that begins,
postindependence fortunes may be changing. “All-powerful mother, mother of the night bird.”
 MODERN AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA 583

artists and audiences. . . . All forms of contemporary Americas, where they interacted with European and Na-
African art are seen as functional, or as serving some com- tive American musical traditions to form such musical
mon good. ... Most kinds of African art . . . seem to have styles as rumba, blues, and jazz. Of particular influence
a kind of seriousness, a higher mission than pleasure or was the West African minor pentatonic scale. This scale
decoration alone. The general consensus is that it must
differs from the eight-note European chromatic scale (do-
honor, instruct, uplift, clarify, or even scold, expose and
re-mi) in that it has five key notes, the third and fifth of
ridicule, to push people to be what they must be. Even at
its most lighthearted, it is never trivial. which are flat, known to blues and jazz players as the “blue
notes.” Critical to the development of not only blues and
The coffins of KANE KWEI [KWHY] (b. 1924) of Ghana jazz, this five-note scale often plays a significant role in
are a good example. Kwei never received any formal train- gospel, country, folk, and rock and roll. Further, rather
ing as a carpenter. In the mid-1970s, a dying uncle, who than stressing only the pure notes, African music often ex-
had worked as a fisherman, asked him to produce a coffin plores the tonal spaces in between. Thus many African in-
in the shape of a boat. Kwei’s work delighted the entire struments or musical styles encourage the musician to bend
community, and he was soon creating many types of notes. For example, the talking drum, an instrument that
coffins—fish and whales (for fishermen), hens with chicks also blurs the line between melody and rhythm, constantly
(for women with large families), Mercedes-Benz coffins slides between notes, as do the slide guitars so popular in
(for the wealthy), and cash crops (for farmers), among them blues, country, and rock music. Similarly, many African
the cocoa bean (fig. 22.2). These coffins disappeared un- musical forms include a call-and-response format in
derground soon after they were made. Coffins in Ghana which lines are called out by a leader and sung back by the
are seen as serving the community and also have a spiritual band, chorus, or audience. As previously noted, African
purpose: They celebrate the successful life of the person musical styles also emphasize participation by a community
and form part of the traditional Ghanaian funeral cele- rather than performance to an audience, and call and re-
brations that often last for days. In 1974, an American art sponse is a critical way that nonmusicians are made a part
dealer exhibited Kwei’s coffins in San Francisco, and now of the music.
Kwei’s large workshop turns out coffins for both funerals African music is also rhythmically complex. Rather than
and the art market. just making sure the instruments play in unison, as is the
function of the beat in classical Western music, African
beats serve to both propel the music and serve as instru-
MUSIC
ments in their own right. Critical to this is the interplay
Africa is home to a great variety of musical traditions, en- between multiple rhythms, a form known as polyrhythms.
compassing a diversity of rhythmic and melodic styles. As Here, multiple rhythms, such as a 4/4 and a 3/4 beat, are
discussed in Chapter 10, some West and Central African intertwined—intersecting at certain times and diverging at
musical styles were carried by enslaved Africans to the others in a complex musical interplay. But this complexity

FIGURE 22.2 Kane Kwei (Teshi tribe, Ghana, Africa), Coffin, Orange, in the Shape of a Cocoa
Pod, ca. 1970, polychrome, wood, 34” x 1055" x 29” (86.4 x 268 x 61 cm). Fine Arts Museums
of San Francisco, gift of Vivian Burns, Inc. 74.8. When reproduced in a photograph, as it is
here, Kwei’s coffin seems smaller than it actually is. It is, literally, a coffin, over 85 feet long.
584 CHAPTER 22

Connections

THE MASK AS DANCE or hiding the face. These Africans have

no separate word for mask; rather the
or the Baule [BOW-LAY] carvers of word mask includes the whole person
the Ivory Coast, the helmet mask il- performing the dance. In this sense,
lustrated here (fig. 22.3) is a pleasing and masks can be said to dance, and the mask
beautiful object but has another signifi- or the dancer is a vehicle through which
cance as well. It is the Dye sacred mask. the spirit of the place passes.
As the carver explained to Susan Vogel,
“The god is a dance of rejoicing for me.
So when I see the mask, my heart is filled
with joy. I like it because of the horns and
the eyes. The horns curve nicely, and I
like the placement of the eyes and ears.
In addition, it executes very interesting FIGURE 22.3. Helmet mask. Baule
and graceful dance steps. . . . This is a sa- style, Ivory Coast, nineteenth—twentieth
century, polychrome, wood, length 38”
cred mask danced in our village.” (95.8 cm), Metropolitan Museum of Art,
The Baule carver pays attention to NY. Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial
the physical features of the mask, and he Collection, gift of Adrian Pascal
also sees the mask as dance. In its fea- LaGamma, 1993. This African mask
tures, he sees its performance. A mask is “makes us happy when we see it,”
thus more than an ornament disguising explains a Baule carver.

is not random, and the musicians use the synergy and ten- Africa. For example, young Ghanaian musicians have com-
sion inherent in the cross rhythms to guide the songs. Like bined hip-hop with local highlife styles to create a new
the minor pentatonic scale, the powerful nature of African musical form called hip life.
rhythms has had a powerful influence on contemporary Like most African artwork, African music often makes
music. Although few modern musicians invest the time nec- overt political commentary. Chimurenga songs, for exam-
essary to master the complexity of polyrhythms, the preva- ple, were a key form of protest against white minority rule
lence of a strong backbeat and the omnipresence of the in Southern Rhodesia. Anti-apartheid music was produced
drum set in popular music are testimonies to the influence throughout the continent. Sonny Okosun produced Fire in
of African music on the global stage. Soweto in 1978, despite the fact that he is from Ghana. The
Inside Africa, musical forms have continued to develop song and album became a popular statement against
as African musicians have embraced instruments and styles apartheid throughout Africa. Perhaps no musician better
from elsewhere in the world. Electric guitars, drum ma- represents the political side of African music, however,
chines, and electronic keyboards are now ubiquitous in than Nigeria’s FELA KUTI [KOO-ti]. Born into a wealthy
African popular music. Contemporary musicians like Western-educated family, Kuti studied jazz and classical
SONNY OKOSUN [OAK-ka-sun] (b. 1947) blend music in London. Returning to Nigeria in the late 1960s,
African and Western sounds. Okosun’s work is based on a he not only helped create the musical style of Afrobeat,
brand of Ghanaian music known as highlife, itself a blend but also repeatedly attacked the Nigerian government for
of local rhythms and melodies with Western musical forms. corruption. Albums such as Coffin for Head of State, VIP
Indeed, African-influenced musical forms such as jazz and (Vagabonds in Power), and Africa Stealing landed him in jail
country music have been of great influence in Africa. repeatedly, and made him a popular hero in Nigeria.
Soukous styles in Central Africa themselves reflect the
popularity of Afro-Cuban music reintroduced to Africa in The Lion King: The Saga of a Song. One of the most
the 1950s and 1960s. African bands also often perform ver- popular songs of the twentieth century, “The Lion Sleeps
sions of Johnny Cash songs. In the 1970s, funk music from Tonight,” originated in Africa. A centerpiece of the 1994
the United States greatly influenced the development of Disney movie The Lion King, as well as the Broadway show
Afrobeat music in Nigeria and Ghana. In recent years, later developed from the hit film, the original song upon
hip-hop has become a significant musical influence in which it was based was written decades earlier by a Zulu
 MODERN AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA 585

Then & Now/Timbuktu

imbuktu (also Timbuctu or Tim-
buctoo) is a city in the West African
country of Mali, about eighty miles from
the Niger River. Its location made it a log-
ical meeting point for local African pop-
ulations and nomadic Arab peoples to the
north. Timbuktu was for many years a
trading post linking Africa with Jewish
and Islamic traders throughout North
Africa, and through them, with European
traders. Its most enduring contribution to
world civilization is scholarship, with im-
portant books and manuscripts written,
copied, and preserved in its well-endowed
library. It is also known for the Great
Mosque of Timbuktu, which is actually FIGURE 22.4 Great Mosque of Timbuktu, also known as the
located in the nearby village of Djenne. Great Mosque of Djénné.
In modern times, especially in the West,
Timbuktu has become a metaphor for the
exotic and far away, as in the expression
“from here to Timbuktu.”

musician, Solomon Linda. Linda’s original song, “Mbube,” thors used literature to challenge colonialism. In more re-
which is Zulu for lion, and which was recorded in 1939, in- cent years, African authors have turned their pens on their
cludes simple lyrics, background chanting, and harmonies own rulers when they deemed them corrupt. An example
that made it an immediate popular success initially in of this theme is Ayi Kwei Armah’s The Beautiful Ones Are
Africa and then around the world. Not Yet Born, which indicts the corruption of early inde-
When the American folk singer Pete Seeger recorded pendence in Ghana in the 1960s.
it, “Mbube” became “wimoweh,” a mispronunciation that
became standard in subsequent renderings of the song by Chinua Achebe. Nigerian CHINUA ACHEBE (ah-
American and European artists. An American songwriter CHAY-bay) (b. 1930) has set his most famous works in the
adapted the song, adding lyrics that began his version with fictional town of Umofia. They deal with the coming of
the words, “In the jungle, the mighty jungle, the lion sleeps colonial rule or trace the lives of a series of characters from
tonight.” This version was recorded by the ‘Tokens and Umofia as they cope with the changing economic, politi-
became a worldwide phenomenon. Since then, more than cal, and cultural situation in their country. These novels in-
150 artists have recorded it, and it lives on in its stage and clude Things Fall Apart, Arrow of God, A Man of the People,
screen versions. No Longer at Ease, and Anthills ofthe Savannah and roughly
One unfortunate fact of the song’s saga is that its orig- chronicle the fate of Nigeria from the advent of colonial-
inator, Solomon Linda, earned less than one dollar when ism in the latter 1800s to independence and the struggle
he sold the rights to “Mbube” in 1952. Millions of dollars for stability in the 1990s. By tracing the development of
have been made by singers, songwriters, record produc- Nigeria over such a long span of time, Achebe is able to
ers and studios since. Recently, though, Mr. Linda’s fam- critically examine the complex interactions of African and
ily was awarded royalties reverting to 1987 and onward. European cultures. A profound realist, Achebe is perfectly
willing to attack what he sees as the shortcomings of Igbo
or Nigerian culture, just as he assaults the inequities of
LITERATURE colonialism and international economics.
In the modern era, many African authors have continued
a tradition of protest begun by early African nationalists. Wole Soyinka. WOLE SOYINKA [shoy-INK-ah] (b.
Jomo Kenyatta’s famous ethnography/autobiography 1934) from Nigeria became the first African writer to win
Facing Mount Kenya is a prime example of how early au- the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1986. Although best
586 CHAPTER 22

Then & Now

TWINS twins, or ere ibeji, which are kept in case
one of the twins should die, which some-
he Yoruba have one of the highest times happens, since twins are often
rates of twin births in the world. smaller and more fragile than single ba-
Yet, for the Yoruba, twins remain “gifts bies. Until the twentieth century, these
of the gods” who possess, or rather are figures were carved out of wood, but they
possessed by, the deities of creativity. have been increasingly replaced by mass-
They are empowered by their inborn produced Western dolls (fig. 22.5). The
ability to perceive a dimension beyond mother cares for the “twin” doll of the
the everyday, communicating with a uni- dead child as if it were still alive, placing
verse beyond our own. it in a shrine in her bedroom. Its spirit,
The Yoruba believe a mother is blessed the Yoruba believe, will bring good for-
with twins as a reward for her patience and tune to the family.
virtue, and hence, after their birth, she is
treated as if she were a member of the
highest royalty. Indeed, any woman who FyguRE 22.5 Dolls used as ere ibeji,
gives birth to twins three times is consid- —_nid-twentieth century, unknown factory
ered the most powerful person of all, (Nigeria), molded plastic and metal,
higher than kings. This is a particularly re- height ge" (25 cm), Dennis J. Nervig,
markable honor given that the Yoruba Fowler Museum of Cultural History,
have a patriarchal culture, in which the UCLA. Ere ibeji dolls, images of twins;
oldest male member leads his entire clan. _represent hope for the future to the
For some time, it has been Yoruba Yoruba.
tradition to have images carved of the

known as a playwright, Soyinka is also a poet, essayist, po- and unremittingly realistic, sometimes brutally so. They
litical activist, social critic, and literary scholar. His poetry chronicle the inhuman cruelties that powerful human be-
and plays are deeply political: as he noted in a New York liefs inflict on the weak, the marginalized, and the disen-
Times interview, “I cannot conceive of my existence with- franchised. And yet for all their unflinching honesty,
out political involvement.” Coetzee’s novels offer testimony to human beings’ power
During the Nigerian Civil War, Soyinka was impris- to survive, to endure in the face of even the most oppres-
oned and kept in solitary confinement for his antigovern- sive hardships. He twice won the prestigious British
ment activism. There he composed Poems from Prison Booker Prize (the first author to do so), and in 2003 was
(1969) and The Man Died: Prison Notes of Wole Soyinka awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature.
(1988), both written in secret on toilet paper and later
smuggled out. During the 1960s he worked tirelessly to
develop a Nigerian national drama. ‘Two of his best-known MODERN LATIN AMERICA
plays depict political intrigue in an imaginary kingdom,
Death and the King’s Horseman (1976) and A Play for Giants Like Africa, Latin America had long been under the rule
(1984), a satire on African dictators. of colonial Europeans—chiefly the Spanish and Por-
tuguese. Then, in the early nineteenth century, grassroots
John Maxwell Coetzee. ‘The South African authorJ.M. movements fueled wars of independence throughout the
Coetzee (b. 1940) first came to international prominence region and inspired the Latin American social elite to break
with his novel Waiting for the Barbarians in 1980 and for the economic trade monopolies of the colonial rulers while
Life and Times of Michael K. in 1983. A South African of preserving the existing social structure.
Afrikaaner (Dutch) and English descent, Coetzee nonethe- Latin America is marked by the collision and inter-
less uses his novels as a platform for a thinly veiled criti- mingling of two separate cultural and economic traditions.
cism of apartheid, the white South African government’s The colonists and their heirs are largely well-to-do Roman
policy of racial segregation and oppression, although he Catholics, whereas the diverse indigenous peoples main-
generally sets his novels in fictional surroundings that tain their own traditional cultural practices and make up
could be anywhere in the world. Coetzee’s books are bleak an underprivileged, subsistence-based social class. A vari-
 MODERN AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA 587

ety of types of societies developed among different Latin A depiction of a Corpus Christi procession in Santa
American countries. In Argentina and Uruguay, the few Ana, Peru (fig. 22.6) shows European and Native Ameri-
natives were essentially wiped out by European diseases can traditions converging. The work was painted in about
in the early years of colonization. A Eurocentric culture 1660 by the followers of QUISPE TITO [TEE-toh]
developed when over one million Europeans, mostly Span- (1611-81), a painter of Inca origin, who worked in Cuzco,
ish and Italian, emigrated to these countries between 1905 Peru. At the head of the procession, on the left, is an In-
and 1910. In Central America and Peru, in contrast, strong dian leader in royal Inca dress, wearing a headdress deco-
native communities, of Mayan and Incan ancestry, survive rated with a combination of Spanish and pre-Conquest
to this day, with their own thriving indigenous cultures. symbols, including a bird, which, for the Incas, had mag-
ical significance (a live bird, with brilliant plumage, also
sits on the wall above his head). Following the Inca leader
PAINTING are the priest and acolytes, then the Corpus Christi glory
Colonial Art. ‘The joining of Native American and Eu- cart with a statue of the parish saint holding onto a palm
ropean traditions is evident in much of the art and archi- tree with a cupidlike angel on his shoulder. To the right are
tecture produced during the colonial period. In Mexico, for the native parishioners. Behind the scene, the European
instance, Baroque architecture flourished, but with a na- elite watch from their balconies, from which hang brightly
tive exuberance and love for naturalistic detail that far ex- colored sheets from Spain.
ceeds most Baroque architecture in Europe (see Chapter
15). In painting, native artists combined their own tradi- The Mexican Mural Movement. Despite the merging of
tions with those of the Catholic Church. traditions evident in colonial art, the church and the

FIGURE 22.6 Followers of Quispe Tito, Corpus Christi Procession with the Parishioners ofSanta
Ana (detail), ca. 1660, fresco, Damian Bayon/Museo de Arte Hatun Rumiyoc, Cuzco, Peru/
Embassy of Peru. Another section of this fresco depicts a giant altar erected especially for the
occasion, decorated with silver-framed paintings and sculptures of angels who wear feathered
helmets derived from Inca tradition.

Ca EN A Se MOC NE
ve
A pet
AAT RIE ANE ER) omie
588 CHAPTER 22

European cultural elite wanted to suppress native customs. Rivera, whose many adulterous affairs, including one with
In Mexico particularly, where strong native populations her own sister, hurt her deeply.
had begun to rebel against the European elite by the early The Two Fridas (fig. 22.8), 1939, alludes to Kahlo’s mixed
twentieth century, these customs were a source of identity ancestry, physical suffering, and troubled marriages to
and pride. Beginning in 1910 with a violent revolt against Rivera. On the left is the European Frida, a reference to
the regime of Porfirio Didz, Mexico was rocked by social her German-Jewish father; on the right is the Mexican
and political unrest. Civil war lasted until the inaugura- Frida, a reference to her Mexican mother. The two Fridas
tion of the revolutionary leader, Alvaro Obregon, as pres- are linked by their clasped hands and the shared artery be-
ident in 1920. Obregon believed the aesthetic faculty, and tween their hearts. The Mexican Frida holds a tiny image
the appreciation of painting in particular, could lead the of Rivera, while the European Frida tries to stop herself
way to revolutionary change. He also believed in restoring from bleeding, without success.
Mexico’s indigenous cultural identity. He thus began a vast
mural project designed to cover the walls of public spaces Wilfredo Lam. ‘The work of Cuban painter Wilfredo
across the country with images celebrating Mexico’s past Lam (1902-82), of Chinese and mulatto ancestry, demon-
and future. By the mid-1920s, the mural movement was in strates the close connection between European and Latin
the hands of three painters, Los Tres Grandes, as they were American cultures. Lam left for Europe in 1923 at the age
called, “The Three Giants’—DIEGO RIVERA [rih-VAY- of twenty-one and did not return to the Caribbean for
rah] (1886-1957), JOSE CLEMENTE OROZCO eighteen years, until 1941, when he was sent by the Nazis
[oh-ROZ-coe] (1883-1949), and DAVID ALFARO to a prison camp in Martinique. Within forty days, he was
SIQUEIROS [see-KAYR-ohs] (1896-1974). released and sent back to Havana, where he discovered that
All three artists began their careers painting al fresco, the idyllic Cuba of his childhood had been destroyed by
but the sun, rain, and humidity of the Mexican climate the collapse of sugar prices.
damaged their efforts. In 1937, Siqueiros organized a Lam’s masterpiece, The Jungle (fig. 22.9), painted in
workshop in New York City, close to the chemical indus- 1943, is a record of his reaction. It is almost exactly the
try, to develop and experiment with new synthetic paints. same size as Les Demoiselles d’Avignon (see fig. 18.26) by
One of the first media used in the workshop was Picasso, who had befriended Lam in Paris in 1939. The
pyroxylin, commonly known as Duco, a lacquer devel- faces of Lam’s totemic figures are based, like Picasso’s, on
oped as an automobile paint. It is used in the large-scale African masks. But crucially different from Picasso’s paint-
mural by Siqueiros, Cuauhtémoc Against the Myth (fig. 22.7), ing is the density of Lam’s image. Every space is occupied,
which was painted in 1944 on panel so it could withstand not only by shoots of sugarcane and jungle foliage, but by
earthquakes and is housed today in the Union Housing the figures themselves, whose arms and hands seem to
Project at Tlatelco, Mexico. It depicts the story of the reach to the ground. This natural world is inhabited by a
Aztec hero who shattered the myth that the Spanish army mysterious, mythical virgin-beast, both productive and de-
could not be conquered. This message had great signifi- structive, whose origins are to be found in Lam’s fascina-
cance for the people: The indigenous people could regain tion with the world of santeria or voodoo.
power. Siqueiros also meant it as a commentary on the
susceptibility to defeat of the Nazis in Europe.
Fernando Botero. Columbian artist FERNANDO
BOTERO [bo-TAIR-oh] (b. 1932) is known for his
“swollen” or “inflated” figures that fill the canvas like bal-
Frida Kahlo. Rivera was married to another prominent
loons and satirize the Latin American ruling elite. “When
Mexican painter, FRIDA KAHLO [KAH-loh] (1910-54),
I inflate things,” he has explained, “I enter a subconscious
whose work was initially overshadowed by that of her hus-
world rich in folk images.” Mona Lisa at the Age of Twelve
band, but whose reputation has increased to such a degree
(fig. 22.10), painted in 1959, condenses three images:
that she is now considered the greater artist and is surely
the more famous. Kahlo is best known for her highly dis- Leonardo da Vinci's original painting (see fig. 13.21), the
Infanta Margarita in Diego Velazquez’s Maids ofHonor (see
tinctive self-portraits in a wide range of circumstances and
settings. “I paint self-portraits because I am so often fig. 15.25), and Alice in Wonderland. Mona Lisa’s oft-noted
alone,” she once said, “because I am the person I know “inscrutable” smile here becomes grotesquely piglike,
best.” Her self-portraits, it has been argued, created a se- Botero revealing in it the gluttony of the Latin American
ries of alternative selves that helped exorcise life’s pains. aristocracy and their ability to “consume” the land and its
people.
She suffered almost her entire life: first from polio, which
she contracted at age six and left her with a withered right
leg; then from a bus and trolley collision at age eighteen,
in which her pelvis and spinal column were broken, her
MUSIC
foot was crushed, and her abdomen and uterus were Latin America has a rich musical heritage, both popular
pierced by a steel handrail, resulting in a life-long series of and traditional. The most prevalent forms of popular
operations; and finally from her volatile relationship with music are those associated with dance. The tango came
 MODERN AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA 589

FIGURE 22.7 David Alfaro Siqueiros, Cuauhtémoc Against the Myth, Teepan Union Housing
Project, Tlatelco, Mexico, 1944, mural, pyroxylin on celtex and plywood, 1,000 sq. ft.
(92.9 sq. m). Photo by Dr. Desmond Rochfort. © Estate of David Alfaro Siqueiros/SOMAAP/
Licensed by VAGA, NY. Reproduction authorized by the Insitituto Nacional de Bellas Artes y
Literatura. Siqueiros’s experimentation with synthetic paints would lead to the invention of
acrylics, much in use today.
 590 CHAPTER 22

ATLANTIC

OCEAN
Gulf of Mexico

Veracruz ay
<= _# BRITISH
¢ _HONDURAS ~ __ HAITI
1804
Guatem
CARIBBEAN
a a
UNITED PROVINCES “ “= SEA ~~ 3 TRINIDAD -
OF CENTRAL AMERICA > oe ara : BRITISH GUIANA
1823-1839
ay
DUTCH GUIANA
FRENCH GUIANA

GALAPAGOS IS. Bp,

PACIFIC

OCEAN

~ Rio de Janeiro
CHILE
1818

Santiagg
4
URUGUAY 1828 _
Montevideo
et,
CES
FLA PLATA
a ATLANTIC
OCEAN

500 1000 Miles

1000 Kilometers

Map 22.2 The decolonization of Latin America 1800-36.

 MODERN AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA 591

FIGURE 22.8 Frida Kahlo, The Two Fridas, 1939, oil on canvas,
5'9” square (1.73 m square), Museo Nacional de Arte Moderno,
Mexico City, © 2001 Banco de Mexico, Diego Rivera & Frida
Kahlo Museums Trust. Av. Cinco de Mayo No. 2, Col. Centro,
Del. Cuanhtemoc 06059, Mexico, D.F. Reproduction authorized
by the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes y Literatura. Bob
Schalkwijk/Art Resource, NY. The marriage between the artists
Rivera and Kahlo was described by her parents as “like the mar-
riage between an elephant and a dove.” Kahlo described marriage
to Rivera as her “second accident”—a nearly fatal traffic collision
at the age of eighteen was her first.

FIGURE 22.9 Wilfredo Lam, The

Jungle, 1943, gouache on paper,
mounted on canvas, 7/10” X 765"
(2.39 X 2.30 m), Museum of Mod-
ern Art, NY, Inter-American Fund,
Licensed by SCALA-Art Resource,
NY. © 2005 Artists Rights Society,
NY. The son of a Chinese immi-
grant and an Afro-Cuban mother,
Lam studied African art in Paris and
adopted Picasso’s style in an attempt
to explore his own origins.
592 CHAPTER 22

BACH IN BRAZIL Bach was the archetypal composer for One of the most notable parts of
Villa-Lobos, since Bach also drew inspi- Bachianas Brasileiras is No. 5, which in-
ne interesting musical cross current ration from simple folk melodies, which cludes a beautiful aria based on a Brazil-
between Latin America and Europe he then developed into complex poly- ian folk song. Villa-Lobos sets this piece
is Villa-Lobos’s Bachianas Brasileiras, a phonic compositions. Bachianas Brasiletras for soprano and eight cellos, with a solo
piece inspired by the German Baroque consists of nine parts, each scored for dif- cello line. Its elegant beauty in the al-
composer Johann Sebastian Bach and ferent instrumental combinations. No. 1, ternative arrangements is but one ex-
written as a tribute to his memory and for example, is scored for eight cellos, ample of the way cultures interact to
legacy. In this work, Villa-Lobos couples No. 3 for piano and orchestra, No. 6 for produce new and exciting artistic forms
Brazilian rhythms with Bachian coun- flute and bassoon. and styles.
terpoint to create a fusion of Latin and
Germanic musical styles that spans cul-
tures, oceans, and centuries.

from Argentina, the samba from Brazil, and the pasillo Spain and Spanish American cultures. The guitar has been
from Colombia. Latin-inspired dances include the used both in folk and classical music, by many composers,
Caribbean calypso, the Cuban rumba, the Brazilian lam- including the Brazilian HET[TOR VILLALOBOS [VEE-
bada, and even the macarena. yah LOW-bows] (1887-1959).
One of the most popular instruments used in Latin Latin America’s best known classical composer, Villa-
American music is the guitar, which has a long history in Lobos was born in Rio de Janeiro. After studying music
with his father, he earned a living by playing the cello in
cafés. He researched and collected authentic folk and In-
FIGURE 22.10 Fernando Botero, Mona Lisa at the Age of
Twelve, 1959, oil and tempera on canvas, 6’ 11” X 6’ 5” (2.11
dian songs, both of which he later used as melodies in his
X< 1.96 m), Museum of Modern Art, NY, Inter-American Fund. classical compositions. Villa-Lobos believed that folk music
Licensed by Scala/Art Resource, NY. In the 1970s, Botero reveals the special vitality and spirit of a people, their
moved to Paris, where he began to make large bronze sculp- unique essence, and he conveys this in his large works for
tures of his swollen figures. chorus and orchestra.

LITERATURE
The literature of Latin America is written primarily in two
languages, Spanish and Portuguese. Yet the plurality of
voices and visions that emerge in modern and contempo-
rary Latin American fiction is staggering. A concern many
writers share is an exploration of the imagination. Three
writers in particular can be singled out for special attention:
the Argentinean novelist, essayist, and short-story writer
Jorge Luis Borges; the contemporary Colombian novelist
and short-story writer Gabriel Garcia Marquez; and the
Chilean novelist Isabel Allende.
Jorge Luis Borges. JORGE LUIS BORGES [BOR-
haze] (1899-1986) is best known for what he calls his
ficciones—short, enigmatic fictional works that invite philo-
sophical reflection, especially speculation about the mys-
terious universe that human beings inhabit. Borges’s fiction
is situated at the interface between the genres of essay and
autobiography; he mixes facts and names from his family
chronicles with reflections on philosophical matters. His
stories frequently involve a central character confronted
 MODERN AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA 593

Critical Thinking
MacIc REALISM everyday experience, magic realism hews * elements of folklore and legend
more closely to everyday experiential re- * multiple perspectives and points
Mee Realism is a term that was ality, without pretending to supersede, of view
coined to attempt to describe the surpass, or transcend it. Magic realism ¢ ambiguity and uncertainty
literary movement that began in South includes the following aspects:
America and had its greatest and most Why do you think writers and other
sustained success there. It refers to a style * elements of the fantastic or mar- artists in the twentieth century devel-
of writing (and also films and paintings) velous oped such an approach to their art? How
that mixes sharply etched realistic de- * a lack of discursive explanation might elements of magic realism, such
scriptive details with fantastic and * an acceptance of the irrational as those identified in the list above, con-
dreamlike elements, that include motifs and nonlogical tribute to meaningful literary and artis-
from myths and fairy tales. Related to * an abundance of sensory images tic productions and performances?
surrealism, a movement in art primarily and details What is your own personal response to
and secondarily in literature that com- * temporal distortions and causal works that employ elements of magic
bines elements of dreams and myth with inversions realism?

with a puzzle or problem, which has to be unraveled much imaginary in unpredictable yet convincing ways, in a style
in the manner of detective stories. that has come to be known as magic realism. Magic real-
One of Borges’s most powerful metaphors is that of the ism weaves realistic events together with incredible and
labyrinth, a maze into which the central character (and fantastic ones, in an attempt to convey the truths of life. In
the reader) is placed, and from which extrication comes as magic realism, key events do not necessarily have a logical
the character gains realization about the imaginative world. explanation; mystery is an integral part of experience. Re-
Borges often merges the “real” with the imaginary, what marking that “There’s not a single line in all my work that
is historical with what is invented, so his readers become does not have a basis in reality,” Garcia Marquez, like other
disoriented and are forced to reconsider the relationship magic realists, sees his work as conveying simultaneously
between fiction and reality. the truths of the imagination and those of “reality.”

Gabriel Garcia Marquez. If Borges is the master of the Isabel Allende. In the same year that Garcia Marquez
short story, GABRIEL GARCIA MARQUEZ [gar-SEE- won the Nobel Prize for Literature, ISABEL ALLENDE
ah MAR-kez] (b. 1928) is the master of the novel. His One [ay-END-eh] (b. 1942) published her noteworthy novel
Hundred Years of Solitude (1967) blends the “real” with the The House ofSpirits (1982). Like Garcia Marquez’s One Hun-

desk

African Writers
Chinua Achebe (b. 1930), Nigeria, Things Fall Apart; Arrow of God (novels)
Wole Soyinka (b. 1938), Nigeria, Poems from Prison; Death and the King’s Horseman (play)
J. M. Coetzee (b. 1940), South Africa, Waiting for the Barbarians; Disgrace (novels)

Latin American Writers

Jorge Luis Borges (1899-1966), Argentina, Ficciones (stories)
Gabriel Garcia Marquez (b. 1928), Colombia, One Hundred Years of Solitude (novel)
Isabel Allende (b. 1942), Chile, The House of Spirits (novel)
594 CHAPTER 22

Cultural Impact
“ ‘wentieth-century Africa has been a economically. Artistically, African music and musicians around the globe. The so-
continent in flux. Its political continues to influence Western com- cial scope and political focus of the Mex-
makeup has shifted from a continent of posers and performers, and African ican mural tradition has had a major
European colonial empires to one of music and dance groups perform to ac- impact on twentieth-century artists in
modern nation-states. It has been a bat- claim around the world, especially in the the Americas and in Europe. The psy-
tleground for competing ideologies, both United States. chological complexity of Mexican por-
native and foreign, including Marxist-in- Modern Latin America has under- trait painting, especially in the paintings
spired revolutions, Christian proselytiz- gone significant social and_ political of Frida Kahlo, has had a lasting influ-
ing, and Islamic cultural incursions. change. Revolutions in a number of ence on the art world. In addition, the
Parts of contemporary Africa con- countries, including Argentina, Brazil, magic realism of South American novel-
tinue to suffer from a high incidence of and Mexico, occurred early in the cen- ists, especially in the work of Gabriel
contagious diseases, including malaria tury. Among later centers of unrest, the Garcia Marquez, has been imitated and
and AIDS. Some African countries are Mexican revolution of 1910 was the most adapted by writers worldwide. Finally,
becoming increasingly modernized, and successful in reorganizing social struc- the music of Latin America continues to
some increasingly democratic. Recent tures and fostering economic and polit- be among the most internationally in-
developments in South Africa testify to ical renewal. fluential of any in the world.
the vitality and influence of the conti- The legacy of Latin American arts
nent’s impact politically, socially, and continues to influence painters, writers,

dred Years ofSolitude, Allende’s novel creates a fictional world Allende explains that she uses these techniques because,
that reconstructs the history of a country—in her case, as she says, “in Latin America, we value dreams, passions,
modern Chile, her homeland, from which she was exiled obsessions, emotions.” It is also partly attributable to, as
when her uncle, President Salvador Allende of Chile, was she says, “our sense of family, our sense of religion, of su-
assassinated in 1975. Like Garcia Marquez, Allende uses perstition, too.” But mostly it is because “Fantastic things
techniques of magic realism to weave realistic events with happen every day in Latin America—it’s not that we make
incredible and fantastic ones to convey the truths of life. them up.”
 MODERN AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA 595

KEY TERMS
creole talking drum Afrobeat santeria
emirs call-and-response format hip life samba
negritude polyrhythms Eurocentric calypso
apartheid backbeat al fresco magic realism
gelede Soukous pyroxylin

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

hitp://cti.ite.virginia.edu/%7Ebcr/Bayly/Bayly. html
(African art from the Bayly Museum.)
http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/Elberg/Soyinka/soyinka-con0.html
(Harry Kreisler interviews Nobel Laureate Wole Soyinka about writing, theater arts, and
political activism.)
http://www.rdpl.red-deer.ab.ca/villa/heller.html
(An excellent website featuring the life and works of composer Heitor Villa-Lobos.)
http: //www.themodernword.com/gabo/
(An extensive site on one of the world’s greatest writers, Gabriel Garcia Marquez.)
 CHAPTER 23

HisTORY
a era ees. 1945 United States drops atomic bombs on Japan; World WarIlends
. aes : 1947 Marshall Plan introduced
Lo i 1948 Israel founded
~ ————«1949NATO founded
.| a ma 1950 First shopping mall opens near Seattle
— BOE ; 1954 Ray Kroc buys McDonald's franchise rights ==
ee Eg th A196) Berlin Wall erected °
a pee i 1962 Invasion of Cuba fails
a
Bie yi ‘7 1965 Major U.S. intervention in Vietnam .° .
% -_ ae 1965 National Endowment for the Arts and Humanities established
J , :a 1969 Apollo17lands on the moon
/ _— rf 1973 Trial and congressional hearings on Watergate
aaeEs «1974 ——sNixon resigns

Cc TT
_ = . 1942-43 Wright designs Guggenheim Museum (built 1957-60)
— |. 1950 Pollock, Autumn Rhythm
a ean 1950-52 Mies van der Rohe, Lake Shore Drive Apartment Houses
a= . 1950-55 Le Corbusier, Notre-Dame-du-Haut
1957 Cage, #33”
a 4 “ oy ———-(1957——_—Bernstein, West Side Story
Bp ture < 1958 Nevelson, Sky Cathedral
ve _ pe aT Warhol, Marilyn Monroe Diptych
\ \a ach 1963 Krasner, Flowering Limb
‘ \ eee? 1964 — Kaprow, Household Happening
Las a 1966 —-Frankenthaler, Mauve District
€ ee i972 Jones, Ode to Kinshasa
4 = 8 | 1977 _ Piano and Rogers, Pompidou Center
oa = 1977-78 Gehry, Genry House

— 1943 Sartre, Being and Nothingness 2

e 1949 De Beauvoir, The Second Sex
d 1952 Beckett, Waiting for Godot
‘ 1956 Ginsberg, How/
 Mid- Twentieth Century
and Later

Andy Warhol, Marilyn Diptych, 1962, oil on canvas, in two panels, 6’ 10” x 9’ 6” (2.08 X 2.90
m), Tate Gallery, London, Art Resource, NY. © 2003 Andy Warhol Foundation for the Visual if
Arts (ARS), NY. (TM) 2002 Marilyn Monroe LLC under license authorized by CMG World-
wide, Inc., Indianopolis, IN.

597
 0 250 500 Miles

0 250 500 Kilometers

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

NORTHERN
IRELAND

BALEARIC
ISLANDS
X
o

ee
4
MALTA~ V
AFRICA (British)

Map 23.1 Post-war Europe, 1949.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY AND LATER

The existential and the abstract change the face of the humanities

POP CULTURE
Modern society and art exchange ideas and influences

598
 MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY AND LATER 599

MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY We have before us many, many long months of struggle

AND LATER and of suffering. You ask, what is our policy? I will say: It
is to wage war, by sea, land, and air, with all our might and
ore than seventeen million soldiers died fight- with all the strength that God can give us; to make war
ing World War IJ, and eighteen million civilians against a monstrous tyranny, never surpassed in the dark,
lamentable catalogue of human crime. That is our policy.
died because of it. The economies of Europe and
You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word: It
Asia were decimated. The Allied victory was undermined is victory, victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror,
by a mistrust of the Soviets, wartime allies whose ideol- victory, however long and hard the road may be; for with-
ogy demonized capitalism. Only one thing was certain: out victory there is no survival.
humankind was now capable of total self-destruction.
On May 10, 1940, nine months after Hitler’s invasion In August and September 1940, Hitler tested the British
of Poland had forced France and Britain to declare war resolve with full-scale bomber attacks on the country. But,
on Germany, German troops moved north into the Low in what Churchill would label Great Britain’s “finest hour,”
Countries. From Belgium, German troops poured into Germany failed to win air superiority over Britain, and
France, driving not directly to Paris but to the English British resolve strengthened.
Meanwhile, in the Pacific, Japanese leaders, who had
Channel, thus separating France from its British allies.
More than 300,000 French and British troops trapped struck a deal with Vichy France, invaded French Indochina
on the beaches at Dunkirk retreated to England, and then (Vietnam) and pressed into China. The Japanese Emperor
Hitler marched on Paris. On June 13, the French de- Hirohito (1901-89) agreed to enter the war in alliance
clared Paris an open city and evacuated without a fight. with Hitler if the United States joined the Allied forces
On June 22, Marshal Henri Pétain signed an armistice
and entered the war in Europe. Forcing the issue, Japan-
with the Germans, handing over two-thirds of the coun- ese forces attacked the American naval base at Pearl Har-
try to German control, leaving himself in charge of the bor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941. An outraged United
States immediately declared war on Japan, and Germany
Mediterranean areas. His headquarters were in the small
honored its alliance with Japan and declared war on the
resort community of Vichy, and his government, despised
United States. By the end of 1941, the world was at war.
as collaborators after the war, was known as Vichy France.
Slowly, the Allies gained the upper hand both in Europe
Hitler believed that, without France’s support, Britain
and the Pacific. There were many turning points. In North
would give in as well, but Britain did nothing of the kind.
Africa, Allied troops defeated the German general Erwin
Britain’s new prime minister, Winston Churchill
Rommel, the “Desert Fox.” In Russia, the Soviets turned
(1874-1965), addressed the House of Commons with these
back the Germans at Stalingrad (Volgograd). In Italy, the
words:
Allied invasion of Sicily soon took Italy out of the war. Then
I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat. came D-Day on June 6, 1944, and the Allies regained the
We have before us an ordeal of the most grievous kind. beaches of northern France (fig. 23.1). A decisive factor in

Figure 23.1 Allied troops landing in Normandy. This photograph, taken two days after
D-Day, on June 6, 1944, shows reinforcements arriving on French soil. The dimension of the
Allied effort is evident.
600 CHAPTER 23

Critical Thinking
THE WEEKEND end did not materialize until the late societies? Why do you think it took so
nineteenth century, when workers in long to become what it is today? And to
he weekend as we know it in the some places took Saturday afternoons what extent do you think new technolo-
West today did not always exist. Al- off. It did not become standardized and gies like email and the cell phone have
though scattered religious holidays were extended to two full days until the mid- begun to erode it? And, finally, do you
celebrated from the Middle Ages, and twentieth century. think the weekend is a good idea, one
though there was, traditionally, no work- Why do you think the weekend even- that should be preserved? Why or why
ing on the Sabbath, the two-day week- tually became commonplace in Western not?

defeating Germany was Allied air superiority, which de- the former imperial powers of Europe lost control of most
molished Germany’s industrial base and oil production ca- of their empires overseas, and many of these countries—
pabilities, halting its resupply of troops in the field. in Southeast Asia, Africa, and Latin America—became
As Allied troops overran Berlin, Hitler shot himself in points of conflict in the U.S./Soviet power struggle.
defeat, having started a war that had resulted in millions of Even as Western Europe lost political clout, it devel-
military and civilian deaths, including between six and oped a strong economic union, the European Commu-
seven million Jews in death camps such as Auschwitz, in nity, or the Common Market as it was known (it has now
Poland, where as many as twelve thousand Jews were ex- been renamed once more as the European Union), which
ecuted in a single day. On May 8, 1945, Churchill and the brought wealth to the continent. As opposed to Eastern
American President, Harry S Truman (1884-1972), de- Europe, where shortages of food and goods remained a
clared victory in Europe. The United States dropped its constant of the Soviet regime, both Western Europe and
newly developed atom bomb on the Japanese cities of Hi- the United States enjoyed fifty years of economic expan-
roshima, on August 6, 1945, and, three days later, on Na- sion. Japan, too, unburdened by military expenditures in
gasaki. On September 2, 1945, Japan surrendered as well. accordance with its new constitution, turned its attention
to its economy, and by 1970, it led the world in the pro-
duction of consumer goods. By 1996, its gross national
CoLD WAR AND ECONOMIC RECOVERY product (GNP) was nearly four times that of France and
Many historians view World War IL as a rekindling of un- three times that of Germany.
resolved hostilities from World War I. In this light, the The period after World War II can thus be viewed as a
1920s and 1930s can be viewed as an extended truce. So movement from destruction and devastation to affluence
devastating was the war that Europe lost its central place and prosperity. Anything seemed possible. Visionaries
in world politics and culture, and Japan was left so bat- speculated that one day every family might own a televi-
tered that its emperor, Hirohito, referred to the situation sion. Music might be played in stereophonic sound. Peo-
as “the unendurable that must be endured.” ple might fly to the moon. Computers might interpret
The rebuilding of Europe and Japan required a huge data, drive cars, or clean houses. More importantly, racism
investment. The American secretary of state, George C. might end, women might achieve equality, world peace
Marshall (1880-1959), conceived the idea of providing might be possible. Such were the dreams. The reality was
economic aid to the European countries on the condition more complicated.
they work together for their mutual benefit. It was called
the Marshall Plan, and it fostered unprecedented pros-
perity and affluence in Europe. In Japan, General Douglas
THE VIETNAM WARS
MacArthur (1880-1964) oversaw a new democratic con- Vietnam has a long history of domination by foreign pow-
stitution forbidding the manufacture of arms for “land, ers. Throughout its history, Vietnam engaged in continued
sea, or air force . . . [and] other war potential.” Japan thus resistance, against China in the eighteenth and nineteenth
became the only world power without a significant defense centuries, and in the mid-twentieth century, against
budget, which freed its economy. France. After the defeat of the French at Dien Bien Phu
Europe became the focal point of a struggle for world in 1945, the United States provided support to the non-
power called the Cold War, fought without open warfare Communist government of South Vietnam, which was at
between the United States and the Soviet Union. The war with the Communist North. The United States be-
United States had as its ally much of Western Europe while came increasingly implicated in the war, first through sup-
the Soviet Union dominated Eastern Europe. By 1950, plying money and war materials, later sending American
 MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY AND LATER 601

J
Membership of the European Union, 2004

RUSSIAN
ED TION

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

\ CZECH)
\ REPUBLIG )

L AUSTRIA

BEROA

250 500 Miles oe

250 500 Kilometers

Map 23.2

military advisors, and finally sending American soldiers to in the Vichy government or, at the least, turned their eyes
fight alongside the South Vietnamese army. from Nazi atrocities, fueled a discourse about the individ-
Gradually, however, due to strong political dissatisfac- ual’s responsibility to make choices—existentialism. Its
tion with America’s presence in Vietnam, U.S. forces were seeds lay in the ideas of the Danish philosopher SOREN
withdrawn and peace agreements signed in 1973. Two KIERKEGAARD [KEAR-kah-gard] (1813-55), who
years, later, however, the North Vietnamese army marched insisted on the irreducibly subjective and personal dimen-
on Saigon and captured the capital. One year later the sion of human life. Kierkegaard used the term the “exist-
country was united as the Republic of Vietnam, and Saigon ing individual” to characterize the subjective perspective,
was renamed Ho Chi Minh City. and from this the term “existential” later developed.
Kierkegaard emphasized the essentially ethical nature of
human life, with each individual responsible for making
THE PHILOSOPHY OF EXISTENTIALISM
choices and commitments. Kierkegaard insisted that these
The horrible reality of the German concentration camps, choices require respect for other people, virtuous behav-
of “man’s inhumanity to man,” and, in France particularly, ior on their behalf, and a faith in spiritual things that tran-
of the fact that thousands had ‘collaborated with the Nazis scends the limitations and vicissitudes of material life.
602 CHAPTER 23

Jean-Paul Sartre. Like Kierkegaard, the French philoso- in advancing the belief that, in a man’s world, women need
pher JEAN-PAUL SARTRE [SAHR-truh] (1905-80) to band together to assert pressure for change.
emphasized the ethical aspect of existential thought. Unlike
Kierkegaard, however, Sartre, who was an atheist, dis-
ABSTRACTION IN AMERICAN ART
avowed the spiritual or religious dimension. The central
tenets of Sartre’s philosophy begin with his idea that “ex- Existentialism became the dominant postwar philosophy,
istence precedes essence,” which suggests that human be- and the arts began to emphasize individual expression. In
ings are defined by their choices and actions. Nothing is the United States, in particular, a brand of highly personal
fixed or preestablished in human nature. What is important and subjective painting developed that became known as
is what human beings become, what they make of them- abstract expressionism. Although varied in style, the
selves through their choices, decisions, and commitments, work of the Abstract Expressionists, was unified in its em-
which are always in question and never finally settled. phasis on expressive gesture and its rejection of art as rep-
This fundamental idea is related to another: Human resentation.
beings exist relative to one another; they exist in interper- During the 1930s, many artists were not working on the
sonal and social situations that affect them, situations that kind of mural painting supported by the WPA, and the gov-
also involve repeated decisive choices. The choices human ernment recognized this. As part of the New Deal, an easel
beings make are necessary and inescapable. Those choices, painting project was initiated that paid artists $95 a month.
moreover, not only make individuals who they are, since Although hardly a fortune, this was living wage, and some
a person is what he or she does, but they also make peo- of the artists under this plan became the focal point of the
ple responsible for each other as well as for themselves. American avant-garde of the 1940s, among them Jackson
When people evade responsibility for themselves or for Pollock, Willem de Kooning, and Mark Rothko.
others, they exist in a state that Sartre describes as “bad
Jackson Pollock. Jackson Pollock (1912-56) was born
faith,” which results from denying their freedom to do,
in Wyoming, moved to New York in the 1930s, and stud-
think, act, or be otherwise than they are.
ied with Thomas Hart Benton, whose interest in large-
Sartre developed his philosophy in context of World
scale work influenced him. By the mid-1940s, Pollock had
War II, including the Nazi occupation of France. During
begun developing a body of work sometimes referred to
that time he came to recognize the ways one’s physical
as “drip” paintings for which he was dubbed “Jack the
freedom could be curtailed and one’s life endagered.
Dripper.” When he created them, he was in psycho-
Nonetheless, he remained uncompromising in his insis-
analysis and was interested in the role of the unconscious
tence that, regardless of one’s situation, one always had
in art. Pollock was intrigued by the notion of psychic au-
the conscious power to negate it and to transcend it in
tomatism, imported by the Surrealists who had escaped
thought. What people make of such situations, much as
what they make of themselves through the many roles they war in Europe, seeking asylum in the United States. In
perform in life, determines who they become. It is not the addition, he had been especially affected by Picasso’s
situations themselves or the roles people find themselves Guernica (see Chapter 21) when it was first displayed in
New York in 1939.
in that fix their identities but the choices they make in re-
sponse to those roles and situations. His working method, the results of which are seen in
Autumn Rhythm: Number 30 (fig. 23.2), of 1950, was to un-
Simone de Beauvoir. SIMONE DE BEAUVOIR [boh- roll a huge canvas on the floor and throw, drip, and splat-
VWAHR] (1908-1966) shared with Sartre ideas about the ter paint onto it as he moved around it. Although Pollock
necessity for responsibility in choosing what one makes of said he knew what he was trying to achieve before starting
one’s life. De Beauvoir stressed more than Sartre the am- on a canvas, his compositions appear accidental. There is
biguity that is frequently a factor in the ethical decisions no clear top or bottom: Pollock determined this only when
people need to make. he signed it. The entirety is a web of countless swirling
De Beauvoir’s most important contribution involves her marks, seemingly pushing and pulling one another.
study of women. In her groundbreaking book The Second Pollock’s style became known as action painting be-
Sex, she reviewed history and myth, bringing them to bear cause it conveys the artist’s physical activity. Pollock swung
on the situation of women at midcentury. She also ana- his arms and moved his entire body when making his drip
lyzed the biological bases of female experience, conclud- paintings. For him, the act of getting paint onto the can-
vas was the important part; the “work” is not so much a fin-
ing that although biological differences between men and
women are incontrovertible, it is social differentiation that ished product as the process of making it.
determines their very different life experiences. De Beau- Lee Krasner. Lee Krasner (1908-84) was born in Brook-
voir was especially eloquent on women’s need to distin- lyn, NY, into an Orthodox Jewish family. After studying art
guish themselves from men, to break the pattern of being in various New York schools, she joined the American Ab-
seen only in relation to them. She was ahead of her time stract Artists Group in 1939. She worked with Jackson
 MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY AND LATER 603

FIGURE 23.2 Jackson Pollock, Autumn Rhythm: Number 30, 1950, oil on canvas, 8'9” <
17'3" (2.66 X 5.25 m), Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY. George A. Hearn Fund, 1957.
© 2005, ARS, NY. Because there is no recognizable subject, such work is referred to as
“abstract expressionism.” Pollock’s personal technique is known as “action painting” because
of the highly active physical process—he splattered, flung, and dripped paint onto canvas
unrolled on the floor, the result being largely accidental.

Pollock in 1941 when both participated in an exhibition various points: sets of teeth, eyes, and even, in the very
held in New York the following year. At this time, she was middle, a red, white, and blue area that suggests an Amer-
the better known of the two artists and provided him with ican flag. De Kooning’s aim was to create an afocal sur-
access to the Manhattan art world. Krasner married Pol- face, that is, one on which the eye can never quite come to
lock in 1945; by the following year they were influencing rest. For de Kooning, this disorientation, comparable to
each other’s art. the disorientation felt by immigrants and refugees, repre-
Both worked in styles that gave visual expression to the sents the modern condition.
physical energy of painting. Her Flowering Limb (fig. 23.3),
Mark Rothko. ‘The color field abstraction of Mark
painted in 1963, several years after Pollock’s death, shows
Rothko (1903-70), is characterized by an absence of a rec-
her work, by comparison, to be more controlled than his.
ognizable figurative subject, an absence of an illusion of
Although her paint is applied with a brush rather than
space, and large areas of flat color. A Russian who moved
dripped onto the canvas, Krasner, too, eliminated the hand-
to America, Rothko was an introspective artist whose an-
crafted quality of careful brushwork, which may be seen as
guish about himself and his work led to his eventual sui-
an aspect of the artist’s detachment from an actual subject.
cide in his studio in 1970. Red, Brown, and Black (fig. 23.5),
Willem de Kooning. Similarly, the paintings of Willem of 1958, is characteristic of the canvases covered with rec-
de Kooning (1904-97) reveal an interest not so much in tangles of subtle, rich colors for which Rothko is best
representing a preconceived idea but rather in experienc- known. Working with layers of thin paint, Rothko made
ing the act of painting. When de Kooning emigrated to the edges of his rectangles fuzzy and soft, rendering the
the United States from his native Holland in 1926, he was rectangles cloudlike, seemingly able to float one on top of
a figure painter, albeit one deeply influenced by the another. These subtle color harmonies hover in an am-
Cubists. Soon, he was influenced by the Surrealists and biguous space, sometimes advancing and sometimes re-
began painting with broad, slashing strokes. In Excavation ceding. Rothko wished to evoke the emotions “tragic and
(fig. 23.4), of 1950, interlocking, neutral-colored shapes, timeless.” He thought of his canvases as backdrops before
simultaneously organic and geometric, arise from a mul- which viewers experience their feelings, ranging from calm
ticolored ground. Identifiable items can be detected, at to happy to sad.
604 CHAPTER 23

FIGURE 23.3. Lee Krasner, Flowering Limb, 1963, oil on canvas 574" x 453" (146.7 X
116.2 cm). Photograph courtesy of Robert Miller Gallery, NY. Estate of Lee Krasner © 2008
Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY. The degree of abstraction is such that the viewer is unlikely
to suspect that this painting portrays a tree branch in bloom prior to reading the title. The
dense pattern, almost a form of abstract calligraphy, seems to spread beyond the edges of the
canvas, suggesting an ongoing expansive space.

Helen Frankenthaler. Rothko’s color field painting, with fluid. Later she used acrylic paints, which are thinned with
its chromatic subtleties, is given freer form by the Amer- water and handled much like watercolor. Frankenthaler’s
ican artist Helen Frankenthaler (b. 1928), a second-gen- experiments resulted in soft, silky biomorphic shapes in
eration Abstract Expressionist. Her Mauve District (fig. color harmonies producing floating lyrical effects with a
23.6), of 1966, is an example of this nonobjective style of look of ease and spontaneity. Some areas of the canvas are
painting. Like Pollock, Frankenthaler worked on raw, or left unpainted, defining the painted areas abutting them.
unprimed canvas, that is, canvas without glue and gesso
(white paint) primer. Like Pollock, she worked on huge Lois Mailou Fones. Of special interest is the black Amer-
canvases laid out flat rather than placed on an easel. Un- ican textile designer, painter, teacher, and ambassador, Lois
like Pollock, however, Frankenthaler poured paint onto Mailou Jones (1905-98). She was born in Boston and grad-
the canvas, soaking and staining the canvas. At first she uated with honors from the School of the Museum of Fine
used oil paint, thinned with turpentine until it was very Arts. In Washington, D.C., she taught at Howard Uni-
 MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY AND LATER 605

FiGurE 23.4 Willem de Kooning, Excavation, 1950, oil on canvas, 685" 8'45" (2.04 x
2.54 m). Art Institute of Chicago, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Noah Goldowsky and Edgar Kaufmann,
Jr., Mr. & Mrs. Frank G. Logan Purchase Prize, 1952. 1. Photograph © 1997 All Rights Re-
served. © 2005 Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY. Fragments of human anatomy seem to reveal
themselves behind, through, and across the webbed surfaces of many de Kooning paintings.

versity for many years—from 1930 to 1977. In the 1930s, is more,” is embodied in these buildings. The steel frame
she began to utilize motifs from African tribal art in her skeleton provides the surface pattern; ornament is avoided.
painting, and was influenced also by the strong colors pat- The extreme simplicty approaches austerity. Solid and void
terns of Haitian art—her husband was Haitian. In 1970 are aesthetic equals.
she became the United States Information Agency’s cul-
tural ambassador to Africa. This experience is reflected in Le Corbusier ‘The work of Le Corbusier was introduced
her works such as Ode to Kinshasa (fig. 23.7) of 1972. Sim- in chapter 21, with the Savoye House (fig. 21.22). He de-
ple forms, bright colors, and the various textures of the signed the church of Notre-Dame-du-Haut at Ronchamp,
materials pasted onto the canvas are combined with both France (fig. 23.9), 1950-55. The name of the church refers
simplicity and sophistication. to its location on a mountaintop. Built of masonry and
sprayed concrete, the rough surfaces appear to be sheets of
a soft material that has been cut with enormous scissors and
ARCHITECTURE bent into these concave and convex shapes. Unlike tradi-
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Among Walter Gropius’s tional religious architecture, symmetry has been abandoned.
colleagues at the Bauhaus in Dessau was LUDWIG MIES Le Corbusier does use light and stained glass, as in a Gothic
VAN DER ROHE [mees van-duh-ROW] (1887-1969). cathedral (see Chapter 12), but the effect is new. Windows
When Hitler closed the school, Mies moved to Chicago of different sizes and shapes are set into the thickness of the
where he concentrated his efforts on designing a new cam- wall, and form an abstract arrangement.
pus for the Illinois Institute of Technology. Later Mies
created what we now think of as the modern skyscraper. Frank Lloyd Wright. Perhaps the most influential archi-
Typical of his work are the Lake Shore Drive Apart- tect of the age was the American Frank Lloyd Wright whose
ment Houses (fig. 23.8), built 1950-52. Mies’s motto, “Less Fallingwater was discussed in Chapter 21 (fig. 21.23).
606 CHAPTER 23

FiGuRE 23.5 Mark Rothko, Red,

Brown, and Black, 1958, oil on can-
vas, 8'1" K 9'9" Q72 X 2.97 m);
Museum of Modern Art, NY. Mrs.
Simon Guggenheim Fund, Li-
censed by Scala/Art Resource,
NY. © ARS, NY. Working in a
style known as color field paint-
ing, Rothko produced a series of
paintings consisting of soft-edged
rectangles of various colors that
are theoretical and philosophical
representations of contrasting
states of emotion and discipline.

FiGuRE 23.6 Helen Frankenthaler, Mauve District, 1966, polymer

on unprimed canvas, 87” < 7’11” (2.62 X 2.41 m), Museum of
Modern Art, NY. Mrs. Donald Straus Fund, Licensed by Scala/Art
Resource, NY. Frankenthaler was deeply impressed by the work of
Jackson Pollock. However, where Pollock’s oil paint was thick, Wright’s works included not only private homes, but also
Frankenthaler achieved soft stained effects, similar to watercolor, public spaces, such as office buildings, churches, hotels, and
by painting with thinned paint on absorbent raw canvas. museums. His Guggenheim Museum in New York City
(fig. 23.10), designed 1942-43 and built 1957-60, is visu-
ally arresting. Constructed of reinforced concrete, the shape
derives from the ramp inside. Visitors ride an elevator to
the top and then view the art while circling down the long
spiral walkway.

MODERN DRAMA
Modern drama begins in the nineteenth century with the
plays of the Norwegian dramatist Henrik Ibsen (see
Chapter 17), whose realism shocked his contemporaries
and propelled the theater in new directions. Ibsen’s em-
phasis on the psychology of his characters was developed
by later playwrights to depict the new existential thought.
An existentialist sense of the absurd dominated post-
war theater. A full-blown Theater of the Absurd substi-
tuted storyless action for well-contrived plots and
disconnected dialogue for witty responses and grand
speeches. Absurdist dramatists rejected the idea that char-
acters can be understood or that plot should be structured,
just as they rejected the order and coherence of character
and action in everyday life.
 MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY AND LATER

ABSTRACT EXPRESSIONISM ing point, they approached their work canvases stretched across the floor, in the
IN JAPAN with their entire bodies, literally throw- manner of Pollock, but used his feet as
ing themselves into it. his brush as he slid through the oil paint.
Jn the summer of 1955, a group of They called the exhibition in Ashiya In a piece called Challenging Mud, he
4dyoung Japanese artists who called the Experimental Outdoor Exhibition of submerged himself half naked in a pile
themselves the Gutai Art Association or- Modern Art to Challenge the Mid-Summer of dense mud. Rolling in it, squeezing it,
ganized a thirteen-day, twenty-four- Sun. A year later, in Tokyo, Gutai held wrestling with it, he created a sculptural
hour-a-day, outdoor exhibition in a pine another exhibition. They applied paint version of his physical presence. Mu-
grove park along the beach in Ashiya, a to canvas with watering cans and remote rakami Saburo built large paper screens
small town outside Osaka. Their name, control toys. Shimamato Shozo, wearing six feet high by twelve feet wide, and
Gutai, literally means “concreteness,” goggles and dressed for combat, threw then flung himself through them.
but more importantly it derives from two jars of paint against rocks positioned As violent as these activities were,
separate characters, gu, meaning “tool” across a canvas in a manner reminiscent they were also rooted in Zen. Concrete
or “means,” and tai, meaning “body” or of a Japanese Zen garden. The finished enactments of the individual’s being
“substance.” ‘Taking Jackson Pollock’s works were encrusted with paint and unite the physical and spiritual in a sin-
physical approach to painting as a start- glass. Shiraga Kazuo painted on large gle image.

FIGURE 23.7 Lois Mailou Jones, Ode to Kinshasa, 1972,

mixed media on canvas, 48 X 36” (27.9 X 20.3 cm), National
Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, DC. Gift of the FiGuRE 23.8 Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Lake Shore Drive
artist. The title of this painting refers to the African republic of Apartment Houses, Chicago, 1950-52. Modern office and
Congo (formerly Zaire), which Jones, a black American, had apartment buildings favor simplified and standardized rectan-
visited in 1970 as the United States cultural ambassador. gular buildings of steel and glass, the vertical emphasized and
the structural frame made obvious.

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608 CHAPTER 23

SCULPTURE
Alexander Calder. A new kind of sculpture was created
by the American Alexander Calder (1898-1976), whose
father was also a sculptor. The younger Calder first gained
recognition as a toy maker in Paris in the 1930s with a
miniature circus that fascinated the Surrealists, particu-
larly Miro. By this time, Calder was already making mo-
biles, sculptural forms suspended from the ceiling that are
driven by the air itself (fig. 23.11). Although many people
today know what a mobile is, it was Calder who invented
the form and Marcel Duchamp who gave it its name. Be-
cause a mobile moves in the faintest breeze, its form is al-
ways changing, the simple shapes constantly forming new
relationships. A mobile uses color, shape, composition,
motion, time, and space. The artist must be concerned
with each.
Isamu Noguchi. A student of Brancusi’s in Paris in the
1920s, Japanese-American sculptor IAMU NOGUCHI
[No-GOO-chee] (1904-88) was particularly influenced by
Brancusi’s sense of sculpture as possessing an inherent ex-
pressive power. Noguchi drew on his own Japanese her-
itage in an attempt to discover in stone what the Japanese
call wabi—the “ultimate naturalness” of an object.
Kouros (fig. 23.12) is one of Noguchi’s works from the
period of World War I, during which time he voluntar-
ily entered a Japanese internment facility at Poston, Ari-
FIGURE 23.9 Le Corbusier (Charles Edouard Jenneret), zona, in order to help those being held there. “Kouros” is
Notre-Dame-du-Haut, Ronchamp, France, 1950-55. Le Cor- the ancient Greek term for “boy” or “young man” and
busier turned away from the International Style and designed refers to life-size sculptures of the nude male that began to
this extraordinary pilgrimage church. Thick masonry walls are appear in Greece in the seventh century B.C.E. (see Chap-
covered with sprayed concrete to form curved sculptural sur- ter 2). Despite the title, the form of Noguchi’s work is
faces that appear natural and organic rather than rigid and stiff. more obviously related to that of the Surrealists, particu-
larly Arp and Miro. The piece unites two opposing tech-
niques for, on the one hand, it is carved while, on the other,
it is constructed. When viewed from two different angles—
The Irish-born playwright Samuel Beckett (1906-89) is that is, from the front and from the side—it appears to be
best known for Waiting for Godot and Endgame. Beckett two entirely different works of art. In other words, it in-
mixes humor with pathos. Relying on the farcical gestures duces, or indeed demands, the viewer’s movement.
of vaudeville performers and circus clowns, Beckett's char-
acters display a dark intelligence and bleakly pessimistic
view of their tragicomic situation. Lacking in purpose and
meaning, they wait for the inevitable.
POP CULTURE
Waiting for Godot (1952) portrays two tramps, Vladimir In the 1950s and 1960s, the material dreams of the post-war
and Estragon, who wait for someone who never comes. era seemed to be coming true. Society was rapidly becom-
As they wait, the tramps quarrel, contemplate suicide, ing a consumer culture. In 1947, 75,000 homes in the
separation, and departure. They wait until they become United States were equipped with television sets. By 1967,
dependent on waiting itself. Two additional characters, a over 55 million sets were in operation and over 95 per cent
master and servant named Pozzo and Lucky, share the of American families owned at least one. That same year,
stage for a time with the tramps. The rich Pozzo mis- Swanson introduced the first frozen TV Dinner—turkey,
treats Lucky cruelly, until Pozzo becomes blind, at which mashed potatoes, and peas. In 1955, McDonald’s was
point he needs the now mute Lucky to lead him. Each founded, inaugurating the fast-food industry. The growth
pair has nothing more in life than one another. Beckett’s of the automobile industry, which made fast food possible,
theatrical genius is in depicting the human will to sur- was staggering. By 1949, Detroit was producing 5 million
vive, despite the direst of circumstances, in all its stark- automobiles a year, a year later 8 million, and the number
ness and humor. continued to grow. In response to this, shopping patterns
 MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY AND LATER 609

COFFEE: THE BEAN THAT WAKES 1300, coffee was made into a beverage. ple throughout the world, soon leading
Up THE WORLD And although some authorities date cof- to a plethora of coffeehouses and coffee
fee’s earliest cultivation to late-sixth-cen- bars throughout Europe and ultimately,
{ ‘offee is one drink that people enjoy tury Yemen, coffee isn’t mentioned in to the phenomenon of Starbucks and
the world over. Coffee was first used literature until the end of the first mille- other specialty coffee merchants today.
by nomads in Ethiopia, where, accord- nium. Some highlights from the annals of cof-
ing to legend, it was discovered by a The medicinal properties of coffee fee: Sultan Selim I introduces coffee to
goatherd who noticed that goats exhib- were first described by the Arabic Constantinople in 1517; the first coffee-
ited unusual energy after eating the red philosopher/physician Avicenna. By the houses open in Venice (1645), Oxford
berries. The goatherd, named Kaldi, late fifteenth century, coffee had spread (1650), and New York (1696); the English
tried the berries himself and experienced to the Muslim cities of Mecca and Med- bring coffee cultivation to Jamaica in 1730;
an energy surge. A monk from a nearby ina, and by the seventeenth century it had the New York Coffee Exchange opens in
monastery boiled the berries to make a been introduced to the Netherlands and 1882; decaffeinated coffee is invented in
drink, the ancestor of coffee as we know to North America. During the eighteenth Germany in 1910; instant coffee is in-
it today. Sometime between 1000 and century, coffee became daily fare of peo- vented in the United States in 1938.

SENET TN TE ETOAC eT eNO Re NTE TSN META Ne she entre TN UH i el RR et it ph emi eer ele nae eee ao tr AB ie ncinm Beta lial neg here 9

FiIGuRE 23.10 Frank Lloyd Wright, Guggenheim Museum, New York, designed 1942-43,
built 1957-60. Wright believed people are greatly influenced by their architectural surround-
ings. Essentially an enormous concrete spiral, a sort of sculpture one can enter, the Guggen-
heim Museum is itself a work of art.
610 CHAPTER 23

FIGURE 23.11 Alexander Calder, Red Gongs, completed 1950, hanging mobile, painted alu-
minum, brass, steel rod and wire, overall size 4/11” 12/15" (1.50 X 3.70 m), Metropolitan
Museum of Art, NY. Calder invented this type of hanging sculpture, called a “mobile” because
its component parts, highly responsive to the environment, are moved by the faintest breeze.
He also made “stabiles” out of similar thin flat shapes that did not move.

changed. In 1950, just north of Seattle, Washington, the ing, rustling of clothes, then giggles . . . a police car with its
Northgate Shopping Center opened, accessible only by car siren running . . . the elevator in the building .. . the air
and consisting of forty shops clustered around a Bon conditioning going through the ducts.” These sounds com-
Marché department store. Six years later, the first covered prise the “music” of the piece. First performed at Wood-
shopping mall, Southdale Center, opened in Minneapolis. stock, New York, on August 29, 1952, the work possesses
In 1953, the Kinsey Report on sexual behavior in the three influential features: minimal elements—silence; com-
United States was published, and by 1966, the sexual rev- monplace chance events, which links the piece to Surreal-
olution had taken firm hold as an oral contraceptive, pop- ism; uniqueness in time—two performances are never alike.
ularly called “the Pill,” became widely available.
As consumerism increasingly preoccupied American
life, artists and intellectuals turned their attention to the
cycle of production, consumption, and waste that defined
ARTISTS OF THE EVERYDAY
experience. Like the Dadaists of a previous generation, Robert Rauschenberg. One Black Mountain student,
they realized that art might be almost anything. Robert Rauschenberg (b. 1925), influenced by Cage’s com-
A theoretician of this point of view was the composer position of the everyday, began making assemblages, a vari-
John Cage (1912-95), who first taught at Black Mountain ation on the idea of the collage (see Chapter 21), taking
College in North Carolina in the early 1950s, and at the things one would normally discard and combining them to
New School in New York City in the late 1950s. For in- create “art.” Creation, he said, is “the process of assemblage.”
stance, his piece 4’3” is four minutes and thirty-three sec- Odalisk (fig. 23.13), made between 1955 and 1958, is com-
onds of actual silence, during which the audience becomes piled of a stuffed rooster, a pillow, magazine illustrations (in-
aware of sound in the room—“traffic sounds,” in the words cluding nude photographs), and paint, all on wood. The title
of one audience member at a performance at the Carnegie is a pun, combining “odalisque” (harem girl) and “obelisk,”
Recital Hall in New York, “chairs creaking, people cough- a four-sided stone pillar capped by a small pyramid.
 MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY AND LATER 611

FIGURE 23.12 Isamu Noguchi, Kouros, 1944-45, pink Georgia marble, height 9’9” (2.97 m),
Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY, Fletcher Fund, 1953 (53.87a-i). Noguchi turned to these
flat slabs of marble because, used in the commercial building industry for facades, countertops,
and the like, they were inexpensive and widely available.
612 CHAPTER 23

Like Cage, Rauschenberg brings together daily life and

art. It is a messy art, an art of disorder, of chance, inde-
terminate, unpredictable, and multilayered. The images
are not arranged neatly but are made to overlay, one in-
truding upon another. Rauschenberg called this work
“combine painting.”
Louise Nevelson. A different type of assemblage was cre-
ated by Louise Nevelson (1899-1988), who was born in
Kiev, Russia, and moved to Maine as a child. Nevelson
studied many arts—music, dance, theater, painting, and
printmaking. In her fifties, she began assembling small
wooden objects, scraps and remnants that she found in
furniture shops. She nailed and glued these fragments to-
gether, creating compositions within wooden boxes, which
were then stacked together to create walls of a kind of
large-scale relief. The entire assemblage was painted one
color—black most often, or white, or gold.
Nevelson’s Sky Cathedral (fig. 23.14), made in 1958, is
painted black. According to the artist, black is the most
aristocratic color and “encompasses all colors.” This sin-
gle color unifies what would otherwise appear fragmen-
tary into an environment that looks like a city of many
compartments, all compressed into a single plane.
Andy Warhol. ‘The most “everyday” objects of the 1950s
and 1960s were images of popular culture itself—advertis-
ing images, celebrated entertainers, product labels, and
highway billboards. All of these, were “packaged,” as one
young artist, Andy Warhol (1928-87), recognized. Start-
ing in commercial art in the late 1950s, he turned his stu-
dio into what he called The Factory, where he began
churning out large editions of prints, as well as unique
paintings. His work mimics the world of mass production—
Campbell’s soup cans, Coca-Cola bottles, dollar bills, and
images of Elvis Presley and Marilyn Monroe (fig. 23.15).
The style was quickly labeled Pop Art—popular art.
Warhol’s images raise everyday objects and icons to
artistic status; behind this lies an ironic resignation to wide-
spread banality. The duplicate impressions of Marilyn
Monroe in Warhol’s diptych suggest that she became the
image Hollywood created, and that her suicide was a des-
perate escape. Warhol brooded frequently about the vio-
lence of American society, creating images of electric
chairs, automobile accidents, the Kennedy assassination,
and, late in his career, endangered species.

Roy Lichtenstein. ‘he same underlying despair com-

bines with cartoonlike presentation in the work of Roy
Lichtenstein (b. 1923). Lichtenstein painted large-scale FIGURE 23.13 Robert Rauschenberg, Odalisque, 1955-58,
imitations of two kinds of comic strips—war comics, de- assemblage, including stuffed rooster, pillow, and paint, on
picting men in battle, and romance comics, akin to televi- wood, 6'9” « 25” X 25” (205.7 X 63.5 X 63.5 cm), Museum
sion soap operas, portraying the lives of young women. Ludwig, Cologne. Rheinisches Bildarchiv, Cologne. © Robert
Drowning Girl (fig. 23.16) depicts with deadpan humor an Rauschenberg/Licensed by VAGA, NY. This construction, or
absurd relationship dilemma. assemblage, is not carved or modeled but compiled, the mate-
A basis of Lichtenstein’s style is the printer’s dot—the rials left as found rather than transformed. Rauschenberg
so-called ben-day dot—used to print color in the comic works with materials not traditionally used in creating fine
strips. The style may be seen as a parody of Seurat’s pointil- art, materials that one would normally discard.
 MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY AND LATER 613

list technique (see Chapter 18). Lichtenstein asks us both

to laugh and to take it seriously.
Claes Oldenburg. In December 1961, at 107 East Sec-
ond Street in New York City, Claes Oldenburg (b. 1929),
a Yale graduate and son of a Norwegian diplomat, opened
an exhibition of painted plaster replicas of commodities—
meat, vegetables, candy, cakes, pies, ice cream sundaes—
in a shop front that he named “The Store.” One replica
was Two Cheeseburgers, with Everything (Dual Hamburgers)
(fig. 23.17). At Oldenburg’s store a plate of meat cost
$399.98 and a sandwich $149.98. “I do things that are con-
tradictory,” Oldenburg explained. “I try to make the art
look like it’s part of the world around it. At the same time
I take great pains to show that it doesn’t function as part
of the world around it.” The following summer, Olden-
burg recast some objects in giant scale and redid others as
soft sculptures, sewn and stuffed with foam rubber. What
should be soft—a hamburger, for instance—was hard plas-
ter. What should be hard—a typewriter—was suddenly
soft and sagging. Oldenburg’s work jokes about audience
expectations. In Oldenburg’s world, consumable goods
FIGURE 23.14 Louise Nevelson, Sky Cathedral, 1958, assem- cannot be consumed, and giant versions of clothespins,
blage, wood, painted black, ts? x 10"4” X 1'6" 3.44 X spoons, electric plugs, scissors, trowels, and faucets trans-
3.05 X 0.46 m) Museum of Modern Art, NY © 2005 Artists form the everyday into the monumental.
Rights Society (ARS), NY. Art Resource, NY. From a series of
Marisol Escobar. The Pop Art sculptor MARISOL [ES-
small compositional units made of pieces of wooden furniture
and furnishings, Nevelson compiled wallsize assemblages,
COBAR] (1930- ) is an American who was born in Paris,
which she unified by painting a single solid color. although her parents were Venezuelan. She moved to Los
Angeles, back to Paris, and then to Manhattan. Here, her
work humorously satirizing social and political aspects of
life, was well received. A well-known example is Women

FIGURE 23.15 Andy Warhol, Marilyn Diptych, 1962, acrylic on canvas, in two panels, 6'10”
x 9'6” (2.08 X 2.90 m), Tate Gallery, London, Art Resource, NY. © 2003 Andy Warhol
Foundation for the Visual Arts/ARS, New York. (TM) 2002 Marilyn Monroe LLC under Li-
cense authorized by CMG Worldwide, Inc., Indianapolis, IN. The way in which Marilyn
Monroe’s face is both obliterated and fades away in the right-hand panel icaetaat for
Warhol, her own tragic end. (
Sgt
614 CHAPTER 23

T DONT. CARE7
I'D RATHER SINK --
THAN CALL BRAD

FiGurRE 23.17 Claes Oldenburg, Two Cheeseburgers, with

Everything (Dual Hamburgers), 1961, burlap soaked in plaster,
painted with enamel, 7 x 143" (17.8 X 37.5 cm), Museum of
Modern Art, NY, Philip Johnson Fund, Licensed by Scala/Art
Resource, NY. Pop Art seems simultaneously to laud and laugh
at popular culture. Should art reflect the most characteristic
aspects of a culture, or strive to raise the level of culture?

FIGURE 23.16 Roy Lichtenstein, Drowning Girl, 1963, oil

and synthetic polymer paint on canvas, 5 ny x5 63" that the repetition of a sculptural statement, as in mass
(1.72 X 1.70 m), Museum of Modern Art, NY/Licensed by
manufacture, changes the meaning of the form.
SCALA-Art Resource, NY. Philip Johnson Fund and Gift of
Mr. and Mrs. Bagley Wright. Photograph © 2005 Museum of Donald Judd. Beginning in 1965, minimalist sculptor
Modern Art, NY. Lichtenstein recognized that, even though Donald Judd (b. 1928) created a series of uniform, modu-
his audience would laugh at a cartoon image such as this, they lar sheet-metal boxes that he called “Specific Objects.”
would identify with the image as well.
Judd cantilevered these boxes from the wall arranged in
equally spaced vertical columns or horizontal lines. With-
out reference to figure or landscape, the boxes insist on
and Dog (fig. 23.18) of 1964. Here are three women, a
themselves, so to speak. By the late 1960s, Judd presented
child, and a dog, perhaps out for a stroll. Two of the
boxes as freestanding floor pieces (fig. 23.19), made of cop-
women have multiple faces, suggesting that they are glanc-
per, brass, and stainless steel, often polished so as to re-
ing in all directions.
flect the surrounding space, each other, and the viewer.
Although essentially wooden sculpture, the wood is only
He also began to paint these pieces, especially their inte-
minimally carved; the block shapes are retained. The ef-
riors, with enamel or lacquer, and sometimes sealed them
fect depends less on carving than on painting with strong
on top and bottom with sheets of colored plexiglas. These
colors, the composition unified by the repetition of the
simple, pure geometric shapes with sleek surfaces achieve
pattern on a skirt and a blouse, the size changed and the
a certain elegance.
color scheme inverted.
Sol LeWitt. Also working in modular units, Sol LeWitt
Happenings. Allan Kaprow (b. 1927) believed Cage’s
(b. 1928) created cubic frameworks of white, baked enamel
work suggested a new “total art.” Kaprow’s vision sprang
from an “event” that Cage staged at Black Mountain Col-
lege in 1952, entitled Theater Piece #1, that combined
music, film, art, poetry, and dance. Kaprow envisaged “an
assemblage of events .. . [which] unlike a stage play, may
occur at a supermarket, driving along a highway, under a Style Artist Painting and Date
pile of rags, and in a friend’s kitchen, either at once or se-
quentially.” He called such a work a Happening. “It is Abstract
art,” he said, “but seems closer to life.” Expressionism Pollock Autumn Rhythm, 1950
de Kooning — Excavation, 1950
Rothko Red, Brown, and Black, 1958
MINIMAL AND CONCEPTUAL ART
Frankenthaler Mauve District, 1966
Cage’s minimalism also attracted sculptors, who saw prin- Pop Art Warhol Marilyn Diptych, 1962
ciples relevant to their work in it. First, they saw that a
Lichtenstein Drowning Girl, 1963
formal but minimal sculptural statement would be inter-
preted varyingly according to its situation; and, second, Op Art Riley Hesitate, 1964
 MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY AND LATER 615

FIGuRE 23.19 Donald Judd, Untitled, 1969, anodized alu-

minum and blue plexiglas, each of four units, 47+ x5 92 x
11 a (121 X 152 X 30cm), Missouri Art Museum. © Jack
Mitchell/St. Louis. Judd’s work may be thought of in terms of
existentialism, as a kind of “pure being,” but without existen-
tialism’s sense of moral imperative.

tational style of painting concerned with optics, the British

painter Bridget Riley (b. 1931) explained that she never
studied optics, relying instead on “empirical analyses and
syntheses.” Op Art is not emotional but intellectual, char-
FIGURE 23.18 Marisol [Escobar], Women and Dog, 1964,
acterized by meticulous patterns, precisely painted, fre-
plaster, synthetic polymer, wood, taxidermed dog head and
quently in brilliant contrasting colors or in black and white.
miscellaneous items, overall: 72 < 85 X 48” (182.9 x 215.9 x
121.9 cm). Whitney Museum of American Art, NY. Purchase,
Hesitate (fig. 23.22) is one of a group of black, gray, and
with funds from the Friends of the Whitney Museum of Amer- white paintings Riley created in 1964. Other titles in this
ican Art 64.17 a-g. © Marisol Escobar/Licensed by VAGA, series include Disturbance and Pause, suggesting deeper im-
NY. Pop Art artists treat ordinary, everyday aspects of life in plications. That the wavelike patterns appear to undulate
ways that may surprise, entertain, or even amuse the viewer— and pulsate, creating illusions of three dimensions on the
perhaps causing us to reconsider some things we tend to over- flat surface without using traditional methods of perspec-
look or take for granted. tive, Riley notes “is purely fortuitous.” Instead, she is con-
cerned with polarities such as “static and active, or fast and
slow,” explaining that “repetition, contrast, calculated re-
versal and counterpoint also parallel the basis of our emo-
beams arranged and repeated according to various mathe-
tional structure.”
matical formulas. Open Modular Cube (fig. 23.21), for in-
stance, appears quite straightforward. But over the course
Christo and Feanne-Claude. Large scale wrapping or
of a day, its shadows change and its appearance also changes
drapping places temporarily in fabric is the hallmark of
as the viewer moves around it; thus the appearance of Le-
the site-specific artists Christo (b. 1935) and Jeanne-
Witt’s apparently stable structure is constantly changing.
Claude (b. 1935), a husband and wife team.
For LeWitt, a work of art is “pure information,” and
Central Park Gates (fig. 23.23). installed in the park of
could exist simply as information rather than as an object.
this name in Manhattan for several weeks, consisted of a
That is, it could exist solely as a concept. LeWitt soon
series of large hanging banners of bright orange fabric,
started making verbal instructions for artworks rather than
carefully spaced and placed along the paths of the park,
making art itself. For a wall drawing, he might say, “Draw
delineating the curves and contours of the landscape. The
lines from the middle of the edge to a point in the center,
many visitors walked beneath the open tunnels thus cre-
in each of four colors, one color for each side,” and so on.
ated. Jean-Claude and Christo said that this was to be a
Then the drawing would be executed by whomever at
gift to the city of Manhattan, and indeed it was—people of
whatever site, each work different. all ages and ethnicities (as well as their pets) were brought
Bridget Riley. Although associated with Op Art (a short- together in the park to share the common experience this
ening of Optical Art), or retinal painting, a nonrepresen- environment created.
616 CHAPTER 23

RAUSCHENBERG, CAGE,
AND CUNNINGHAM

A t Black Mountain College, artist

L£\Robert Rauschenberg, composer
John Cage, and choreographer Merce
Cunningham began a series of collabo-
rations that lasted over three decades. At
their collaboration’s heart was a belief in,
as one critic described Rauschenberg’s
combine paintings, “an aesthetics of het-
erogeneity.” Together they trusted that,
in the chance encounter of diverse ma-
terials, moments of revelation will be
generated.
Both Cage and Rauschenberg were
willing to admit almost anything into
their work. So was Cunningham:
In classical ballet, the space was observed
in terms of the proscenium stage, it was FIGURE 23.20 Merce Cunningham, Swmmerspace, 1958.
frontal. What if, as in my pieces, you de- Dancers: Robert Kovich and Chris Komar. Cunningham tries
cide to make any point on the stage equally to devise dances in which so much is happening at once that
interesting? I used to be told that you see the effect is not unlike trying to watch all three rings of a cir-
the center of the space as the most impor- cus simultaneously.
tant: that was the center of interest. But in
many modern paintings this was not the case
and the sense of space was different. . . .
When I happened to read that sentence of
Albert Einstein’s: “There are no fixed Rauschenberg—for the decor—I said, players, and radio receivers containing
points in space,” I thought, indeed, if there ‘One thing I can tell you about this dance sounds “composed” by Cage. A member
are no fixed points, then every point is is that it has no center . . .” So he made a of Cunningham’s dance company, Gor-
equally interesting and equally changing.’
pointillist backdrop and costumes.” In don Mumma, describes the result as “a
An example of such a dance is the another piece, Variations V, the dancer superbly poly: -chromatic, -genic,
1958 Summerspace (fig. 23.20), with sets triggers sensors, which in turn trigger an -phonic, -morphic, -pagic, -technic,
by Rauschenberg. “When I spoke to Bob “orchestra” of tape recorders, record -valent, multi-ringed circus.”

a eT po A ccs a ne Saal ee Stati I a NS

The works of Christo and Jean-Claude are funded mechanical parts—usually hidden from view—have been
through the sales of their prints and preparatory drawings. oversized, put on the outside of the building, and painted
To create a work such as this requires the cooperation of bright colors according to their function: red for verti-
lawyers, government organizations, environmentalists, and cal transportation; green for water; yellow for electric-
many more—including the team of actual workers who ity; white for ventilation, and blue for air conditioning.
were largely volunteers. Christo and Jean-Claude consider The escalator looks like a huge caterpillar inching its
these procedural obstacles to be part of their controversial way along the facade. The Pompidou Center empha-
installations. sizes the ordinary, the everyday, the commonplace—
much like Pop Art.
Likewise, in his book Learning from Las Vegas, the ar-
ARCHITECTURE
chitect Robert Venturi suggests the collision of styles, signs,
Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano. Intentionally ex- and symbols that marks the American commercial strip can
traordinary, the Pompidou Center in Paris, built be seen as composing a new sort of unity. On the strip, any-
1971-77 by Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano (fig. thing goes, unlike traditional architectural practice, in
23.24), is a famous—or infamous—example of modern which the architect harmonizes the building with its envi-
architecture. In essence, a building turned inside out, its ronment.
 MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY AND LATER 617

FIGURE 23.23 Christo and Jean-Claude, Central Park Gates,

temporary installation, Central Park, New York City, NY,
2005. The artists “environmental art,” which has included
wrapping large buildings such as the Reicshstag in Berlin and
the Pont Neuf in Paris, is intentionally both grand in scale and
transitory, and often involves vast lengths of brightly colored
fabric. The creation of a work such as the Central Park Gates
requires the organization and cooperation of many people, the
result being an event available to large numbers of visitors.
FIGURE 23.21 Sol LeWitt, Open Modular Cube, 1966.
Painted almminunmny 5°30 5X "5"(152 « 1:52 * 1.52 m). Art
Gallery of Ontario, Toronto. © 2005 ARS, NY. The simplest
geometric shape, the square, is repeated countless times, creat- Frank Gehry. No architect’s work epitomizes pop cul-
ing a complex composition comparable to a monochromatic ture’s collision of styles more than that of Frank Gehry
Mondrian (see fig. 21.27) in three dimensions. (b. 1929). His own home, in Santa Monica, California,
which he purchased and began to remodel in 1976, is a
conscious version of Venturi’ principles (fig. 23.25). Bored
FIGURE 23.22 Bridget Riley, Hesitate, 1964, emulsion on
with the typical 1940s two-story frame house he had pur-
board, 432 x ao (1.07 X 1.12 m), © Tate Gallery,
London/Art Resource, NY. Tricking the eye, Op Art plays with chased, but unable to afford anything more, Gehry de-
the optical mechanics of human visual perception, the patterns cided to surround the original with a new one, making the
appearing to vibrate and vacillate forward and backward. Riley division between old and new visually clear. His building
said this effect was ancillary to her intentions, for she wanted materials—plywood, concrete blocks, corrugated metal,
the entire painting to be seen as a “field” rather than in individ- and chainlink fence—are the everyday materials of popu-
ual parts, and compared it to painting a landscape. lar culture. Needing a new kitchen, he built it at ground
level, outside the original house’s dining room on an as-
4
phalt pad (fig. 23.26). The new design included a long cor-
ee rugated metal side that faced the street and offended his
= *
neighbors, but Gehry did not want his house to fit in. It an-
nounced that Gehry was different, and that difference was,
100¢
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prosperity as leading to conformity, complacency, and op-
pression. Theirs was the first in a series of critiques of

a‘eeeee America after World War II, critiques that would surface
6€@e@@0 again in the civil rights and anti-Vietnam War movements
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6 @ © Jack Kerouac. For Jack Kerouac (1922-69), the Beats

were a resurgence of the lost American type, the “wild
618 CHAPTER 23

self-believing” who had founded the country. In On the

Road, written in 1951 and published in 1957, Kerouac rein-
vents the American archetype of the frontiersman and
cowboy, as his narrator, Sal Paradise, a “wild yea-saying
overburst of American joy,” seeks to escape the confines of
American civilization in Denver’s skid row and Cheyenne,
Wyoming’s Wild West Week.
Kerouac wrote in “spontaneous prose,” as he called it,
with roots in the automatic writing of Surrealism and the
expressive gesture of the Abstract Expressionist painters.
The poet Allen Ginsberg described Kerouac’s prose as
“completely personal, [that] comes from the writer’s own
person—his person defined as his body, his breathing
rhythm, his actual talk.”

Allen Ginsberg. ‘This style is, essentially, the style of

Allen Ginsberg (1926-97) himself. His long poem How/
FIGURE 23.24 Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano, Center (1956)—of which the first section and part of the third
National d’Art et Culture Georges Pompidou, Paris, 1971-77. were drafted in one day in August 1955, in San Francisco,
Musée National d’Art Moderne. Reunion des Musées Na-
the rest following shortly after—is indeed a rush of lan-
tionaux/Art Resource, NY. The novelty of this museum of
guage, as its title suggests. It is an outcry against a system
modern art is that the mundane mechanical parts are made the
focal point, emphasized by their size, colors, and, above all,
that turns individuals into abstractions, an outcry against
their location on the exterior rather than hidden within the a world in which parents turn their children over to the
walls in the usual manner. This glorification of the ordinary is ancient god Moloch (a figure standing for American cul-
the architectural equivalent of Pop Art.

FIGURE 23.25 Frank Gehry, Gehry house, Santa Monica, 1977-78. Gehry’s house repre-
sents the consciously assembled style of past and present elements that has come to distinguish
what is known as postmodern architecture.
 MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY AND LATER 619

Then & Now

THE MOVIES PAST AND PRESENT for the Tramp figure, who with his tinues to desire the very material posses-
bowler hat, baggy pants, floppy shoes, sions that have corrupted others.
n the early twentieth century, the first and cane, was the supreme social out- Like the great films of the silent era,
films made were silent. The charac- sider. In The Tramp, Chaplin’s character the movies of today continue to use so-
ters’ speech was not heard; instead, music saves a beautiful woman and her father phisticated cinematic techniques to tell
accompanied the action. Among the from danger. But instead of being re- stories, portray human relationships, and
most important of early filmmakers was warded by them, he is ousted when her offer perspectives on social issues. Like
David Ward Griffith (1875-1948). Like handsome boyfriend returns. The film the silent films of Griffith and Chaplin,
the Russian director Sergei Eisenstein, ends with Chaplin’s signature conclusion: today’s movies are designed to entertain
Griffith believed that editing held the The Tramp, clearly disappointed, re- audiences and to make money. Like the
key to cinematography. In 1915, Griffith turning to the road, walking slowly, his older films, those of today provide op-
produced his first full-length film, The back to the camera, then jumping up and portunities for audiences to escape into
Birth of a Nation, which offered a ro- clicking his heels together before walk- imagined worlds, such as the fantasy
manticized view of the antebellum South ing briskly away. world of the Lord of the Rings movies.
and the struggle of white Southerners to The silent film Chaplin wished to be And like older films, today’s connect with
survive the devastating effects of the remembered for was The Gold Rush viewers’ everyday experience to stimu-
Civil War. Griffith employed a full range (1925). In its most famous scene, Chap- late laughter, arouse emotion, awaken
of cinematic techniques to create sus- lin’s Tramp character is starving and moral sensibility, and prompt reflection.
pense and human interest, including cooks his shoe, roasting and carving it as Other connections between the films
close-ups, cross-cuts, tracking, and if it were a delectable piece of meat, and of the past and those of the present in-
panoramic shots, along with scenes of sucking the nails in its sole as if they were volve their emphasis on star actors and
fast-paced suspenseful action, including small chicken bones. He even twirls the celebrity directors, whose association
just-in-time rescues. shoelaces like spaghetti. The Gold Rush with a film guarantee high production
Another master filmmaker and actor presents a social view that both cele- costs, large marketing campaigns, exten-
of the silent era was Charlie Chaplin brates and criticizes money and material sive distribution, and a variety of mer-
(1889-1977). Chaplin became famous success, suggesting that the Tramp con- chandising tie-ins.

FIGURE 23.26 Axonometric drawing of the Gehry house. ture as a whole), who consumes them. Dedicated to Carl
Solomon, a patient in a mental hospital in New York—
and in Ginsberg’s mind, a sort of political prisoner—the
poem is a celebration of madness. Madness, for Ginsberg,
is a sign of salvation, a sign of rebellion against the all-
consuming American Moloch. By rejecting reason, and
accepting the innate rhythms of the body itself, How/ seeks
to transcend the constrictions of civilization.

THE POPULARIZATION OF CLASSICAL MUSIC

The Boston Pops. In the 1950s and 1960s, in a culture
defined by the consumer, music too responded to the de-
mands of a popular audience. The Boston Pops Orchestra,
led by Arthur Fiedler (1894-1979), became a national in-
stitution, famous for its concerts of folk tunes, marches
such as John Philip Sousa’s “Stars and Stripes Forever,”
and classical hits such as George Gershwin’s Rhapsody in
Blue. Bridging the gap between popular song and classical
repertoire, the pops served as “the door through which
young people enter into the magic domain of musical com-
prehension,” as one critic put it.
620 CHAPTER 23

Critical Thinking
THE POPULARITY and John Lennon, who also wrote most veyed? To what extent was it their mu-
OF THE BEATLES of the group’s songs. Each of the four sicianship, their originality, and their
had a distinct personality and an indi- unique sound? To what extent was their
uring the 1960s, a rock group from vidual musical identity, yet they blended popularity attributable to the musical in-
Britain took that country and then into a cohesive and wonderfully identifi- novations they introduced, such as the
the United States by storm. The Beatles able group identity unlike any before in “concept album,” in which all the songs
began their musical journey in Liver- the realm of pop/rock music. on a disk were related to an overarching
pool, a working class city, playing locally But what was it that made the Beat- topical theme? To what extent was their
there before receiving acclaim in Lon- les the phenomenon they became? What success a function of the times in which
don and throughout England. The elements combined to make them the they rose to fame—an era when teenage
Beatles included four musicians, the premier pop combo of their generation girls went wild over young rock stars?
drummer Ringo Starr, the accomplished not only in England and the United And why is it that the Beatles continue
guitarist George Harrison, and the lead States, but beyond? To what extent was to remain popular today—in Britain, the
singers and guitarists Paul McCartney it the personas they created and pur- United States, and Europe?

Musical Theater Like opera in the nineteenth century, Romeo and Fuliet Fantasy Overture was also inspired by Shake-
musical theater became a popular form in the mid twen- speare’s play, Bernstein writes music that is both lyrical and
tieth century. Despite the new tonalities, experimentation dramatic. Songs like “Maria,” a lyrical love song, intermin-
with rhythms and forms, and a dissonant harmony ex- gle with Latin-inspired pieces such as “America” and
pressing the “age of anxiety” in classical composition, the “Tonight,” set in quasi-operatic style for four voices.
music-listening public gravitated to this lighter type of
Andrew Lloyd Weber. One of the most successful of con-
musical entertainment. Unlike opera, not all words are
temporary composers for the musical theater has been An-
sung in musical theater; music is interspersed between spo-
drew Lloyd Weber (b. 1948), who is responsible for many
ken dialogue. The mood of musicals is usually uplifting
hit shows produced in England and the United States.
and the songs singable and memorable.
Among them are Joseph and His Amazing Technicolor Dream-
During the early part of the century, Victor Herbert
coat (1968), based on the story of Joseph and his brothers
and George M. Cohan wrote musicals about the war to
in the biblical book of Genesis; Fesus Christ Superstar (1970),
entertain a popular audience. By the end of World War
a rock opera based on the last seven days ofJesus's life; Evita
II, Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein had capti-
(1976), based on the life of Eva Peron, wife of an Argen-
vated audiences with Carousel and Oklahoma. By the early
tinian dictator; Cats (1981), based on poetry by T. S. Eliot;
1950s, Broadway had become the center of popular the-
and Phantom of the Opera (1986), based on a 1911 French
atrical music in America. With the production of West Side
novel by Gaston Leroux. Half of his sixteen musicals have
Story by Leonard Bernstein in the late 1950s (see descrip-
been made into films, including Cats, Evita, and Phantom of
tion next) the musical had matured to more complex har-
the Opera. Translated into nearly a dozen languages, Cats has
monies and rhythms with libretti that were more
psychological and darker than before. played in more than twenty countries and over 250 cities,
and Phantom has been seen by more than eighty million
Leonard Bernstein. Successful at both popularizing clas- people in over two dozen countries, recently surpassing
sical music and classicizing popular music, Leonard Bern- Cats in number of performances.
stein (1918-90) was a composer, conductor, pianist, and Songs from his musicals have become famous world-
mentor. His lecture demonstrations with the New York wide, especially “Memory,” from Cats, “The Music of the
Philharmonic Orchestra introduced a generation of chil- Night,” from Phantom of the Opera, and “Don’t Cry for
dren to the world of classical music and were later pub- Me, Argentina,” from Evita. He also has the distinction of
lished as the Young People’s Guide to the Orchestra. having been knighted by the Queen of England, and of
Bernstein’s genius for composing popular and classical having composed a Requiem mass, a classical work, one
music sets him apart. He is best known for his works for the of whose songs, “Pie Jesu,” became a popular success.
musical theater: Candide (1956) and, especially, West Side
Story (1957), a version of Romeo and Juliet, in a contempo-
rary setting with intercultural tensions. Bernstein transforms LATE MODERN MUSIC
Shakespeare’s warring Capulet and Montague families into Music in the late twentieth century was influenced by the
two rival gangs from New York City’s Spanish Harlem, the thinking of John Cage and others, who believed experi-
Jets and the Hispanic Sharks. Like Tchaikovsky, whose mentation was the key to finding a “new voice.” While
 MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY AND LATER 621

elite groups tended to follow and promoted this avant- rhythm and blues, rock music began as a separate form in
garde music, the general pubblic rejected much of this ex- the 1950s and has evolved into a wide variety of subtypes.
perimentation. The early rock of Elvis Presley and Chuck Berry appealed
Returning to tonal composition, composers such as to the yearnings of the American teen. With the 1960s
Philip Glass and Steven Reich simplified their sound by British bands such as the Beatles, rock music began to have
minimalizing melody, rhythm, and form. Played in sim- international stature. Folk rock, and later psychedelic rock,
ple sequences with much repetition most minimalistic experimented with timbres and lyrics to make antiestab-
music is written for the synthesizer, a machine that can lishment political statements following the mood of the
replicate the tones of almost all instruments. Blending country. Jazz and Latin American music influenced dance
sounds of Western and Eastern music traditions, Glass’s music of the 1970s as well as reggae, punk rock, and
music draws the listener into a soothing state and opens the rhythm and blues. The “selling of America” via advances
mind at a meditative level. Phillip Glass has also produced in audiovisual technology led to a worldwide explosion on
operas such as Einstein on the Beach and Akhenaten, and the pop rock scene in the 1980s with the advent of CDs
popular music for theater, dance, and movies. and MTV.
Alternative rock bands rebelled against society with
music that explored social and sexual taboos, and subcul-
ROCK AND ROLL tures of heavy metal, rap, and world music gained popu-
Sometimes rock and roll music seems to be the very cen- larity in the 1990s rock scene.
ter of American culture. With roots in African-American

Cultural Impact
he social developments and cultural white films were superseded by those in One legacy of the collaborations be-
impulses that emerged at the be- color; and today computer animated tween composers and dancers working
ginning of the century continued. Auto- backgrounds and characters replace real together in ballet and film was the
mobilies, developed at the start of the places and actors; often, animated and Broadway musical, a distinctively Amer-
century, fundamentally changed trans- real materials are combined side by side. ican form of entertainment. Musicals,
portation, and the assembly line on In music and art no single dominant along with films, provide a staple of con-
which they were built revolutionized the style or trend has dominated. Later mod- temporary entertainment, with such
organization of work, warfare, and con- ernism has expanded the approaches of long-running shows as Cats, Les Miser-
sumption. Cinema, a development of early modernism. Contemporary artists, ables, The Phantom of the Opera, Okla-
photography emerged early in the cen- in all media, benefit from the broadening homa, Beauty and the Beast, and The Lion
tury, and continued to be refined by im- of perspective and the artistic possibili- King on stages in the United States and
provements in technology. Early silent ties opened up by the modernists. around the world.
films gave way to talkies; black-and-

KEY TERMS
; i assemblage minimalism
existentialism color field Pop are 8 Op Art
abstract expressionism oral contraceptive He ppenas Beat
action painting mobiles

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

http://www.tameri.com/csw/exist/
(An excellent site on existentialism with all the major philosophers and many links.)
http: //www.bauhaus.de/english/bauhaus1919/architektur/
(In 1919, the Bauhaus manifesto proclaims that the ultimate aim of all creative activity is a
building.)
http://www.witcombe.sbc.edu/ARTHLinks. html
(Art history resources on the Web by Chris Witcombe.)
 CHAPTER 24

a HISTORY
od 954 Brown v. Board of Education
1965 Major buildup of U.S. troops in Vietnam z women have fo be naked t o
‘ 1966 —- National Organization for Women founded get into the Met. Museu
The Pill (oral contraceptive) becomes available in the United States
1989Berlin Wall dismantled
es .1991 Communism in the USSR collapses

; : : si rs ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE

a a my Chicago, The Dinner Party
1982 Lin, Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial
y 1982 Basquiat, Charles the First
i = 1991 Smith, Paper Dolls for a Post-Columbian World
Poh Fifield, Ghost Dancers Ascending
: 1809: Mori, Dream Temple
_ Fat LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY
a Lote 60s Barthes, structuralism
Derrida, deconstruction
1963 Friedan, The Feminine Mystique
1969 Momaday, The Way to Rainy Mountain
Morrison, The Bluest Eye
1976 Kingston, The Woman Warrior
1994 Cisneros, House on Mango Street
 Diversity
in Contemporary Life ieconeen
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aaccrsemer

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RNS
ER
RARDIN
REIS
EYSC
IR
FT

Judy Chicago, The Dinner Party, 1979, mixed media, 48’ x 42’ x 38’ installed. © Collection of
the Booklyn Museum of Art, Gift of Elizabeth A. Sackler Foundation. Photograph © Donald
Woodman/Through the Flower.

PERLE
RISES
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623
 [9] Founder members of the
United Nations, 1945
[Joined 1946 - 1959
GB Joined 1960 - 1989 0 1000 2000 Miles
(289 Joined 1990 or later
0 1000 2000 Kilometers

HB Non-member

Map 24.1 World membership of the United Nations.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

DIVERSITY IN THE UNITED STATES

Women artists rise to prominence
The Internet connects the world

THE GLOBAL VILLAGE

Technology reaches out to all the ends of the earth, bringing humanity together

DIVERSITY IN THE UNITED and a subject of argument. Postmodernism focuses on the

period between approximately 1960 (essentially post Pop
STATES Art) and the 1990s, and on the changes that occurred in
OUGHOUT THE 1960s AND INTO THE 1970s, Amer- politics, philosophy, art, and architecture.
ican society underwent a profound shift in attitude. Postmodernism is skeptical, even critical. In its quest for
As a result of the civil rights movement, the Vietnam the nontraditional, it is anti-convention, anti-authority, and
War, and the women’s movement, Americans examined and anti-establishment. Yet it is far from an organized, consis-
questioned long-held customs and values. The quest for rights tent, or even definable style; instead, postmodernism refers
for African Americans and for women, especially, caused an to many different ways of questioning tradition. Postmod-
increased awareness of the meaning and power of diversity. ern artists turned away from pure abstraction toward a more
conceptual art that often dealt with socially conscious issues.
POSTMODERNISM Aspects of “postmodernism” are found in “modernism”—
as in Dada and Surrealism—and in other earlier styles.
Although the term postmodernism is intended to repre- Semiotics, the study of signs and symbols, which began
sent a break from, or rejection of, the preceding mod- in the earlier twentieth century, was used as a postmod-
ernists (the avant-garde), the term’s meaning is imprecise ernist philosophy to propound a relativist philosophy de-

624
 DIVERSITY IN CONTEMPORARY LIFE 625

rived from the structuralist’s theorie of language. Post-

modernists point out that our view of reality is molded by
the ways in which information about reality comes to us—
for example, via commercial media. This is the key break
from the modernist tradition of belief in absolutes. Post-
modernists skeptically question the mode of transmission
and the place of reception before they accept the message.
According to postmodernists, a work of art is actually the
work of many people: Nothing an artist creates can be
truly original, because it is based on those countless rep-
resentations the artist has seen. Postmodernism encour-
ages us to look at ways in which the meaning of symbols
or signs, which consist of concepts (the “signified”) and
their sound images (the “signifiers”), changes depending
on context, to determine (“deconstruct”) the manner in
which meaning is constructed. Deconstructionism re-
jects universals. Readers are free to interpret an author's
words in their own way. Deconstructionists prefer written
words to spoken words, intentionally seeking the obscure
and complex rather than the obvious and logical.

PAINTING AND SCULPTURE

Diverse visions have had a considerable impact in art. The
single most important development in the art world in re-
cent decades has been the rise to prominence of visions
previously excluded from the mainstream. This has been,
in part, a function of the art world’s quest for innovative ap-
proaches to experience, but it is also true that the art world
has become increasingly willing to acknowledge the “out-
sider’s” point of view.
FIGurE 24.1 Cindy Sherman, Untitled Film Still #35, 1979,
The photographer Cindy Sherman (b. 1954) creates a
black-and-white photograph. In this version of herself, Sher-
fictional persona in order to investigate different aspects of man takes on the appearance of Sophia Loren playing the part
the self. Beginning in the late 1970s, Sherman pho- of a bedraggled Italian housewife. In other words, Sherman
tographed herself in a variety of self-portraits called depicts a media image, not a real person.
Untitled Film Stills (fig. 24.1). In each, Sherman wears a
different costume, makes herself up to look a different part,
stages herself, and announces, in effect, that the “self” is a
taposition of images (recalling Dada in this regard) leaves
fictionalized construction. We are whoever we choose to
their meaning unclear. David Salle created similar amal-
look like. And what we choose to look like, is one or an-
gamations of disparate imagery and media, intentionally
other of a series of media images. Her work undermines
seeking to challenge established assumptions about art.
the very idea of an “authentic” personality behind our
The long-standing dominance of white upper-class
repertoire of selves.
males in the fine arts was questioned by Andreas Huyssen.
Similarly critical of modernism’s quest for individual
Instead, he suggested that art should be more inclusive
innovation, Sherrie Levine “appropriated” (i.e., copied) a
and comprehensive, based on identities, of which he de-
photo taken by Walker Evans and claimed it as her own fined four: national, sexual, environmental, and ethnic
work of art by giving it the title After Walker Evans, thereby
(non-Western). Art that focuses on these identities has tra-
both questioning and mocking art’s traditional adulation of
ditionally been considered lesser, lower, popular art—not
originality as, instead, an assertion of the ego.
fine art. These identities are relevant to postmodernism,
Other artists emphasized the reuse of images. Julian
which frequently deals with political, social, and gender
Schnabel’s large-scale work of the early 1980s incorpo-
issues and activism—such as feminism.
rated incongruent images taken from other forms of rep-
resentation—from film, photography, even religious Judy Chicago. ‘The feminist artist Judy Chicago (b. 1939,
imagery. By putting the old into a new context created for Judy Gerowitz), working with many other women, cre-
these eclectic images, the unexpected and unfamiliar jux- ated The Dinner Party, 1974-79 (fig. 24.2), a history of
626 CHAPTER 24

FIGURE 24.2 Judy Chicago, The Dinner Party, 1979, mixed media, 48’ x 48’ X 48’, (14.63 X
14.63 X 14.63 m), installed. Brooklyn Museum of Art, NY. Gift of the Elizabeth A. Sackler Foun-
dation. Photograph © Donald Woodman/Through the Flower. This visually striking large-scale
postmodern work is a monument to the myriad accomplishments of women through the ages.

women’s accomplishments. Each place setting at a trian- have been brought together. . . The Dinner Party . . . pro-
gular table represents a specific woman, from prehistoric poses that the sum of the lesser arts is great art.”
and ancient Minoan goddesses to the modern novelist Vir-
ginia Woolf and the painter Georgia O’Keeffe. The thirty- Guerrilla Girls. ‘The impact of women on the art world
nine place settings are arranged with thirteen on each side, has increased significantly in recent years. In 1970-71,
recalling depictions of Jesus’s Last Supper. The names of only 13.5 percent of the artists exhibiting in New York
999 additional women are written on the table’s runner. were women. In the 1970s, only 10 percent of the shows
The Dinner Party took what had routinely been dis- devoted to living artists were one-person exhibitions by
missed as woman’s domain and transformed it into a mon- women. In 1982, the Coalition of Women’s Art Organi-
umental sculpture that brought public attention to zations reported that only 2 percent of museum exhibi-
women’s art. Carrie Richey wrote in Artforum magazine tions by living artists were devoted to women. This
in 1981 that The Dinner Party “is a glossary of the so-called imbalance was the focus of a socially active group of
‘lesser arts’—tatting, lace[making], weaving, making ce- women known as the Guerrilla Girls, their identity hidden
ramic household vessels, embroidering. . . . All these crafts by their gorilla masks. Beginning in 1985, they plastered
 DIVERSITY IN CONTEMPORARY LIFE 627

Do women have to be naked to

get into the Met. Museum?
Ble than 5% of the artists in the Modern
Art Sections are women, but 85% |
of the nucles are female.
t
Guerriia
Ginis 228s SNe
Bex SSC: oo =

FIGURE 24.3 Guerrilla Girls, Do Women Have to be Naked to

Get into the Met. Museum?, 1989, poster, 11 X 28” (27.9 x
71.1 cm), private collection. The Guerrilla Girls’ posters
document an art scene that was, as late as the mid-1980s,
still dominated by men, where women were either excluded
or underacknowledged. FIGURE 24.5 Susan Rothenberg, Axes, 1976, synthetic polymer
paint and gesso on canvas, 5’ 42eS: gin (1.64 X 2.66 m),
Museum of Modern Art, NY. ae Resources NY/Licensed by
SCALA-Art Resource, NY. © 2005 Artists Rights Society, NY.
New York City with posters (fig. 24.3), publicly question- In this Neo-Expressionist work, form is suggested rather than
ing the inequity with which women are represented, ex- specified, hinted at rather than defined. The perfect balance
hibited, and funded in the arts. within the rectangle of the canvas is based upon the horse’s
implied movement to the left.
Eleanor Antin. Women artists have increasingly turned
to new media, especially performance art. One innovator
stark and ghostly, a hallucination, an apparition, a dream.
in performance art is Eleanor Antin (b. 1935), who has de-
Both primal and sophisticated, Rothenberg’s work is char-
veloped a series of characters, including Eleanora Anti-
acterized by rough strokes from which forms emerge, as if
nova, a fictional black ballerina in Diaghilev’s Ballets
through a heavy fog. In Aves, the axis of the center of the
Russes. By playing Antinova, Antin freed herself to inves-
canvas and the axis of the horse’s body are not aligned, an
tigate hidden aspects of her own situation. A drawing from
imbalance animates the canvas.
her memoir, Being Antinova (fig. 24.4), shows how removed
Antinova is from the traditional Western ballet world. Not Betye Saar. Artist Betye Saar (b. 1926) created the Pop
only is Antinova black, but her own sense of physical free- Art-like construction entitled The Liberation of Aunt
dom contradicts the regimen and routine of ballet. Imag- Jemima (fig. 24.6) in 1972. Saar’s image “converts a pop-
ine, she points out, a black ballerina in Swan Lake. The ular” conception of the African-American “mammy”—the
world of ballet is, in her words, a “white machine.” smiling Aunt Jemima of pancake and syrup fame. As Aunt
Jemima takes up arms, raising the fist of black power over
Susan Rothenberg. Among the many women painters
the scene, the white baby is not merely unhappy, but ter-
who have achieved a place in American painting since the
rified. “Mammy’s” politics are revealed; this advertising
early 1980s is Susan Rothenberg (b. 1945), who works in
image, once servant and slave, takes matters into her own
New Mexico. Rothenberg achieved success early with her
hands. The painting announces the necessity—the actual-
first exhibition in New York in 1976. It is for her images
ity—of change for the African American.
of horses, such as Axes (fig. 24.5), painted in 1976, that she
is best known. In this painting a lone animal is moving, Jean-Michel Basquiat. As a teenager in New York,
Jean-Michel Basquiat (1960-88) achieved notoriety as
“Samo,” a graffiti artist writing on walls in Soho and
Tribeca. By early 1981, gallery owners in New York,
FiGurE 24.4 Eleanor Antin, drawing from Being Antinova,
Zurich, and Milan had convinced him to apply his graf-
1983. Courtesy Ronald Feldman Fine Arts. NY. The physical
freedom expressed by Antinova in this drawing differentiates fiti to canvas, and he soon became an art world media dar-
her from other dancers in the troupe. ling. The value of his paintings rose with meteoric speed.
By the time he was twenty-three years old, his work had
already sold at auction for $19,000. Basquiat, the son of
z a] p Bo HO o :
4 > ely a middle-class Haitian-born accountant and his Puerto
i Ars ‘|hh at Rican wife, possessed an authenticity—raw, direct, un-

iaay
i as
>
> mediated by tradition.
In Charles the First (fig. 24.7), Basquiat’s homage to jazz
a
AS saxophonist Charlie Parker, the immediacy of Basquiat’s
style is in his “mistakes.” As one of Basquiat’s heroes,
Parker is a king—hence the painting’s title, the crown, and
628 CHAPTER 24

z 5 i Hs

FIGURE 24.7 Jean-Michel Basquiat, Charles the First, 1982,

FIGURE 24.6 Betye Saar, The Liberation of Aunt Jemima, acrylic and oilstick on canvas, triptych, 6'6” x 5'2 = (1.98 x
1972, mixed media, 113 x 8 X 23" (29.8 X 20.3 x 6.9 cm), 1.58 m), Robert Miller Gallery, New York. © 2005 Artists
University Art Museum, University of California, Berkeley. Rights Society (ARS), NY. © The Estate of Jean-Michel
Saar’s image not only attacks racism but sexism as well, and the Basquiat. The “X” crossing out elements in Basquiat’s work is
expectations of the dominant culture. never entirely negative. In a book on symbols, Basquiat discov-
ered a section on “Hobo Signs,” marks left, like graffiti, by
hobos to inform their brethren about the locality. In this
graphic language, an “X” means “O.K. All right.”

the word “Thor” (the god of Norwegian myth). At the

bottom is Basquiat’s admonition to kings; the word
she directed herself. Since then she has continued to spon-
“young” is crossed out. Parker’s fall from grace is every-
sor and direct murals through SPARC, the Social and Pub-
where in the painting: in the drips that fall from the blue
lic Art Resource Center, which she founded. The Great
field in the middle of the painting and in the way that,
Wall of Los Angeles, begun in 1976, is her most ambitious
above the word “Cherokee” (the name of one of Parker’s
project. Nearly a mile long, it is located in the Tujunga
most important compositions), one of the feathers (Parker
Wash of the Los Angeles river, which was entirely lined
was known as “Bird”) falls into a dollar sign.
in concrete as Los Angeles grew. This concrete conduit is,
Much of Basquiat’s art protests against the exploitation
says Baca, “a giant scar across the land which served to
of black heroes—Sugar Ray Robinson, Hank Aaron, Cas-
further divide an already divided city. . . . Just as young
sius Clay, Dizzy Gillespie, and Louis Armstrong. Basquiat
Chicanos tattoo battle scars on their bodies, Great Wall of
identified with them, as if he knew his own meteoric rise
Los Angeles is a tattoo on a scar where the river once ran.”
would end in tragedy. He died, age twenty-seven, of a drug
The wall narrates a history of Los Angeles not told in text-
overdose.
books. It recounts the history of indigenous peoples, im-
Judith F. Baca. The mural painting of Chicana artist Ju- migrant minorities—Portuguese, Chinese, Japanese,
dith F. Baca (b. 1948) asserts its independence from tradi- Korean, and Basque, as well as Chicano—and of women
tional approaches to painting, even as it recovers and from prehistory to the present. The detail reproduced here
revitalizes the Mexican mural tradition of “Los Tres (fig. 24.8) depicts how four freeways intersected the East
Grandes”—Rivera, Orozco, and Siquieros (see Chapter 22). Los Angeles Chicano communities, dividing them, weak-
In 1974, Baca inaugurated the Citywide Mural Project ening them, and turning them against each other. To the
in Los Angeles, which completed 250 murals, 150 of which right a Mexican woman protests the building of Dodger
 DIVERSITY IN CONTEMPORARY LIFE 629

FIGURE 24.8 Judith F. Baca, Great Wall ofLos Angeles (detail: Division of the Barrios and
Chavez Ravine), Tujunga Wash, Los Angeles, California, 1976—continuing, mural, height
13’ (3.96 m) (whole mural over a mile long). Photo © SPARC, Venice, CA. The collaborative
process of making murals is, in Baca’s words, “the transforming of pain... rage... and
shame.”

Stadium, which displaced a Mexican community in Chavez

Ravine. FIGURE 24.9 Lisa Fifield, Ghost Dancers Ascending, 1995,
Baca worked on the Great Wall project as director and watercolor on paper, 30 X 22"' (76.2 X 55.9 cm), private
collection. Fifield depicts the spirits rising above the earth
facilitator, but nearly four hundred inner-city youths, many
at Wounded Knee, their powerful colors and effortless float-
from the juvenile justice system, did the actual painting ing making them seem to transcend their tragic deaths.
and design. Rival gang members, of different races and
from different neighborhoods, representing a divided city,
found themselves working on the project together. For
Baca, the collaborative mural process heals wounds, brings
people together, and helps recreate communities for, as
she said, “Collaboration is a requirement.”
Lisa Fifield. Lisa Fifield (b. 1957), of Iroquois-Oneida
descent, portrays the traditions and beliefs of Native Amer-
ican peoples. Fifield painted a series of canvases based on
the slaughter at Wounded Knee, by the U. S. Army, of
Native American men, women, and children. One such
painting Ghost Dancers Ascending (fig. 24.9), depicts the
spirits of the dead rising above the earth. The Plains In-
dians developed the Ghost Dance in the 1890s after they
had lost their ancestral lands and been relegated to reser-
vations. They danced for the return of warriors, for the
return of the bison, and for the reestablishment of their
former way of life. In the painting, the attire worn by the
figures is based on that worn by those killed at Wounded
Knee, clothing they mistakenly believed could not be
pierced by bullets. With reverential spirit, Fifield depicts
their spirits transcending the material fact of death in vi-
brant primary colors.
Maya Lin and the Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial. ‘The
Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial in Washington, D.C. (fig.
24.10) was constructed and dedicated in 1982. Funded
by contributions from corporations, foundations, unions,
630 CHAPTER 24

ARRY EMacDONADD tht

DANNYJAY MCGRANE
i R
AMES GPATZWAL

HOHE
oHp| WL Be
maore AN

onc

granite, length 250’ (820.21 m). Known simply as “the Wall,” this memorial tribute to those
killed in the Vietnam War has become a national symbol of recognition and reconciliation.

veterans, civic organizations, and nearly three million in- Despite some dissenting voices at first, the Vietnam
dividuals, the memorial achieved the wishes of the foun- Veterans’ War Memorial has won national approval and
dation that established it, which was to begin a process of respect. Thousands visit the memorial every year. When
national reconciliation. looking at the names on the memorial’s granite slabs,
The memorial was designed by Maya Ying Lin which are polished to a mirrorlike sheen, viewers can see
(b. 1960), at the time a twenty-one-year-old graduate ar- themselves reflected in the wall’s surface. Visitors are
chitectural student at Yale University. Lin, an American
woman of Chinese descent, won a national competition
that included more than 1,400 design submissions. In- Table 24-1 CONTEMPORARY AMERICAN WOMAN
scribed on the surface of the memorial’s polished black ARTISTS
granite walls are the more than 58,000 names of service-
Betye Saar (b. 1926), The Liberation of Aunt Jemima
men and -women killed during the Vietnam War or miss-
ing in action. The wall is shaped like a giant V, whose Eleanor Antin (b. 1935), Being Antinova
vertex is set at an angle of approximately 125 degrees. The Judy Chicago (b. 1939), The Dinner Party
names of the casualties are listed beginning at one end of Susan Rothenberg (b. 1945), Axes
the wall in the chronological order of their deaths, en- Judith F. Baca (b. 1948), Great Wall of Los Angeles
compassing the span of U.S. involvement in the war. The Cindy Sherman (b. 1954), Untitled Film Still #35
wall provides each name an honored place in the nation’s
Lisa Fifield (b. 1957), Ghost Dancers Ascending
memory. As Maya Lin said about the design, “The names
would become the memorial.” Maya Lin (b. 1960), Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial
 DIVERSITY IN CONTEMPORARY LIFE 631

moved by the wall’s profound homage and sense that here STRUCTURALISM AND DECONSTRUCTION
healing can begin.
Beginning in the late 1960s, a number of French intellec-
Mariko Mori. ‘The Japanese multi-media installation tuals made the case for the plurality of experience and de-
artist Mariko Mori (1967— ) was born in Tokyo and lives veloped strategies for challenging accepted traditions. One
both there and in Manhattan. Similarly, her art consists of of these thinkers was Roland Barthes [BAR(t)] (1915-80),
contrasts: Aspects of the traditional religions of Buddhism whose early work was on “structural” linguistics, and
and Shintoism are combined with the most modern tech- whose approach to culture was thus called structuralism.
nology. She produces photographs, videos, and entire pro- At the heart of structural linguistics is an approach to
ductions, in which she often features herself dressed in “meaning” based on the notion of the plurality of the
extreme costumes. Entire production crews may be em- “sign.” The “sign” is the ratio between the so-called
ployed to stage these performances. signifier and the signified. For instance, the word “tree” is
Her Dream Temple (fig. 24.11), 1999, creates an envi- a signifier and a tree itself is the signified object. In French,
ronment unlike anything previously created by artists and the word for tree is arbre; in Swahili, it is ti. The signi-
is distant from Nature’s forms and materials. The visitor fier (the word) changes from language to language. In
can literally enter into Mori’s vision. The meaning of such addition, the signified encompasses all possible trees.
a work derives from a fusion of religion, philosophy, and The signified is so plural and various that, on contemp-
modern popular technology. lation, it seems astonishing that language enables us

FIGURE 24.11 Mariko Mori, Dream Temple, 1999, audio, metal, glass, glass fiber threads,
Vision Dome. 3-D semi-circular display, height 16’5’’ (5 m), diameter 32’ 10’’ (10 m). The
shape of this futuristic structure derives from an eighth-century temple, although here there
is no god. Mori’s work has been described as “Cyborg Surrealism.”
632 CHAPTER 24

to communicate meaningfully at all. What determines the girlhood. A second book, China Men (1980), is her father’s
particulars of the tree we are talking about when we say or book; it tells the stories of her male ancestors, including
write the word “tree” is the context of the tree. The pine her father and grandfathers, although she learned these
tree in the backyard is different from the oak tree in the male stories from women, mostly from her mother. Mix-
square. Context determines meaning. It follows then that ing fact and fiction, autobiography and legend, Kingston’s
when we consider any object, the object’s meaning is de- books combine family history with fictional invention.
termined not by its existence alone but by the situation in Kingston’s identity as a Chinese American woman and her
which we observe it. And this situation is always subject attempts to create images of her experience reveal her re-
to change. Thus “meaning” is never absolute. It is as di- lationship to her ancestral past.
verse as the situations in which it comes to exist. The stories Kingston recounts and invents in The
What is known as “poststructuralist” thought is an ap- Woman Warrior and in China Men derive from the Chi-
plication of this way of thinking, based on the assumption nese “talk story,” a Cantonese oral tradition kept alive
that speech—the meaning of which is never fully “deter- mainly by woman. The books’ talk-story narrators tell
mined”—can as easily mask reality as reveal it. The chief their stories in multiple versions, varying the amount of
practitioner of poststructuralist thought is the French detail each reveals. These stories contain silences that in-
philosopher JACQUES DERRIDA [dare-ree-DAH] vite the reader to engage in the imaginative world of the
(b. 1930). Derrida’s method, known as deconstruction, writer, who occasionally hints at her fictionalizing with
consists of taking apart received traditions on the as- cues such as “I wonder,” “perhaps,” and “may have.”
sumption that all thoughts include leaps in logic and in- By writing her mother’s stories and adding variants of
consistencies, the revelation of which tells us more about her own, Kingston marks the talk-story tradition with her
the thought than the thought itself does. That is, in phi- own distinctive imprint. In the process, these stories en-
losophy what is not said is at least as important as what is tertain readers outside the Chinese cultural tradition.
said. For Derrida, even the self is a fiction or construction, Kingston’s work appeals because she gives voice to things
built out of unexamined assumptions, and it, too, must be women had spoken only in private or not at all. She also
deconstructed for true understanding. In sum, in the post- transmits her Cantonese heritage. Kingston animates a
structuralist mind, there are no facts, only interpretations. world and constructs a self that are at once strange and fa-
Such a philosophical stance, which amounts to a profound miliar, both “other” and inherently recognizable.
skepticism, has led to a critical revision of much of West-
ern thought. Toni Morrison. ‘The 1996 Nobel Prize winner Toni
Morrison (b. 1931) writes novels that focus on the complex
balance between personal identity and social identity in
THE DIVERSITY OF AMERICAN VOICES African-American communities. Mixing feminist concerns
with racial and cultural issues, Morrison’s fiction explores
Adrienne Rich. Poet Adrienne Rich (b. 1929) is a pas- the cultural inheritance of African Americans facing hard-
sionate spokeswoman for feminist consciousness. Her ship and conflict through memory, relationships, and ac-
prose and poetry, rooted in radical feminist ideology, dram- tions.
atizes the freedom of self-discovery. At her best, Rich is In her first novel, The Bluest Eye (1969), Morrison ex-
less a polemicist and publicist than an artist who challenges plores what it is like to be of mixed—white and black—
preconceptions about women and their relationships to descent and thus light-skinned, capturing not only the hurt
men and to one another. of prejudices based on color but also the tragedy of un-
In “When We Dead Awaken: Writing as Re-Vision,” recognized beauty. In Sula (1973), she portrays the family
Rich describes how she needed to change the images that consequences of a woman achieving her own independ-
represented her ideals of both woman and poet, since her ence and freedom, and in Song ofSolomon (1977), she por-
images of both had been dominated by men. She explores trays a black man’s attempt to come to terms with his roots.
the concept of re-vision, which she calls “the act of look- The power of eroticism is the subject of Tar Baby (1981),
ing back, of seeing with fresh eyes,” as essential for writ- and Beloved (1987) explores the degrading effects of slav-
ers, and as essential for women living in a male-dominated ery. Although every book is embedded in pain, Morrison’s
society. Re-vision is “an act of survival.” work is about survival, and her urgency to write is her quest
to survive. “I think about what black writers do,” she has
Maxine Hong Kingston. One characteristic of contem-
said, “as having a quality of hunger and disturbance that
porary writing is the combination of elements from dif-
ferent genres. The autobiographical novel The Woman never ends.”
Warrior (1976), by Chinese American writer Maxine Hong judith Ortiz Cofer. From Puerto Rico, JUDITH
Kingston (b. 1940), has been described by the author as ORTIZ COFER [CO-fur] (b. 1952) has published poetry
“the book of her mother,” since it is filled with stories her and prose, in volumes such as Silent Dancing and The Latin
mother told her about her Chinese ancestors, especially Deli. ‘These display Cofer’s knack for conveying the expe-
the women whom Kingston describes as the ghosts of her rience of the lives of immigrants. Her stories, both auto-
 DIVERSITY IN CONTEMPORARY LIFE 633

Cross Currents

THE SCULPTURE tury Chinese master, identifies as the pri- monious blending of the human, the me-
OF WEN-YING TSAI mary requirement of all art—“rhythmic chanical, and the natural. Each element
vitality, a kind of spiritual rhythm ex- contributes harmoniously to the unity of
ee sculpture fuses art and pressed in the movement of life’ —T&ai’s the whole. The spirit of his sculpture is
technology. Through electronic cybernetic sculpture takes its place in a Taoist, as are its effects—a refined equi-
feedback control systems that include long-established Chinese aesthetic. librium that merges wisdom with wit, se-
high-frequency lights, microphones, and ‘Tsai’s cybernetic sculpture also re- riousness with humor, mysticism with
harmonic vibration, Wen-Ying Tsai’s flects Chinese aesthetic ideals in its har- modernity.
Cybernetic Sculpture, 1979 comes to life
when music is played or hands are
clapped in its presence (fig. 24.12). The FIGURE 24.12 Wen-Ying
photograph here makes the figure appear ‘Tsai, Cybernetic Sculpture,
two dimensional, but it is a three-di- 1979, fiberglass mounted
mensional sculpture. on steel plates covering an
Cybernetic Sculpture is constructed of a electronic feedback system,
series of fiberglass rods about 10 feet in 10 X 10" (3.05 X 3.05 m)
height. Each rod is set on a base under National Palace Museum,
which is a small motor. With the motors ‘Taipei. The work responds
to changes in light and
beneath each base switched on, the rods sound by vibrating with
vibrate slowly but remain perfectly ver- graceful, dancelike un-
tical. When stimulated by sound and dulations.
light, they vibrate synchronously in gen-
tly swaying arcs. As long as the stimuli
continue, the rods undulate in dancelike
movement.
‘Tsai’s cybernetic sculptures are self-
organizing systems that maintain equi-
librium whether in motion or at rest. His
works blend not only art and technology,
but also Eastern and Western traditions.
In fulfilling what Hsieh Ho, a fifth-cen-

biographical and fictional, show characters’ conflicts with porary American life brims over in his pages. An important
their new lives in mainland America and their memories of influence on younger Hispanic Caribbean and Latino writ-
Puerto Rico. Elegant, lyrical, and convincing, Cofer’s sto- ers, Hijuelos captures and celebrates the spirit of place, in
ries, poems, and autobiographical essays analyze and cel- which his values are rooted. Hijuelos emphasizes the ne-
ebrate the double perspective of seeing life through the cessity for preserving cultural heritage, yet he also revels
lenses of two cultures and languages. in the way life reflects a mosaic of cultural inflections.

Oscar Hijuelos. Hispanic Caribbean writer OSCAR HI- N. Scott Momaday. The works of N. SCOTT
JUELOS [hi-YAIL-oss] (b. 1951) captures the pre-Castro MOMADAY [MOHM-ah-day] (b. 1934) were among the
immigrant experience in the United States, particularly in first by a Native American to garner a wide audience. Born
New York. His novel The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love in Oklahoma of Kiowa ancestry, Momaday has written po-
won the Pulitzer Prize in 1990, the first book by a writer etry, fiction, and autobiography. His 1969 novel, House
of Hispanic origin to win the prestigious award. In chron- Made of Dawn, won a Pulitzer Prize. In it a young Native
icling the lives of Cuban immigrants, their quest for the American man returns from military service in Vietnam
American dream, and their ultimate disillusionment, Hi- to find himself without a place in either Indian society or
juelos evokes the atmosphere of the 1950s. Throughout mainstream America. Momaday’s two autobiographical
his work Hijuelos explores the influence of Hispanic cul- works, The Way to Rainy Mountain (1969) and The Names
ture on American popular culture. His fascination with the (1976), mingle Kiowa legends with American history and
diverse cultural threads woven into the fabric of contem- his family’s personal experience.
634 CHAPTER 24

Connections

VACLAV HAVEL, PLAYWRIGHT Havel became known as a political With the collapse of the communist
AND POLITICIAN dissident during the 1960s when he pub- system in Eastern Europe in 1991, and
licly criticized his country’s Writer’s with the division of Czechoslovakia into
1 Foe the 1960s and 1970s, Vaclav Union for acting “as a broker between separate Czech and Slovak republics in
Havel, the first president of the politics and literature,” rather than “de- 1993, democratic government was intro-
post-Soviet Czech Republic, was best fending the right of literature to be lit- duced. Imprisoned again in 1989 for dis-
known as a playwright. Born in Prague, erature.” At that time he published an sident activities, Havel was released, and
Czechoslovakia, in 1936, into a family of article arguing for the end of single-party by the end of the year was elected presi-
engineers, Havel became interested in rule in Czechoslovakia. ‘The communist dent of Czechoslovakia. In 1993, he be-
philosophy and literature as a teenager government responded by banning his came the first president of the new Czech
and during the 1960s studied at the writings. Republic. Havel’s political reputation
Academy of the Performing Arts. His During the 1970s, Havel helped es- grew to include that of a courageous
best known plays include The Garden tablish an underground press to publish leader, one with a vision of tolerant co-
Party (1963), The Memorandum (1965), government-censored works. He con- existence of people of different cultures
and The Increased Difficulty of Concentra- tinued to write pieces critical of the to- and identities. Havel’s social vision and
tion (1968), which focus on political talitarian regime, including “The Power political leadership were of a piece with
themes, especially on oppressive and of the Powerless,” an essay on totalitar- the moral themes of his plays. His liter-
threatening political environments. ianism and dissent. Havel was arrested ary works effected social and political
Havel has also written books about his and imprisoned in the early 1970s and change, not the least of which was Havel’s
political imprisonment, including Living again in the early 1980s. election to the presidency of his country.
in Truth (1989), Disturbing the Peace
(1990), and Letters to Olga (1990).

Leslie Marmon Silko. Leslie Marmon Silko (b. 1948) of East and West Germany were able to come together
has written poetry and prose that reflects her mixed an- freely and openly. As Vaclav Havel (b. 1936), the president
cestry: She is descended from the Laguna tribe but has of the Czech Republic, put it in 1993: “All of us—whether
white and Mexican ancestry as well. Her novel Ceremony from the west, the east, the south, or the north of Eu-
(1978) and her collection of prose and poetry Storyteller rope—can agree that the common basis of any effort to
(1981) both emphasize the cultural values and spirit of her integrate Europe is the wealth of values and ideas we share.
Pueblo ancestors. Ceremony makes a connection between ... All of us respect the principle of unity in diversity and
the shared cultural heritage of the tribal community and share a determination to foster creative cooperation
the experience of a Native American Indian veteran of the between the different nations and ethnic, religious, and
Vietnam War, who returns to the reservation to reclaim a cultural groups—and the different spheres of civilization—
sense of identity. Storyteller, a collection of folktales, fam- that exist in Europe.” Havel’s message can easily be ex-
ily anecdotes, photographs, stories, and poems, reflects tended to the globe as a whole. We have come to recognize
the intersection of the spiritual and material worlds, as and accept a worldwide imperative: We live in a pluralis-
well as connections between history and personal experi- tic community of nearly five billion people. To survive and
ence. ‘The relationship between nature and culture per- thrive, we need to communicate and share with one an-
meates this work, emphasizing the way Native American other as if we lived in a single village.
peoples have lived in harmony with the natural world, the
land being part of their identity, not merely a place to live.
GLOBALIZATION
THE GLOBAL VILLAGE A major trend among the world’s economies came to a
head in the 1990s—the emergence of globalization, or the
The opening of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 and, massive movement of information, technology, and goods
in turn, the collapse of the communist regime in the So- across national borders. Globalization is one of a number
viet Union two years later symbolized the awakening of of factors influencing changes in the general world order
tolerance among diverse cultures in the contemporary that present challenges to the relationships between and
world. For the first time since World War IL, the citizens among nations and cultures worldwide. Fueling the fires
 DIVERSITY IN CONTEMPORARY LIFE 635

Then & Now

NAVIGATING THE WEB Chapter 13) and Géricault’s Raft of the South America. Alternatively, you could
“Medusa” (see Chapter 17). By browsing browse the current issue of Critical In-
Hoe: no single technological de- the sites of museums and galleries quiry, a scholarly journal in the United
velopment has succeeded in shrink- around the globe, it is possible to view States, or check out LIVEculture, the on-
ing the globe more than the Internet old and new work by artists from over line publication of the Institute for
and its network, the World Wide Web. fifty countries. You can browse the col- Learning Technologies at Columbia
Not only is text available on the Web, lection of the Ho-Am Art Museum in University, which focuses on contem-
but so are images, videos, sound, and Seoul, Korea, viewing masterpieces from porary art, literature, media, communi-
film. Over five hundred museum and its painting, ceramics, and bronze col- cations, and cultural studies. The
gallery sites are accessible on the Web, lections, or you can tour galleries in possibilities are endless, and the avail-
including such sites as the A.I.R. Gallery ‘Taipei, Taiwan. ability of information about almost any-
in New York (women artists), the Andy You can watch a video clip of a war thing is unprecedented. The World
Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh, and the dance by the Anlo-Ewe people of Wide Web promises to change the way
Louvre in Paris, where one can view such Ghana, West Africa, or listen to music in which we think about ourselves and
works as Leonardo’s Mona Lisa (see samples from the newest CD releases in learn about the world around us.

of economic globalization are a series of technological de- technology, including the Internet, email, and the cell
velopments, especially in communications, that have erased phone. However, as countries and regions struggle to pre-
geographic distance and accelerated time. In addition, a serve their own cultures, languages, and identities, inevitable
number of economic agreements were made in the mid- to tensions have resulted. The threat of cultural homogeniza-
late twentieth century, including the General Agreement tion with franchises like McDonald’s and Starbucks mar-
on Free ‘Trade and Tariffs (GATT), signed by 23 countries keting their products seemingly everywhere is compounded
in 1947, and which now includes 123 signatories. In 1995 by other kinds of global threats, from diseases like bird flu
GATT gave way to the World Trade organization (WTO), to terrorist attacks. With more people traveling around the
with the most important recent country addition being world for business and pleasure, the possibility of the rapid
China. spread of disease has increased dramatically—one negative
The most important practical economic development to the many positive benefits of global travel, such as the
has been the emergence of global corporations, which have increased awareness and appreciation of other cultures.
spread their operations around the world, as they seek
business efficiencies, especially the lowest possible oper-
MAGICIANS OF THE EARTH
ating costs. The integration of world economies and the
globalization of companies have been complemented by In 1989, an exhibition in Paris announced itself as “the
the rapid rise of Asian economies, including those of Hong first worldwide exhibition of contemporary art.” Called
Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan, as well as Magiciens de la terre, or Magicians of the Earth, the show
those of China and India, two sleeping giants whose consisted of works by one hundred artists, fifty from the
economies have only recently begun to awaken. traditional “centers” of Western culture (Europe and
Other global economic intiatives include the North America) and fifty from Asia, South America, Australia,
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) signed by Africa, and, incidentally, Native American art from North
Canada, Mexico, and the United States; the Organization America. It was, in the words of Thomas McEvilley, an
of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) in the Mid- American art critic, “a major event in the social history of
dle East; the Association of Southeast Asian Nations art,” if not in its aesthetic history.
(ASEAN), and the European Union (EU). Although it was difficult for most viewers to detect co-
In addition to economic globalization, the late twenti- herent themes or influences among artists and cultures,
eth and early twenty-first centuries have seen increasing the exhibition underscored the diversity and plurality of
cross-cultural exchanges in ideas, arts, and cultural prac- world art. As the exhibition’s chief curator, Jean-Hubert
tices. The English language has become the world’s main Martin, put it, “Rather than showing that abstraction is a
language of communication, especially when people of dif- universal language, or that the return to figuration is now
ferent language groups work together. The world’s cultures happening everywhere in the world, I want to show the
are being brought closer together with developments in real differences and the specificity of different cultures.”
636 CHAPTER 24

Critical Thinking
THE PROS AND CONS terdependence of countries upon one an- how to deal with the effects of a global-
OF GLOBALIZATION other; (3) the ways that work that used ized world—whether those effects in-
to be done in one and only one place can volve economics and world trade,
ne of the challenges of the late now be “outsourced” to faraway places political and social influences, or some-
twentieth and the early twenty-first due to advances in technology, as for ex- thing as dangerous as world terrorism.
century has been globalization—what ample a hospital outsourcing to India its What is your view of how globalization
one analyst has termed the “flattening of radiological analysis of X-rays or the out- has altered the way we live now? What
the world.” By this he means a number of sourcing of call centers to Ireland or can or should be done to ensure that the
things: (1) the way communications tech- Bangalore to answer customer questions positive benefits of globalization out-
nology allows for instantaneous transfer from the United States. weigh its negative possibilities?
and sharing of information and data Globalization is here to stay. There is
around the world; (2) the economic in- no question about that. The question is

THE EXAMPLE OF AUSTRALIAN related to a Dreaming in this way is said to be kurdungurlu.

Kurdungurlu must ensure that the kzrda fulfill their proper
ABORIGINAL PAINTING obligations to the Dreaming. As a result, several people
Ceremonial body, rock, and ground paintings have been usually work on any given painting. The person that West-
made for millennia by the Aboriginal peoples of Central erners designate as the “artist”—a distinction not em-
Australia’s Western Desert region. The sand painting in ployed in Aboriginal culture before the advent of acrylic
the installation view of the Magicians of the Earth (fig. painting—is generally the person who has chosen the spe-
24.13) is one such work, executed on the spot by the Yuen- cific Dreaming to be depicted.
dumu community. Today, Aboriginal artists are known for Erna Motna’s Bushfire and Corroboree Dreaming (fig.
their acrylic paintings, which were not produced in the re- 24.14) depicts the preparations for a corroboree, or cele-
gion until 1971. In that year, an art teacher named Geoff bration ceremony. The circular features at the top and bot-
Bardon arrived in Papunya, a settlement organized by the tom of the painting represent small bushfires that have
government to provide health care, education, and hous- been started by women. As small animals run from the fire
ing for the Aborigines on the edge of the Western Desert.
Several older Aboriginal men became interested in Bar-
don’s classes, and he encouraged them to paint in acrylic, FiGurE 24.13 Installation view of Magiciens de la terre (Ma-
gicians of the Earth), La Villette, Paris, 1989. This exhibition at-
using traditional motifs. Between July 1971 and August
tempted to put works from the developing countries beside
1972, they produced 620 paintings.
works from the West in a nonjudgmental way. Here a sand
Each painted design has traditional ceremonial power
painting by the Australian aboriginal Yuendumu community
connected with the identity of who made it. The organiz- lies on the floor beneath English artist Richard Long’s Red
ing logic of most Aboriginal art is the “Dreaming,” a sys- Earth Circle.
tem of belief unique to the Australian Aborigines. The
Dreaming is not literal dreaming, not what goes on in our
sleep. For the Aborigine, the Dreaming is the presence,
or mark, of an ancestral being in the world. Images of these
beings—representations of the myths about them, maps
of their travels, depictions of the places and landscapes
they inhabited—make up the great bulk of Aboriginal art.
In fact, the Australian landscape is thought of as a series of
marks made by the Dreaming. Thus geography itself is
meaning and history. The paintings speak the concise vo-
cabulary conceived to map this geography.
Each painting depicts a Dreaming for which the artist
is kirda. Artists are kirda if they have inherited the “rights”
to the Dreaming from their father. Each Dreaming is also
inherited through the mother’s line, and a person who is
 DIVERSITY IN CONTEMPORARY LIFE 637

FIGURE 24.14 Erna Motna, Bushfire and Corroboree Dreaming, 1988, acrylic on canvas, 48 X
32” (121.9 X 81.3 cm), Australia Gallery, New York. Surrounding each of the three fires—the
white circles in the painting—are a number of weapons used to kill larger animals:
boomerangs, spears, nulla nullas (clubs), and woomeras (spear throwers).
638 CHAPTER 24

Cultural Impact
ibe a few years into the twenty-first and novelists have altered the literary American artists and writers have had a
century, America continues to experi- landscape. African-American musicians decisive impact on contemporary atti-
ence an influx of immigrants from around maintain an extensive presence and exert tudes toward the environment; the Na-
the world. European immigration has a powerful influence on the music of the tive American approach to living in
risen from the previous decades, partly day, from hip-hop to rock, from jazz to harmony with nature may, in fact, be the
due to the collapse of Soviet communism. gospel and blues. Latin American and greatest of its cultural legacies.
Asian immigration, from India, China, Caribbean musicians, performers, and The full force of contemporary cul-
Korea, and Vietnam, continues unabated, composers have also made a lasting im- tural ideas can only be assessed in the
with students from Asian countries mak- pact on American cultural life. And Latin future. Certain features of the cont-
ing up the majority of those studying at American and Caribbean writers have emporary landscape, however, reflect
U.S. universities from abroad. Even left a similarly extensive legacy for the cultural values that are becoming in-
larger numbers of immigrants, however, future, with works in both Spanish and in creasingly evident. Among these are a
have come to the United States from the English. broadening of cultural perspective and a
Caribbean and from Central and South The legacy of Native Americans has deepening of cultural awareness to in-
America, so much so that Spanish is rap- also recently begun to be appreciated, clude a wider range of voices and visions
idly becoming an unofficial second lan- spurred by the renewed study of Native than had been previously accommodated
guage in the country. American history and culture in the past socially and artistically. Women continue
These diverse groups of people bring few decades. The popularity of Native to achieve greater recognition for their
a rich array of languages and cultures, American crafts, art, and artifacts, such accomplishments. Minorities of all cul-
which have a significant impact on the as Navajo blankets and southwest Indian tural, racial, ethnic, and linguistic back- a
cultural life of contemporary America. basketry, pottery, and jewelry, have in- grounds continue to have an impact on
African-American poets, playwrights, fluenced contemporary style. Native contemporary cultural and artistic values.

(symbolized by the small red dots at the edge of each cir- a solitary individual, and the audience nonparticipatory
cle), they are caught by the women and hit with digging spectators.
sticks, also visible around each fire, and then carried with Still, aspects of each approach inform most art made today
fruit and vegetables to the central fire, the site of the corr- in the global village. On the wall behind the Yuendumu sand
oboree itself. Unlike most forms of Aboriginal art, acrylic painting at the Magicians ofthe Earth exhibition is a large cir-
paintings are permanent and not destroyed after serving cle created by English artist Richard Long. Made of mud
the ceremony for which they were produced. that Long had collected on a visit to the Yuendumu com-
A difference between Western art and the art of non- munity, its juxtaposition with the sand painting bestowed on
Western cultures, as Aboriginal painting suggests, is that it a power it might have otherwise lacked. As Jean-Hubert
the latter seems more participatory and ceremony based. Martin explained, “Successful and dominant countries im-
Even when we can identify the “artist’-—Erna Motna, pose their laws and styles on other countries, but they also
for instance—it is his or her relationship to the whole borrow from them and so become permeated by other ways
community that is emphasized as well as the work’s cer- of life. The notion of cultural identity . . . is the product of
emonial place in community life. In the West, in con- a static concept of human activity, whereas culture is always
trast, the work of art tends to be a commodity, the artist the result of an ever-moving dynamic of exchanges.”
 DIVERSITY IN CONTEMPORARY LIFE 639

KEY TERMS
postmodernism structuralism Internet
semiotics deconstructionism globalization

WWW. WEBSITES FOR FURTHER STUDY

http://www. judychicago.com/
(A website on Judy Chicago, a major contemporary force in women associated with art.)
hitp://www.johnseed.com/basquiat.html
(An informative site on Jean-Michel Basquiat, graffiti artist-cum-master, whose meteoric fame
for portraying black heroes was tragically cut short by an early death.)
hitp://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Vietnam_Veterans_Memorial.html
(GreatBuildings.com site on Maya Lin’s Vietnam memorial.)
hitp://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/canam/kingston.htm
(A basic site on Maxine Hong Kingston, one of the most important woman writers of our time.)
hitp://www.aboriginal-art.com/desert_pages/yuendumu_thumb.html#yuendumu2
(A site on Central Australia’s Western Desert Aboriginal region, featuring the art of the
Yuendumu and Lajamanu communities.)
Glossary

Note: Words in boldface indicate terms defined elsewhere in the glossary.

a cappella (ah kuh-PELL-uh) Italian for agora Meeting place in ancient Greece, Apollonian Style of culture and art char-
“chapel style.” In music, a composition especially a marketplace. acterized by clarity, harmony, and re-
for voices only, not accompanied by any aisle A long side passageway of a church. straint, and in the philosophy of
other instruments. Aisles run parallel to the central nave. Friedrich Nietzche, as embodying the
absolute music Instrumental composi- alap In music, an improvised prelude to power of critical reason. See also
tion that does not attempt to tell a story an Indian raga composition. Dionysian.
or describe a scene, but deals only with alla prima (AH-la PREE-ma) ‘To paint apse Semicircular space at the end of a
musical sound, form, and tone color. without making any preliminary draw- church sanctuary, often highly deco-
Compare program music. ing. rated; usually the location of the altar.
Abstract Expressionism Mid-twentieth- allegory A symbolic narrative in which a aqueduct Literally “water tube.” A
century painting style that rejected real- deeper, often moral meaning exists be- structure using gravity to bring water
istic representation and emphasized the yond the literal level of a work. from higher sources into cities and
artist’s spontaneous and emotional inter- allegro Musical direction for a fast towns below.
action with the work. tempo. arcade Series of connected arches, sup-
abstraction Art that does not portray the altar Raised platform or table at which ported by columns or piers.
actual appearance of a subject but re- religious ceremonies take place. It is arch In architecture, the curved or
flects an artist’s nonrepresentational where the Eucharist is celebrated in pointed structure spanning the top of an
conception of it. Christian churches. open space, such as a doorway, and sup-
altarpiece Painted or carved panel be- porting the weight above it.
academy Generally, a society of artists or
scholars. The Academy was Plato’s hind or above the altar of a church. Archaic period Greek cultural and artis-
school for the study of philosophy. alto In music, the range of the lowest fe- tic style of about 600-480 B.C.E.
acanthus Mediterranean plant whose male voice. Archaic smile An enigmatic facial ex-
leaves were copied as decoration on the ambulatory Passageway or aisle around pression, almost a half-smile, typical of
capitals of Corinthian columns. the interior of a church or cathedral. early ancient Greek sculpture.
amphitheater Oval or round theater architrave Lowest horizontal portion of
acropolis Literally meaning “high city,”
with tiers of seats gradually rising from a the entablature, supported by column
this was the fortified, elevated point in
central arena. capitals.
an ancient Greek city. The Acropolis is
the specific site in Athens where the amphora (AM-fur-uh) ‘Two-handled jar archivolt Semicircular molding outlining
Parthenon was built. with a narrow neck, used by ancient an arch.
Greeks and Romans to carry wine or oil. aria (AHR-ee-ah) Section of an opera,
acrylic Paint made of pigment in a solu-
tion of a synthetic resin. anagnorisis In drama, the point at which oratorio, or cantata for a solo singer,
a character experiences recognition or usually with orchestral accompaniment.
action painting Mid-twentieth-century
increased self-knowledge. Arianism Theological doctrine denying
painting style popularized by Pollock in
animal style An artistic design popular the divinity of Jesus, proclaimed by
which the artist throws, drops, or splat-
in ancient and medieval times, charac- Arius (256-336 C.E.), condemned as
ters paint on a canvas to convey a sense
terized by decorative patterns of intri- heresy by the Roman Catholic Church.
of physical activity.
cate animal motifs. Ars Nova Latin for the New Art. Musical
adagio (uh-DAH-joe; uh-DAH-jee-oh) anime Sophisticated Japanese Animated style of the fourteenth century that used
Musical direction for an “easy” or slow films. more secular themes and more complex
tempo.
anthropomorphism ‘The act of attribut- rhythms and harmonies than the old
aesthetic Related to the appreciation of ing human characteristics to non-human music of previous centuries.
beauty in the arts. entities, such as gods or animals. Art Nouveau (art new-VOE) French for
Afrobeat Complex pattern of musical antiphony Vocal or instrumental music “new art.” A late nineteenth- and early
rhythms characteristic of some forms of in which two or more groups sing or twentieth-century movement noted for
African music, particularly from Nigeria play in alternation. its ornamental decoration based on the
and Ghana, and of their influence on apartheid Policy of racial segregation forms of nature, especially the frequent
other musical styles. practiced in the Republic of South use of curvilinear and floral patterns.
agit-trains Trains that disseminated Africa, involving political, legal, and art song Song in which words and music
propaganda art in postrevolutionary economic discrimination against non- are artistically combined so the compo-
Russia. whites.

640
 GLOSSARY 641

sition reflects the tone, mood, and barrel vault (tunnel vault) See drawing brass instrument Musical instrument,
meaning of the lyrics. in Starter Kit, page xxix. such as a trumpet or tuba, played by
ashlar masonry Masonry of square-cut bas relief French for “low” relief. In blowing through a detachable brass
stones with right angle corners. sculpture, relief that projects only mouthpiece.
assonance Similarity of sound, especially slightly from its background. Buddhism Religious response to
the half rhyme of words with the same basilica Large rectangular building with Hinduism in East Asia that adheres to
vowel sounds but different consonants, a central nave and an apse at one or the doctrines of the Buddha, including
as in heap and leak. both ends, originally used in Rome for the Four Noble Truths and the Eight-
atelier (AT-ul-yay) French for an artist’s business and legal meetings, later fold Path.
workshop. adapted for early Christian churches. Bunraku (boon-RAH-koo) Traditional
atlas (plural, atlantes) Sculpted male bass In music, the range of the lowest Japanese puppet theater featuring large
figure that serves as an architectural male voice. puppets and puppeteers on stage, and a
support. battered In architecture, sloping inward samisen accompanist and narrator who
atmospheric (aerial) perspective See toward the top, as in a wall. sit just off the side of the stage.
perspective. Bauhaus Early twentieth-century Ger- buttress In architecture, a projecting
man art school led by Gropius that at- support or reinforcement of stone.
atonality Lack of a home key or tonal
tempted to blend all forms of art, Byzantine (BIZ-un-teen) Artistic style of
center in a musical composition.
science, and technology. Eastern Europe in the fourth through
atrium Room in the center of an ancient
bay In architecture, a spatial unit that is fifteenth centuries that featured rich
Roman house.
repeated. colors, Christian imagery, domed
automatism Surrealist artistic technique beat Unit of rhythm in a musical compo- churches, and mosaics.
of the early twentieth century in which sition, or the accent in that rhythm.
the artist gives up intellectual control cabochon (CAB-uh-shawn) Gem that is
Beats Short for Beatniks; members of not cut in facets but is smoothed and
over his or her work, allowing the sub-
the Beat generation espoused unconven- rounded.
conscious to take over.
tional attitudes, ideas, and behavior dur- caliph One of a succession of leaders
avant-garde (ah-vahnt GUARD) ing the 1950s.
Literally, “advance guard” in French. who assumed religious and secular con-
Beijing opera Chinese musical drama trol of Islam after Muhammad’s death.
Military term used to describe artists on
developed in the nineteenth century
the cutting edge, especially those van- call and response Style of chanting
that featured fast-paced, stylized scenes
guard artists of the early twentieth cen- and/or singing that involves one or
based on ancient Chinese myths.
tury in France who focused on more leaders and a group of
belle époque (bell-lay-PUCK) French for chanter/singers who respond with their
abstraction.
“beautiful age,” Used to refer to the era own verses. Popular in African music.
avatar In Hinduism, an incarnation of a of elegance in Paris during the late
deity in human or animal form. calligraphy Beautiful handwriting.
nineteenth and early twentieth cen-
backbeat Steady, rhythmic background turies. Calvinism Theological belief system,
musical beat. Benedictines Members of the religious based on John Calvin’s (1509-1564)
baldacchino (ball-dah-KEY-noh) Italian order founded by St. Benedict in 529. writings, that held that some individu-
for, in architecture, a canopy placed over als—the Elect—are predestined to be
bhakti (BUCK-tee) In Hinduism, the ex-
a sacred space, such as.an altar. saved; noted for its strict moral code.
pression of personal devotion to a par-
ballad In poetry, a narrative poem, often ticular deity, especially in the form of calypso Type of music that originated in
of folk origin, written in four-line stan- poetry. the West Indies, characterized by im-
zas. In music, a song that tells a story, black-figure style Greek vase painting provised lyrics often on humorous top-
often about love and loss. style featuring black figures painted on a ics.
balustrade In architecture, a carved rail- red clay background with details incised camera obscura (ub-SKOOR-a) Crude
ing supported by small posts, or balus- to reveal the red clay below. cameralike device for verifying perspec-
ters, as along a staircase or roof line. blank verse Unrhymed verse in iambic tive, first used in the Renaissance. It
pentameter, frequently used in Eliza- consisted of a box with a tiny hole in
Bantu Member of any of a large number
bethan drama. one side through which a beam of light
of linguistically related peoples of cen-
passes, projecting the scene, now in-
tral and southern Africa. The word blind arcade Decorative arcade in
which the arches and columns are at- verted, on the opposite wall of the box.
means “people” in the Bantu language.
tached to the background wall. campanile \talian for “bell tower.”
baptistery Small building or room where
baptisms are performed. Bodhi In Buddhism, perfect knowledge. canon In religion, the books of the Bible
Baroque (bah-ROKE) Seventeenth-cen- bodhisattva (boe-di-SUTT-vuh) In officially sanctioned by a church as in-
tury artistic period characterized by op- Buddhism, an enlightened being on the spired by God.
ulence, emotionalism, theatricality and brink of buddhahood who forgoes cantata From the Italian verb “to sing.”
large scale. In music, a composition style nirvana to help others attain salvation. Small-scale musical work for a solo
of the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- Brahmanism In Hinduism, the religious singer or small group of singers and ac-
turies characterized by ornamentation practices of ancient India as embodied companying instruments. Compare
and rigid structure. in the Vedas. sonata.
642 GLOSSARY

cantilever In architecture, a self-sup- chiton Soft clinging outer garment worn column A vertical architectural support,
porting extension from a wall. by women in ancient Greece. usually consisting of a base, shaft, and
canto Main division of a poem. chivalry System of ethical conduct of the decorative capital.
cantus firmus (CAN-tuss FURR-muss) Middle Ages based on a blend of Christ- comedy Amusing play or novel with a
Preexisting melody line around which a ian and military morals. happy ending, usually including a mar-
new polyphonic composition is con- choir In architecture, the part of a riage.
structed. church where the singers perform, usu- comic opera Light opera, especially of
canzone; canzoni (can- TSOE-neh; can- ally between the transept and the apse. the Classical era, that featured simple
TSOE-nee) A song, especially one per- choka a long Japanese poem. music, an amusing plot, and spoken dia-
formed by troubadours in the eleventh logue.
chorale Simple Protestant hymn sung in
through thirteenth centuries and using a complementary colors Combination of
unison by a church congregation.
love poem as text. one primary color and one secondary
capital Decorative top part of a column chorus In ancient Greek drama, the
color formed by the two other primary
that supports the entablature. group of actors who spoke or chanted in
colors. Red and green, blue and orange,
unison, often while moving in a stylized
capstone ‘Topmost stone in a corbeled and yellow and purple are complemen-
dance; the chorus provided a commen-
arch or dome. tary colors. See also primary colors;
tary on the action. Later, the term was
cartoon Full-scale preparatory drawing secondary colors.
generalized to mean a company of
made on heavy paper for a large work composite order Combination of the
singers.
such as a tapestry or mural. volute scroll of the Ionic order with the
caryatid Sculpted female figure used in Christian humanism Sixteenth-century
belief system that combined the ideals of acanthus leaves of the Corinthian
place of an architectural support. order.
classical humanism with biblical moral-
cast iron Cast alloy of iron with silicon
ity. Conceptual art Twentieth-century artis-
and carbon.
Cistercians Members of the austere tic style whose works were conceived in
catacomb Underground burial area of the mind of the artist, often submitted
early Christians. order of monks established at Citeaux in
1098. in a written proposal, and did not origi-
catharsis Purging of emotional tension, nate in the commercial art scene.
especially by art; originally described by Classical Artistic style of ancient Greece
or Rome that emphasized balance, re- concerto (kun-CHAIR-toe) Musical
Aristotle as the effect of tragic drama on
straint, and quest for perfection. In composition for solo instrument and or-
the audience.
music, the eighteenth-century style chestra, usually in three contrasting
cella (SELL-uh) Inner room of a Greek
characterized by accessibility, balance, movements in the pattern
or Roman temple, where the temple’s
and clarity. fast-slow-—fast.
cult statue was kept.
centering In architecture, a temporary classicism Any later artistic style remi- concrete A hard building material made
wooden semicircular device used for niscent of the ancient Greek or Roman of cement, sand, and gravel; popularized
support during construction of an arch, Classical style and its values of balance, by the ancient Romans.
vault, or dome. restraint, and quest for perfection. Confucianism Chinese philosophical
central plan Building having no longitu- clerestory/clearstory Story of a building perspective based on the teachings of
dinal axis, such as one with a polygonal with windows. Confucius that emphasized morality,
or circular floor plan. cloister Room in a monastery, square or tradition, and ethical behavior.
chateau French for “castle.” rectangular in plan, open to the sky and continuous narration In art, simultane-
cha-no-yu Japanese ritualistic tea cere- containing a garth. ous depiction of events that occurred se-
mony. coda Repeated section of music at the quentially.
chanson (shawn-SAWN) French for end of a movement in sonata form. contrapposto (CONE-truh-POSE-toe)
“song.” A general term for a song with coffers Square indentations of the un- In sculpture and painting, an asymmet-
French lyrics, especially one performed derside of an arch, vault, or dome. rical positioning of the human body in
by troubadours in the eleventh through which the weight rests on one leg, ele-
sixteenth centuries. collage From the French word for “glu-
vating the hip and opposite shoulder.
ing” or “pasting.” A visual art form in
chanson de geste (shawn-SAWN duh corbel In architecture, a bracket of
which bits of familiar objects, such as
JZEST) French for “song of deeds.” A metal, wood, or stone.
rope or a piece of newspaper, are glued
medieval epic poem that celebrates the
on a surface. corbeled dome Dome constructed of
actions of historical figures or heroes.
colonette Small column, usually at- courses of stone laid horizontally.
chapel Small area for worship, usually
found as part of a larger church or tached to a pier in Gothic cathedrals. Corinthian Ancient Greek order of
within a secular building. colonnade In architecture, a row of architecture characterized by a capital
chiaroscuro (key-are-oh-SKOO-roe) columns placed side by side, usually to ornamented with acanthus leaves.
From the Italian chiaro, “clear” or support a roof or series of arches. cornice In architecture, a horizontal
“light,” and oscuro, “obscure” or “dark.” color field Twentieth-century abstract molding that forms the uppermost, pro-
In painting, a method of modeling that painting style, popularized by Rothko, jecting part of an entablature.
uses subtle shifts of light and dark to that featured large rectangles of flat color cosmology Philosophical study of the
give the impression of depth. intended to evoke an emotional response. evolution of the universe.
 GLOSSARY 643

Counter-Reformation Sixteenth-cen- decadents Label that fin-de-siécle writ- drum In architecture, a circular wall,
tury Roman Catholic response of re- ers used for themselves to describe their usually topped by a dome, or one of the
form to the Protestant Reformation. moral decadence, mannered style, and several cylindrical stones used to con-
counterpoint In music, weaving two or fascination with morbid or perverse sub- struct a column.
more independent melodies into one ject matter. dualism (or dualistic religion)
harmonic texture. deconstruction Twentieth-century Religious system that divides the uni-
couplet Unit of poetry consisting of two philosophical approach, especially in verse into two opposing forces, good
successive rhyming lines. linguistics, of breaking apart the whole, and evil (e.g., Zoroastrianism).
covenant In theology, an agreement or assuming that in all systems there are
Duco Brand name for pyroxylin, a lac-
contract between God and humans. gaps or inconsistencies and those gaps
quer first developed for automobiles and
reveal the most about the whole system.
Creole Pan-African societal group in commonly used as a painting medium in
Sierra Leone, in West Africa.
deism (DEE-izm) Belief system based on Mexican murals.
the premise of a God who created the
crepidoma; crepis The three visible duplum Higher pitched of two voice
universe and then left it to run by itself.
steps of a column’s platform. parts in medieval organum.
demes Local townships in ancient Attica
cromlech (CROM-leck) A prehistoric in Greece. earthenware Pottery made of porous
monument of huge stones arranged in a clay fired at a relatively low tempera-
Depression Often referred to as the
circle. ture.
Great Depression, a period of drastic in-
cross vault (groin vault) See drawing in ternational economic decline in the earthwork Large-scale artwork created
Starter Kit, page xxix. 1930s. by altering the land or a natural geo-
crossing The intersection of the nave Der Blaue Reiter German for “The Blue graphic area.
and the transept in a cross-shaped Rider.” A branch of early twentieth-cen- echinus (ee-KYE-nuhs) The cushion-
church. tury German Expressionist art charac- shaped stone below the abacus of a
cruciform Cross shaped. terized by abstract forms and pure Doric capital.
crusades Military expeditions under- colors.
egg tempera Paint consisting of ground
taken by European Christians in the deus ex machina In Greek and Roman pigment and egg yolk.
eleventh through thirteenth centuries to drama, a god lowered by stage machin-
recover the Holy Land from Muslims. ery to resolve a play’s plot or extricate a ego Latin word for “I,” designating the
protagonist from a difficult situation. In self as distinct from the world and oth-
Cubism Early twentieth-century paint-
later literature, the ending of a work ers. In psychoanalysis, the conscious
ing and sculpture style characterized by
that includes an unexpected or improba- aspect of the self that relates to external
geometric depiction of objects, and
ble device or event to conclude it. reality.
faceted multiple views of one object;
leading Cubists were Picasso and dharma Hindu concept of duty or moral emir Prince, chieftain, king, or other
Braque. responsibility. governing leader.
cult a community that follows special re- Die Briicke German for “The Bridge.” A enamel Artistic technique of fusing pow-
ligious practices. branch of early-twentieth-century Ger- dered colored glass to a metal surface in
culture A group’s way of living, includ- man Expressionist art characterized by a decorative pattern, or the object cre-
ing its beliefs, art, and social organiza- abstract forms and pure colors. ated by this method.
tion, that is transmitted from one Dionysian Of an ecstatic, orgiastic, or ir- engaged column Column attached to a
generation to the next. rational nature—after the Greek god of wall.
cuneiform (KYOO-nee-ah-form) wine and revelry, Dionysius—in contrast
engraving Type of print made by cutting
Ancient Mesopotamian system of writ- to a critical and rational emphasis. See
an image onto metal and inking the re-
ing that uses wedge-shaped characters. Apollonian. cesses of the image.
cupola (KYOO-pubh-luh) In architecture, diptych Painting or relief consisting of
Enlightenment Eighteenth-century Eu-
a small dome. two panels that are hinged together and
ropean intellectual movement that em-
may be closed like a book.
Cynicism Ancient Greek philosophy phasized the mind’s power to reason,
that held virtue is the highest good and dissonance In music, a chord or interval challenged the traditional, and favored
self-control is the way to achieve it. that sounds unfinished and seems to social reform.
need resolution in a harmonious chord.
Dada Artistic and literary movement entablature In architecture, the horizon-
during and just after World War I that dome A hemispherical vault.
tal structure above the columns and
rejected tradition and championed the Doric Ancient Greek order of architec- capitals and below the roof.
irrational and absurd. ture characterized by a capital consist-
ing of a square block supported by a entasis Slight bulge in the middle of a
daguerreotype (duh-GARE-oh-type) column.
Early photograph form, produced on cushion shape.
silver or silver-coated copper plates. dramatic irony Type of irony in which epic Extended narrative poem written in
Named for Daguerre, the French the audience is aware of things about a dignified style about a heroic character
painter who invented the method. which a character in a play or novel is or characters.
daimyo Lord, in Japan, of a fortress or unaware. Epicureanism Greek philosophy
castle. dromos Entryway to a tholos. founded by Epicurus that held that
644 GLOSSARY

pleasure, or the avoidance of pain, was ficciones Term coined by Borges for his art and sought to show the fast-paced,
the ultimate good. short puzzling fictional works that invite dynamic nature of modern life and the
philosophical reflection. machine age, often by portraying vari-
epistle Book of the New Testament orig-
fin de siécle (fan duh SYEH-cle) French ous views of a moving object.
inally written as a letter.
for “end of the century.” Describes the gable In architecture, the triangular sec-
ere ibeji Yoruban carvings of twins, who last years of the nineteenth century, tion at the end of a pitched roof, be-
are believed to be gifts of the gods. generally noted for inventiveness, so- tween the two sloping sides.
essay French for “attempt.” A short liter- cial unrest, and decadence artistic gallery In architecture, a long narrow
ary composition, usually expressing the activity. passageway, especially found above the
author’s personal views. finial Decorative part at the top of a side aisles of a church, overlooking the
spire, gable, lamp, or piece of furni- nave.
etching Type of print made by incising ture.
an image on a waxed metal plate, cor- gargoyle Gutter, carved usually in the
Flamboyant Late stage of Gothic archi-
roding the exposed metal in an acid form of a fantastic creature, the mouth
tectural style of the fifteenth and six-
bath, removing the wax, then inking the serving as a waterspout. Found espe-
teenth centuries, characterized by wavy,
recessed design. cially on Gothic churches and cathe-
flamelike tracery and elaborate decora-
drals.
etiological stories Religious myths that tion.
garth The garden in a cloister.
account for the origins of things. flaneur (flah-NERR) ‘Type of a person in
belle époque Paris noted for his or her geisha Professional Japanese Female en-
étude (AY-tood) Solo musical study fo- tertainers
lifestyle of leisure, fine manners, elegant
cusing on a particular technique.
attire, idle strolling, and light conversa- gelede ‘Traditional Yoruban masked ritual,
evangelists From the Greek term for tion. performed to appease “the mothers,”
“bearer of good news.” The name given fluting Vertical grooves on the surface of women thought to possess special pow-
to Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, who a column. ers.
wrote the gospel books of the New Tes- flying buttress Characteristic of Gothic genre (JON-ruh) Category of art, music,
tament; generally, one who preaches or architecture, an arch-shaped buttress. or literature, such as portrait bust, sym-
attempts to spread the gospel. folio Manuscript page. phony, and novel.
existentialism Twentieth-century phi- foreshortening In painting and relief genre painting Scene in which the sub-
losophy that emphasizes the uniqueness sculpture, to reduce a form that is not ject is taken from everyday life.
and isolation of individual experience in parallel to the picture plane, thereby
geoglyph Huge earthen design, such as
an indifferent world and stresses free- creating an illusion of three dimension-
the Nazca lines.
dom of choice and responsibility for ality.
one’s actions. Franciscans Members of a Christian Geometric period (or Geometric style)
order of monks founded by St. Francis The Greek cultural and artistic style of
Expressionism Modern artistic and lit- about 1000-700 B.c.E., noted for ab-
erary movement characterized by emo- of Assisi in 1209; noted for their empha-
sis on poverty and humility. stract geometric designs, especially on
tional expression, often with agitated pottery.
strokes, intense colors, and themes of free verse Poetry that uses the natural
rhythm of words and phrases instead of glaze Thin, transparent layer of oil paint,
sexuality. See also Die Briicke; Der
a consistent pattern of meter and rhyme. usually applied on top of another layer
Blaue Reiter.
fresco Painting technique in which or over a painted surface to achieve a
facade Front face of a building. ground pigment mixed with water is ap- glowing or glossy look. In ceramics, a
faience High-quality glazed ceramics. plied to wet lime plaster. glasslike surface coating.
fret Ridge on the fingerboard of a glissando (plural, glissandi) (gli-SAHN-
fang ding Square bronze vessel with four doe) In music, a rapid slide of a succes-
stringed instrument.
legs, used for storing ceremonial offer- sion of adjacent tones.
friar Male member of certain Christian
ings during the Chinese Shang dynasty.
monastic orders. Gnosticism (NOHS-tih-sizm) Dualistic
fan vaulting A decorative style of frieze A band of ornamental carving or doctrine of certain pagan, Jewish, and
vaulting with ribs radiating like those painting, especially the middle section early Christian sects that redemption is
of a fan. of an entablature, between the achieved through an occult knowledge
feng shui the Chinese art of harmoniz- architrave and cornice. of God, revealed to their believers
ing people with their environment fugue (FYOOG) Musical composition of alone.
three or four highly independent parts Golden Section A mathematical for-
fete galante In Rococo painting, a depic- in which one voice states a theme that is mula, developed in ancient Greece, for
tion of an elegant outdoor party, featur- then imitated in succession by each of ideal proportions in fine art. The
ing amorous conversations, graceful the other voices in counterpoint. smaller of two dimensions is the same
fashion, and social gallantry.
Functionalism Architectural theory that proportion to the larger as the larger is
feudalism A medieval European political a building’s design should be adapted to to the whole work, a ratio of about five
and economic system based on the hold- its function. to eight.
ing of land and the rights and obliga- Futurism Early twentieth-century artis- gospels First four books of the New Tes-
tions of lords and vassals, respectively. tic movement that rejected conventional tament (Matthew, Mark, Luke, John),
 GLOSSARY 645
which describe the life and teachings of Hellenistic Relating to the post- idée fixe (ee-day FEEKS) French for
Jesus. Classical period in Greek history (after “fixed idea.” In music, a recurring musi-
Gothic Style of architecture and art of 323 B.C.E.), during which basic tenets of cal theme or idea used throughout a
the twelfth through sixteenth centuries Classical Greek culture and thought movement or entire composition, as in
in Western Europe and revived during spread throughout the Mediterranean, Berlioz’s Symphonie Fantastique.
the Romantic era. Characterized, espe- Middle East, and Asia. id Latin for “thing”; in Freudian theory
cially in churches, by ribbed vaults, henge A prehistoric circle of stones or the unconscious part of the psyche and
pointed arches, flying buttresses, posts. the source of instinctual impulses, in-
stained glass, and high steep roofs. hieroglyphics Writing system, such as cluding sexual desires.
grand opera Nineteenth-century form that of the ancient Egyptians, that uses ideogram Symbol that represents an
of opera that appealed to the audience pictorial characters to convey sounds or idea, not just a word or its pronuncia-
because of its spectacle. meanings. tion.
Greek cross In architecture, a floor plan highlife Style of contemporary African illuminated manuscript A manuscript
of four arms of equal length. Compare music featuring a fusion of indigenous illustrated with richly colored, gilded
to Latin cross. dance rhythms and melodies with West- paintings, and ornamental lettering and
ern marches, sea chanties, and church borders.
Gregorian chant Monophonic liturgi-
hymns.
cal chant, usually sung with no accom- illusionism Appearance of reality in art;
paniment; named after St. Gregory, who Hijrah (or Hegira) (hi-JYE-ruh) specifically, the technique used to make
was pope from 590 to 604. Also called Muhammad’s flight from Mecca to a created work look like a continuation
plainchant; plainsong. Medina in 622 C.E. that marks the be- of the surrounding architecture.
ginning of the Muslim era.
ground bass In music, a phrase in the imago Roman death mask.
bass that is repeated continually himation Rectangular piece of fabric
draped over one shoulder as a garment impasto (im-POSS-toe) Paint applied
throughout the composition or musical thickly so an actual texture is created on
section. in ancient Greece.
the painted surface.
Hinduism Ancient religion of India
guild Association of people in the same impost block In architecture, a block
characterized by a belief in reincarna-
craft or trade, formed during the Middle placed between the capital and the
tion, the search for union with the di-
Ages or Renaissance to give economic arch, used to channel the weight of the
vine, and liberation from earthly evils.
and political power to its members and arch down onto the column.
to control the trade’s standards. homophony; homophonic In music, the
playing or singing of a single melodic Impressionism Late nineteenth-century
hadith Islamic document containing the artistic style that sought to portray a
line with harmonic accompaniment.
sayings of Muhammad and anecdotes fleeting view of the world, usually by ap-
about him. hotel French for “townhouse.”
plying paint in short strokes of pure
huaca (WAH-cah) Pyramid made of sun-
haiku (HIGH-koo) Japanese poetry form color. In music, a style that suggested
dried bricks, around which the Moche
in three lines, with seventeen syllables in moods and places through lush and
lived in Peru.
the pattern five, seven, and five syllables shifting harmonies and vague rhythms.
per line; usually features imagery from humanism Belief system, especially dur-
incarnation Generally, the act of assum-
nature, includes a reference to a season, ing the Renaissance, that stressed the
ing a human body, especially by a god or
and avoids rhyme. worth, dignity, and accomplishments of
spirit. In Christian theology, the doc-
the individual. Stemmed from renewed
half step In music, the distance between trine of the birth of God in human form
interest in Classical values of ancient
two adjacent keys on a piano or between as Jesus Christ.
Greece and Rome.
two adjacent frets on a guitar. Industrial Revolution Rapid emergence
icon Religious image, such as a figure
Happening An art form of the 1960s from the Bible, painted on wood and of modern industrial production during
that incorporated theater, performance, used as a sacred reminder of important the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
visual arts, and audience involvement. elements of Christianity. centuries.
Harlem Renaissance Mid-twentieth- iconoclasm; iconoclastic controversy International style ‘Twentieth-century
century literary and artistic movement (eye-KON-o-KLAZ-em) Opposition to architectural style focusing primarily on
centered in the African-American com- the use of religious images; the system- modern materials, especially steel and
munity of New York City’s Harlem atic destruction of religious icons. concrete, and boxlike shapes.
neighborhood. iconography In visual arts, the symbols Intertropical Convergence Zone
harmony In music, playing or singing used to communicate meaning. Climatic border zone where the cool
two or more tones at the same time, es- iconophile A lover of artistic images, at wet air of the south Atlantic meets the
pecially when the resulting sound is odds with iconoclasts in the warm dry air of the Sahara desert.
pleasing to the ear; generally, the iconoclastic controversy of the Byzan- Tonic Ancient Greek order characterized
arrangement of chords. tine era. by a capital in the shape of a curling vo-
hayashi Instruments as a group used to iconostasis Panel of icons that typically lute scroll.
accompany Japanese Noh drama. separates the priests from the rest of the Isis Egyptian goddess of fertility, whose
Hellenic Relating to the culture of congregation in the Eastern Orthodox cultlike worship gradually extended
Classical Greece (480-323 B.C.E.). Church. throughout the Roman empire.
646 GLOSSARY

Jainism Ascetic religion founded in sixth lancet Window with a narrow arch metal is then poured into the hollow
century B.C.E. India that affirms the im- shape, used frequently in Gothic archi- space and, when cooled, the clay or plas-
mortality and the transmigration of the tecture. ter mold is broken, leaving a metal core.
soul and denies the existence of a perfect landscape Painting, photograph, or lozenge Ornamental diamond-shaped
or supreme being. other visual art form that uses a natural motif.
jamb The sides of a doorway or window. outdoor scene as its main subject. Lutheranism Theological belief system
jazz Category of music, first developed lantern In architecture, a open or win- and denomination founded by Martin
by African Americans in the early twen- dowed structure placed on top of a roof Luther (1483-1546) that holds that sal-
tieth century, that usually features to allow light to enter below. vation is delivered by faith, not by per-
syncopated rhythms and improvisation Latin cross In architecture, a floor plan sonal achievement.
of the melody or a phrase. of three short arms and one long one. lyre A stringed instrument of the harp
Jesuits Members of the Society of Jesus, Compare to Greek cross. family used to accompany a singer or
an order of Roman Catholic priests es- chanter of ancient poetry, common
Lebensraum Additional territory deemed
tablished by St. Ignatius of Loyola in among the Egyptians, Assyrians, and
necessary to a nation, especially Nazi
1540. Greeks.
Germany, for its continued existence or
Ji Chorus for Japanese Noh drama. economic well-being. lyric poetry Poems that have a songlike
ka Ancient Egyptian concept of the quality; usually emotional in nature.
leitmotif (LIGHT-moe-teef) German
human soul or spirit, believed to live on madrigal Polyphonic music composed
for “leading motive.” In Wagnerian
after death. for a small group of singers, usually
opera, brief fragments of melody or
Kabuki (kuh-BOO-key) Japanese musi- rhythm that trigger the audience to based on short secular lyric poems and
cal theater developed in the seventeenth think of particular characters, actions, sung with no accompaniment.
century, noted for its melodramatic or objects. magic realism Latin American literary
dancing, lively drama, and instrumental style that weaves together realistic events
lekythos Ancient Greek vase, small,
accompaniment. Traditionally per- with incredible and fantastic ones to con-
cylindrical in shape, with a single han-
formed by an all-male cast. vey the often mysterious truths of life.
dle.
Kamares ware ‘Type of Minoan ceramics
Les Fauves; Fauvism (FOVE; FOVE- mandorla In religious art, an almond-
characterized by curving motifs, often
izm) French for “wild beasts.” Early shaped glory of light surrounding a sa-
aquatic, painted in white and orange on
twentieth-century artistic movement cred figure, such as Jesus.
a dark ground.
characterized by violent, arbitrary colors Manicheism (MAN-i-key-izm) The reli-
kami Local deities in the Japanese
as seen in the paintings of Matisse. gious philosophy, founded by the Per-
Shinto system of belief.
libretto Words for an opera or other tex- sian prophet Manes in the third century
kana Japanese writing system. C.E. and synthesized from elements of
tual vocal work.
karma Hindu and Buddhist doctrine Christianity, Gnosticism, and Zoroastri-
that one’s moral actions have a future Lied; Lieder (LEED; LEED-er)
anism, that divided the world between
consequence in determining personal Romantic German art song designed
good and evil forces.
destiny. for a vocalist and accompanist perform-
ing in a room of a home. Mannerism Artistic style of the sixteenth
kiva (KEE-vah) Large underground cer- century that rejected Renaissance aes-
emonial room in a Pueblo village. linear perspective See perspective.
thetic principles; noted for its obscure
koan Riddle in the form of a paradox lintel In architecture, a horizontal beam, subject matter, unbalanced composi-
used in Zen as an aid to meditation and as above a doorway. tions, distorted bodies and poses,
intuitive understanding. literati Literary intelligentsia or leading strange facial expressions, confusing
Kojiki Japanese ancient historical literary figures of a country. spatial constructions, and harsh colors.
records. lithograph ‘Type of print made when an manuscript Handwritten book or docu-
Koran See Quran. image, drawn with a greasy substance on ment.
kore Ancient Greek statue of a standing a stone block, is first wetted, then inked. Manyoshu Eighth-century collection of
clothed woman. Because the greasy areas repel water, Japanese poems.
koto a Japanese stringed instrument only the image accepts the ink.
mass Central religious ritual, principally
something like a zither. liturgy Religious rite used in public or- in the Roman Catholic Church; a musi-
kouros Ancient Greek statue of a stand- ganized worship. cal setting of this ritual.
ing nude man. loggia (LOH-juh) In architecture, a cov- mastaba Type of ancient Egyptian tomb,
krater Ancient Greek vase with a large ered open-air gallery. rectangular in shape with sloping walls
opening and two handles. logic Study of reasoning, or a particular and flat roof.
Krishna Hindu god, an avatar of system of reasoning. mausoleum Monumental tomb, or the
Vishnu, often depicted as a handsome lost-wax process (also known as the building used to store one or more such
young man playing the flute. “cire-perdu” process) A method of metal tombs.
lais French medieval narrative poems. casting in which a wax mold is coated maya In Hinduism, the transitory, mani-
Lakshmi In Hinduism, a female god- with plaster or clay, then heated so the fold appearance of the sensory world
dess, consort of Vishnu. wax melts and runs out of vents. Molten that obscures the true spiritual reality.
 GLOSSARY 647

mazurka Lively Polish dance in triple mode Organization of musical intervals mythology A system or collection of
meter. into scales, used in ancient and me- myths belonging to a people and ex-
meander Ornamental maze pattern dieval music; later limited to just the pressing their origin, history, deities, an-
common in Greek art. major and minor scales. cestors, and beliefs.
megalith Huge stone, especially used as model In painting, to create the illusion Nahuatl Ancient language of the Aztecs.
part of a prehistoric monument. of depth by using light and shadow. In Also, a member of the various ancient
menhir (MEN-hear) Prehistoric monu- sculpture, to shape a pliable substance Indian peoples of central Mexico, in-
ment of a single huge slab of stone, set into a three-dimensional object. cluding the Aztecs.
in an upright position. Modernism; the modern Artistic and narthex Entrance hall or vestibule of a
Mesoamerica Region extending south literary movement of the late nineteenth church.
and east from central Mexico to include and twentieth centuries that sought to natural law Set of rights derived from
parts of Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, find new methods of artistic expression nature and therefore superior to those
and Nicaragua. In pre-Columbian for the modern, dynamic world, and re- established in the civil code.
times, home to the Mayan and Olmec jected the traditions of the past. natural selection The idea that nature
civilizations. monastery Residence for monks. chooses or selects organisms with natu-
metope Part of the entablature of the monasticism Life of organized religious ral characteristics best able to survive.
Doric order. Metopes, squarish in shape seclusion, as in a monastery or convent. Natural selection is the mechanism at
and painted or carved, alternate with the basis of Charles Darwin’s theory of
monolith Single slab of stone.
triglyphs. evolution.
monophony Musical texture with a sin-
mihrab (ME-rahb) Prayer niche in the naturalism Late nineteenth-century lit-
gle melody and no accompaniment.
interior wall of a mosque indicating the erary movement that strove to depict
Compare polyphony.
direction of Mecca. characters in naturalistic, objective de-
mille-fleurs (meel-FLUHR) French monotheism Belief in and worship of a tail, focusing on the authenticity of
for “thousand flowers.” A background single god. characters, setting, and situations; em-
pattern consisting of many flowers montage In film, a set of abruptly edited phasized biological and cultural deter-
and plants, particularly in tapestry images used for dramatic effect. minants for the behavior and fate of
designs. mosaic Design or picture created by in- literary characters.
minaret (min-uh-RET) In Islamic archi- laying small pieces of colored glass, nave Long central space of a church,
tecture, a tall slender tower attached to a stone, or tile in mortar; mosaics are usu- flanked on both sides by narrower aisles.
mosque, from which a muezzin calls ally placed on walls, floors, or ceilings. Nazi Member of Hitler’s German Na-
the faithful to prayer. mosque Islamic house of worship. tional Socialist Party.
miniature Detailed small-scale painting, motet In Renaissance music, a multi- Neoclassicism Late-eighteenth-century
often on an illuminated manuscript. voiced composition, usually based on a artistic style that revived an interest in
Minimal art (or Minimalism) sacred Latin text and sung a cappella. the ancient Classical ideals. Developed
Twentieth-century artistic style featur- as a reaction to the more ornate Rococo
moundbuilders Early Native American
ing a small number of shapes arranged style.
cultures in the Mississippi or Ohio river
in a simple, often repeated, pattern. valley noted for their construction of Neolithic The New Stone Age, about
minstrel Traveling entertainer of the monumental burial mounds. 8000 B.C.E. to 2000 B.C.E., a period
Middle Ages, especially one who per- characterized by the use of pottery, agri-
mudra (moo-DRAH) Symbolic, stylized culture, development of early writing,
formed secular music.
position of the body or hand in Indian and construction of megalithic struc-
minuet and trio form Organizing struc- art.
ture for a musical work in the pattern tures.
muezzin (myoo-EZ-in) Crier who calls Neoplatonism Revival of the philosophy
minuet-trio-minuet. Usually the form of
the Muslim faithful to prayer five times of Plato, developed by Plotinus in the
the third movement of a symphony. See
a day. third century C.E. and prevalent during
also minuet; trio.
minuet Slow, elegant dance in triple mural A large wall painting. the Renaissance; based on the belief that
meter. music drama Musical term first used by the psyche is trapped within the body
Wagner to describe his operas that and philosophical thought is the only
Mithras Persian god of light and wis-
combined song, instrumental music, way to ascend from the material world
dom, whose cultlike worship spread
dance, drama, and poetry with no inter- to union with the single, higher source
throughout the Roman empire, eventu-
ruptions and without breaking the opera of existence.
ally rivaling Christianity.
up into conventional arias or recitatives. neume Basic musical notation symbol
mobile Sculptural form suspended from
mystery play Medieval drama form used in Gregorian chants.
the ceiling, mechanized or moved by air
currents; invented by Calder in the based on biblical narratives. niche In architecture, a hollow recess in
1930s. myth A traditional story, usually featur- a wall, often used to hold a statue or
mock epic Extended narrative poem that ing heroes, gods, or ancestors, that ex- vase.
treats a trivial incident in a heroic man- plains important cultural practices or Nihongi Chronicles of Japan that con-
ner. See also epic. beliefs. tinue the Kojiki.
648 GLOSSARY

nirvana In Buddhism, Hinduism, and era, that combines drama, a text set to bomo sapiens, and the creation of the ear-
Jainism, the state of ultimate bliss. vocal music, and orchestral accompani- liest works of art.
nocturne Musical composition for the ment. palette Artist’s choice of colors for a par-
night, usually melancholy in tone and oracle A religious professional and ticular work of art, or the surface on
for solo piano. prophet who interpreted the will of the which such colors are placed and mixed.
Noh (NO) Japanese musical theater de- gods. pallium Ancient Roman garment made
veloped in the fifteenth century, noted orans In early Christian art, the pose of a of a rectangular piece of fabric.
for its solemnity, highly poetic texts, person in prayer, with hands raised to
stylized gestures, and masked actors.
palmette Stylized palm leaf ornament.
heaven.
nokan Japanese flute used in Noh the- Oratorians Group of lay Catholics, Pancatantra Collection of Sanskrit ani-
ater. founded in 1575 by St. Philip Neri, who mal fables that convey the religious
notation In music, a symbolic method of met for spiritual conversation, study, principles of Hinduism.
representing tones. and prayer. pantheism Doctrine that identifies deity
novel Literary form based on social and oratories Places for prayer, such as pri- with the phenomena of the universe, in-
psychological descriptions of the world vate chapels, and associated with the cluding both animate beings and inani-
and individual people, including a plot Oratorians, a religious movement of mate objects.
unfolded by the actions and thoughts of priests and lay persons, founded by St. pantheon All the gods of a people, or a
fictional characters. Although the novel Philip Neri during the Counter-Refor- temple dedicated to all the gods; the
became a dominant kind of literature in mation in the sixteenth century. Pantheon is the specific circular temple
eighteenth-century England, its an- oratorio Sacred opera performed with- in Rome dedicated to all gods.
tecedents include Don Quixote, in seven- out costume or acting, featuring solo parables Brief stories that reveal a reli-
teenth-century Spain, and The Tale of singers, a chorus, and an orchestra. gious teaching, like the parables of
Genji, at the beginning of the second oratory Prayer hall. Jesus and those of Asian traditions, in-
millennium, in Japan.
order In architecture, a style determined cluding Confucianism and Zen
novella (plural, novelle) Short story,
by the type of column used. See also Buddhism.
usually satirical and with a moral.
Doric; Ionic; Corinthian. parchment Animal skin used to make
o-tsuzumi Type of hourglass drum held
organum (ORE-guh-num) Early manuscripts.
on the hip and used in Japanese Noh
polyphonic music with the voices a
theater. patrician Member of the noble family
fourth, a fifth, or an octave apart. The
obelisk In architecture, a four-sided shaft class in ancient Rome who was origi-
organum duplum is such a chant with
topped by a pyramid. nally granted special civil and religious
two voices, with the lower voice holding
octave Eight-line section of a poem, par- rights.
long notes and the higher voice moving
ticularly the first section in a more quickly. Such a chant with three patron Person who sponsors art or
Petrarchan sonnet; in music, an eight- voices is an organum triplum; such a artists financially.
note interval. chant with four voices is an organum patronage Originally, a system of
oculus Circular window. quadruplum. patrician support and protection of a
odalisque Harem woman. Orientalizing period The Greek cul- plebeian in ancient Rome; later, a sys-
ode Lyric poem, usually addressed to a tural and artistic style of about 700-600 tem of financially sponsoring art or
person or object and written in a digni- B.C.E. that was influenced greatly by the artists.
fied style. Near East. pediment In Classical architecture, a
Oedipus complex In psychoanalysis, a orthogonal In visual arts, a receding line triangular space at the end of a building,
subconscious sexual desire in a male perpendicular to the picture plane. In formed by the cornice and the ends of
child for the female parent and a sense linear perspective, orthogonals con- the sloping roof.
of hostility toward the male parent. verge and disappear at a vanishing
pendentive In architecture, triangular
Ogun One of the African orisa, or lesser point.
shape used to make the transition from a
gods who interact with humans; the god pagoda Buddhist temple in the shape of square base to a circular dome.
of iron. a tower, with many stories that each
oil paint Paint consisting of ground pig- have an upward-curving roof. peplos Loose outer garment worn by
ment and oil (usually linseed oil). women in ancient Greece, hanging from
Palace Style Type of Minoan ceramics
oinochoe A Greek wine jug with a the shoulders and belted at the waist.
characterized by plant forms painted on
pinched lip and curved handle. a pale beige background. percussion instrument Musical instru-
oligarchy Form of government in which ment, such as a timpani or bass drum,
palaestra (plural, palaestrae) Public
a few people rule. place in ancient Greece where young played by hitting or shaking.
olpe A Greek vase or jug with a broad lip. men learned to wrestle and box under peripteral In architecture, the adjective
Oludumare Major African god of the the guidance of a master. describing a building that is surrounded
Yoruba, who created the world and hu- Paleolithic The Old Stone Age, about by a peristyle.
manity. 2,000,000-10,000 B.C.E., a period char- peristyle In architecture, a continuous
opera Italian for “a work.” Musical acterized by hunting, fishing, the use of row of columns, forming an enclosure
form, first introduced in the Baroque stone tools, the increasing dominance of around a building or courtyard.
 GLOSSARY 649

perspective A method of creating the il- platform A raised horizontal surface, es- program music Instrumental composi-
lusion of three-dimensional space on a pecially one on which columns sit. tion that musically describes a scene,
two-dimensional surface. Achieved by Platonism Philosophy of Plato, focusing story, or other nonmusical situation.
methods such as atmospheric perspective, on the notion that Ideal Forms are an Popularized in the Romantic era. Com-
using slight variations in color and absolute and eternal model that all pare absolute music.
sharpness of the subject, or /inear per- worldly phenomena strive toward. pronaos Enclosed vestibule of a Greek
spective, creating a horizon line and plebeian Member of the common lower or Roman temple, supported by
orthogonals, which meet at vanishing class in ancient Rome who at first lacked columns.
points. many of the rights patricians enjoyed. propylon (plural, propylaia) Gateway
Petrarchan sonnet Italian sonnet poem plinth Slab that supports a sculpture or to a temple or a group of buildings.
of an octave of eight lines, which intro- column. proscenium arch In theater, the framing
duces a situation or problem scene, and podium In architecture, an elevated plat- device that separates the stage from the
sestet of six lines, which expands on the form; often the foundation of a building, audience.
scene or resolves the problem. The oc- especially an ancient temple. pseudo-peripteral Having a single row
tave rhymes abba abba (or abab abab), and
Pointillism Post-Impressionist tech- of engaged columns on all sides.
the sestet rhymes cde cde (or cde ced; cde
nique developed by Seurat that uses an psychoanalysis Method of therapy origi-
dce; or cd cd cd). Devised by the poet Pe-
almost exact application of paint in nated by Sigmund Freud in which free
trarch in the fourteenth century. See
small dots or points, intended to blend association, dream interpretation, and
also Shakespearean sonnet.
in the viewer’s eyes. analysis of resistance and transference are
phenomena (fuh-NOM-uh-nuh) In
polis (plural, poleis) An independent used to explore repressed or unconscious
Kantian philosophy, elements as they
city-state in ancient Greece. impulses, anxieties, and internal conflicts.
are perceived by worldly senses, not as
polonaise Stately, proud Polish dance in Punic Relating to ancient Carthage, its
they really are.
triple meter. inhabitants, or their language or history.
philosophes (fill-uh-SOFF) Group of
polyphony Simultaneous playing or pylon Massive gateway, especially to an
intellectuals of the Enlightenment who
singing of several independent musical Egyptian temple.
believed that, through reason, humans
lines. Compare monophony. qasidah Highly formalized Arabic ode of
could achieve a perfect society.
polyptych (POL-ip-tick) Painting or re- 30 to 120 lines, each line ending with
pianoforte (pee-ANN-oh-FOR-tay)
lief with four or more panels, often the same rhyme. It focuses on the poet’s
Literally, “soft loud” in Italian. Name
hinged so panels can be folded. See also attempt to find his beloved.
originally used for the piano because of
triptych and diptych.
its ability to differentiate between soft gibla (KIB-luh) Direction facing Mecca,
polyrhythms Multiple rhythms played to which a Muslim turns when praying.
and loud tones, which the harpsichord
or sung simultaneously within the same
could not do. quadrivium Program of arithmetic, as-
musical composition.
piazza (pee-AHT-zuh) A public square tronomy, geometry, and music in me-
polytheism Belief in or worship of more dieval universities.
in Italy.
than one god. Compare monotheism.
picaresque In literature, a narrative form quatrain Four-line unit of poetry.
Pop Art Mid twentieth-century artistic
that originated in Spain and details the Quran; Koran Sacred text of Islam.
style in which subjects were taken from
adventurous life of a picaro, a rogue radiating chapels Several chapels
everyday items from the mass media or
hero. were mass produced, such as comic arranged around the ambulatory or
pictograph Picture used to represent a strips, soup cans, or images of famous apse of a church.
word or idea. figures. raga Indian musical composition, usually
pier In architecture, a vertical support portal In architecture, a grand entrance partly improvised, that attempts to con-
structure similar to a column, but usu- or doorway. vey a mood or feeling.
ally square or rectangular in shape, portico In architecture, a porch or walk- ragtime Jazz piano composition in
rather than cylindrical. way covered by a roof supported by which the left hand plays a steady beat
pieta (pee-ay-TAH) Italian for “pity.” In columns. It often marks an entrance to while the right hand improvises on a
visual arts, a work that shows Mary the main building. melody using a syncopated rhythm.
mourning over her dead son Jesus in her post and lintel In architecture, vertical Ramadan Holy ninth month of the Is-
lap. posts supporting a horizontal lintel. lamic lunar calendar, during which Mus-
pilaster In architecture, a flat decorative potlatch Lavish ceremony among some lims must fast from sunrise to sunset.
pillar attached to a wall, projecting just Native Americans of northwest North rational humanism Philosophical belief
slightly, that may reinforce the wall. America at which the host distributes system of the Enlightenment based on
pillar Freestanding vertical element, usu- gifts to guests according to their rank or the idea that progress is possible only
ally used as an architectural support. status. through learning and through the indi-
pipa Chinese lute. prelude (PRELL-yood) Short instru- vidual’s freedom to learn.
plainchant; plainsong In music, the mental composition that usually pre- Rayonnant (ray-on-NANT) From the
monophonic, unmetered vocal music of cedes a larger musical work. French term for “to radiate.” The
the early Christian church, as in primary colors The colors red, yellow, High Gothic architectural style of the
Gregorian chant. and blue. See also secondary colors. mid-thirteenth century, noted for its
650 GLOSSARY

radiating tracery patterns and liberal Romanesque The style of architecture schism Break or split among factions,
use of stained glass. and art of the eleventh and twelfth cen- often religious and involving a formal
Realism Nineteenth-century artistic and turies in Western Europe. Character- breach in a church.
literary movement that attempted to con- ized, especially in churches, by score Written or published version of a
vey to the public the realities of modern semi-circular arches, barrel vaults, musical composition showing parts for
life, not just to depict the beautiful. thick walls, and small windows. all instruments and voices.
recitative (ress-uh-tuh-TEEV) In rondo form Organizing structure for a scroll In Chinese and Japanese art, a
opera, a form of musically heightened musical work in which the main theme painting or text drawn on paper or silk.
speech halfway between spoken dialogue repeats itself frequently, with new, con- The scroll is conventionally kept rolled
and melodic singing. trasting material added between each and tied except on special occasions.
repetition. Often the form of the second Some are vertical hanging scrolls; others
red-figure style Greek vase painting
or last movements of a concerto. are horizontal band scrolls. Japanese nar-
style featuring red figures surrounded
by a black background, with details roof comb A crestlike extension along rative scrolls are called emaki-mano.
painted on the surface. the roof of a Mayan temple that resem-
secondary colors The colors orange,
refectory Room in a monastery where bles the comb of a rooster.
green, and purple, formed when two
meals are taken. rose window Circular “wheel” window, primary colors (red, yellow, or blue) are
register system Method of organizing characteristic especially of Gothic ar- mixed. See also primary colors.
an artistic composition in horizontal chitecture.
secular Not sacred or religious.
bands or rows, each of which depicts a rosette A roselike ornament that is
painted or sculpted. serdab The cellar of an Egyptian
different event or idea.
mastaba, containing the ka statue.
regular temple Architectural plan for a rotunda Circular building, usually
temple in which the number of columns topped by a dome. sestet Six-line section of a poem, partic-
along the sides of the temple is double ruba’i (plural, ruba’iyat) Persian poetry ularly the last section in a Petrarchan
the number of columns on the ends plus form of four lines with a rhyming pat- sonnet.
one (e.g., an eight-by-seventeen propor- tern of AABA. sestina Verse form developed by Renais-
tion). sacramentary Liturgical book of sance troubadours that employs six-line
relic Venerated object associated with, or prayers and rites of the sacraments of stanzas and a three-line concluding
portion of the body of, a saint or martyr. the Roman Catholic Church. envoy, with the six end words of the first
relief Sculpture attached to a solid back- Salon des Refusées French for “Salon of stanza repeated throughout the other
ground, rather than freestanding. the Rejected.” Artistic salon established five stanzas and envoy.
relieving triangle Triangular opening by Napoleon III in 1863 to exhibit sfumato (sfoo-MA-toe) Italian word for
above a lintel, intended to relieve pres- paintings rejected by the official French “smoky.” In painting, the intentional
sure on the lintel. Academy Salon. blurring of the outline of a figure in a
reliquary Decorative container for relic. salon; Salon Large reception room in a hazy, almost smoky atmosphere.
repoussé Metalworking technique in townhouse, or the social gathering held shaft The vertical section of a column
which the design is hammered in relief by in such rooms; an annual exhibition of between the capital and the base.
working on the back of the metal plate. works of art, especially by the French
Shakespearean sonnet; English sonnet
Academy in the eighteenth and nine-
representational Art that portrays the Poem of three four-line stanzas and a
teenth centuries.
visual reality of an object. final two-line couplet, usually rhyming
samba Brazilian dance. abab cdcd efef gg. See also Petrarchan
requiem Mass for a deceased person and
the music for such a mass. samsara Hindu concept of the eternal sonnet.
cycle of birth and death.
responsorial Chant or anthem sung shastras Ancient Hindu texts that de-
after a reading in a church service. samurai Ruler-warriors of Japan, espe- scribe instructions for various activities,
cially during the feudal era. including temple building, cooking,
rhyton An ancient Greek drinking horn
which may be shaped like an animal head. Sanskrit Ancient Indic language; the warfare, and music.
classic language of ancient India, includ- Shi’ites Muslim sect that, along with the
rib In architecture, a curved, projecting
arch used for support or decoration in a
ing Hinduism and the Vedas. Sunnis, share basic theological convic-
vault. sarcophagus A stone coffin. tions but differ strongly over the line of
riff In jazz, a short phrase repeated fre- satire Literary or dramatic work that ex- legitimate succession from Muhammad.
quently during improvisation. poses vice or follies with ridicule or sar- Shinto Principal and former state reli-
ritornello (rit-or-NELL-low) Musical casm, often in a humorous way. gion of Japan characterized by rituals
passage that will recur several times satori Zen Buddhist state of enlighten- and venerations for local deities and
throughout a concerto movement. ment. strong patriotism.
romance Long medieval narrative form scale In music, an ascending or descend- Shiva One of the principal Hindu deities,
that related chivalric Celtic stories, es- ing series of notes. worshipped as destroyer and restorer of
pecially the exploits of King Arthur and scat Method of vocal singing in nonsense worlds, and often associated with two
his Knights of the Round Table. syllables. other central Hindu gods, Brahma and
 GLOSSARY 651

Vishnu. Shiva is often represented as a soprano In music, the range of the high- Symbolists Poets of the late nineteenth
dancing figure, the Shiva Nataraja. est voice of females or young boys. century who used symbolic words and
shogun Hereditary military dictator of staff In music, the five horizontal lines figures to express ideas, impressions,
Japan; originally, commander-in-chief of and four spaces used in notation. and emotions and rejected the realistic
the samurai. depiction of the external world.
stained glass Artistic technique in which
many small pieces of glass are colored symphony Large orchestral work, usu-
sitar Long-necked lute-shaped instru-
with internal pigment or surface paint ally in four distinct movements.
ment from India.
and then held together with lead strips; syncopation Musical rhythm in which
skene (SKAY-nuh) In Greek theater, a
used extensively in Gothic cathedrals. beats that are normally unaccented are
building behind the acting area that
stressed.
functioned as a dressing room and as statue in the round Sculpture that
stands free of a background and is fully synoptic gospels The gospels of
scenic background.
formed to be seen from all sides. Matthew, Mark, and Luke, which are
Skepticism Greek philosophical doctrine similar. The gospel of John is unique.
that absolute knowledge is not usually stele Slab of stone, set vertically.
taiko Stick drum on a stand; used in
possible and inquiry must therefore be a stigmata Physical marks or scars on hu- Japanese Noh theater.
process of doubt. mans that resemble the crucifixion
talking drum Type of African drum
Socialist Realism Artistic style declared marks ofJesus; said to appear during
whose sound blurs the line between
by Stalin in 1934 as the official Soviet states of religious ecstasy.
melody and rhythm.
style; it rejected abstraction and fo- still life Painting or sculpture represent-
tambura Unfretted lute used to sustain
cused on images of soldiers, workers, ing inanimate subjects such as flowers,
the drone chord in Indian music.
and peasants. fruit, or objects.
tango Popular Argentinian dance and
soliloquy (suh-LILL-uh-kwee) In stoa In ancient Greek architecture, a
the music affiliated with it.
drama, a character’s private reflections long, freestanding portico.
tanka A short Japanese poem.
spoken aloud toward the audience, but Stoicism Greek and a Roman philosophy
not to the other characters. tapestry Heavy textile, the design cre-
characterized by indifference to pleasure
ated as the fabric is woven; a specialty of
sonata form Organizing structure for a and pain and a willingness to accept
medieval and Renaissance northern Eu-
musical work with three main sections: what life brings with impassive equa-
rope.
exposition, development, and recapitula- nimity.
teleology In philosophy, the study of an
tion, sometimes followed by a coda. stream of consciousness Modern liter- end and how it relates to the natural
Usually the form of the first and fourth ary technique that records the free flow processes leading up to it.
movements of a symphony. of a character’s mental impressions.
tempera (TEM-purr-uh) Paint made of
sonata From the Italian verb “to sound.” stupa Buddhist memorial monument in egg yolk and pigment.
Musical composition for one or two in- the shape of a mound.
tenebrism Painting technique that dra-
struments, usually in three or four Sufi Islamic mystic. matically contrasts light and dark and
movements. Compare cantata.
Sumo A style of Japanese wrestling in makes little use of middle tones.
song cycle Popularized during the nine- which the object is to push an opponent tenor In music, the range of the highest
teenth century by German Lied com- out of the ring or to throw him down male voice, which usually carries the
posers, a group of songs based on a within it. melody; also, the bottom, slower line of
single theme or story. an organum duplum.
superman In the philosophy of Friedrich
sonnet Renaissance lyric poetic form in- Nietzsche, the superior being, the over Teotihuacan Major Aztec city of central
vented by Petrarch in Italy and imitated or super person who is exempt from Mexico, just north of present-day Mex-
by English Renaissance poets, including legal and moral constraints that bind or- ico City.
Shakespeare. A sonnet includes fourteen dinary people. terra cotta Italian for “baked earth.” An
lines in iambic pentameter with one of
Surah Chapter in the Quran. orange-red baked clay used for pottery
two predominant structural and
Swahili People inhabiting the coast and or sculpture.
rhyming patterns: (1) the Italian or
Petrarchan sonnet comprising an islands of East Africa, and their lan- terza rima (turr-tsah-REE-ma) Poetry
eight-line octave and six-line sestet, with guage, which is widely used as a com- form consisting of three-line stanzas in
a rhyme pattern of abba abba cde cde, or mon language in that part of the which each stanza’s middle line rhymes
cd cd cd (or a variation on these); (2) the continent. with the first and third lines of the sub-
sequent stanza (aba, bcb, cdc, etc.).
English or Shakespearean sonnet swing Jazz style of big bands of the
comprising three quatrains and a con- 1930s and 1940s, usually fast and tessera (plural, tesserae) (TESS-ur-ah)
cluding couplet—typically rhyming arranged instead of improvised. Small cubes of stone or other material
abab cdcd efef gg. used in making a mosaic.
syllogism Form of deductive reasoning
Sophists Ancient Greek philosophers consisting of a major premise, a minor tetrarchy Area ruled by one of four
and teachers, less interested in the pur- premise, and a conclusion. For example, rulers, or tetrarchs.
suit of truth than in the use of clever All philosophers are mortal; Aristotle was a theme and variations form Organizing
rhetoric and argumentation. philosopher; Aristotle was mortal. structure for a musical work in which a
652 GLOSSARY

theme is presented and repeated several trompe-l’oeil (trump-LOY) French for vernacular Common language spoken in
more times, each time in a slightly var- “trick the eye.” An artistic effect that a particular country or region.
ied way. Often the form of the first and creates an optical illusion of reality. vibrato (vi-BRAHT-oh) In vocal or in-
fourth movements of a symphony. trope In music, a new word or phrase strumental music, a pulsing effect
theocracy Political entity ruled by a reli- added to an existing chant as an embel- achieved by slight, rapid variations in
gious figure or group claiming to have lishment. pitch.
divine authority. troubadour (TRUE-buh-door) Poet- Vishnu One of the central Hindu gods,
tholos Circular domed room built by musician of medieval southern France. worshipped as the protector and pre-
corbelled construction. trumeau In architecture, the vertical server of worlds.
post supporting a lintel and between volute Spiral scroll ornament, as on an
thrust In architecture, outward or lateral
pressure in a structure. two doors. Ionic capital.
tufa A porous whitish stone that is soft voussoirs Wedge-shaped stones that
toga Ancient Roman garment.
when cut but hardens after exposure to makes up a true arch.
tonal center Home key of a musical
air. waltz Ballroom dance in triple meter.
composition.
Tuscan order Ancient Roman order, warp Thick threads that run vertically on
tonality In music, the arrangement of all much like the Greek Doric order, with a loom and provide the structure for a
tones of a composition in relation to the the addition of a base. piece of fabric woven of the weft
central key, or tonic.
twelve-tone composition Musical com- threads.
Torah Hebrew for “instruction.” The position style developed by Schoenberg weft Threads that run horizontally on a
first five books of Hebrew scripture. that uses a twelve-note scale, which is loom and usually form the visible pat-
totem pole Post carved with animal and the traditional octave plus all internal tern on a piece of woven fabric.
spirit images and erected by some Na- half steps; each tone is used equally and westwork Monumental western entry-
tive Americans of northwest North in a highly organized manner. way in a Carolingian, Ottonian, or Ro-
America to memorialize the dead. tympanum Semicircular area above a manesque church.
tracery Elaborate pattern of interlacing window or door. white-ground ceramics (or white-
stone lines, especially in Gothic win- ukiyo-e Japanese for “pictures of the ground technique) Ancient Greek
dows. floating world.” Style of Japanese wood- pottery ware in which a white matte slip
tragedy Serious literary or theatrical block prints of the seventeenth and is painted over the surface of a reddish
work about a central character’s prob- eighteenth centuries noted for their clay vessel, with details painted on the
lems, with an unhappy ending. everyday subject matter. surface with a fine brush.
Transcendentalism Romantic philo- unities In Greek drama, and in attenu- whole tone; whole step In music, the
sophical theory that an ideal reality ated form in later Renaissance theater, interval between any two consecutive
transcends the material world, known the rules that a play’s action should take white keys on the piano, when a black
only through intuition, especially in na- place within a single day, at a single lo- key intervenes. A whole step is made up
ture. See also phenomena. cation, and focus on a single central of two half steps.
transept In architecture, the portion of plot. woodcut Print made by carving a design
the church at a right angle to the nave, vanishing point In linear perspective, a into a wooden block, inking the raised
between the nave and the choir, or point on the horizon line at which the surfaces, placing a piece of paper on the
apse. orthogonals appear to converge. See inked surface, and applying pressure to
drawing in Starter Kit on page xxix. transfer the ink to the paper.
treasury Building, room, or box for stor-
ing valuables or offerings. vault Arched masonry roof or ceiling. A woodwind instrument Musical instru-
barrel (or tunnel) vault is an uninter- ment, such as a flute or clarinet, played
triclinium Dining room in an ancient
rupted semicircular vault made of a se- by blowing through a reed or mouth-
Roman home, named for the three
ries of arches. A cross or groin vault is piece attached to the main body of the
couches on which the diners reclined.
created by the intersection of two barrel instrument.
triforium In architecture, the elevated vaults set at right angles. A ribbed vault
galleries above the aisles of a chuch or word painting In Renaissance music, a
is a form of groin vault in which the groins composition style that emphasizes the
cathedral. formed by the intersection of curved sides meaning of words through the accom-
triglyphs Part of the entablature of are reinforced with raised ribs. See draw- panying music. For example, the word
Doric order. Triglyphs have three (tri) ing in Starter Kit on page xxix. “weep” might be expressed by a de-
sections and alternate with metopes. Vedas The oldest sacred Hindu writings, scending melodic line.
triptych Painting or relief consisting of composed 1500-1000 B.c.£. by the yakshis In Hinduism, local nature spir-
three panels, with the side panels hinged Aryans in present-day India. its represented on temple gates in the
so they can be folded over the center vellum Thinnest, finest parchment. form of shapely females.
panel. veneer In architecture, a thin layer of yin and yang The Chinese dualistic
triumphal arch Grand freestanding high-quality material used as a surface, philosophical image that represents si-
gateway with a large arch. often covering inferior materials. multaneous contrast and complement.
trivium Program of grammar, logic, and verisimilitude (ver-uh-si-MILL-uh-tude) The yin form represents the passive,
rhetoric in medieval universities. Appearance of being true to reality. negative, feminine, dark, and earthly;
 GLOSSARY 653

the yang form represents the light, mas- |Zen Buddhism Chinese and Japanese ziggurat In ancient Near Eastern archi-
culine, positive, constructive, and heav- form of Buddhism that emphasizes en- tecture, a monumental stepped base
enly. The two are in perpetual interplay. lightenment achieved by self-awareness made of brick, to support a temple.
zazen Meditation as practiced in Zen and meditation instead of by adherence
Buddhism. to a set religious doctrine.
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 Picture Credits and Further Information
Introduction ALINARI/Art Resource, NY; 3.17 Museo Nacionale Ro- The National Palace Museum; 8.9 The National Palace
0.1 Nasjonalmuseet for Kunst/Nasjonalgalleriet, Oslo. © mano, Rome/Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Munich, Germany; 3.18 Museum; 8.10 Robert Newcombe/The Nelson-Atkins
2003 The Munch Museum/The Munch-Ellingsen Group/ Staatliche Antikensammlungen und Glyptothek, Munich, Museum of Art, Kansas City, MO; 8.11 Dorling Kinders-
Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY/ADAGP, Paris. J. Lath- Germany; 3.19 Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden ley Media Library. © Judith Miller & Dorling Kindersley
ion/© Nasjonalgalleriet; 0.3 Robert Harding World Museum, Germany; 3.20 A. F. Kersting; 3.21 Johannes & Cheffins; 8.12 The National Palace Museum, Taiwan,
Imagery Laurentius/Antiken, Staat Museen zu Berlin, Germany/ Republic of China
Chapter One Art Rerource/Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz; 3.22 Chapter Nine
1.1 AKG London Ltd.; 1.2 © Archivo Iconografico, Antikensammlung, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Ger- 9.1 The Cleveland Museum of Art, John L. Severenance
S.A./Corbis/Bettmann; 1.3 Berna Villiers/Douglas Ma- many, Art Resource/Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz; Fund; 9.2 Tokyo National Museum/DNP Archives.com
zonowicz; 1.4 Aerofilms; 1.5 Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Munich, 3.23 Art Resource/Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz;
Co., Ltd/http://TnmArchives.jp/; 9.3 Courtesy of JICC
Germany; 1.6 Fletcher Fund, 1940, The Metropolitan 3.24 Musée du Louvre/Reunion des Musées Nationaux/
Japan Information & Cultural Center/Embassy of Japan,
Museum of Modern Art, NY; 1.7 The British Museum; Eric Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 3.25 Museo Pio Clemen- London; 9.4 Courtesy of JICC Japan Information & Cul-
1.8 Herve Lewandowski/Musée du Louvre/Reunion Des tino, Musei Vaticani, Rome. Reunion des Musées
tural Center/Embassy of Japan, London; 9.5 The Toku-
' Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY; 1.9 Herve Nationaux (RMN)/Art Resource, NY
gawa Reimeikai Foundation; 9.6 Werner Forman/Art
Lewandowski/Musée du Louvre/Reunion Des Musées Chapter Four Resource, NY; 9.7 The Art Archive/Laurie Platt Winfrey.
Nationaux/Art Resource, NY; 1.10 The Metropolitan 4.1 Tourist Organization of Greece; 4.2 SCALA/Art Re- Picture Desk, Inc./Kobal Collection; 9.8 Bill Tingrey/
Museum of Art, NY; 1.11 The British Museum; 1.12 The source, NY; 4.3 Robert Harding World Imagery; 4.4 Arcaid
British Museum; 1.13 Reinhard Saczewski/Vorderasiatis- Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Munich, Germany; 4.5 ALINARI/Art Chapter Ten
ches Museum/Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Preussischer Resource, NY; 4.6 SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 4.7 A. FE.
Kulturbesitz, Vorderasiatiches Museum, Berlin, Ger-
10.1 South American Pictures; 10.2 © Danny
Kersting; 4.8 A. F. Kersting; 4.9 A. F. Kersting; 4.10 Lehman/CORBIS, NY. All Rights Reserved; 10.3 George
many/Art Resource, NY; 1.14 Comstock Images; 1.15 Musei Capitolini, Rome, Italy. Photograph © SCALA/Art Gerster/Photo Researchers, Inc.; 10.4 University of Penn-
Musée du Louvre/Reunion de Musées Nationaux/Art Re- Resource NY; 4.11 Bernard Regent/Hutchison Picture sylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology; 10.5
source, NY; 1.16 Courtesy of the Oriental Institute Mu- Library; 4.12 Mike Dunning © Dorling Kindersley; 4.13 South American Pictures; 10.6 © Merle Green Robert-
seum/University of Chicago; 1.17 Egyptian Museum, © SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 4.14 Richard Carafelli. son, 1976/Howard Tilton Memorial Library; 10.7 South
Cairo/Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Munich, Germany; 1.18 The Samuel H. Kress Collection. Photograph © 2001 Board American Pictures; 10.8 Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana;
British Museum; 1.19 Picture Desk, Inc./Kobal Collec- of Trustees, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC; 10.9 George Gerster/Photo Researchers, Inc.; 10.10
tion/The Art Archive/Dagli Orti; 1.20 Peter Wilson © 4.15 Vatican Museums, Rome, Italy; 4.17 ALINARI/Art Buckingham Fund. Photograph © 2005, The Art Institute
Dorling Kindersley; 1.21 Petera A. Clayton; 1.22 Harvard Resource, NY; 4.19 ALINARI/Art Resource, NY; 4.20 of Chicago. All Rights Reserved; 10.11 Dagli Orti. Picture
University-Boston Museum of Fine Arts; 1.23 Egyptian Samuel D. Lee Fund. Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY; Desk, Inc./Kobal Collection; 10.12 South American Pic-
Museum, Cairo/Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Munich, Germany; 4.21 Janetta Rebold Benton, Prof. of Fine Arts, Pace Uni- tures; 10.13 National Archives of Canada; 10.14 Robert
1.24 A. F. Kersting; 1.25 Egyptian Tourist Authority; 1.26 versity; 4.22 Araldo de Luca Archives/Index Ricerca Harding World Imagery; 10.15 George Gerster/Photo
The British Museum; 1.27 Robert Harding World Im- Iconografica; 4.23 ALINARI/Art Resource, NY; 4.24 Researchers, Inc.; 10.16 Jack Jackson/Robert Harding
agery; 1.28 The British Museum; 1.29 The British Mu- SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 4.25 C. M. Dixon; 4.26 World Imagery; 10.17 Kal Muller/Woodfin Camp & As-
seum; 1.30 Art Resource/Bildarchiv Preussischer Rogers Fund, 1903. Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY; sociates; 10.18 Gift of Klaus G. Perls. Metropolitan Mu-
Kulturbesitz, Berlin, Germany; 1.31 Art Resource/Bil- 4.27 SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 4.28 Fotografica Foglia seum of Art, NY; 10.19 David Garner/Dorling
darchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin, Germany; 1.32
Chapter Five Kindersley. © Exeter City Museums & Art Gallery, Royal
Egyptian Museum, Cairo/Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Munich,
5.1 Canali PhotoBank, 5.2 Israel Ministry of Tourism, Albert Memorial Museum; 10.20 Robert Aberman/Bar-
Germany; 1.33 Stephan Petegorsky/Smith College Mu-
North America; 5.5 Canali PhotoBank, Milan/Super- bara Heller. Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY
seum of Art
Stock, Inc.; 5.7 Kim Sayer © Dorling Kindersley; 5.8 Chapter Eleven
Chapter Two C. M. Dixon; 5.9 SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 5.10 ALI- 11.1 The British Museum; 11.2 By permission of The
2.1 Gift of Christas—G. Bastis. The Metropolitan Museum NARI/Art Resource, NY; 5.11 ALINARI/Art Resource,
of Art, NY; 2.2 Archaeological Museum of Herakleion/
British Library; 11.3 The Bridgeman Art Library Interna-
NY; 5.12 Dagli Orti. Picture Desk, Inc./Kobal Collection; tional; 11.4 © Achim Bednorz, Koln; 11.5 Bibliotheque
Museum of Prehistoric Thera, Crete, Greece; 2.3 The 5.13 SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 5.14 SCALA/Art Re- Nationale de France; 11.6 Stiftsbibliothek, St. Gallen,
Ancient Art & Architecture Collection Ltd.; 2.4 Egyptian source, NY; 5.15 Cameraphoto Arte, Venice/SCALA/Art Switzerland; 11.7 The Pierpont Morgan Library/Art Re-
Tourist Authority; 2.5 The Ancient Art & Architecture Resource, NY; 5.16 Sonia Halliday Photographs; 5.18 source, NY; 11.8 Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna,
Collection Ltd.; 2.6 Archeological Museum, Iraklion, Walter B. Denny; 5.19 Gavin Hellier/Nature Picture Li- Austria; 11.9 Centre Guillaume Le Conquerant/By special
Crete, Greece/Studio Kontos Photostock; 2.7 Archaeo- brary; 5.20 SuperStock, Inc.; 5.21 Cameraphoto Arte di permission of the City of Bayeux; 11.10 YAN/Jean
logical Museum of Herakleion, Crete, Greece; 2.8 Ar- Codato G. P. & C.sne; 5.22 Samuel H. Kress Collection. Dieuzaide; 11.12 CAISSE/Societe des Auteurs des Arts
chaeological Museum of Herakleion, Crete, Greece; 2.9 Margarite d’Arezzo. Photograph © Board of Trustees, Visuels; 11.13 SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 11.14 David Ja-
C. M. Dixon/Archaeological Museum of Herakleion, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC cobs/Robert Harding World Imagery; 11.15 SCALA/Art
Crete, Greece, 2.10 A. F. Kersting; 2.11 Dagli Orti/
Chapter Six Resource, NY; 11.16 © Achim Bednorz, Koln; 11.17 Paul
Picture Desk, Inc./Kobal Collection; 2.12 National
6.1 Courtesy of Edinburgh University Library; 6.2 Robert M. R. Maeyaert, Photographie; 11.18 The Ancient Art
Archeological Museum, Athens/Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Mu-
Frerck/Robert Harding World Imagery; 6.4 Spectrum & Architecture Collection, Ltd.; 11.19 Vienna Tourist
nich, Germany; 2.13 Studio Kontos Photostock; 2.14 The
Pictures; 6.5 A. F. Kersting; 6.6 Dagli Orti (A)/Picture Information Bureau. Courtesy of Foto Ritter, Vienna/
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1914. Pho- Klosterneuburg Abbey, Austria
Desk, Inc./Kobal Collection; 6.7 Walter Bibikow. Getty
tograph © 1996 The Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY;
Images, Inc.—Taxi; 6.8 Patricio Goycoolea/Hutchison Pic- Chapter Twelve
2.15 Staatliche Museum, Berlin, Germany/Art Re-
ture Library; 6.9 The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Is- 12.2 Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Munich, Germany; 12.3 ©
source/Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz; 2.16 Herve
lamic Art. Photographer © NOUR Foundation © SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 12.4 Spectrum Pictures; 12.5
Lewandowski/Musée du Louvre, Paris. Reunion des
Copyright The British Museum; 6.10 Courtesy of the © Angelo Hornak, London/A. F. Kersting; 12.6 A. F Ker-
Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY; 2.17 The British
Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washing- sting; 12.8 De Agostina Editore Picture Library; 12.9
Museum; 2.18 © SCALA/Art Resource, NY, Museo Gre-
ton, DC; 6.11 Francis Bartlett Donation and Picture Sonia Halliday Photographs; 12.10 Giraudon/The
goriano Etrusco, Vatican Museums, Vatican State; 2.19
Fund. Reproduced with Permission © 2005 Museum of Bridgeman Art Library International; 12.11 A. F Ker-
Purchase Fund 1978. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Fine Arts, Boston. All Rights Reserved; 6.12 Bodleian Li-
NY; 2.20 Purchase, Bequest of Joseph H. Durkee, Gift of sting; 12.12 British Tourist Authority; 12.13 © Guido Al-
brary, University of Oxford berto Rossi/TIPS Images North America; 12.14 Janetta
Darius Ogden Mills and Gift of C. Ruston Love, by ex-
change, 1972. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY, Chapter Seven Rebold Benton, Prof. of Fine Arts, Pace University; 12.15
2.21 American Academy in Rome; 2.22 Fletcher Fund, 7.1 The Cleveland Museum of Art, Purchase from the Spectrum Pictures; 12.16 A. F Kersting; 12.17 Janetta Re-
1932. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY; 2.23 Alison J. H. Wade Fund; 7.2 The Nasli and Alice Heeramaneck bold Benton, Prof. of Fine Arts, Pace University; 12.18
Frantz Photographic Collection, American School of Collection, Gift of Paul Mellon. Katherine Wetzel/Vir- Janetta Rebold Benton, Prof. of Fine Arts, Pace Univer-
Classical Studies at Athens ginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond; 7.3 A. F. Kersting; sity; 12.19 Giraudon/Bibliotheque Nationale de France;
7.4 Dale Williams; 7.5 A. F. Kersting; 7.6 The Adolph D. 12.20 Janetta Rebold Benton, Prof. of Fine Arts, Pace
Chapter Three University; 12.21 Sonia Halliday Photographs; 12.22 Gift
and Wilkins C. Williams Fund. Katherine Wetzel/Vir-
3.1 Spectrum Pictures; 3.3 Bill Bachmann/PhotoEdit,
ginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond; 7.7 A. F. Kersting; of John D. Rockefeller,Jr.,1937. Cloisters Collection,
Inc.; 3.4 The British Museum; 3.5 Hirmer Fotoarchiv,
7.8 Dinodia Picture Agency; 7.9 A. F. Kersting; 7.10 Di- Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY; 12.23 SCALA/Art Re-
Munich, Germany; 3.6 Herve Lewandowski/Musée du
nesh Khanna © Dorling Kindersley; 7.11 Von der Heydt source, NY; 12.24 SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 12.25
Louvre, Paris/Reunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Re-
Collection/Museum Rietberg, Zurich; 7.12 Redferns SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 12.26 SCALA/Art Resource,
source, NY; 3.7 A. F. Kersting; 3.8 A. F. Kersting; 3.9 Ali- NY; 12.27 Index Ricerca Iconografica; 12.28 SCALA/Art
Music Picture Library
son Frantz Photographic Collection, American School of
Resource, NY; 12.29 SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 12.30
Classical Studies at Athens; 3.10 Acropolis Museum/ Chapter Eight
SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 12.31 By permission of The
Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Munich, Germany; 3.11 Museo Arch- 8.1 Copyright © The British Museum Great Court, Ltd.;
British Library, London
elogico Nazionale, Naples, Italy. SCALA/Art Resource, 8.2 Hubei Provincial Museum, Wuhan/China Pictorial
NY; 3.12 Musei Vaticani, Rome/SCALA/Art Resource, Photo Service, Beijing; 8.4 National Geographic Image Chapter Thirteen
NY; 3.13 Museo Nazionale Romano delle Terme, Rome, Collection; 8.5 Werner Forman Archive Ltd.; 8.6 Tokyo 13.1 SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 13.2 Galleria degli Uffizi,
Italy. SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 3.14 Anderson-Roma/ National Museum DNP Archives.com Co., Ltd.; 8.7 © Florence. SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 13.3 Bodleian Li-
Art Resource, NY; 3.15 ALINARI/Art Resource, NY; 3.16 National Palace Museum, Taiwan, Republic of China; 8.8 brary, University of Oxford; 13.4 SCALA/Art Resource,

655
656 PICTURE CREDITS AND FURTHER INFORMATION

NY; 13.6 Ralph Lieberman/Canali PhotoBank; 13.7 ALI- Gift of Wallace and Wilhelmina Holladay; 15.20 Jean tional Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, DC,
NARI/Art Resource, NY; 13.8 SCALA/Art Resource, NY; Lewandowski, Musée du Louvre, Paris/Reunion des Gift of the Holladay Foundation; 17.31 Peter
13.9 SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 13.10 Museo Nazionale Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY; 15.21 Derechos Bennet/Ambient Images; 17.32 Smithsonian American
del Bargello, Florence. SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 13.11 reservados © Museo Nacional Del Prado, Madrid; 15.22 Art Museum, Washington, DC/Art Resource, NY; 17.33
Museo dell’Opera del Duomo, Florence. SCALA/Art Re- Musée du Louvre, Paris/Reunion des Musées Na- Ulrike Welsch Photography
source, NY; 13.12 SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 13.13 tionaux/Art Resource, NY; 15.23 Erich Lessing/Art Re- Chapter Eighteen
SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 13.14 Galleria degli Uffizi, source, NY, Museo del Prado, Madrid; 15.24 Erich 18.1 Erich Lessing/(ARS) Artists Rights Society, NY/©
Florence. SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 13.15 Galleria degli Lessing/Bodleian Library, University of Oxford; 15.25 Estate of Claude Monet; 18.2 Musée d’Orsay, Paris/Re-
Uffizi, Florence. SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 13.16 Derechos reservados © Museo Nacional Del Prado, union des Musées Nationaux, B. Hatala/Art Resource,
SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 13.17 Galleria degli Uffizi, Madrid; 15.26 Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY; 15.27 NY; 18.3 Musée du Louvre/Art Resource, NY © 2004
Florence. SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 13.18 Galleria degli The Norton Simon Foundation; 15.28 James Austin/Art (ARS) Artists Rights Society, NY; 18.4 © The National
Uffizi, Florence. SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 13.19 Resource/Musée du Louvre; 15.29 Massimo Listri/COR- Gallery, London; 18.5 © The National Gallery, London;
SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 13.20 SuperStock, Inc.; 13.21 BIS, NY; 15.30 A. F. Kersting; 15.31 Robert Harding/ 18.6 Chester Dale Collection. Photograph © Board of
© Musée du Louvre/Reunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY; 15.32 The Crosby Trustees, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC; 18.7
Resource, NY; 13.22; ALINARI/Art Resource, NY; 13.23 Brown Collection of Musical Instruments/Embassy of Musée d’Orsay, Paris/Reunion des Musées Nationaux,
Giancarlo Costa/Brera Gallery, Milan. Ministero per i Mexico; 15.33 The Bancroft Library; 15.34 The Bancroft Jean Schormans/Art Resource, NY; 18.8 Janetta Rebold
Beni e le Attivita Culturali; 13.24 Kunsthistorisches Mu- Library; 15.35 Museum ofScience, Florence, SCALA/Art Benton, Prof. of Fine Arts, Pace University; 18.9 Acquired
seum, Vienna. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 13.25 Resource, NY 1925, The Phillips Collection, Washington, DC; 18.10
Vatican Museums, Rome, Italy; 13.26 Araldo de Luca/ Chapter Sixteen Chester Dale Collection. Photograph © Board of
Fabbrica di San Pietro. Vatican Museums, Rome, Italy; 16.1 Musée du Louvre, Paris, Reunion des Musées Na- Trustees, National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC; 18.11
13.27 SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 13.28 Bridgeman Art tionaux/Art Resource, NY; 16.2 Giraudon/Art Resource, Helen Birch Bartlett Memorial Collection. Photograph ©
Library International; 13.29 Vatican Museums, Rome, NY; 16.3 Musée du Louvre, Paris, Reunion des Musées 2005, The Art Institute of Chicago, All Rights Reserved;
Italy; 13.30 ALINARI/Art Resource, NY; 13.31 Janetta Nationaux, Gerard Blott/Art Resource, NY; 16.4 Musée 18.12 Bequest of Stephen Carlton Clark, B. A., 1903. Yale
Rebold Benton, Prof. of Fine Arts, Pace University; 13.33 du Louvre, Paris, Reunion des Musées Nationaux, Gabriel University Art Gallery, New Haven, CT; 18.13 Acquired
ALINARI/Art Resource, NY; 13.34 Cameraphoto Arte di Ojeda/Art Resource, NY; 16.5 Frick Art Reference Li- through the Lillie P. Bliss Bequest, The Museum of Mod-
Codato G.P. & C.snc; 13.35 Erich Lessing/Museo del brary/The Frick Collection, NY; 16.6 G. Blot/C. Jean, ern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 18.14
Prado, Madrid, Spain/Art Resource, NY; 13.36J.G. Musée du Louvre, Paris, Reunion des Musées Na- A. Conger Goodyear Collection, Albright—Knox Art
Berizzi. Musée du Louvre, Paris/Reunion des Musées Na- tionaux/Art Resource, NY/Musée d’Orsay; 16.7 Reunion Gallery, Buffalo; 18.15 Gift of Thomas F. Ryan, Metro-
tionaux, France/Art Resource, NY; 13.37 Uffizi Gallery, des Musées Nationaux, RMN/Art Resource, NY; 16.8 Ets politan Museum of Art, NY; 18.16 Rodin Museum, Paris,
Florence, ALINARI/Art Resource, NY; 13.38 © The Na- J. E. Bulloz; 16.9 © The National Gallery, London; 16.10 France; 18.17 Bayerisch Staatsgemaldesammlungen/Alte
tional Gallery Company, Ltd., London; 13.39 San Gior- Musée du Louvre, Paris/Reunion des Musées Nationaux, Pinakothek, Munich; 18.18 Emil Boehl/Missouri Histori-
gio Maggiore, Venice. SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 13.40 Herve Lewandowski/Art Resource, NY; 16.11 Andrew W. cal Society, St. Louis; 18.19 Copyright © 2005 Artists
Archivo Fotographico Oronoz, Madrid; 13.41 Larry Mellon Collection. Photograph © Board of Trustees, Na- Rights Society (ARS), NY/SOFAM, Brussels. Photo by
Sander, Milwaukee Art Museum. Gift of the Family of tional Gallery of Art, Washington, DC; 16.12 London Ch. Bastin & J. Evrard; 18.20 Gala/SuperStock, Inc.;
Mrs. Fred Vogel, Jr.; 13.42 National Museum of Women County Council, Kenwood House (Iveagh Bequest). Eng- 18.20 Gala/SuperStock, Inc.
in the Arts, Washington, DC. Gift of Wallace and Wil- lish Heritage/National Monuments Record, London;
helmina Holladay; 13.43 Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vi- Chapter Nineteen
16.13 © Musée du Louvre/RMN Reunion des Musées 19.1 National Palace Museum, Taipei, Taiwan; 19.2 Ming
enna, Austria; 13.44 SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 13.45 Nationaux/Art Resource, NY; 16.14 Virginia Museum of
Furniture Ltd., Inc.; 19.3 The Minneapolis Institute of
SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 13.46 Janetta Rebold Benton, Fine Arts, Richmond. The Adolph D. and Wilkins C.
Prof. of Fine Arts, Pace University Arts, Gift of Ruth and Bruce Dayton; 19.4 The Nelson-
Williams Fund. Photo: Katherine Wetzel; 16.15 Gift of
Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, MO; 19.5 © The
Chapter Fourteen Mrs. George von Lengerke Meyer. Reproduced with per- Cleveland Museum of Art, John L. Severence Fund; 19.6
14.1 The Cloisters Collection, Metropolitan Museum of mission. © Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. All Rights Re-
Bequest of John M. Crawford, Jr./Photograph © 1995
Art, NY; 14.2 © St. Baafskathedraal, Gent/© Paul M. R. served; 16.16 The Library ofVirginia; 16.17 Janetta The Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY; 19.7 Stephen Ad-
Maeyert Photographie; 14.3 © St. Baafskathedraal, Robold Benton, Prof. of Fine Arts, Pace University; 16.18
diss/Hsaio Hua Collection; 19.8 ChinaStock Photo Li-
Gent/© Paul M. R. Maeyert Photographie; 14.4 Erich Paul M. R. Maeyaert, Photographie; 16.19 © David R. brary; 19.9 © Liu Liqun, CORBIS/Bettmann; 19.11
Lessing/Art Resource, NY; 14.5 Museo del Prado, Frazier Photolibrary, Inc./Alamy Images; 16.20 Photo-
Photostage, Ltd.; 9.12 Jack Vartoogian/Photograph ©
Madrid/The Bridgeman Art Library International, 14.6 stage, Ltd.
2002 Linda Vartoogian/FrontRowPhotos. All Rights
Derechos reservados © Museo Nacional Del Prado, Chapter Seventeen Reserved
Madrid; 14.7 Uffizi Gallery, Florence. Cranach. SCALA/ 17.1 Hamburger Kunsthalle, Hamburg, Germany, Bild-
Art Resource, NY; 14.8 Galleria Nazionale d’Arte Antica, Chapter Twenty
archiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY; 17.2
Rome. SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 14.9 Alte Pinakothek, 20.1 Tokyo National Museum, DNP Archives.com Co.,
Derechos reservados © Museo Nacional Del Prado,
Munich, Germany/A. K. G., Berlin/SuperStock, Inc.; Ltd.; 20.2 Stephen Addiss/Chikusei Collection; 20.3 New
Madrid; 17.3 © Copyright The British Museum, London;
14.10 Gift of Junius S. Morgan, Metropolitan Museum of York Public Library Photographic Services/Art Resource,
17.4 Herve Lewandowski, Musée du Louvre, Paris/Re-
Art, NY; 14.11 Philadelphia Museum of Art, 14.12 Musée NY; 20.4 Private Collection/Art Resource, NY; 20.5 Art
union des Musées Nationaux; 17.5 Musée du Louvre,
du Louvre, Paris. Reunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Re- Resource, NY; 20.6 Spectrum Pictures; 20.7 Spectrum
Paris/Reunion des Musées Nationaux, Herve
source, NY; 14.13 © The National Gallery Company Pictures; 20.8 Catherine Karnow/CORBIS/Bettmann;
Lewandowski/Art Resource, NY; 17.6 Musée du Louvre,
Ltd.; 14.14 Rogers Fund, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Paris/Reunion Musées Nationaux, Art Resource, NY; 17.7
20.9 Photograph © 2003 Jack Vartoogian/FrontRowPho-
NY; 14.15 Erich Lessing/Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vi- Fitzwilliam Museum; 17.8 © The National Gallery, Lon- tos, All Rights Reserved
enna/Art Resource, NY; 14.16 Nils-Johan Norenlind/ don; 17.9 Henry Lillie Pierce Fund. Reproduced with Chapter Twenty-One
AGE Fotostock America, Inc.; 14.17 © Eric Crichton/ permission. © 2005 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. All 21.1 Collection of Mrs. Walter A. Haas, San Francisco,
CORBIS, NY. All Rights Reserved; 14.18 The Royal Col- Rights Reserved; 17.10 Gift of Douglas F. Roby. Detroit Visual Arts Library/Artephot/Faillet, © Succession H.
lection © 2004 Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, Royal Institute of Arts; 17.11 Lent by the Department of the In- Matisse/DACS 1998, © 2005 Artists Rights Society
Collection Enterprises Ltd.; 14.19 Reproduced by permis- terior Museum. Smithsonian American Art Museum, (ARS), NY; 21.2 The State Hermitage Museum, St. Pe-
sion of The Huntington Library Art Collections and Botan- Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC/Art Resource, tersburg, Russia, © 2005 Artists Rights Society (ARS),
ical Gardens, San Marino, California; 14.20 Giraudon/The NY; 17.12 EtsJ.E. Bulloz; 17.13 Ed Pritchard, Getty Im- NY; 21.3 Acquired through the Lillie P. Bliss
Bridgeman Art Library International; 14.21 C. Walter ages, Inc.—Stone Allstock; 17.14 Robert Harding Associ- Bequest/Digital Image © The Museum of Modern
Hodges, “Shakespeare and the Players,” London 1948 ates; 17.15 By permission of The British Library; 17.16 Art/Licensed/SCALA, Art Resource/Musée Picasso; 21.4
Chapter Fifteen The British Museum Great Court Ltd. Copyright © The Kunstmuseum, Basel, Switzerland, © 2005 Artists Rights
15.1 Janetta Rebold Benton, Prof. of Fine Arts, Pace Uni- British Museum; 17.17 By courtesy of the National Por- Society (ARS), NY, © ADAGP, Paris and DACS, London,
versity; 15.3 © Gianni Dagli Orti/CORBIS/Bettmann,; trait Gallery, London; 17.18 Photostage, Ltd.; 17.19 1998; 21.5 Musée Picasso, Paris/Reunion des Musées Na-
15.4 Araldo de Luca/Embassy of Italy; 15.5 Araldo de Charles Deering Fund, Photograph © 2005, The Art In- tionaux, Art Resource, NY. © 2005 Estate of Pablo Pi-
Luca/Embassy of Italy; 15.6 SCALA/Art Resource, NY; stitute of Chicago, All Rights Reserved; 17.20 Musée casso/Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY; 21.6 Musée
15.7 Musei Vaticani, Pinacoteca, Rome, SCALA/Art Re- d’Orsay, Paris, France. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY; National d’Art Moderne. Centre National d’Art et de
source, NY; 15.8 Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, 17.21 Herve Lewandowski. © Musée d’Orsay, Paris, Culture. Georges Pompidou. Philippe Migeat/Reunion
SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 15.9 National Museum of France/Reunion des Musées Nationaux, Art Resource, des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY; 21.7 The Tate
Women in the Arts, Washington, DC, Gift of Wallace NY; 17.22 Musée d’Orsay, Paris/Giraudon, Paris/Super- Gallery, London © 2005 Artists Rights Society (ARS),
and Wilhelmina Holladay. Conservation funds generously Stock, Inc.; 17.23 Gift of Mrs. Frank B. Porter. Photo- NY; 21.8 Stiftung Seebull Ada und Emil Nolde; 21.9 Pho-
provided by the Southern California State Committee of graph © 1985 The Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY; tograph © 2005, The Art Institute of Chicago, All Rights
the National Museum of the Arts; 15.10 SCALA/Art Re- 17.24 Purchased by the Friends of Art, Fort Worth Art Reserved/© 2005 Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY; 21.10
source, NY; 15.11 SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 15.12 Association, acquired by Amon Carter Museum, from the Philadelphia Museum of Art, © DACS 1998/© 2005
Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam; 15.13 Nationalmuseum, Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth through grants and Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY; 21.11 Ville de Geneve.
Stockholm, 15.14 Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam; 15.15 Met- donations; 17.25 National Museum of Women in the Jean—Marc Yersin/Musée d’Art et d’Histoire, Geneva,
ropolitan Museum of Art, NY, bequest of Mrs. H. O. Arts, Washington, DC, Gift of Wallace and Wilhelmina Switzerland/© 2005 Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY;
Havermeyer, The H. O. Havermeyer Collection; 15.16 Holladay; 17.26 By courtesy of the National Portrait 21.12 Photograph by Alfred Stieglitz/© Philadelphia Mu-
Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, The Hague; 15.17 Gallery, London; 17.27 Courtesy of the Library of Con- seum of Art: The Louise and Walter Arensberg Collec-
Widener Collection, © Board of Trustees, National gress; 17.28 Philadelphia Museum ofArt/City of Philadel- tion; 21.13 Musées Nationaux Paris/© Succession
Gallery of Art, Washington, DC; 15.18 Gift of Henry G. phia, Trade & Convention Center, Dept. of Commerce Picasso/DACS 1998. Art Resource, NY/© 2005 Estate of
Marquand, Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY; 15.19 Na- (Commercial Museum); 17.29 Museum of Modern Art, Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY; 21.14
tional Museum of Women in the Arts, Washington, DC. NY/Licensed by SCALA, Art Resource, NY; 17.30 Na- Courtesy Wadsworth Atheneum, Hartford, Connecti-
 PICTURE CREDITS AND FURTHER INFORMATION 657

cut/© 2005 Artist Rights Society (ARS), NY. ADAGP, authorized by the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes y Lit- NY; 23.12 The Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY,
Paris/DACS, London 1998; 21.15 Digital Image © The eratura. The Detroit Institute of Arts; 21.40 Photostage, Fletcher Fund, 1953; 23.13 Museum Ludwig, Koln.
Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art Re- Ltd.; 21.41 Max Jones Archive/Courtesy of the Library of Rheinisches Bildarchiv, Koln. © Robert
source, NY. Given anonymously. © 2002 Kingdom of Congress Rauschenberg/Licensed by VAGA, NY; 23.14 © 2005
Spain. © 2005 Salvador Dali, Gala-Salvador Dali Founda- Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY/Art Resource, NY;
tion/Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY; 21.16 Purchase.
Chapter Twenty-Two
23.15 Tate Gallery, London, UK/Art Resource, NY/©
The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA-Art 22.1 Lemzaouda/Musée du Quai Branley. Reserved 2003 The Andy Warhol foundation for the Visual
Rights; 22.2 Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, Gift of
Resource, NY. © 2007 ARS Artists Rights Society, NY; Arts/ARS, NY. ™ 2002 Marilyn Monroe, LLC under li-
Vivian Burns, Inc.; 22.3 The Metropolitan Museum of
21.17 Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, Giraudon/Art Re- cense authorized by CMG Worldwide, Inc., Indianapolis,
Art, The Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Collection,
source, NY/© 2004 Mondrian/Holtzman Trust; 21.18 Li- IN; 23.16 The Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by
Gift of Adrian Pascal LaGamma; 22.4 © Sandro Vannini/
censed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY. Photograph © 2000 SCALA/Art Resource, NY. Philip Johnson Fund and gift
The Museum of Modern Art, NY. Given anonymously; Corbis; 22.5 DennisJ.Nervig/Fowler Museum of Cul- of Mr. and Mrs. Bagley Wright. Photograph © 2005 The
21.19 The Tate Gallery, London, UK/Art Resource, NY.
tural History, UCLA; 22.6 Damian Bayon/Museo de Arte Museum of Modern Art, NY; 23.17 Philip Johnson Fund,
Hatun Rumiyoc, Cuzco, Peru/Embassy of Peru; 22.7
Copyright © Henry Moore Foundation; 21.20 The Museum of Modern Art, NY/Licensed by SCALA/Art
Henry Moore Foundation/Tate Picture Gallery, London, Photo by Dr. Desmond Rochfort/© Estate of David Al- Resource, NY; 23.18 Whitney Museum of American Art,
faro Siqueiros/SOMAAP/Licensed by VAGA, NY. Repro-
UK; 21.21 Museum of Modern Art, NY/Licensed by NY/Art © Marisol Escobar/Licensed by VAGA, NY;
SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 21.22 Anthony Scibilia/Art
duction authorized by the Instituto Nacional de Bellas 23.19 © Jack Mitchell/St. Louis Art Museum, MO; 23.20
Resource, NY © 2001 Artists Rights Society (ARS),
Artes y Literatura; 22.8 Museo Nacional de Arte Mod- Photo by Jack Mitchell. Cunningham Dance Foundation,
erno/© 2001 Banco de Mexico Diego Rivera & Frida
NY/ADAGBP, Paris/FLC; 21.23 Scott Frances/Esto Pho- DACS, 1998/VAGA, NY 1998; 23.21 © 2005 ARS,
tographics, Inc.; 21.24 Set by Isamu Noguchi, 1935/©
Kahlo Museums Trust/Av. Cinco de Mayo No. 2, Col. NY/Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto; 23.22 © Tate
Centro, Del. Cuauhtemoc 06059, Mexico, D. F. Repro-
ADAGBP, Paris and DACS, London 1998; 21.25 Smith- Gallery, London/Art Resource, NY; 23.23 Scott Mur-
duction authorized by the Instituto Nacional de Bellas
sonian American Art Museum, Washington, DC/© 2005 phy/Ambient Images; 23.24 Musée National d’Art Mod-
Artes y Literatura. Bob Schalkwijk/Art Resource, NY,
Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY; 21.26 Ferdinand How- erne/Centre National d’Art et de Culture/Georges
22.9 Inter-American Fund, Museum of Modern Art,
land Collection, Columbus Gallery of Fine Arts, Ohio; Pompidou. Reunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource,
NY/Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY, © 2005
21.27 Photofest; 21.28 Stedelijk Van Abbemuseum, Eind- NY; 23.25 Tim Street-Porter/Esto Photographics, Inc.
Artists Rights Society (ARS), NY; 22.10 Inter-American
hoven © DACS 1998; 21.29 Museo Nacinal Centro de
Fund, Museum of Modern Art, NY/Licensed by Chapter Twenty-Four
Arts Reina Sofia, Madrid/John Bigelow Taylor/Art Re-
SCALA/Art Resource, NY, © 2005 Artists Rights Society
source, NY © 2005 Estate of Pablo Picasso/Artists Rights 24.1 Courtesy of Cindy Sherman and Metro Pictures; 24.2
Society (ARS), NY; 21.30 Courtesy of the Library of Con- (ARS), NY Collection of the Brooklyn Museum of Art, Gift of the
gress; 21.31 Courtesy of the Library of Congress; 21.32 Chapter Twenty-Three Elizabeth A. Sackler Foundation. Photograph © Donald
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phy, Arizona Board of Regents; 21.34 National Museum tograph courtesy Robert Miller Gallery, NY. Estate of Modern Art, NY/Art Resource, NY/Licensed by SCALA/
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Chicago. Photograph © 2005 The Art Institute of Chicago, All Rights Reserved/© 2005 Artists Rights Soci- Gallery, NY; 24.8 © SPARC Social and Public Art Re-
Chicago, All Rights Reserved; 21.36 Missouri State Capi- ety (ARS), NY; 23.5 Mrs. Simon Guggenheim Fund, Mu- source Center, Venice, CA; 24.9 Lisa Fifield/Private
tol, Jefferson City/© T. H. Benton and R. P. Benton Tes- seum of Modern Art, NY/Licensed by SCALA/Art Collection; 24.10 Peter Aaron/Esto Photographics, Inc.;
tamentary Trusts/Licensed by VAGA, NY; 21.37 Courtesy Resource, NY. © ARS, NY; 23.6 Mrs. Donald Straus 24.11Courtesy Fondazione Prada, Milan, Italy. Photo by
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Phillips Collection, Washington, DC; 21.38 Stedelijk SCALA/Art Resource, NY; 23.7 National Museum of Taiwan Museum of Art; 24.14 Australia Gallery, NY
Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven, The Netherlands; 21.39 Women in the Arts, Washington, DC, Gift of the Artist; COVER IMAGE Pierre Auguste Renior. Le Moulin de
© 2003 Banco de Mexico, Diego Rivera & Frida Kahlo 23.8 Ezra Stoller/Esto Photographics, Inc.; 23.9 Paul M. la Galette, 1876. Oil on canvas. ©2004 Artists Rights
Museums Trust/Av. Cinco de Mayo No. 2, Col. Centro, R. Maeyaert, Photographie; 23.10 Ezra Stoller/Esto Pho- Society (ARS), New York. Louvre Museum/Art Resource,
Del. Cuauhtemoc 06059, Mexico, D. F. Reproduction tographics, Inc.; 23.11 The Metropolitan Museum of Art, NY
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Index anc

A Alberti, Leon Battista, 312, 312, 314, Aquinas, Thomas, 160, 289-290 Art of the Fugue (Bach), 406
Abacus, 69 325-326 Arabian Nights, 169 Art restoration, 333
Abbasid Caliphate, 241 Alexander the Great, 67, 75, 85, 85 Arabic poetry, 167-169 Asante, 242, 243
Abbasid dynasty, 157, 169-170 Aristotle and, 82 Ara Pacis (Altar ofPeace), 109-110, Asante kingdom, 579
Abelard, Peter, 289, 290 empire of, 86 110, 111 Ashlar masonry, 48, 50, 101
Abolitionism, 460, 579 in India, 89 Archaic period, Greece, 51, 57-62 Ashoka, 179
Abolute music, 464 Jerusalem under, 163 Archaic smile, 60, 61, 73, 200 Ashurbanipal, 10, 15
Aboriginal painting, 636, 637, 638 Alexandria, Egypt, 85-86 Architectonic style, 115, 115 Ashurnasirpal I Killing Lions, 13, 14
Abraham, 125 Alfred (king of England), 253 Architecture Assemblages, 610, 612, 612
Abstract Expressionism, 602-606, 603, Alhambra Palace, Granada, 164-166, Art Nouveau, 503, 504 Assimilation, 580-581 see

604, 605, 606, 607, 607 166 Baroque, 380, 380-382, 381, 383, Assonance, 251
Abstraction, 541, 572 Al Hazen, 161 401-404, 402, 403, 404 Assyria, 13-14, 128 ee
sculpture, 553-554, 554 Ali, 157 Byzantine, 142, 143, 143-144, 144 Astrophel and Stella (Sidney), 323
Absurdist drama, 606 Al-Kahina, 241 Carolingian, 251, 257 “As Vesta Was Descending”
Abu, 9, 10 Al Khanum, 89 China, 514, 514-516, 515 (Weelkes), 370
Abu-| Abbas, 157 Al-Khwaizmi, 160 early Christian, 132, 132-134, 133, As You Like It (Shakespeare), 373
A cappella, 337 Al-Kindi, 170 134, 135 Ateliers, 470
Achebe, Chinua, 585 Alla prima painting, 356 Egyptian, 22-24, 23, 24, 27-30, 28, Aten, 33
Achilles Painter, 77, 77 Allegory, 340, 340 29 Athanodoros, 89, 91
Acropolis, Athens, 68-76, 70, 71, 72, Allegory of the Cave (Plato), 81-82 Etruscan, 97, 97-98, 98, 99 Athena, 52
(3. TATS Allegory of Venus (Bronzino), 340, 340 Gothic, 271-282, 272-281 Athena Nike, Temple of, 69, 73, 74
Action painting, 602, 603 Allende, Isabel, 593-594 Greek, 68-69, 70, 90-98, 92, 93, 94, Athens, 67, 68-69, 80. See also Greece,
Adam and Eve (Diirer), 364, 365 All Quiet on the Western Front (Remar- 95, 96, 97, 108-110, 109 classical
Adena culture, 237, 237 que), 548 Greek orders in, 69, 69 Atlantes, 72
Adoration of the Lamb (van Eyck), 353, Alma Redemptoris Mater (Dufay), 320 International style, 554-555, 555, Atmospheric (aerial) perspective, 316
354 Alphabets, 8, 120. See also Writing 556 Atomic bombs, 600
Aegean cultures, 42, 42-51 Altar of Zeus, Pergamon, 86, 87, 88, 88 Islamic, 161-166, 162, 163, 164, Atomists, 62
Cycladic, 43-44 Al Uglidisi, 160 165, 166 Atoms, 495
Minoan, 44—48 Ambrose, St., 139 Japan, 528-530, 529 Atonality, 561-562
Mycenaean, 48-51 Ambulatory, 134 Japanese, 212-213, 213 Attalos I, 86, 88
timeline, 40 Amenhotep III, 29 landscape and, 59 At the Time of the Louisville Flood
Aeneid (Virgil), 54, 62, 118-119 Amenhotep IV, 33 Mannerist, 344-345, 345, 346 (Bourke-White), 566, 567
Aeschylus, 77-79 Amen-Mut-Khonsu, temple of, 28-29, Minoan, 44-47, 45, 46 Aucassin and Nicolette (Demuth), 556,
Africa, 237-243 29 modern, 605-606, 607, 608 So
Boer Wars, 494495 American Lake Scene (Cole), 455, Mycenaean, 48-50 Augsburg, Peace of (1555), 380
colonialism, 579-582 455-456 Neoclassical, 438, 438-439, 439 Augustine, 139-141
decolonization, 578 American Revolution, 419-420, 421 Neolithic, 6-8 Augustine, St, 481
early cultures, 239-240 Amin, Idi, 582 Post-Impressionist, 500-502, 502 Au, of Primaporta, 109, 109
east and south, 242-243 Ammanati, 344-345, 345 Renaissance, 371, 311-313, 312, Aulos, 84
government, 240 Amores (Ovid), 120 313, 334, 334-335, 335 Aurelius, Marcus, 104, 117
Greece influenced by, 37 Amoretti (Spenser), 323 Roman, 101-102, 102, 103, Equestrian Statue of, 110, 111, 112
independence in, 582 Amorites, 12-13 105-109, 107, 108 Meditations, 117-118
influence of, 593 Amphitheaters Romanesque, 256-260, 258, 259 Austen, Jane, 441
literature, 585-586 Greek, 78, 78-79 Romantic, 457, 458 Australian Aboriginal painting, 636,
map of early, 238 Roman, 106, 107, 108-109, 120 Sumerian, 9, 9 637, 638
music, 583-585 Amphora, 57, 57-58, 58 twentieth century, 616-617, 618, Autobiography, 481
north,and northeastern, 240-241 Analects (Confucius), 128, 195, 619 Autobiography (Cellini), 344
physical environment, 237, 239 196-197 Archivolts, 261 Automatism, 551
ieee developments, 240-243 Anasazi, 235-236, 236 Arena Chapel, Padua, 295, 300 Autumn Rhythm: Number 30 (Pollock),
religion, 240 Angelico, Fra, 317-318, 319 Ares, 52 602, 603
slave trade, 243 Anglo-Saxons, 249 Arianism, 241 Autun Cathedral (Gislebertus), 261,
western and central, 241-242 Anguissola, Sofonisba, 342, 342 Arias, 405 262
Afrobeat music, 584 Animal style, 17, 17-18, 249 Aristophanes, 80 Avant-garde, 541
Afterlife, Egyptian belief in, 21-22, Anime cinema, 534 Aristotle, 79-80, 82-83, 84, 85 Avatars, 176
24-25. See also Religion Anna Karenina (Tolstoy), 480-481 Muslim translations of, 288 “Ave Maria...virgo serena” (Josquin),
“Afternoon of a Faun” (Mallarmé), 492 Annals (Tacitus), 118 Arkhilokhos, 119 337
After Walker Evans (Levine), 625 Annunciation and Visitation, 283, 283 Ark of the Covenant, 126, 126 Averroes, 160
Agamemnon, 48 Annunciation (Fra Angelico), 318, 319 Armah, Ayi Kwei, 585 Avicenna, 160, 609
Agamemnon (Aeschylus), 79 Anthemius of Tralles, 145, 145, 146, Armstrong, Louis, 573-574 Awakening (Chopin), 492
Agamemnon (Seneca), 121 146, 147 Arp, Hans, 549, 549-550 Axes (Qaeda 627, 627
Agee, James, 565-566, 566 Anthropomorphism, 9 Arrangement in Black and Gray: The Ayas, 158
Age of discovery, 362-363 Anti-art, 550, 550 rtist’s Mother (Whistler), 491, Aztecs, 225, 228-231, 230, 231, 309,
Age of Reason, 419 Antigone (Sophocles), 79 491 362
Agit-trains, 572 Antigonid dynasty, 67 Ars Amatoria (Ovid), 120
Agriculture Antin, Eleanor, 627, 627 Ars antiqua, 302 B
African, 239-240, 241-242 Antiphonal music, 139 Ars Cantus Mensurabilis (Franco of Babel, Tower of, 15
Chinese, 195 Antislavery movement, 460, 579 Cologne), 255 Babylon, 12-13, 14-16
Egyptian, 27 Antisthenes, 91 Ars nova, 302 Baca, Judith F, 628-629, 629
Mesopotamian, 8 Antoninus, 112 “Ars Poetica” (Horace), 120 Bacchae (Europedes), 80
Native Ametican, 236-237 Antony and Cleopatra (Shakespeare), 373 Art. See also Painting; Sculpture Bacchanal (Titian), 336, 336-337
Neolithic, 6 Anyang, 194 China, 510 Bach,J. S., 265
society based on, 210-211 Apartheid, 582, 584 forgeries, 402 Bach, Johann Sebastian, 359, 388,
Agrippa, Marcus, 111 Aphrodite, 52 happenings, 614 405-407, 592
mose I, 27 Aphrodite ofKnodis (Praxiteles), 75, 75 iconoclasm in, 358 Bach, PDQ, 407
Ahuitzotl, 228 Apocalypse (Diirer), 363-364, 364 Minimalist, 614-616, 615, 616, 617 Bachianas Brasileiras (Villa-Lobos), 592
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency Apollinaire, Guillaume, 551 Op, 615, 617 Backbeat, 584
syndrome), 593 Apollo, 52, 139 as politics, 572, 572 Bacon, Francis, 363, 373
Ainu, 211 Apollo Belvedere, 326-327 Pop, 612, 613 Bactrian kings, 89
Aisles, 132, 133 Apollodorus of Damascus, 108, Rococo, 424-431 Bada Shanren, 512, 513
Ajax and Achilles (Exekias), 57, 57 108-109, 110, 110 Artemis, 52 Bahlum Kuk, 227
Akhenaten, 31, 33-34, 37 Apollonian tendencies, 495 Artha, 175 Baladi (belly dance), 32, 32
Akkad, 12 Apoxyomenos (Ihe Scraper) (Lysippos), Arthurian legend, 264, 265 Balanchine, George, 546, 556
Akkadian culture, 10-11 75-76, 77 Artist and Her Daughter (Vigée-Le- Bal Bullier Delaunay), 543, 546
Akrotiri, Cycladic wall painting, Appalachian Spring (Copland), 571 brun), 417, 427, 427 Baldassare Castiglione (Raphael), 338,
43-44, 44 Apse, 132, 133 Art Nouveau, 502-503 338
Alap, 190 ~ Aqueducts, 102, 104 Art of Courtly Love (Capellanus), 264 Ballads, 323
659
660 INDEX

Ballet, 556 Bible, 127 Breton, André, 551, 553 Canzoni, 323
Balzac, Honore de, 441, 478-479 Asian religions and, 128 Brioche (Chardin), 431, 431 Canzoniere (Petrarch), 323
Bamboo (Wu Zhen), 508-509, 509 books of, 129 Britain. See England Cao Xuegin, 510, 517
Bantu, 240 Epic of Gilgamesth and, 16 British Royal Academy, 436 Capellanus, Andreas, 264
Baptistery, 260 Epistles, 137-138 Broadway theater, 620 Capet, Hugh, 255
Florence, 279, 281, 281-282, 313, Genesis, 129 Bronté, Emily, 462-463 Capetian monarchs, 255
314 Gnostic texts, 141 Bronze Age, 8, 27, 51, 194 Capitalism, 307
Bardon, Geoff, 636 Gospels, 136-137 Bronzes Capitoline She-Wolf, 98, 99, 100
Barishnikov, Mikhail, 556 Greek translations of, 86 Benin, 242, 242 Caracalla, Head of, 112, 112
Barlow, Francis Channing, 473 illuminated, 249, 250 Chinese, 195, 196 Caravaggio, 382, 384, 384, 385, 388
Baroque era, 376-414 as literature, 129-130, 136-139 Pisa griffin, 260, 260 Carlos, Wendy, 407
architecture, 380, 380-382, 381, New Testament, 136-139 Bronzino, Agnolo, 340, 340 Carolingian era, 248, 250-251
383, 401-404, 402, 403, 404 prophets, 126 Brownscombe, Jennie Augusta, 473, Carpaccio, Vittore, 335, 335-336
definition of, 378 Revelation, 14, 138-139 474 Carrington, Charles, 548
Italy, 378-388 Song of Songs, 37 Briicke, Die (The Bridge), 545 Carter, Howard, 34
literature, 410-412, 414 Sumerian myth and, 10, 11 Bruegel, Pieter the Elder, 366, 367, Carthage, 100, 241
in Mexico, 406 Torah, 125 368 Cartoons, 286
music, 386, 388, 404-407 translations of, 127 Bruges, 351 Caryatids, 72
outside Italy, 388-414 Bible, Luther’s translation of, 360 Bruitisme, 549-550 Casa di Salustio, Pompeii, 114-115,
painting, in France, 397-400, 400, Bierstadt, Albert, 456 Brunelleschi, Filippo, 311, 311-312, 115
401 Bildungsroman, 559 312, 314, 322 Casa Mild, Barcelona, 503, 504
painting, in Holland, 388-393, 389, Bird in Space (Brancusi), 539, 553, 554 Bruni, Leonardo, 313 Cassatt, Mary, 487, 490-491, 491
390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, Birth ofa Nation (film), 619 Bubonic plague, 294 Caste system, 177
397 Birth ofFesus (Nicholas of Verdun), Buddha, 178, 179-180 Castiglione, Baldassare, 337-338
painting, in Italy, 382-386, 384, 261-262, 263 sculpture of, 183, 183, 184, 184, Castrati, 388
385, 386, 387 Birth of Venus (Botticelli), 318, 321 200, 201 Catacombs, 134, 136, 138
painting, in Spain, 396-397, 399 Biwa, 530 Buddhism, 177 Catharsis, 83
philosophy, 408-410 Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Bible compared with, 128 Cathedrals. See Churches and cathe-
science, 407-408 Classical Civilization (Bernal), 37, Chinese, 199 drals
timeline, 376 92 Hinduism compared with, 180 Catherine of Aragon, 362
Barrel vaults, 257-258, 258, 266 Black Death, 294 in India, 179-185 Catholic Church. See a/so Reformation
Barry, Charles, 457, 458 Black-figure style, 57, 57-58, 58 Japanese, 211-212 colonialism and, 580-581
fee Roland, 631-632 Black Mountain College, North Car- origins of, 179-180 Counter-Reformation, 378-379
Bartholdi, Frédéric-Auguste, 477, 477 olina, 610, 616 Zen, 216 Erasmus and, 358-359
Bartolommeo, Michelozzo di, Black Plague, 351 Buffalo hunters, 237 Great Schism and, 132, 146
312-313, 313 Blake, William, 449, 461, 461 Bunraku, 533 Latin America, 586-587
Basho Matsuo, 532 Blance of Castille, 262, 264 Bunyan, John, 481 Mayans and, 229
Basilicas, 132, 132-134, 133, 134, 135 Blank verse, 373 Bureaucracy, 198, 509 scholasticism and, 288-290
Romanesque, 257, 258, 259 Blaue Reiter (Blue Rider), 545 Burial at Ornans (Courbet), 471, 471 Cats (Lloyd Weber), 620
Basquiat, Jean-Michel, 627-628, 628 Blind arcades, 260 Burial of Count Orgaz (El Greco), Catullus, 62, 103, 120
Bath of Diana (Boucher), 426, 426 Blink (Gladwell), 402 341-342, 342 Cella, 97
Battered walls, 9 Bluest Eye (Morrison), 632 Burins, 364 Cellini, Benvenuto, 343, 343-344
Battista Sforza (Piero della Francesca), Boating Party (Cassatt), 490-491, 491 Burlington, Lord, 438, 439 Celts, 97, 249, 250
316-317, 317 Boccaccio, Giovanni, 294, 295, 298, Bushfire and Corroboree Dreamin Central Park Gates, 615, 617
Battle of Dongala (651), 241 301, 310 (Motna), 636, 637, 638 Ceramics
Battle of the Gods and the Giants, 88, 88 Bodhi, 179-180 Bushido, 531 black-figure, 57, 57-58, 58
Battleship Potemkin, 560-561, 562 Bodhisattva Padmapani, 184, 185 Buson, Yosa, 532 Chinese, 204-205, 206
Batwa, 240 Bodhisattvas, 183 Byron, George Gordon, Lord, 462, Greek, 53, 56, 56-57, 57, 57-58, 58,
Baudelaire, Charles, 456, 492 Boer Wars, 494-495 462 59
Bauhaus, 554-555, 555 Boethius, 84 Byzantine civilization, 141-152 Islamic, 166-167, 167
Bayeux Tapestry, 255, 256 Boffrand, Gabriel-Germain, 428, 429 art, 142, 143, 143-144, 144 Japanese, 210-211
Bays, 257 Boleyn, Anne, 362 Golden Age of, 144-152 Minoan, 47, 47, 48
Beale, Mary, 395-396, 398 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 36 influence of, 149 red-figure, 58, 59
Beard, Richard, 475 Bonheur, Rosa, 470, 470-471, 494 liturgy in, 139 white-ground, 76-77, 77
Beatles, 620, 621 Book of Coming Forth by Day, 24-25 Byzantium, 105, 141 Ceremony (Silko), 634
Beat literature, 617-619 Book of Feats ofArms and Chivalry Cervantes, Miguel de, 414, 439-440
Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge (Christine de Pizan), 301 (e Cézanne, Paul, 496, 496, 542
(Lissitzky), 572, 572 Book ofKells, 247, 249, 250 Cabochons, 254, 254 Chaco Canyon, 235-236
Beautiful Ones Are Not Yet Born Book of Odes, 195 Cabral, Pedro, 363 Chaldea, 15
(Armah), 585 Book ofRitual, 195 Caedmon’s Hymn, 250 Challenging Mud (Kazuo), 607
Beckett, Samuel, 608 Book of Songs, 198 Caesar, Gaius Julius, 100, 702, 111 Chambord, Chateau of, 366-367, 368
Beckett, Thomas 4, 358, 362 Book of the City of Ladies (Christine de Caesar Augustus, 100, 104, 105-106 Champollion, Jean Francois, 19
Bedroom (de Hooch), 392, 392 Pizan), 301 in Ara Pacis, 109-110, 110, 111 Chan, 216
Beer, 17 Book of the Courtier (Castiglione), Cage, John, 610, 614, 616 Chan Bahlum, 227
Beethoven, Ludwig van, 443-445 337-338 Cahokia, 237 Cha-no-yu, 219
Bei Dao, 517 Book of the Dead, 24-25, 30, 30 Calder, Alexander, 608, 610 Chanson de geste, 251
Beijing, 508 Borges, Jorge Luis, 592-593 Caldwell, Erskine, 566 Chanson masses, 321
architecture, 514, 514-516, 515 Borghese, Scipione, 382 Calendars, 224, 226, 229, 362 Chansons, 337
Forbidden City, 507, 514, 514-516, Boris Godunov (Mussorgsky), 467, 556 Caligula, 104 Chapel of the Rosary, Puebla, Mexico,
515 Borluut, Elizabeth, 353 Caliphate, 157 406, 406
opera, 517, 519-520 Borromini, Francesco, 381-382, 383 Call-and-response format, 583 Chaplin, Charlie, 619
Being Antinova (Antin), 627, 627 Bosch, Hieronymus, 354, 356, Calligraphy. See a/so Writing Chappaqua (Glass), 189
Belle Epoque, 488, 502 356-357, 357, 358, 366 Chinese, 205, 206, 512-514, 513 Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Simeon, 431,
Beloved (Morrison), 632 Boston Pops, 619 Islamic, 165-166, 167 431
Benedict, St., 251-252 Boston Tea Party, 419 Calling of St. Matthew (Caravaggio), Charlemagne, 250-251, 255
Benedictine monks, 251-252 Botero, Fernando, 588, 592 382, 384 Charles I (king of England), 388, 395,
Beni Hasan, Egypt, tombs, 27 Botticelli, Sandro, 318-319, 320 Calvin, John, 361 396, 409
Benin, 242, 242 Boucher, Francois, 426, 426, 431 Calvinism, 361 Charles IV (king of France), 294
Benton, Thomas Hart, 568, 570 Boulton, Matthew, 423 Calypso, 592 Charles Sumner (Whitney), 478, 478
Beowulf, 250 Bourke-White, Margaret, 566, 567 Calyx kraters, 58, 59 Charles the First (Basquiat), 627-628,
Berlin, Conference of (1884), 579-580 Boy Playing a Flute (Leyster), 389, 389 Cambio, Arnolfo di, 279, 281, 628
Berlin Wall, 634 Bradstreet, Anne, 412 281-282, 311 Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor),
Berlioz, Hector, 464 Bradstreet, Simon, 412 Camera obscura, 394 271, 301, 323, 339, 357
Bernadone, Giovanni, 290 Brady, Mathew B., 475, 475 Campanile, 260 empire of, 350
Bernal, Martin, 37, 92 Brahman, 176 Campaniles, 279, 281, 281-282 Erasmus and, 358
Bernart de Ventadorn, 264 Brahmins, 177, 180 Campin, Robert, 351-352, 352, 358 Charles V (king of Spain), 362
Bernini, Gianlorenzo, 377, 380-381, Brahms, Johannes, 465 Candide (Voltaire), 434 Chateau of Chambord, 366-367, 368
381, 382 Bramante, Donato, 334, 334, 335 Candomble, 244 Chiateaux, 366-368, 368
Louvre, 401 Brancacci Chapel, Florence, 315-316, Cantatas, 406-407 Chattras, 181
Bernstein, Leonard, 620 316 Canterbury Cathedral, England, 358, Chaucer, Geoffrey, 251, 298, 300
Berossos, 15 Brancusi, Constantin, 539, 553, 554 362 Chefren, 23
Berry, Chuck, 620 Brandenburg Concertos (Bach), 406 Canterbury Tales (Chaucer), 251, 298, Chekhov, Anton, 481, 493
Bhagavad Gita, 178-179, 190 Braque, Georges, 543, 545 300 Cheops, 23, 24
Bhakti, 186, 188 Bravo, Lola Alvarez, 567, 567 Cantus firmus, 293 Cherry Orchard (Chekhov), 481
 INDEX 661

Chevalier de la Charette (Chrétien de City planning, 514, 514-516, 515 Constitutio Antoniana, 112 “Dance of the Yi People,” 519
Troyes), 265 City-states Consumerism, 608, 610 Dancing Around the Golden Calf
Chiaroscuro, 324 Greek, 53 Continental Congress (1776), 419-420 (Nolde), 545, 546
Chicago, Judy, 623, 625-626, 626 Italian, 306, 308-321, 335-337 Contrapposto pose, 72, 73-74, 74 Dancing Class (Degas), 490, 490
Chikamatsu Monzaemon, 533 Sumerian, 8-9 Copernicus, Nicolas, 363 Dangerous Liaisons (La Clos), 440
“Chimney Sweeper” (Blake), 461 Citywide Mural Project, 628-629, 629 Copland, Aaron, 530, 571 Danse macabre, 294
China, 192-207, 506-521 Civilization, 15, 18 Copley, John Singleton, 436-437, 437 Dante Alleghieri, 140, 290-293, 298
architecture, 514, 514-516, 515 Civil War Coptic churches, 241 Dante and His Poem (Michelino), 292
calligraphy, 205, 206, 512-514, 513 Spanish, 564 Corbeled domes, 50 D’Arezzo, Guido, 255
ceramics, 204-205, 206 US., 460, 475, 475, 503 Cordova mosque, Spain, 161, 162 Darius, 17, 67
communist, 518 Claudel, Camille, 500, 502 Corinthian order, 69, 69 Dark Ages, 248. See also Middle Ages
Cultural Revolution, 510, 518, 520 Cleisthenes, 67 Corinthian ware, 57, 57 Dark Night of the Soul (St. John of the
feng shui, 516 Cleopatra, 67 Cormont, Renaud de, 276, 276 Cross), 379
Han dynasty, 199 Clerestory, 133 Cormont, Thomas de, 276, 276 Daruma Meditating (Hakuin Ekaku),
Hong Kong, 515 Cloisters, 252, 252 Cornaro Chapel, Rome, 380, 381, 382 526, 527
influence of, 217, 520 La Clos, Chaderlos, 440 Corneille, Pierre, 411 Darwin, Charles, 481-482
literati, 510-512, 512, 513 Cluniac monks, 252 Cornelia Pointing to Her Children as Her Dasas, 175
literature, 516-517 Clytemnestra, 79, 80 Treasures COeN 436, 436 Daumier, Honoré, 469, 469
Ming dynasty, 509-510 Coatlicue, 229, 230, 230 Corpus Christi Procession with the David, 127-128, 129, 163
music, 198, 517-520 Cocoa-Pod-Shaped Coffin (Kwei), 583, Parishioners of Santa Ana (Follow- David, Jacques-Louis, 421, 422, 424,
painting, 200-204, 202, 203, 204 583 ers of Quispe Tito), 587, 587 434-435, 435
paper invented in, 167 Code ofJustinian, 149 Cortés, Hernan, 362, 406 David (Bernini), 377, 380, 381
philosophy, 195-198 Codex mendoza, 309, 309 Cortez, Hernando, 225, 233, 309 David (Donatello), 314, 315
poetry, 198, 200 Codices, 230, 231 Cortona, Domenico da, 367, 368 David (Michelangelo), 329, 330
Qin dynasty, 198-199 Coetzee, John Maxwell, 586 Council of Trent, 379 Daykeepers, 229
Qing dynasty, 509-510 Coeur a Gaz (Tzara), 543 Counterpoint, 406 D-Day, 599, 600
Shang dynasty, 194-195 Cofer, Judith Ortiz, 632-633 Counter-Reformation, 378-379, 413 Dead Sea Scrolls, 127, 127
silk trade, 158 Coffee, 609 painting, 382-386, 384, 385, 386, Deathmasks, 102
Six Dynasties period, 199-200 Coffers, 109 387 Death of Sarpedon (Euxitheos, Euphro-
Song dynasty, 200-206 Cohan, George M., 620 Country Temple (Zheng Xie), 513, nios), 58, 59
Tang dynasty, 200 Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 400 513-514 De Beauvoir, Simone, 602
timeline, 192, 506 “Cold Provisions Day” (Su Shih), 206 Couperin, Francis, 425 Debussy, Claude, 492
Yuan dynasty, 508-509 Cold War, 582, 600 Courbet, Gustave, 471, 471 Decameron (Boccaccio), 294, 295, 298
Zhou dynasty, 195, 198 Cole, Thomas, 455, 455-456 Courtly love, 262, 264-265 Decebalus, 110
China Men (Kingston), 632 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 461-462 Court of the Lions (Mohammad V), Declaration of Independence, 419,
Chiswick House, London, 438, 438 Colette (Dahl-Wolfe), 567, 567 166, 166 420, 421
Chiton, 60, 61 Colonialism Covenant, 125 Declaration of Sentiments, 420
Chivalric literature, 262, 264-265 Africa, 579-582 Cows, sacred, 189 Declaration of the Rights of Man and
Chocolate, 225 Boer Wars, 494-495 Cranach, Lucas, 359 Citizen, 419, 421
Chopin, Frédéric, 449, 464, 465 culture and, 581-582 Creation Dome, St. Mark’s, 148, 150 “Declaration of the Rights of Women”
Chopin, Kate, 492 decolonization, 578 Creation ofAdam and Eve (Ghiberti), (de Gouge), 423
Chorales, 359, 406-407 Latin America, 586-587, 598 313, 314 Deconstructionism, 625, 631-632
Chorus, in Greek drama, 78 ‘ie of rule in, 580-581 Creation ofAdam (Michelangelo), 330, Defoe, Daniel, 432, 441
“Chorus for Whirling Dervishes” Color field, 603, 606 331 Degas, Edgar, 487, 490, 490
(Beethoven), 444 Colosseum, Rome, 106, 107, 108-109 Creation stories, 53, 125, 226-227 De Gouges, Olympe, 423
Chou, 517 Columbian exchange, 351 Creole, 579 De Haviland, Olivia, 561, 561
Chrétien de Troyes, 265 Columbus, Christopher, 222, 351, 363 Crete, 43, 44 De Hooch, Pieter, 392, 392
Christianity, 149, 358, 581 Column of Trajan (Apollodorus of Crime and Punishment (Dostoyevsky), Deir el-Medina, Egypt, homes in,
African, 241 Damascus), 110, 110 480 29-30
antecedents to, 130-131 Columns Crimean War, 460 Deism, 434
Celtic, 249, 250 composite order, 101 Croesus of Lydia, 52 Déjeuner sur Pherbe (Manet), 471-472,
early, 130-141 cushion, 45 Cromlech, 6—7 472, 473
Gnosticism and, 141 Doric, 58-59, 60 Cromwell, Oliver, 409, 412 De Kooning, Willem, 603, 605
influence of, 140 engaged, 101 Cromwell, Thomas, 362 Delacroix, Eugéne, 449, 452, 453, 454
Islam and, 156, 157, 160 Greek orders for, 69, 69 Cross pages, 249, 250 Delaunay, Sonia Terk, 543, 546
monasticism, 251-255 inverted, 45, 46 Cross vaults, 259, 259 Demes, 67
music, 139 Minoan, 45, 46 Crusades, 163, 256, 257 Demeter, 52
Neoplatonism and, 137, 139-141 Tuscan, 97, 101 Crystal Palace, London, 266, 457, 458 Demetrius, 89
pagan gods and, 139 Comédie humaine (Balzac), 478-479 Cuauhtemoc Against the Myth De Mille, Agnes, 571
painting, 134, 136, 138 Comedy ofErrors (Shakespeare), 105 (Siqueiros), 577, 577, 588, 589 Democracy, 53, 92, 240, 255
Roman persecution of, 132, 241 Commodus, 104 Cubiculum, 115, 116 Democritus, 62
Sappho and, 56 Common Market, 600 Cubism, 541, 542-543, 544, 545 Demoiselles d’Avignon (Picasso), 62,
sculpture, 134, 136 Common Sense (Paine), 420 Cufic writing, 165-166 543, 544
spread of, 131, 131-132, 199 Communism, 510, 634 Cultural homogenization, 635 De mulieribus claris (Boccaccio), 301
Stoicism and, 90 Communist Manifesto (Marx, Engels), Cultural Revolution (China), 510, 518 De Musica (Boethius), 84
Christina (queen of Sweden), 379 459, 469-470, 549 Culture, definition of, 5 Demuth, Charles, 556, 559
Christine de Pizan, 300-301 “Composed in Illness” (Basho), 532 Cuneiform writing, 8 Departure of the Volunteers of 1792
Christine de Pizan Presenting Her Poems Composite order, 101 Cunningham, Merce, 616 (Rude), 456-457, 457
to Isabel of Bavaria, 301 Composition in Red, Yellow, and Blue Cushitic languages, 240 De pictura (Alberti), 312, 314
Christo, 615-616, 617 (Mondrian), 266, 553, 553 Cuzco, 233 Depression, the Great, 564-565
Christ Preaching (Rembrandt), 391, Concerning the Spiritual in Art Cybernetic Sculpture, 1979 (Tsai), 633, De re aedificatoria (Alberti), 312,
391 (Kandinsky), 545 633 325-326
Churches and cathedrals. See also Concert champétre: la musique, 372 Cycladic culture, 43-44, 62 Derrida, Jacques, 632
Names of individual buildings Concerto for Cootie (Ellington), 574 Cynicism, 89, 91 Dervishes, 160, 169, 169
Gothic, 271-282, 272-281 Concerto grosso, 388 Cynicism, 434 Desastres de la Guerra (Goya), 450-451,
Hagia Sophia, 145, 145, 146, 146, Concord Sonata (Ives), 571 Cyrus II, 16, 17 451
147 Concrete, 101, 108 Descartes, René, 407, 408-409
mosques, 161-166, 162, 163, 164, Concrete, reinforced, 555, 555 D Descent ofMan (Darwin), 482
165, 166 Conference of Berlin (1884), 579-580 Dacians, 110 De Stijl, 553, 553
pilgrimage, 256-259, 258, 259 Confessions (Augustine), 140, 481 Dada, 549, 549-550, 550 Detroit Industry (Rivera), 573, 573
rock-hewn, 241, 241 Confessions (Rousseau), 459 Da Gama, Vasco, 363 Deus ex machina, 373
Churchill, Winston, 599 Confucianism, 128, 195-198, 206, 509 Daguerre, Louis-Jacques-Mande, 475 De Vere, Edward, 373
Church of England, 362 Confucius, 128, 195-198 Daguerreotypes, 475, 475 Devil’s Pond (Sand), 471
Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 117 Congo Basin, 239 Dahl. Wolfe. Louise, 566-567, 567 Dharma, 175, 179
Cimabue, 295, 297 Congo Free State, 580 Daimyo, 529 Dhikr, 170
Cinema, 619 Consitutional monarchy, 255 Daisen-in monastery garden, 530, 531 Diaghilev, Serge, 546, 551, 556, 561
Japan, 534, 535 Constable, John, 452, 454 Dali, Salvador, 552, 552 RE 289, 459
Robin Hood, 561, 561 Constantine, 105, 141 D’Amato, Alphonse, 358 Dias, Bartolomeu, 363
Russian, 560-561 Arch of, 112, 113, 114, 114 Dan, 517 Diaz, Porfirio, 588
Cire perdue method, 186, 232, 232, Edict of Milan, 132 Dance Dickens, Charles, 441, 479
242, 242 Head of, 112, 112 Egyptian, 32, 32 Dickinson, Emily, 168, 413, 463-464
Cistercian monks, 252 Constantinople, 105, 141 Sufi, 169, 169 Dictionary of the English Language
Cities, in civilization, 15, 224 Golden Age of, 144-152 Dance at the Moulin de la Galette (Johnson), 432-433
City of God (Augustine), 140 Ottoman capture of, 157 (Renoir), 488-489, 489 Didascalia, 241
662 INDEX

Diderot, Denis, 424, 431 Echinus, 69 Equites, 100 Flaubert, Gustave, 441, 479
Dinner Party (Chicago), 623, 625-626, Ecstasy of St. Teresa (Bernini), 380, 381, Erasmus, Desiderius, 358-359 Fleet Street, London, 432-433
626 382 Erasmus ofRotterdam (Holbein), 365 Florence, Italy, 307
Diocletian, 104 Edict of Milan, 132 Erechtheion (Mnesikles), 69, 72, 73 Brancacci Chapel, 315-316, 316
Diogenes, 91 Egerton, Thomas, 411 Ere ibeji, 586, 586 Cathedral, 317, 311-312, 312, 313,
Dionysian tendencies, 495 Egg tempera, 351 Erlitou, 194 314
Dionysos, 52, 130 Ego, 495 Erlkinig (Schubert), 466 Lorentian Library, 344-345, 345
Dioptrique (Descartes), 407 Egypt, 18-37 Escobar, Marisol, 613-614, 615 Medicis in, 308-309
Direct rule, 580-581 architecture, 22-24, 23, 24, 27-30, Essay on Human Understanding music, 319-321
Discobolus (Discus Thrower), 76 28, 29 (Locke), 410 Platonic Academy of Philosophy,
Discourse on Inequality (Rousseau), 459 Book of the Dead, 24-25 Essays (Montaigne), 370-371 310
Discourses (Epictetus), 117 dance and music, 32, 34 Bean 391, 391 Florence Cathedral, 279, 281,
Discourses (Reynolds), 430 dynasties, 19 Ethics, 83 281-282
Discovery (space shuttle), 410 Ethiopian dynasty, 34 Ethos, 85 Flowering Limb (Krasner), 603, 604
Disguised symbolism, 354 hieroglyphics, 19, 20 Etiologial stories, 129 Flower song, 229
Disputations, 359 Intermediate periods, 19 Etruscan culture, 94, 97-100 Flying buttresses, 271, 273, 273
Diversity, 622-639 Late Period, 19 Etudes, 449 Flynn, Errol, 561, 561
Divine Comedy (Dante), 140, 290-293, literature, 37 Euclid, 84 Fokine, Michel, 556
298 Lower, 18-19 Eumenes II, 86 Folios, 249
Dodge, Granville, 237 Middle Kingdom, 19, 27 Eumenides (Aeschylus), 79 Fontana, Lavinia, 342-343, 343
Dome of Heaven, 138 New Kingdom, 19 Euphronios, 58, 59 Forbidden City, Beijing, 507, 514,
Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem, 163, Nile River and, 239 Euripedes, 79-80 514-516, 515
163 Old Kingdom, 19, 22-26 Eurocentrism, 587 Ford, John, 535, 536
Domes religion, 19-22 Europe: A Prophecy (Blake), 461, 461 Forgeries, art, 402
corbeled, 50 scislatate and painting, 25, 25-26, European Community, 60 Fountain (Duchamp), 550, 550
Florence Cathedral, 312, 312-313 26,30-31, 31, 32 European Union, 600, 601 Four Books on Architecture (Palladio),
Pantheon, 108, 108-109 timeline, 2 Euthydemus, 89 345
St. Paul’s Cathedral, 403-404, 404 Upper, 18-19 Euxitheos, 58, 59 Four Books on Human Proportions
Donatello, 314, 314-315, 315 *Ei-chu, 517 Evangelists, 125 (Diirer), 365
Don Giovanni (Mozart), 443, 443 Eiffel, Gustave, 477, 493 Evans, Arthur, 43, 44 Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
Don Juan (Byron), 462 Eiffell Tower, Paris, 493, 494 Evans, Walker, 565-566, 566, 625 (Diirer), 364, 364
Donne, John, 168, 188, 411-412, 413 Eightfold Path, 179, 180 Evolution, 481-482 Four Noble Truths, 179, 180
Don Quixote (Cervantes), 414 1812 Overture (Tchaikovsky), 467-468 Excavation (de Kooning), 603, 605 Four Seasons (Vivaldi), 388, 464
Dorian mode, 85 Einstein, Albert, 495 Exekias, 57, 57 Four Seated Figures of Ramesses II, 30,
Dorians, 51, 53 Eisenstein, Sergei, 560-561 Existentialism, 601-602 31
Doric style, 58-59, 60, 69, 69 Elam, 16 Exotic, the, 444 Fourth Style, 116-117, 118
Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) (Polykleitos), Eleanor of Aquitaine, 262, 264 Expansionism, 494 Fragonard, Jean-Honoré, 426-427,
65, 74, 75 Electra (Europedes), 80 Exploration, age of, 362-363, 408 428
Dostoyevsky, Fyodor, 479-480 Elegies, 119 Expressionism, abstract, 602-606, 603, France
Douglass, Frederick, 460 Eleusinian mystery cult, 52 604, 605, 606, 607 Baroque painting, 397—400, 400,
Do Women Have to be Naked to Get into Eliot, George, 479 Ezekiel, 126 401
the Met (Guerrilla Girls), 627 Eliot, T. S., 413, 546, 558-559 Gothic era, 270-278
Doyle, Arthur Conan, 461 Elizabethan Age, 373 F Hundred Years’ War, 294
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (Stevenson), Elizabeth I as a Princess (Teerling), 370 Facades, 257 July Monarchy, 452-456
460-461 Elizabeth I (queen of England), 362, Facing Mount Kenya (Kenyatta), 585 Napoleon and, 422-423, 424, 438,
Draco, 67 370 Factories, 423 449
Drama Elizabeth of Shrewsbury, 367 Faience, 48 Rococo, 425, 425-428, 426, 427,
Africa, 585-586 Ellington, Duke, 574, 574 Fairbanks, Douglas, 561 428
Baroque, 411 Ellison, Ralph, 568 Fakirs, 160 Vichy, 599, 601
Broadway, 105 El Morro National Monument, New Fallingwater, Bear Run, Pennsylvania, in Vietnam, 600-601
China, 517-520 Nexico, 119 555, 556 Franciscan monks, 29]
Elizabethan, 371-373 Emancipation Proclamation, 460 Familiar Conversations (Erasmus), Francis of Assisi, 290
Greek, 77-80, 84 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 459, 480, 571 358-359 Franco, Francisco, 564
Indian, 188 Emirs, 581 Fang ding, 195, 195 Franco of Cologne, 255
Japan, 533-534 Encyclopédie (Diderot), 424 Fan vaulting, 278-279, 280 Frankenthaler, Helen, 604, 606
Japanese, 214-216, 215, 527 Engaged columns, 101 “Farewell” Symphony no. 45 (Haydn), Franklin, Benjamin, 420, 432, 437
late twentieth century, 606, 608 Engels, Friedrich, 459, 469-470, 549 442 Frederick the Wise, 360
mystery plays, 253 England Farm Security Administration (FSA), French Academy, 400, 434
naturalist, 492-493 Baroque painting in, 395-396, 398 565-567 French Revolution, 42 1-422, 423
realist, 481 Boer Wars, 494-495 Fascism, 562-564 Freud, Sigmund, 79, 449, 494, 495,
Roman, 103, 105 Gothic architecture, 278-279, 279, Fate, 52 551
Dramatic irony, 79 280 Fatimid dynasty, 241 Frey, James, 481
Dream of the Red Chamber (Cao Xue- Hong Kong and, 515 Faulkner, William, 569-570 Friedlander, Walter, 339
quin), 517 Hundred Years’ War, 294 Faust (Goethe), 463 Friedrich, Caspar David, 449
Dream Temple (Mori), 631, 631 Magna Carta, 255 Fauvism, 541, 541-542, 542 Friezes, 69
Dresden Codex, 362 monasteries destroyed in, 361-362 Feast of Herod (Donatello), 314, 314 Frisius, Gemma, 363
Dromos, 48, 50 Norman Conquest, 255, 256 Federico da Montefeltro (Piero della From Generation to Generation (Bravo),
Drowning Girl (Lichtenstein), Rococo painting, 428, 430, 431, 432 Francesca), 316-317, 317 567
612-613, 614 secular song, 302 Feminism, 49, 473, 632 Frontier (Graham), 557, 557
Droysen, Johann Gustav, 85 WWI, 599 Fenellosa, Ernest, 206 Fugues, 405-406
Drum, 334, 334 English Bards and Scotch Reviewers Feng shui, 516 Fujiwara Takanobu, 216
Dualistic religion, 16, 141 (Byron), 462 Ferdinand (king of Spain), 164, 351 Fulbert’s Crypt, 274, 275
Du Barry, Madame, 426, 427 Engravings, 363-364, 364, 365 Fertile Crescent, 4, 8 Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the
Duccio, 295, 298 Eades 11 Féte champétre (Titian), 369 Forum, 105
Duchamp, Marcel, 550, 550, 608 Enlightenment, 419-424, 445, 482 Fetes galantes, 425, 425-426 Furniture, Ming dynasty, 510, 510
Dufay, Guillaume, 319-321 in America and Europe, 433 Feudalism, 195, 251, 255-256 Futurism, 541, 543-544, 546
Du Fu, 200 philosophy, 434 Ficino, Marsilio, 310
Dunciad (Pope), 433 revolutions, 419-424 Fiedler, Arthur, 619 G
Duns Scotus at Oxford (Hopkins), 290 timeline, 416 Fielding, Henry, 440 Gaia, 53
Duomo, 279, 281, 281-282 Entablature, 58, 69 Fifield, Lisa, 629, 629 Gainsborough, Thomas, 430-431, 432
Duplum, 293 Entasis, 58-59, 71 Film. See Cinema Gaius Marius, 100
Diirer, Albrecht, 357, 363-365, 364, Entombment (Caravaggio), 382, 384, 385 Fin de siécle, 493 Galileo Galilei, 408, 410, 410
365 Environmentalism, 480 Firdawsi, 168 Gandhi, Mahatma, 178, 189, 190
on Mexican gold work, 362 Epic of Gilgamesh, 10-11, 15, 16 Firearms, 579 Ganesha, 176, 176-177
Self-Portrait, 349 Epics First Estate, 421 Gao, 241
Dust Bowl, 564-565 Homer, 42-43, 51, 54-55 First Style, 114-115, 115 Garden of Earthly Delights (Bosch),
Dynasties, 19 Roman, 118-119 Fish and Rocks (Zhu Da), 512, 513 356-357, 357
Epics, mock, 433 Fitzgerald, Edward, 168 Garden of Love (Rubens), 394-395, 395
E Epictetus, 117 Fitzgerald, F. Scott, 558 Gardens, Japanese, 530, 531
Eakins, Thomas, 473, 474 Epicureanism, 89, 91 Five Women Who Loved Love (Saikaku), Gargoyles, 284, 284
Early Spring (Guo Xi), 201, 204, 204 Epicurus, 91 530, 532 Garnier, Charles, 457, 458
Eastern Orthodox Church, 132, 146, Epiphanes, Antiochus, 163 Flamboyant Gothic, 275 Garnier, Francois, 398
149 Equestrian Statue ofMarcus Aurelius, Flanders, painting in, 393-395, 394, Garrison, William Lloyd, 460
“Fast Is Red,” 520 110, 111, 112 395, 396, 397 Garths, 252
 INDEX 663

Garzoni, Giovanna, 386, 386 Great Wall of China, 198-199, 202, Harpsichords, 405, 405 Homo sapiens, 5
Gates ofHell (Rodin), 500 509 Harvesters (Bruegel), 366, 367 Homosexuality, 494
Gates ofParadise (Ghiberti), 313, 314 Great Wall of Los Angeles (Baca), Harvey, William, 363 Hong Kong, 515
Gaudi, Antoni, 503, 504 628-629, 629 Hatshepsut, temple of, 27-28, 28 Hopi, 236
Gauguin, Paul, 499-500, 500 Great War. See World War I Hausa, 237 Hopkins, Gerard Manley, 290
Geffroy, Gustave, 488 Great Wave off Kanagawa (Hokusai), Haussmann, Georges Eugene, 486-487 Hopper, Edward, 568, 569
Gehry, Frank, 617, 618, 619 523, 527, 528 Havel, Ambroise, 278, 278 Horace, 100, 119-120
Geishas, 534 Great Zimbabwe, 243, 243 Havel, Vaclav, 634 Horta, Victor, house of, 503, 504
Gelede masks, 582, 582, 584 Greco, El, 341-342, 342 Hawaii, 494 Horyu-ji temple, 212-213, 213
General Agreement on Free Trade Greece, classical, 67-85 Hawkins, Gerald, 234 Hétels, 428, 429
and Tariffs (GATT), 635 African influences on, 37 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 361, 479 Houdon, Jean-Antoine, 38, 437,
Genghis Khan, 508 architecture, 69, 69-73, 70, 72, 73, Hayashi, 533 437-438
Genre painting, 366, 367, 368 74 Hayden, Ferdinand V., 456 Hours of Idleness (Byron), 462
Gentileschi, Artemisia, 384-385, 385 drama, 77-80 Haydn, Franz Joseph, 442, 444 House and Garden of the Scribe Nakte,
Gentileschi, Orazio, 384-385 Golden Age of Athens, 67, 68-69 Haystacks at Giverny (Monet), 488, 488 30, 30
Geoglyphs, 234 influence of, 92, 100-101, 140, 161 Hay Wain (Bosch), 356, 356 House Made of Dawn (Momaday), 633
Geography (Ptolemy), 175 map of, 66 Haywain (Constable), 452, 454 House of Spirits (Allende), 593-594
Geometric period, Greece, 51, 53-56 music, 84-85 Hebrews, 125-130 House of the Vetii, Pompeii, 116-117,
Geometric style, 41, 53, 54 philosophy, 80-83 Hegel, George Friedrich Wilhelm, 118
George Washington (Houdon), sculpture, 73-76, 74, 75, 76, 77 459, 503 Houses of Parliament, London, 457,
437-438, 438 timeline, 64 Hegira, 157 458
Géricault, Théodore, 447, 451, Greece, early Heim, Jacques, 543 Howl (Ginsberg), 618-619
451-452 Archaic period, 51, 57-62 Helladic culture, 43, 48-51 Hsi-wen, 517
German Expressionism, 541, 545, 546, Geometric period, 51, 53-56 Helms, Jesse, 358 Huaca del Sol, Moche, 231-232, 232
S47 gods in, 52 Hemingway, Ernest, 558, 560 Huacas, 231
Germanicus, 111 Orientalizing period, 51, 56-57 Henge, 6-7 Huali, 510
Germany, Hitler and, 563-564 philosophy, 60-62 Henry II (France), 309 Huanghuali, 510
Germinal (Zola), 479 rise of, 51-62 Henry IV (France), 309 Hubble Space Telescope, 410
Gershwin, George, 571-572 sculpture, 53-55, 54, 59-60, 61 Henry the Navigator, 351 “Hugh Selwyn Mauberley” (Pound),
Ghazal, 168 timeline, 40 Henry VI, 278-279, 280 5)
Ghent, 351 Greece, Hellenistic, 59, 85-91 Henry VIII (king of England), 359, Huitzilopochtli, 229-230
Ghent Altarpiece (van Eyck), 353, 353, architecture, 86-88, 87 361-362, 362, 367 Huizi, 198
354, 361 influence of, 92 Henry V (Shakespeare), 294, 354 Human-Headed Winged Lion, 14
Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 313, 314 philosophy, 89-91 Hepworth, Barbara, 553, 554 Humanism, 86, 307, 309-310,
Ghost Dancers Ascending (Fifield), 629, sculpture, 88, 88-89, 89, 90, 91 Hera, 52 358-359, 419
629 timeline, 64 Heraclitus, 61, 62 Human sacrifice, 228-229
Gibbon, Edward, 481 Greek-cross plan, 146, 148, 257 Herakles, 76 Humus, 239
Gigantomachy, 88, 88 Green Linghi stone, 514 Herculaneum, 105, 114, 434 Hundred Years’ War, 270, 294
Geb 8 Gregorian chant, 254-255, 293-294 Herder,J. G., 463 Huns, 183
Ginsberg, Allen, 463, 618-619 Gregory the Great (Pope), 255, 265 Herero, 580 Hunter-gatherer societies, 210-211,
Giotto, 281, 281, 295, 299, 300 Gregory XV (Pope), 379 Herodotus, 22, 67, 241
Giovanni Arnolfini and His Wife Gio- Griffith, David Ward, 619 Heroic Age. See Geometric period, Hupta, Chandra, II, 183
vanna Cenami (van Eyck), Groin vaults, 259, 259 Greece Huyssen, Andreas, 625
353-354, 355, 357 Gropius, Walter, 554-555, 555 Herrigel, Eugene, 218 Hyksos, 27
Gislebertus, 261, 262 Gross national product (GNP), 600 Hesiod, 53 “Hymn to the Sun” (Akhenaten), 37
Gladwell, Malcolm, 402 Grub Street, London, 433 Hesitate (Riley), 615, 617
Glass, Philip, 189, 620 Guernica (Picasso), 564, 565 Hestia, 52 I
Glazed brick, 16 Guerrilla Girls, 626-627, 627 Hideyoshi, 529 Iambic pentameter, 373
Globalization, 634-638 Guggenheim Museum, New York, Hieroglyphics, 8 Ibrahim the Crazy, 157
Globe Playhouse, London, 373, 374 606, 609 Egyptian, 19, 20, 34 Ibsen, Henrik, 492-493, 606
Gnosticism, 141, 241 Guilds, 253, 307 Mayan, 226 Ice Age, 222, 237
Godwin, William, 423 Guitars, 519 High Gothic style, 273, 273-276, 274, Iconoclasm, 358, 361-362
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 463, Gulliver’s Travels (Swift), 433-434 275 Iconoclastic controversy, 146
466 Guo Xi, 201, 204, 204 Highlife music, 584 Iconography, 152, 352, 354
Golden Section, 70 Gutai Art Association, 607 Hirah, 157 Hindu, 186, 187
Gold Rush (film), 619 Gutenberg, Johann, 310 Hijuelos, Oscar, 633 Medieval, 282-283, 287-288
Gold work, African, 242-243 Hildegard of Bingen, 265 Iconophiles, 146
Gospel Book of Charlemagne (Coronation H Himeji Castle, Hyogo, Japan, 529, Icons, 150
Gospels), 254, 254 Habsburgs, 357-358, 379-380 529-530 Id, 495
Gospel of Judas Iscariot, 141 Hades, 52 Hinduism, 175-177 Idé fixe, 464
Gospel of Thomas, 141 Hadith, 158, 167 Bible compared with, 128 Ideograms, 8
Gothic era, 270-294 Hadrian, 86, 104, 114 Buddhism compared with, 180 Igbo, 240
architecture, 271-282, 272-281 Haft Aurang (The Seven Thrones) dynasties, 185-190 Igbo-Ukwu, 242
Flamboyant Gothic, 275 (Jami), 167, 167 Islam compared with, 187 Ignatius of Loyola, 379
High Gothic, 273, 273-276, 274, Hagesandros, 89, 91 literature, 177-179 fares 69-72, HOSEL 2
Ze Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, 145, 145, 146, poetry, 186, 188 Iliad (Homer), 42-43, 51, 54-55
literature, 290-293 146, 147 sacred cows, 189 Illuminated manuscripts, 249, 250, 254
music, 293-294 Haida, 235, 235 temples, 185-186 Gothic, 285, 285-286
painting, 285, 285-288, 287 Haiku, 213, 532 Hip-hop, 584 Mayan, 231
in Paris, 270-271 “Hair” (Baudelaire), 492 Hip life, 584 Illusionistic style, 115, 115
scholasticism, 288-290 Hajj, 159, 160 Hirohito (emperor of Japan), 599, 600 Imagines, 102
sculpture, 282, 282-284, 283, 284 Hakuin Ekaku, 526, 527 Hiroshige, Ando, 498, 527, 528 “I’m Forever a Stranger” (Bei Dao),
timeline, 268 Half steps, 84-85 Hiroshima, Japan, 600 Sui
Gothic Revival, 457, 458 Hall of the Bulls, Lascaux, 5, 6 Histories (Tacitus), 118 Imhotep, 23
Government, 15, 409, 410 Hals, Frans, 389, 389 Hitler, Adolf, 563-564, 599-600 Impasto, 337
African, 240 Hamlet (Shakespeare), 121, 371, 371, HIV (human immunodeficiency Impression, Sunrise (Monet), 485, 487,
Chinese, 198 372, 373 virus), 582 487
Greek, 53, 67 Hammerstein, Oscar, 620 Hobbes, Thomas, 409, 409, 459 Impressionism, 486-493
Roman, 100 Hammurabi, 12-13, 15 Hodges, C. Walter, 374 literature, 491-493
Goya, Francisco, 450, 450-451, 451 Handel, George Frederick, 379, Hogarth, William, 428, 430 music, 492, 493
Graffiti, 119 404405 Hokusai Katsushika, 523, 527, 528 painting, 487, 487-491, 488, 489,
Graham, Martha, 557, 557, 571 Hand scrolls, Neian, 214, 214 Holbein, Hans the Elder, 365 490, 491
Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone Hanging Gardens of Babylon, 15 Holbein, Hans the Younger, 362, 365, timeline, 484
(Moran), 456, 456 Hangzhou, 202, 205 365 Improvisation No. 30 (Warlike Theme)
Grande Odalisque (Ingres), 452, 453 Haniwa, 211, 212 Holidays, 600 (Kandinsky), 545, 547
Grapes of Wrath (Steinbeck), 565 Happenings, 614 Holocaust, 344, 564, 600, 601 Incans, 233, 233-235
Great Courage! Against Corpses! (Goya), Harappa, 175 Holy Roman Empire, 307, 379-380 Incrustation style, 114-115
450-451, 451 Hardouin-Mansart, Jules, 401, 403, 403 Homer, 50, 53, 84 Index of Prohibited Books, 363
Great Pyramids, Egypt, 3, 23-24, 24, Hard Times (Dickens), 479 Iliad, 42-43, 51, 54-55 India
Hardwick Hall, England, 367, 369, 369 Odyssey, 42-43, 54-55 art, 180-181, 181, 183, 183-184,
Great Schism (1054), 132, 146 Harkuf, 34 Homer, Winslow, 472-473, 474 184, 185
Great Serpent Mound, 237, 237 Harmony in Red (Red Room) (Matisse), Homme arme, L’ (Dufay), 321 Bactrian, 181, 183
Great Sphinx, Egypt, 25, 25 541-542, 542 Homo erectus, 5 drama, 188
Great Stupa, Sanchi, 181, 182 Harps, 34 Homophonic texture, 370 Gupta era, 183-187
664 INDEX

India (cont.) economic future of, 535 Kaprow, Allan, 614 Latin America, 586-594
Hellenization of, 89, 89 gardens, 530, 531 Karma, 177 colonialism, 586-587
Hindu dynasties, 185-190 Heian period, 213-216 Karsavina, Tamara, 556 influence of, 593
Hinduism, 175-177 influence of, 218, 536 Kasebier, Gertrude Stanton, 476-477, literature, 592-594
influence of, 190 Kamakura period, 216 477 music, 588, 592
Kushan, 183 literature, 530, 532-533 Kassites, 13 nationalism, 581-582
literature, 177-179 map of, 524 Katsura Palace, ey PANGfsPtKE) painting, 587, 587-588, 588
Maurya period, 179-181 Meiji era, 525 Kauffmann, Angelica, 435-436, 436 sculpture, 582, 582-583, 583, 584
music, 188-190 Muromachi period, 525, 528-529 Kazuo, Shiraga, 607 timeline, 576
Muslim, 187 music, 530, 533-537 Keats, John, 462 Latin-cross plan, 257, 258
sculpture, 183, 183-184, 184, 186 Nara period, 213 Kengho, Yatsuhashi, 537 Law, 15
timeline, 172 painting, landscape, 525-526, 526 Kenji, Mizoguchi, 534 Byzantine, 149
Vedic period, 175-179 prehistoric, 210-211 Kent, William, 438, 438 Code of Hammurabi, 12-13, 13, 17
Indirect rule, 580-581 prints, 498, 498 Kenya pithecus, 5 Napoleonic Code, 422-423
Industrial Revolution, 423-424, 469 religion, 211-212 Kenyatta, Jomo, 581, 585 Roman, 120
Indus Valley civilization, 175 Shinto in, 525 Kepler, Johannes, 407-408 Lawrence, D. H., 548
Inés de la Cruz, Sor Juana, 406 timeline, 208, 522 Kerouac, Jack, 617-618 Lawrence, Jacob, 568, 571
Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique, 452, Warring States period, 525 Khamerernebty, 25, 26 Leaning tower of Pisa, 281-282
453 woodblock prints, 526-527, 528 Kharijites, 241 Learning from Las Vegas (Venturi), 616
Ink-style painting, 525-526, 526 World War II, 600 Kierkegaard, Soren, 601 Leaves of Grass (Whitman), 463
Inlaid Standard, Ur, 10, 11 Faponaiserie: The Tree (Van Gogh), 498, King, Martin Luther, Jr., 190 Lebensraum, 564
In Our Time (Hemingway), 560 498 Kingston, Maxine Hong, 632 Le Brun, Charles, 401, 402
In Praise of Folly (Erasmus), 359 Jataka, 184, 185 Kinkakuji (Iemple of the Golden Le Corbusier, 38, 302, 555, 555, 605,
Inquiry into the Nature and Cause of the Jazz, 571-574, 583-584 Pavilion) (Kyoto), 528-529, 529, 608
Wealth ofNations (Smith), 423-424 Jean, duke of Berry, 351 530 Leeuwenhoek, Anton van, 407
Inscription Rock, New Mexico, 119 Jeanne-Claude, 615-616, 617 Kinsey Report, 610 Lefkowitz, Mary, 37, 92
Institutes of the Christian Religion Jefferson, Thomas, 420, 421, 437, 439, Kirda, 636 Legalism, 199
(Calvin), 361 440, 494 Kirdkurdungurlu, 636 Leitmotifs, 467
Intaglio, 175, 175 Fen, 196 Kiss (Rodin), 500-501, 501 Lekythoi (lekythos), 77, 77
Interior of the Pantheon, Rome (Panini), Jenne-Jeno, 241 Kivas, 235, 236 Lely, Peter, 395
108 Jeremiah, 126 Klosterneuburg Abbey Altarpiece, Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich, 549
International style, 285, 285 Jerome, Saint, 241 262, 263 Leonardo da Vinci, 324, 324-325,
Internet, 635 Jerusalem, 128-129, 163 Knossos, 42-43, 44 325, 326
Intertropical Convergence Zone Jesuits, 379, 406, 509 Koans, 526 Leonidas of Rhodes, 76
(ITCA), 239 Jesus, 130 Kojiki, 213 Leonides, 67
Invisible Man (Ellison), 568 Fesus the Good Shepherd, 134, 136 Kojiki, 212 Leonin, 293-294
Tonic order, 69, 69 Fesus Watching Muhammad Leave Kollwitz, Kathe, 302, 548, 548 Leopold (king of Belgium), 580
Irrigation, 27 Mecca, 159 Konchalovsky, Andrei, 56 Leo X (Pope), 309, 323, 359-360
Isabella (queen of Spain), 164, 351 Jewett, Sarah Orne, 492 Kongo Kingdom, 243 Lesbianism, 56
Isaiah, 126 Jing, 517, 533 Korai (kore), 59-60, 61 “A Letter to Her Husband, Absent
Isbin, Sharon, 519 John (king of England), 255 Koran. See Quran upon Public Employment” (Brad-
Ishtar Gate, 15-16, 16 John of the Cross, St., 379 Koto music, 535, 536, 537 street), 412
Isidorus of Miletus, 145, 145, 146, Johnson, Samuel, 432-433 Ko-tsuzumi, 533 Let Us Now Praise Famous Men (Agee),
146, 147 John the Baptist, 130 Kouroi (kouros), 59-60, 61 565-566, 566
Isis, 20-21 John Wilkins DD (Beale), 396, 398 Kouros, forgeries, 402 Le Vau, Louis, 401, 402
Isis cult, 130 Jolly Toper als), 389, 389 Kouros (Noguchi), 608, 611 Leviathan (Hobbes), 409, 409
Islam Jomon pottery, 211 Krasner, Lee, 602-603, 604 Levine, Sherrie, 625
in Africa, 241, 242, 243 Jones, John Paul, 437 Kraters, 41, 53, 54, 58, 59 Levy Oinochoe, 56, 56-57
Bible compared with, 128 Jones, Lois Mailou, 604-605, 607 Krio society, 579 Lewis, Edmonia, 477-478, 478
Christianity compared with, 160 Jonson, Ben, 62, 371 Krishna, 176 LeWitt, Sol, 615, 617
colonialism and, 581 Joplin, Scott, 573 Kritios, 73-74, 74 Leyster, Judith, 389, 389
Five Pillars of, 156, 158-159 Joseph and Potiphar’s Wife (Rossi), 331, Kritios Boy (Kritios), 73-74, 74 Li, 196
Hinduism compared with, 187 333 Kronos, 52 Liang Kai, 202
in India, 187 Joshua Bidding the Sun to Stand Still, Kshatriyas, 177 Liang King, 203
Quran in, 157-158 285, 285 Kublai Khan, 202, 508 Li Bai, 200, 202, 206
Sufis, 159-160 Josquin des Prés, 327, 337 Kurosawa, Akira, 534, 535 Libation Bearers (Aeschylus), 79
Islamic civilization, 155-171 Journal of the Plague Year (Defoe), 441 Kush, 34 Liberal arts, 288
architecture, 161-166, 162, 163, Joyce, James, 558, 559 Kuti, Fela, 584 Liberation of Aunt Jemima (Saar), 627,
164, 165, 166 Judaism/Jews, 125-130, 149, 564, 600 Kwakiutl, 235 628
Greek influences in, 161 Christianity influenced by, 131 Kwei, Kane, 583, 583 Liberator (newspaper), 460
literature, 167-169 Islam and, 156 Liberty Enlightening the World
math and science, 160-161 Venice ghetto, 344 L (Bartholdi), 477, #77
music, 169-170 Judd, Donald, 614, 615 Labille-Guiard, Adélaide, 427-428, Liberty Leading the People (Delacroix),
Ottoman Empire and, 157-160 Judith Slaying Holofernes (Gentileschi), 428 452, 453, 470
philosophy, 160 385, 389 Labyrinths, 45, 593 Lichtenstein, Roy, 612-613, 614
Pisa griffin, 260, 260 Julian, 132 Lady Elizabeth Delmé and Her Children Lieder, 464, 466
tayet et 154 Julius Caesar (Shakespeare), 373 (Reynolds), 430, 432 Limbourg brothers, 285, 285-286
Issa, Kobayashi, 532 Julius Il (Pope), 323 Lais (lays), 264 Lin, Maya Ying, 629-631, 630
Ttaly Jullienne, Jean de, 426 Lake Share Drive Apartment Houses, Lincoln, Abraham, 460
Baroque, 378-388 July Monarchy, 452-456 Chicago, 302, 605, 607 Linda, Solomon, 585
music, 386, 388 Jungle (Lam), 588, 591 Laksana, 183 Lindau Gospels, 254, 254
painting, 382-386, 384, 385, 386, Justinian, 142, 143, 143-144, 144, 158 Lakshmi, 176 Lindisfarne Gospels, 249, 250, 266
387 Jutes, 249 Lalibela, 241 Linear A/B, 43
Renaissance, 304-347 Lam, Wilfredo, 588, 591 Linear perspective, 150, 314, 322
Ives, Charles, 571 K Lamentation over the Body ofFesus Linnaeus, Carolus, 424
“I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud” Ka, 21 (Giotto), 295, 300 Lion Capital, Sarnath, 180-181, 181
(Wordsworth), 461-462, 499 Kabuki theater, 527, 533, 534 Lange, Dorothea, 302, 565, 566 Lion Gate, Mycenae, 48, 49, 50
Ixion Room, Pompeii, 116-117, 118 Kafka, Franz, 560 Langland, William, 140 Lion of St. Mark (Carpaccio), 335,
he Soku, 531 Lantern, 312 335-336
J Kahlo, Frida, 967, 588, 591 Laocoon and His Sons (Hagesandros, “Lion Sleeps Tonight” (Linda), 584
Jaguar God, 227 Kali, 176 peepee | Polydoros), 89, 91, Li Po, 200, 206
Jahan, Shah, 187 Kalidasa, 188 32 Li Song, 193, 204
Jainism, 178 Kallicrates, 69-72, 70, 71, 72, 73 Lao-Tzu, 128 Lissitzky, El, 572, 572
Jamb figures, 282, 282-283, 283 Kama, 175 Laozi, 197 Literati painting, 510-512, 512, 513
Jami, 167 Kamares Ware, 47, 47, 48 Lascaux, France, wall paintings, 5, 6, Literati school, 204
Jandun, Jean de, 278 Kami, 212, 525 Literature
Japan, 208-219, 522-537 Kamitsumaki, 213 Last Judgment (Gislebertus), 261, 262 Africa, 585-586
Abstract Expressionism, 607 Kana systems, 217 Last fudgment (Michelangelo), 331, Aristotle on, 83
architecture, 212-213, 213, Kanda, 177 332 Baroque, 410-412, 414
528-530, 529 Kandariya Mahadeo temple, Khaju- Last Supper (Leonardo), 324-325, 325, Beat, 617-619
Ashikaga period, 216-217, 219, raho, 185-186, 186 333, 340-341 Bible as, 129-130, 136-139
528-529 Kandinsky, Vassily, 545, 547 Last Supper (Tintoretto), 340-341, 341 Carolingian, 251
Asuka period, 212-213 Kangxi (emperor of China), 509, 518 Lateritic soils, 239 China, 516-517
drama, 527, 533-534 Kant, Immanuel, 449, 459 Latin, 120 chivalric, 262, 264-265
 INDEX 665

Egyptian, 37 Lysippos, 75-76, 77, 80, 101 Mary, Countess Howe (Gainsborough), Migrant Mother (Lange), 302
Gothic, 290-293 Lysistrata (Aristophanes), 80 431, 432 Migration of the Negro (Lawrence), 568
Greek, 77-83, 89-91 Mary Magdalene (Donatello), 314, 315 Mihrab, 161
Hindu, 177-179 M Mary (queen of Hungary), 366 Milan Cathedral, 282, 282
i Senerrried 491-493 MacArthur, Douglas, 600 Masaccio, 315-316, 316 Mille-fleurs style, 286-288, 287
Indian, 185 Macbeth (Shakespeare), 371, 373 “Mask of Agamemnon,” 50, 50 Million Little Pieces (Frey), 481
Islamic, 167-169 Macedonian culture, 67, 85-91 Masks, African gelede, 582, 582, 584 Miltiades, 67
Japan, 530, 532-533 Machaut, Guillaume de, 302 Masontry style, 114-115 Milton, John, 54, 62, 358-359, 412
Japanese, 213-216, 217 Machiavelli, Niccold, 338-339, 346 Masses, 337 Minamoto Yoritomo, 216, 216
late Middle Ages, 295, 298-301 Machu Picchu, 221, 233, 233 Mastabas, 22—23 Minarets, 161
Mayan, 226-227 Macumba, 244 Mathematics Minimalism, 614-616, 615, 616, 617
Modernist, 556, 558-560 Madame Bovary (Flaubert), 479 Egyptian, 241 Minoan culture, 43, 44-48, 59
naturalist, 492-493 Madeline, La, Paris, 438-439, 439 Greek, 81, 84 Minos, 44
Neoclassical, 439-441 Maderno, Carlo, 335, 380, 380 Islamic, 160-161 Palace of, 44-47, 45, 46
rationalist, 432-434 Madonna and Child Enthroned (Anony- Plato on, 81 Minuet and trio, 442
realism in, 295, 298-301 mous), 148, 150, 157, 152 Mather, Cotton, 361 Mirandola, Pico della, 310
realist, 478-481 Madonna and Child Enthroned Matisse, Henri, 541, 541-542, 542 Mir6, Joan, 551-552, 552
Renaissance, 322-323, 337-339 (Cimabue), 295, 297 Matoori Noringa, 213-214 Mission of the Apostles, 260-261, 261
Renaissance, High, 370-374 Madonna and Child Enthroned (Duc- Matriarchy, 49 Missouri Mural (Benton), 568, 570
Roman,
103, 118-121 cio), 295, 298 Mau, August, 114 Mithra cult, 130
Romanesque, 262, 264-265 Madonna and Child Enthroned (Giotto), Maupaussant, Guy de, 493 Mnesikles, 69, 72, 73, 73
Romantic, 460-464 295, 299 Maurice of Sully, 273 Mobiles, 608, 610
Russian, 479-481 Madonna of the Meadows (Raphael), Maurya, Chandragupta, 179 Moby Dick (Melville), 460
Southern regionalist, 569-570 327, 328 Mauve District (Frankenthaler), 604, Moche culture, 231-233, 232
Sumerian, 10-11 Madonna of the Rocks (Leonardo), 324, 606 Mock epics, 433
Symbolist, 491-493 324 Maximian, 104-105 Moctezuma I|huicamina, 228
twentieth century, 632-634 Madonna with the Long Neck (Parmi- Maximilian I, 364 Modernism
Liturgical music, 139 gianino), 339, 339-340 Maya, 177 literature, 556, 558-560
Liu Fang, 519 Madrigals, 302, 369-370 Mayans, 223, 225, 226-227, 227, 228, painting, 555-556, 558, 559
Liu Ling, 202 Maesta Altarpiece (Duccio), 295, 298 229 Modes
Lives of the Caesars (Suetonius), 105, Magellan, Ferdinand, 363 Mazurkas, 465 Egyptian, 34
118 Magicians of the Earth (Magiciens de la “Mbube” (Linda), 585 Greek, 84-85
Livia, 104, 111 terre), 635, 636, 638 McEvilley, Thomas, 635 Mohammad V, 166, 166
Livy (Titus Livius), 118 Magic realism, 593-594 Medea (Seneca), 121 Mohammed Askia I, 242
Lloyd Weber, Andrew, 620 Magna Carta, 255 Medici, Catherine de’, 309 Mohenjo-daro, 175
Locke, John, 410, 420 Mahabharata, 178-179 Medici, Cosimo de’, 308 Moillon, Louise, 398, 400, 401
Lofty Message of the Forests and Streams Mahadeviyakka, 186, 188 Medici, Giovanni di Bicci de’, 308 Moksha, 175
(Guo Xp. 201, 204 Mahavira, 178 Medici, Lorenzo the Magnificent, Moliére, 411
Loggia, 313 Mahler, Gustave, 464 308, 308-309 Moll Flanders (Defoe), 441
Logos, 90 Maids ofHonor (Las Meninas) Medici, Marie de’, 309, 388, 394, 395 Momaday, N. Scott, 633
Loire valley chateaux, 366-368, 368 (Velazquez), 397, 399 Meditations (Aurelius), 117-118 Mona Lisa at the Age of Twelve (Botero),
Long, Richard, 638 Maimonides, Moses, 161 Medusa, 49 588, 592
Long galleries, 369 Maison Carrée, Nimes, 439 Meeting (Fragonard), 426-427, 428 Mona Lisa (Leonardo), 325, 326, 333,
Lord Byron in Albanian Costume Maize, 236-237 Melozzo da Forli, 326, 326 550
(Philips), 462 Malahi, 169 Melville, Herman, 361, 460, 479 Monarchy, French Revolution and,
Lord of the Rings (film), 619 Malaria, 579 Memoirs, 481 421-422
Lorentian Library, Florence, 344-345, Mali, 242 Menaechmi (Plautus), 105 Monasteries, 252, 252-253, 361-362
345 Mallarmé, Stéphane, 492 Menander, 89 Monasticism, 251-255
Los Angeles, Great Wall of (Baca), Mallia, 44 Mendelssohn, Fanny, 465 Mondrian, Piet, 266, 553, 553
628-629,
629 Mambo Kings Play Songs ofLove (Hijue- Mendelssohn, Felix, 407 Monet, Claude, 485, 487, 487-488,
Lost generation, 558 los), 633 Menes, 19 488, 498
Lost-wax process. See Cire perdue Manao Tupapau (Spirit of the Dead Mentuhotep II, 27 Monophony, 255
method Watching) (Gauguin), 499-500, Meérode Altarpiece (Campin), 351-352, Monophysitism, 241
Louise-Elisabeth of France (Labille- 500 352, 353 Monotheism, 125
Guiard), 428, 428 Mandarins, 205, 509 Mesa Verde, 236, 236 Montage, 561, 562
Louisiana Purchase, 494 Mandela, Nelson, 582 Mesoamerican civilizations, 223-231, Montaigne, Michel de, 370-371
Louis IX (king of France), 270-271 Mandorla, 260 244 Monteverdi, Claudio, 388, 465
Louis-Philippe (king of France), 452, Manet, Edouard, 471-472, 472, 473, Aztec, 228-231, 230, 231 Montezuma, 225, 309
469 487 : ball games, 230 Monticello, 439, 440
Louis XIV (king of France), 400, 401, Manger (Kasebier), 476, #77 Mayan, 226-227, 227, 228 Montreuil, Pierre de, 276, 277, 278
403, 403, 425 “Manifesto of Futurism” (Marinetti), Olmec, 223, 223, 224 Moore, Henry, 266, 553-554, 554
Louis XVI (king of France), 419, 543 22Toltec, 8 Moran, Thomas, 456, 456
421-422 Mannerism, 339-345, 379 Mesopotamia, 2, 8-18, 53 More, Thomas, 359
Louis XV (king of France), 424 architecture, 344-345, 345, 346 Messe de Nostre Dame (Machaut), 302 Morgan, Richard, 236
Louvre, Paris, 401, 402 painting,
339, 339-343, 340, 341, Messiah (Handel), 405 Mori, Mariko, 631, 631
Louvre Museum, Paris, 38, 271 342, 343 Metamorphoses (Ovid), 120 Morisot, Berthe, 487, 489, 490
Love poetry sculpture, 343, 343-344 Metopes, 69, 71, 71 Morley, Thomas, 302, 370, 372
chivalric,
263, 264-265 Mansa Musa, 242 Mexica. See Aztecs Morrison, ‘Toni, 632
Islamic, 168 Mao Zedong, 517, 518 Mexicano, 230-231 Mortuary poles, 235, 235
Roman, 120 Mapplethorpe, Robert, 358 Mexico. See also Latin America Mosaics
Sumerian, 12 Martak ziggurat, 15 Baroque in, 406 Byzantine, 123, 142, 143, 143-144,
Love’s Young Dream (Brownscombe), Maria Edgeworth (Beard), 475 murals, 573, 573, 587-588, 589 144, 148, 149, 150
473, 474 Marie Antoinette (queen of France), Michelangelo Buonarotti, 323, early Christian, 134, 136
Low Countries, 351 419, 421-422 328-331, 330, 331, 332, 335, 344, Moses, 125-126
painting, 351-357, 352, 353, 354, Marie de France, 264 345 Moses und Aaron (Schoenberg), 562
355, 356, 357 Marie de’ Mediei, Queen ofFrance, Michelino, Domenico di, 292 Mosques, 161-166, 162, 163, 164,
painting, Baroque, 388-393, 389, Landing in Marseilles (Rubens), Middle Ages 165, 166
390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 394, 394 Black Death, 294 African, 244
397 Marie of Champagne, 262, 264 Carolingian, 250-251 Dome of the Rock, 163, 163
Loyola, Ignatius of. See Ignatius of Marilyn Monroe Diptych (Warhol), 597, Celto-Germanic, 249-250 Great Mosque of Timbuktu, 585,
Loyola 612, 613 Christianity in, 249-250 585
Luanda, 243 Marinetti, Filippo, 543 early, 248-255 Motets, 320, 337, 369
Lucifer, 139 Marlowe, Christopher, 373 Gothic, 270-294 Mother-fathers, 229
Lucillius, Gaius, 119 Marquez, Gabriel Garcia, 593 influence of, 266 Mothers (Kollwitz), 302, 548, 548
Luncheon on the Grass (Manet), Marriage a la Mode (Hogarth), 428, late, 268 Motna, Erna, 636, 637, 638
471472, 472, 473 430 monasticism, 251-255 Moundbuilders, 236-237, 237
Luther, Martin, 323, 359, 359-361, Marriage Contract (Hogarth), 428, 430 music, 293-294, 302 Mount Kilimanjaro, 239
363, 406-407 Marriage of the Virgin (Raphael), 327, timeline, 246, 268 Mount Sainte-Victoire from the Large
Luzarches, Robert de, 276, 276 327 toward the Renaissance, 294-302 Pine Tree (Cézanne), 496, 496
Lyceum, Athens, 82 Marseillaise (Rude), 456-457, 457 Middlemarch (Eliot), 479 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 442-443,
“Lycidas” (Milton), 412 Marshall, George C., 600 Middle Path, 179-180 444, 465
Lyres, 84 ~ Marshall Plan, 600 Mies van der Rohe, Ludwig, 605, 607 Mrs. Dalloway (Woolf), 559-560
Lyrical Ballads (Wordsworth, Co- Martin, Jean-Hubert, 635, 638 Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California, Much Ado About Nothing (Shake-
leridge), 461-462 Marx, Karl, 459, 469-470, 503, 549 565, 566 speare), 373
666 INDEX

Mudra, 184 Nativity (Pisano), 295, 296 O Australian Aboriginal, 636, 637, 638
Muezzin, 161 Natural History (Pliny), 115 Oath of the Horatii (David), 435, 435 Baroque, Flemish, 351-357, 352,
Mugabe, Robert, 582 Naturalism, 295, 492-493 Obelisks, 380 353, 354, 355, 356, 357
Muhammad, 156, 159, 159 Natural selection, 481-482 Object (Le Déjeuner en fourrure) (Break- Baroque, in England, 395-396, 398
Muhammad of Ghur, 187 “Nature” (Emerson), 459 fast in Fur) (Oppenheim), 552, Baroque, in Flanders, 393-395, 394,
Multi-media installations, 631, 631 Nave, 132, 133 552-553 395, 396, 397
Mumma, Gordon, 616 Nazca lines, 234, 234 Obregén, Alvaro, 588 Baroque, in France, 397-400, 400,
Mummification, 21 Nazis, 563-564 Ockham’s razor, 290 401
Mundy, Peter, 389 Neanderthals, 5 O’Connor, Flannery, 570 Baroque, in Holland, 388-393, 389,
Murals, 45, 114, 602 Nebuchadnezzar, 128 Octavian, 100 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396,
Detroit, 573, 573 Nebuchadnezzar II, 15-16 Oculus, 108-109 397
Los Angeles, 628, 629 Negritude, 581-582 Odalisk (Rauschenberg), 610, 612 Baroque, in Italy, 382-386, 384,
Mexico, 573, 573, 587-588, 589 Neoclassical period, 419, 434-443, Odalisque, 452 385, 386, 387
WPA, 568, 570 445 Odalisque (Delacroix), 452, 454 Baroque, in Spain, 396-397, 399
Murasaki Shikibu, 213-214, 217 architecture, 438, 438-439, 439 Odes, 119-120 Byzantine, 148, 150, 151, 152
Murata Juko, 217 literature, 439-441 Ode to Kinshasa (Jones), 605, 607 China, literati, 510-512, 512, 513
Muse and Maiden (Achilles Painter), painting, 434-437, 435, 436, 437 Odo of Metz, 251, 251 Chinese, 200-204, 202, 203, 204
ky Ua sculpture, 437-438, 438 Odysseus, 54-55 Christian, early, 134, 136, 138
Music timeline, 416 Odyssey (Homer), 42-43, 51, 54-55 Counter-Reformation, 382-386,
Africa, 583-585 Neo-Confucianism, 201, 206 Odyssey ofHomer (film), 56 384, 385, 386, 387
Baroque, 386, 388, 404-407 Neolithic period, 6-8 O Ecclesia (Hildegard), 265 Cubism, 542-543, 544, 545
China, 517-520 Neo-Plasticism, 553, 553 Oedipus, 25, 52 Dada, 549, 549-550, 550
Chinese, 198 Neoplatonism, 131, 139-141, 241, Oedipus complex, 79 De Stijl, 553, 553
Christian, 139 310 Oedipus (Seneca), 121 Egyptian, 25-26, 26, 30, 30-31, 31,
Classical, 441-443, 619-620 Nerfertiti, 33, 33-34, 35 Oedipus the King (Sophocles), 79, 83 32
Egyptian, 32, 32, 34 Neri, St. Philip, 379, 382 Oe Hikaro, 534-535 Fauvist, 541, 541-542, 542
Gothic, 293-294 Nero, 104, 121 Oe Kenzaburo, 533, 534 Futurist, 543-544, 546
Greek, 84-85 Nerva, 104 Of Famous Men (Suetonius), 118 German Expressionist, 545, 546, 547
Gregorian chant, 254-255, 265 Neumes, 255 Ogun, 240 Gothic, 285, 285-288, 287
Impressionist, 492, 493 Nevelson, Louise, 612, 613 Oil painting, 336 Impressionist, 487, 487-491, 488,
Indian, 188-190 New Deal, 564-565, 602 Oinochoe, 56, 56-57 489, 490, 491
Islamic, 169-170 Newton, Isaac, 424 O'Keeffe, Georgia, 555-556, 558 Islamic, 166-167, 167
Japan, 530, 533-537 New York City Ballet, 556 Okusun, Sonny, 584 Latin America, 587, 587-588, 588
jazz, 572-574 Nicaea, Council of, 132 Oldenburg, Claes, 613, 614 Mannerist, 339, 339-343, 340, 341,
late Middle Ages, 302 Nicene Creed, 132 Old Indian Arrow-maker and His 342, 343
Latin America, 588, 592 Nicholas II (tsar of Russia), 548, 549 Daughter (Lewis), 478, 478 Middle Ages, 249, 250, 266
modern, 610 Nicholas of Ely, 278, 279 Oliver Twist (Dickens), 479 Modernist, 555-556, 558, 559
Modernist, 561-562 Nicholas of Verdun, 261-262, 263 Olmecs, 223, 223, 224, 230 Neoclassical, 434-437, 435, 436, 437
Reformation, 359 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 495 Olpe, 57, 57 Post-Impressionist, 495-500, 497,
Renaissance, 319-322, 337, 369-370 Nighthawks (Hopper), 568, 569 Oludumare, 240 498, 499, 500
rock and roll, 620-621 Night Watch (Rembrandt), 390, Olympiad, 76, 84 Postmodern, 625, 625-631, 626,
Rococo, 425 390-391 On Christian Doctrine (Augustine), 140 627, 628, 629, 630
Roman, 105 Nihongi, 213 114 Songs (Ives), 571 realist, 470, 470-474, 472, 474
Romanesque, 265 Nijinsky, Vaslav, 556 One Hundred Songs (Petrucci), 322 regionalist, 568, 569, 570, 571
Romantic, 464-468 Nike of Samothrace, 89, 90 One Hundred Views ofEdo (Hiroshige), Renaissance, 315-319, 316, 317,
secular, 302, 369-370 Nikias, 58, 58 527, 528 318, 319, 320, 321, 324, 324-325,
in Shakespeare, 372 Nile River civilizations, 18-22 One Hundred Years of Solitude 325, 326, 327, 327-333, 328, 329
Turkish military, 444 “Ninety-Five Theses” (Luther), (Marquez), 593 Renaissance, Flemish, 351-357,
twentieth century, 546-547, 359-360 On the Antietam Battlefield (Brady), 352; 353, 354, 355, 350, Soe
619-620 Nineveh, 13 475, 475 Renaissance, High, 363-366, 364,
US., 570-572 El Nifio, 232-233 On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 365, 366, 367, 368
Musical theater, 620 Nirvana, 180 481-482 Rococo, 425, 425-431, 426, 427,
Musicians and Dancers, 32, 32 Nkruma, Kwame, 581 On the Revolutions of Celestial Bodies 428, 430, 431, 432
Mussolini, Benito, 562-563, 564 Noa Noa (Fragrance) (Gauguin), (Copernicus), 363 Roman, 114-117, 115, 116, 117
Mussorgsky, Modest, 467, 556 499-500 On the Road (Kerouac), 618 Romantic, 449, 450, 450-456, 451,
Muybridge, Eadweard, 475-476, 476 Nobleman Hunting in the Marshes, Op Art, 615, 617 453, 454, 455, 456
Mycenaean culture, 43, 48-51 30-31, 31 Open Modular Cube (LeWitt), 615, 617 still life, 431
Mycerinus, 23, 25, 26 Nocturnes, 465 Opera, 413 Surrealist, 557, 551-553, 552, 553
Mystery cults, 52 Noguchi, Isamu, 557, 557, 608, 611 Baroque, 386, 388 Venetian, 335, 335-337, 336, 337
Mystery plays, 253 Noh theater, 533 Beijing, 517, 519-520 Painting (Miré), 552, 552
Mysticism Noh theatre, 214-216, 215 Romantic, 465-467 Painting the Lips (Utamaro), 527, 528
Buddhism, 180 Nokano-tsuzumi, 533 Opium War, 515 Pakistan, division of, 187
Islam, 159-160 Nolde, Emil, 545, 546 Oppenheim, Méret, 552, 552-553 Palaces
Myth, 10-11, 15 Nomads, 6, 175 Oracles, 52 Minoan, 44-47, 45, 46
Mythology, 52 Norman Conquest, 255, 294 Oral contraceptives, 610 Mycenaean, 48-50
North American cultures, 235, Oration on the Dignity of Man (Miran- Persian, 16, 17
N 235-237, 236, 237, 243 dola), 310 Palace Style, 47, 48
Nagasaki, Japan, 600 Not Out ofAfrica (Lefkowitz), 37, 92 Oratorians, 379, 382 Palatine Chapel, Aachen, 251, 251
Nagasena, 89 Notre Dame, Amien, 269 Oratories, 379 Palazzo Medici-Riccardi (Bartolom-
Nahua languages, 223 Notre-Dame, Amiens, 276, 276 Oratorios, 405 meo), 312-313, 313
Nahuatl, 229, 230-231 Notre-Dame, Chartres, 273, 273-276, Oresteia (Aeschylus), 79 Paleolithic period, 5-6
Nakatsumaki, 213 274, 275 Orfeo (Monteverdi), 388 Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da, 337,
Nakte, 30, 30 sculpture, 282, 282-283 Organum, 293-294 379
Nanking, Treaty of (1842), 515 stained glass, 286, 287 Originality, 449 Palette ofNarmer, 19, 20
Napier, John, 363 Notre-Dame, Paris, 273, 273, Orisa, 240 Palladio, Andrea, 345, 346
Napoleon Bonaparte, 422-423, 424, 283-284, 284 Ornamental/ornamented style, Pamela (Richardson), 440
438, 448, 449 Notre-Dame, Reims, 283, 283 115-116, 117 Pan-Athenaic Games, 58, 58, 76
Napoleonic Code, 422-423 Notre-Dame-de Paris, 284, 284, 302 Orozco, Jose Clemente, 588 Pancatantra, 185
Napoleon in his Study (David), 424 Notre-Dame-du-Haut, Ronchamp, Orpheus, 139 Panini, Giovanni Paolo, 108
Naram-Sin, 12 France, 605, 608 Osiris, 20-21, 25 Pantheism, 240
Narihira, 213 Notre-Dame-du-Haut, Ronchamp Othello (Shakespeare), 372, 373 Pantheon, Rome, 108, 108-109
Narmer, 19, 27 (Le Corbusier), 302 Ottoman empire, 157-160 Paper, 167
Narrative of the Life (Douglass), 460 Notre-Dame School, 293-294 Ottoman Empire: Crimean War, 460 Parables, 130
Narthex, ee 1 a Noumena, 459 Outcastes, 177. Parade (Satie, Picasso), 551, 551
National Assembly, France, 421 Novelle, 298 Ovid, 120, 264 Paradise Lost (Milton), 54, 62, 412
National Endowment for the Arts, 358 Novels, 439-441, 517 Oxford University, 288 Paradise Regained (Milton), 412
Nationalism, 581-582 “Now Is the Month of Maying” “Ozymandias” (Shelley), 36 Parchment, 249, 250
National parks, 456 (Morley), 370 Paris
Nation states, 307 Nozick, Robert, 92 ie Gothic era, 270-271
Native Americans, 244, 629, 629, 638 Nubia, 34 Paganism, 130-131, 139 Notre-Dame, 273, 273, 283-284,
buffalo hunters, 237 Numerology, 275, 330 Paine, Thomas, 420, 423, 432 284
Moundbuilders, 236-237, 237 Nuper Rosarum Flores (Dufay), 322 Painting Opéra, 457, 458
Northwest Coast, 235, 235 Nureyev, Rudolf, 556 abstract expressionism, 602-606, Peace of(1783), 420
Southwest, 235-236, 236 Nussbaum, Marth, 92 603, 604, 605, 606, 607 rebuilding of, 486-487
 INDEX 667

Sainte-Chapelle, 276, 277, 278 Photo-Secession, 477 Poleis, 53 Pryroxylin, 588

University of, 288 Piano, 465 Pollock, Jackson, 602, 603, 603, 607 Psalter ofSt. Louis, 285, 285
Parmigianino, 339, 339-340 Piano, Renzo, 616, 618 Polo, Marco, 202, 205, 362 Psychoanalysis, 495
Parody masses, 319-320 Piano nobile, 313 Polonaises, 465 Ptolemaic dynasty, 67, 85
Parthenon, 38 Piazza, 146 Polydoros of Rhodes, 89, 91 Ptolemy, 163, 175, 363
Parthenon (Iktinos, Kallikrates), Picaresque novels, 414, 439-440 Polykleitos, 65, 74, 75, 101 Ptolemy V, 19
69-72, 70, 71, 72 Picasso, Pablo, 62, 543, 544, 545, 551, Polykleitos the Younger, 78, 78 P’u, 197
Passion According to St. Matthew (Bach), 551, 564, 565 Polyphony, 255, 293-294, 369, 406 Pueblo Benito, 236
406, 407 Pickford, Mary, 561 Polyptychs, 353, 353 Pugin, Augustus W. N., 457, 458
Passionate Pilgrim, The, 371 Pictographic writing, 8 Polyrhythms, 583-584 Pulcinella (Stravinsky), 561
Pasteur, Louis, 481 Pictorialism, 476-477 Polytheism, 9, 19-22 Punic culture, 241
Pasteurization, 481 Piero della Francesca, 316-317, 317, Pompeii, 105, 114, 115, 175, 116-117, Punic Wars, 100
Patriarchs, 125-126 318 118, 119, 434 Puppet theater, 533
Patricians, 100 Piers Ploughman (Langland), 140 Pompeius Magnus, Gaeus, 100 Pure Land Buddhism, 216
Patronage, 100, 200, 357-358, Pieta (Michelangelo), 328, 330 Pompidou Center, Paris, 616, 618 Pyramid (Robert), 36, 36
378-379, 388 Pietas, 100 Pont du Gard, Nimes, 102, 104, 108 Pyramids, 38
Paul (apostle), 131-132, 137-138, 141 Pilgrimage for Religion’s Sake (Eras- Pop Art, 612, 613 Egyptian, 3, 23, 23-24, 24, 36, 36
Pax Romana, 104 Se 358 Pop culture, 608, 610-621 Mayan, 227, 227
Paxton, Joseph, 266, 457, 458 Pilgrimages Pope, Alexander, 433 Moche, 231, 232
Peace of Augsburg (1555), 380 Islamic, 159, 160 Pope Marcellus Mass (Palestrina), 337 Teotihuac4n, 224
Peace of Paris (1783), 420 picaresque novels and, 414 Popes, 132, 308 Pyrrho, 91
Peace of Westphalia (1648), 380 Romanesque churches, 256-257, Popol Vuh, 226-227, 230 Pythagoras, 62, 84
Peasant Wedding (Bruegel), 366, 368 258, 259 Porch of the Maidens, 72
Peeters, Clara, 395, 397 Pilgrimage to Cythera (Watteau), 425, Porgy and Bess (Gershwin), 572, 574 Q
Pei, I. M., 38, 271 425 Porticoes, 380 Qasidah, 168
Peloponnesian War, 53, 75 Pillow Book (Shonagon), 217 Portrait of a Lady (van Hemessen), 366, Qianlong (emperor of China), 509,
Pendentives, 146 Pinsky, Robert, 62 366 517, 518
Pentatholon, 76 Pipas, 519 Portrait of a Noblewoman (Fontana), Qin Shi Huang, 199, 199
Performance art, 627, 627 Pirsig, Robert, 218 342-343, 343 Quadratura, 386, 387
Pergamon, 85-86, 87, 88, 88 Pisa, Italy Portrait of Charles I at the Hunt (van Quadrivium, 288
Perikles, 69, 72 cathedral group, 259, 259-260, 295, Dyck), 395, 396 Questions ofMelinda (Nagasena), 89
Peripatetics, 82 296 Portrait ofMartin Luther (Cranach), Quetzalcoatl, 229-230, 231
Peristyle, 334 leaning tower of, 281-282 359 Quinine, 579
Perkins, Charlotte, 492 Pisa griffin, 260, 260 Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man Quran, 157-158, 166, 167, 170
Perotin, 293-294 Pisano, Andrea, 281, 281 (Joyce), 559
Perrault, Claude, 401, 402 Pisano, Bonanno, 260 Portrait of the Artist’s Sister Minerva R
Perry, Matthew, 498, 525 Pisano, Giovanni, 295, 296 (Anguissola), 342, 342 Rabia al-Adawiyya, 160
Persepolis, 17 Pisano, Nicola, 295 Portrait of Tristan Tzara (Arp), 549, 549 Racine, Jean, 411
Perseus (Cellini), 343, 344 Pisis-Tratos, 67 Portugal, slave trade, 243 Raft of the “Medusa” (Géricault), 447,
Persian culture, 16-18 Pissarro, Camille, 487 Portuguese (Braque), 543, 545 451, 451-452
Greek war with, 67-68 Pithoi, 45, 47 Poseidon, 52 Ragas, 188, 190
poetry, 167-169 Pius, Antoninus, 117 Post and lintel construction, 7 Ragtime, 573
silk trade, 158 Pius II (Pope), 308 Posthumous Portrait ofLorenzo Medici Raimondi, Marcantonio, 472
Persistence ofMemory (Dali), 552, 552 Pizarro, Francisco, 233 (Vasari), 308 Rain forests, 239
Perspective Plague, 294 Post-Impressionism, 493-504 Ramadan, 159
atmospheric (aerial), 316 Plainchant, 254-255, 265, 293-294 architecture, 500-502, 502 Ramayana (Valkmiki), 177-178
in Egyptian art, 31 Plate of White Peas (Garzoni), 386, 386 Art Nouveau, 502-503 Rameau, Jean-Philippe, 425
linear, 150, 314, 322 Plato, 56, 81, 81-82 painting, 495-500, 497, 498, 499, Ramesses II, 29, 30, 31, 36
Perugino, 326, 327 Aristotle compared with, 82-83 500 Rape of the Lock (Pope), 433
Peruvian cultures, 231-235 Golden Section and, 70 philosophy, 495 Rape of the Sabine Women (Poussin),
Inca, 233, 233-235 on music, 84, 85 science, 495 397-398, 400
Moche, 231-233, 232 numerology, 275 sculpture, 500-501, 501, 502 Raphael, 327, 327-328, 328, 338
Pétain, Henri, 599 on Sophocles, 80 timeline, 484 Rasas, 188
Petipa, Marius, 556 Platonic Academy of Philosophy, Flo- Postmodernism, 624-625 Rashomon (film), 534, 535, 536
Petrarch, 309-310, 322-323 rence, 310 painting and sculpture, 625, Rational humanism, 419
Petronius, 121 Plautus, 103, 105 625-631, 626, 627, 628, 629, 630, Rationalism, 307, 432-434
Petrucci, Ottaviano de’, 322 Plebeians, 100 631 Rauschenberg, Robert, 610, 612, 612,
Phaistos, 44 Pliny, 76, 115 Poststructuralist, 632 616
Phantom of the Opera (Lloyd Weber), Plotinus, 131, 310 Potlatches, 235 Rayonnant style, 276, 277, 278
620 Plowing in the Nivernais: The Dressing Pottery. See Ceramics Realism, 468-482, 503
Pharaohs, 19, 27 of the Vines (Bonheur), 470, Pound, Ezra, 200, 551, 558, 559 literature, 478-481
Phenomena, 459 470-471 Poussin, Nicolas, 397-398, 400 magic, 593-594
Phidippides, 76 Plum Estate (Hiroshige), 498 Poussinistes, 400, 434 painting, 470, 470-474, 472, 474
Philip Augustus (king of France), 255, Poe, Edgar Allan, 479 Pozzo, Fra Andrea, 386, 387 photography, 475, 475-477, 476, 477
271 Poem of the Supersage, 11 Prana, 184 sculpture, 477, 477-478, 478
Philip II (king of Macedonia), 85 Poetics (Aristotle), 83 Praxiteles, 74-75, 75, 101 Soviet, 572
Philip II (king of Spain), 357-358 Poet Li Bai Walking and Chanting a Pre-Aryan culture, 175 timeline, 446
Philip IV (king of Spain), 379-380, Poem (Liang Kai), 202, 202 Precursor portals, 282-283 Recitative, 388
388 Poet on a Mountaintop (Shen Zhou), Prehistoric cultures, 2 Reclining Figure (Moore), 266
Philips, Thomas, 462 511, 512, 516 Preludes, 465 Red, Brown, and Black (Rothko), 603,
Philip the Good, 351, 352 Poetry Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (De- 606
Philosophes, 419 Aztec, 229 bussy), 492 Red Baron, 564
Philosophical Dialogues (Plato), 82 Baroque, 411-412 Presley, Elvis, 620 Red Cliff
(Li Song), 193, 204
Philosophical Letters Concerning the Eng- Biblical, 130 Presocratics, 61-62 Red-figure vases, 58, 59
lish (Voltaire), 434 Chinese, 198, 200, 516-517 Primavera (Botticelli), 318, 320 Red Gongs (Calder), 610
Philosophy chivalric, 262, 264-265 Prince (Machiavelli), 338-339 Refectory, 252-253
Baroque, 408-410, 413 Egyptian, 34, 37 Printing press, 310, 360, 375 Reformation, 359-361, 360, 375
Chinese, 195-198 epic, 54-55 Printmaking, 363-365, 364, 365 Calvin in, 361
Christianity influenced by, 131 Greek, 54-56 Japanese, 498, 498, 526-527, 528 iconoclasm and, 361-362
cynicism, 434 Hindu lyric, 186, 188 woodblock, 526-527, 528 Luther in, 359-361
definition of, 60 Homer, 54-55 Prisoners from the Front (Homer), 473, music in, 265
Enlightenment, 419 Islamic, 160, 167-169 474 Regionalism, 568-570
existentialism, 601-602 Japanese, 213-215, 531, 532 Processional Way, 15--16 Reich, Steven, 620
Greek, 60-62, 80-83, 89-91 lyric, 55-56 Procession of Women, 71, 72 Reiche, Maria, 234
Islamic, 160 Modernist, 558-559 Procopius, 158 Reign of Terror, 422
Medieval, 288-290 Old English, 250 Program music, 464 Reinforced concrete, 555, 555
Roman, 117-118 Renaissance, 322-323 Prometheus, 139 Relativity, theory of, 495
Romantic, 459-460 Roman, 119-120 Propaganda, 572, 572 Relics, 256
Phoenician culture, 43 Romantic, 461-464 Prophets, 126 Reliefs. See also Sculpture
Phonetic writing, 8 Shakespeare, 371, 373 Propylaia (Mnesikles), 69, 72, 72 Assyrian, 13-14, 14, 15
Photography, 475, 475-477, 476, 477 Sumerian, 12 Proscenium arch, 411 definition of, 13
camera obscura, 394 Symbolist, 491-492 Protagoras, 92, 309 Egyptian, 25, 25-26, 26, 30-31, 31
FSA, 565-567, 566, 567 twentieth century, late, 632 Protestant Reformation. See Re- Etruscan, 97-98, 98, 99
truth and, 568 Pointnillism, 496-498, 497 formation Persian, 18, 18
668 INDEX

Religion. See also individual religions Robin Hood, 561, 561 Rutherford, Ernest, 495 Scholar of the Eastern Fence (Liang
ica, 588 Robinson Crusoe (Defoe), 441 Ruysch, Rachel, 392-393, 393 King), 203
African, 240, 244 Rock and roll, 620-621 Ruz, Alberto, 227 Scholars’ rocks, 513-514, 514
Aristotle on, 83 Rock paintings, 239, 239. See also Wall Ryunosuke Akutagawa, 535 Scholasticism, 288-290
Aztec, 229-230 paintin Schone Miillerin (Schubert), 465
colonialism and, 581 Rocks, scholars’, 513-514, 514 S School ofAthens (Raphael), 328, 329
dualistic, 16 Rococo period, 424431 Saar, Betye, 627, 628 Schubert, Franz, 464-465, 466
Egyptian, 19-22 music, 425 Saburo, Murakami, 607 Schumann, Clara, 465
ee gods in, 49 painting, 425, 425-431, 426, 427, Sack of the City ofHamanu by Ashurban- Schumann, Robert, 465
Greek, 52 428, 430, 431, 432 ipal, 14, 15 Science, 413
Hinduism, 175-177 timeline, 416 Sahara Desert, 237, 239 Baroque, 407-408
Incan, 233-235 Rodeo (Copland), 571 Saikaku Ihara, 530, 532 Islamic, 160-161
Islam, 156-160 Rodgers, Richard, 620 St. Charles of the Four Fountains, Post-Impressionism and, 495
Japanese, 211-212 Rodin, Auguste, 500-501, 501 Rome, 381-382, 383 realism and, 481-482
Paleolithic, 5 Rodrigues, Joao, 219 St. Francis ofAssisi, 291 Renaissance, 363
Persian, 16 Rogers, Richard, 616, 618 St. Mark’s, Venice, 146, 148, 148, 149, scientific revolution, 424
polytheistic, 9 Romance of the Rose (Christine de 150 Scientific method, 363
Shinto, 525 Pizan), 301 St. Paul’s Cathedral, London, Scotus, Duns, 290
Sumerian, 8-9 Romances, 265 403-404, 404, 411 Scraper (Apoxyomenos) (Lysippos),
Reliquaries, 261-262, 263 Roman empire, 104-121 St. Peter’s, Rome, 334, 334-335, 335 75-76, 77
Remarque, Erich Maria, 548 architecture, 101-102, 102, 103, Baroque in, 380, 380, 381 Scully, Vincent, 59
Rembrandt van Rijn, 390, 390-392, 105-109, 107, 108 Old, 132, 132-133 Sculpture
391 art, 100-102, 102, 104 Saint-Denis Royal Abbey, 271-272, abstract, 553-554, 554
Renaissance, 248-249, 307-347 Christians persecuted by, 132, 241 272, 282 Assyrian, 13-14, 14, 15
age of discovery, 362-363 emperors of, 113 Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, 276, 277, 278 Aztec, 229, 230
architecture, 3/1, 311-313, 312, Greek influence on, 97, 100-101 Sainee-Madaleiney Vézelay, 259, 259, Babylonian, 12-13, 13
313, 334, 334-335, 335, 366-369, historians, 118 260-261, 261 Baroque, 380-382, 381, 382
368, 369 influence of, 120, 140 Saint-Maclou, Rouen, 278, 278 cybernetic, 633, 633
definition of, 307 literature, 103, 118-121 Saint-Pierre Cathedral, Poitiers, 284, Cycladic, 43, 43
early, 307-323, 351-357 map of, 96 284 early Christian, 134, 136
High, 323-339, 357-374 music, 105 Saint Riquier, Church of, Abbeville, Egyptian, 25, 25-26, 26, 30-31, 31
humanism, 309-310 painting, 114-117, 115, 116, 117 251, 252 Etruscan, 98, 100
influence of, 346 philosophy, 117-118 Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, 257-259, 258 Gothic, 282, 282-284, 283, 284
late Middle Ages and, 294-302 the Republic, 100-103 Sakuntala and the Ring ofRecollection Greek, 63-65, 64, 69-70, 71, 93, 93,
literature, 322-323, 337-339, sculpture, 102, 102, 104, 109, (Kalidasa), 188 95-98, 110, 110-111, 111, 112,
370-374 109-114, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114 Sakyamuni, 178 113
music, 319-322, 337 timeline, 94 Saladin, 256 Indian, 180-181, 181, 182, 183, 183,
music, secular, 369-370 Romanesque period, 255-265 Salat, 158-159, 160 183-184, 184, 186
northern Europe, 348-375 architecture, 256-260, 258, 259 Salisbury Cathedral, 278, 279 Japanese, 211, 212, 212-213, 213
painting, 315-319, 316, 317, 318, feudalism, 255-256 Salle, David, 625 Mannerist, 343, 343-344
319, 320, 321, 324, 324-325, 325, literature, 262, 264-265 Sallust (Gaius Sallustus Crispis), 118 Moche, 232, 232
326, 327, 327-333, 328, 329 music, 265 Salomon, Johann Peter, 442 Mycenaean, 50, 50
painting, Flemish, 351-357, 352, sculpture, 260, 260-261, 261, 262 Salon d’Automne (1905), 541 Neoclassical, 437-438, 438
353, 354, 355, 356, 357 timeline, 246 Salons, 428, 429 Paleolithic, 5—6, 7
painting, High, 363-366, 364, 365, Roman forum, 105-106, 107 Salons (Diderot), 431 Persian, 17, 17-18
366, 367, 368 Roman Patrician with Busts ofHis Ances- Saltcellar ofFrancis I (Cellini), 343, 344 Post-Impressionist, 500-501, 501,
in Rome, 325-327 tors, 95, 102, 104 Samba, 592 502
sculpture, 313-315, 314, 315 Romantic period, 443-445, 449-468, Samisen, 533 Postmodern, 625, 625-631, 626,
timeline, 304 482 Samsara, 177 627, 628, 629, 630, 631
in Venice, 335-337 architecture, 457, 458 Samson Agonistes (Milton), 412 realist, 477, 477-478, 478
Renga, 531 definition of, 449 Samurai, 216, 525, 531 Renaissance, 313-315, 314, 315
Renoir, Pierre-Auguste, 487, 488-489, literature, 460-464 San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Roman, 102, 102, 104, 109,
489 music, 464-468 Rome, 381-382, 383 109-114, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114
Repoussé, 254, 254 painting, 449, 450, 450-452, Sand, Georges, 471, 494 Romanesque, 260, 260-261, 261,
Republic (Plato), 81-82 450-456, 451, 453, 454, 455, 456 Sankore, 242 262
Requiem (Mozart), 442 philosophy, 459-460 Sanskrit, 175, 237 Romantic, 456-457, 457
Responsorial singing, 139 sculpture, 456-457, 457 Santa Costanza, Rome, 133-134, 134, Sumerian, 9-10, 10
Revolutions timeline, 416, 446 135, 136 twentieth century, 608, 610, 611
American, 419-420 Romeo and Fuliet (Shakespeare), 372, 373 Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome, 380, Searching for the Past (Shitao), 511, 512
definition of, 421 Rommel, Erwin, 599 381, 382 Seated Buddha, 183, 183
French, 421-422 Romulus, 100 Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, 133, Second Estate, 421
Industrial, 423-424, 469 Rondo, 442 133 Second Sex (De Beauvoir), 602
scientific, 424 Roof combs, 227 Sant’ Andrea, Mantua, 312, 312 Second Style, 115, 115
Reynolds, Joshua, 428, 430, 430, 431, Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 564-565 Santeria, 244, 588 Second Treatise on Government (Locke),
433, 436 Roses, Convolvulus, Poppies, and Other Santi Pietro e Marcellino Catacomb, 410
Rhapsody in Blue (Gershwin), 572 Flowers in an Urn on a Stone Ledge Rome, 134, 138 Section of the Canon (Euclid), 84
Rhazes, 161 (Ruysch), 392-393, 393 Santoka, Taneda, 532 Secular music, 302, 369-370
Rhea, 52 Rosetta Stone, 19, 20 San Vitale, Ravenna, 123, 142, 143, Seeger, Pete, 585
Rhetoric, 81 Rose windows, 272, 286 143-144, 144 Seeking the Tao in the Autumn Moun-
Rhytons, 50 Rossi, Properzia de’, 331, 333 Sappho, 55-56, 62, 103 tains (Zhu Jan), 200-201, 203
Ribs, 271 Rothenberg, Susan, 627, 627 Sarcophagi, 134 Sei Shonogan, 217
Ricci, Matteo, 509 Rothko, Mark, 603, 606 of Funius Bassus, 134, 137 “Seizure” (Sappho), 103
Rich, Adrienne, 632 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 459, 481 Sargon I, 11, 12 Seleucid dynasty, 67, 85
Richardson, Henry Hobson, 266 Royal Academy of Painting and Sculp- Sarnath Capital, 180-181, 181 Self, 459
Richardson, Samuel, 440 ture, Paris, 400 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 602 Self-Portrait (Diirer), 349
Richey, Carrie, 626 Royal Grave Circle A, Mycenae, 50 Satan, 139 Self-Portrait (Rembrandt), 391,
Richthofen, Manfred von, 564 Royal Portals, Chartres, 274, 275, 282, Satie, Eric, 551 391-392
Riffs, 572 282-283 Satire, 103, 119, 121 Selim I, 609
Rift valley, 239 Ruan Ji, 202 Enlightenment, 432, 433-434 Selim the Sot, 157
Rigoletto (Verdi), 466-467 Ruba’iyat of Omar Khayyam, 168 Satyagraha (Glass), 189 Semiotics, 624-625
Rihaku, 200 Rubénistes, 400, 425 Satyricon (Petronius), 121 Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, 120-121
Rikyu, 217 Rubens, Peter Paul, 393-395, 394, 395 Saul, 127 Seneca Falls Convention, 420
Riley, Bridget, 615, 617 Rude, Francois, 456-457, 457 Savonarola, Girolamo, 318-319 Senghor, Leopold, 581
Ring of the Niebelung (Wagner), 464, Rue Transonain, April 15, 1834 (Dau- Savoye House, Poissy-sur-Seine, 38, Senmut, 27
467, 468 mier), 469, 469 555, 55S Serdabs, 22-23
Rite of Spring (Stravinsky), 546-547, Rumi, Jalaloddin, 160 Sawm, 158, 160 Serrano, Andreas, 358
561 Russia Scat singing, 573-574 Sesshu, 525, 526, 530
Ritornello, 388 ballet, 556 Schickele, Peter, 407 Sessions of the Lovers, 169, 169
Rivera, Diego, 573, 573, 588 cinema, 560-561 Schiller, Friedrich, 463 Sestinas, 323
“River-Merchant’s Wife: A Letter” (Li literature, 479-481 Schism, 132, 146 Set, 20-21
Bai), 206 music, 467-468 senleoany, Heinrich, 42-43, 48, 50, Seurat, Georges, 496, 497, 498
Robert, Hubert, 36, 36 political art, 572, 572 1 Seven Books on the Structure of the
Robespierre, Maximilien de, 422 Russian Revolution, 548-549 Schnabel, Julian, 625 Human Body (Vesalius), 363
Robin, Pierre, 278, 278 Soviet Union and, 600, 634 Schoenberg, Arnold, 561-562 Seven Sages, 202
 INDEX 669

Seven Samurai (Kurosawa), 535 Sorrows of Young Werther (Goethe), 463 Symbolist style, 491-493, 500 Theodosius, 76, 132
Seven Wonders of the World, 36 Soubise, Salon de la Princesse, Paris, Symphonie Fantastique (Berlioz), 464 Theogony (Hesiod), 53
Severini, Gino, 543-544, 546 428, 429 Symphonies, 441-442 Tedlogia Platonica (Ficino), 310
Sextus Empiricus, 91 Soukous music, 584 Symphony no. 5 in C Minor Thernopylai, 67
Sfumato, 324 South Africa, 494-495, 582 (Beethoven), 444-445 The Sound and the Fury (Faulkner),
Shahadah, 158, 160 Soviet Union, 600, 634. See also Russia Symphony of the Harmony of Celestial 569-570
Shahnamah (Book of Kings) (Firdawski), Soyinka, Wole, 585-586 Revelations (Hildegard), 265 Thespis, 77-78
168, 168 Spain, fascism in, 564 Symposium (Plato), 81 They Also Found Discrimination
ee ee (Tori Busshi), 212-213, Spanish American War, 494 Syncopation, 573 (Lawrence), 568, 571
Sparta, 80, 85-91 Synistor, Publius Fannius, 115, 116 Thinker (Rodin), 500, 501
Ee William, 362, 371-373, Spenser, Edmund, 323 Synthetism, 500 Third Estate, 421
Spiritual Exercises (St. Ignatius), 379 Third ofMay, 1808 (Goya), 450, 450
Comedy ofErrors, 105 Spontaneous prose, 618 T Third Style, 115-116, 117
Hamlet, 121: Stained glass Table with a Tart and a White Pitcher Thirty-Six Views ofMount Fuji (Hoku-
Henry V, 294, 354 Chartres, 286, 287 (Peeters), 395, 397 sai), 527, 528
Kurosawa films based on, 534, 535 Gothic, 286, 287 Tabula rasa, 410 Thirty Years’ War, 379-380
sonnets, 323 Notre-Dame, Chartres, 274-275 ‘Tacitus, Gaius Cornelius, 118 “This Living Hand” (Keats), 462
Shakuhachi, 530 Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, 276, 277, 278 Taiko, 533 Tholoi, 50
Shankar, Ravi, 189, 189, 519 Stalin, Joseph, 549, 572 ‘Taj Mahal, Agra, 173, 187, 187 Thomson, J. J., 495
Shastras, 185 Standing Buddha, 184, 184 Takemitsu Toru, 530 Thoreau, Henry David, 190, 459-460,
“She Demonstrates the Inconsistency Stanford, Leland, 475 ‘Talbot, William Henry Fox, 475 480, 571
of Men’s Wishes in Blaming Stanislavsky, Konstantin, 493 Talenti, Francesco, 281, 281 Thousand and One Nights, 169
Women for What They Them- Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 420 Tale of Genjii (Murasaki), 209, 213-214 Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality
selves Have Caused” (Sor Juana), Starry Night (Van Gogh), 499, 499 Tale ofKieu, 520 (Freud), 494
406 Stateless societies, 240 Talking drums, 583 Three Forms (Hepworth), 553, 554
Sheik Meditating in a Pavilion, 167, 167 Statue ofLiberty (Bartholdi), 477, 477 Talk stories, 632 Three Sisters (Chekhov), 481
Shelley, Percy Bysshe. 36 Statues in the round, 13 Tambura, 188 Thucydides, 69
Sheng, 517 Steam engines, 423 Tan Dun, 519 Thutmose II, 27
Shen Zhou, 510-511, 512, 516 Steinbeck, John, 565 Tango, 588, 592 Thutmose III, 27-28
Shenzong, 201 Stele, 12, 12, 38 Taoism, 128, 197-198 Thutmosis, 34, 35
Sherman, Cindy, 625, 625 Stepped Pyramid of Zoser, 23, 23 Tao Te Ching, 197 ABE SI
Shield surface, 239 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 460-461 T’ao-t’ieh mask, 195 Tiberius, 111
Shivites, 157, 241 Stieglitz, Alfred, 476, 476, 555 Tapestries, 255, 256, 286-288, 287 Tikal, 227, 227
Shiki, Masaoka, 532 Stigmata, 290 Tar Baby (Morrison), 632 Timbuktu, 242, 585
Shimosutsumaki, 213 Still lifes, 431 Tartuffe (Moliére), 411 Tintoretto, 340-341, 341
Shinto, 211-212, 525 Still Life with Chair Caning (Picasso), ‘Tawantinsuyu, 233 Titans, 52, 53
Shitao, 511-512, 512 543, 545 Taylor, Edward, 361 Titian, 336, 336-337, 357, 358, 369
Shiva, 176 Still Life with Cherries, Strawberries, Achaikpysky, Peter, 467-468, 556 Tito, Quispe, 587, 587
Shiva Nataraja (Lord of the Dance), 186, and Gooseberries (Moillon), 398, Te, 196, 197 Ti Watching a Hippopotamus Hunt, 26,
187 400, 401 ‘Tea ceremony, 216-217, 219 26, 31
Shofar, 37 Still Life with Peppermint Bottle Teaching ofMeasurements with Rule and Tlingit, 235
Shogunate, 525 (Cézanne), 496, 496 Compass (Diirer), 365 Tokugawa Ieyasu, 525
Shoguns, 216, 525 Stoicism, 89, 90, 117-118, 131 Technology, 15, 200, 424 Tolstoy, Leo, 480-481
Shopping malls, 610 Stone, Merlin, 49 Teerling, Levina Bening, 370 Toltecs, 223, 228
Shozo, Shimamato, 607 Stonehenge, England, 6-8, 7, 38 Treff, 240 Tombs/burials
Shudras, 177 Story of the Stone (Cao), 510 Teleology, 83 Chinese, 199, 199
Sic et Non (Abelard), 289 Storyteller (Silko), 634 Telescopes, 410, 410 Egyptian, 21-22, 22-23, 23, 24, 27
Siddhartha Gautama Sakya, 179-180 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 460 Television, 497 Etruscan, 97-98, 98, 99
Sidney, Philip, 323 Stravinsky, Igor, 530, 546-547, 561 Tell el-Amarna, 33 of Hunting and Fishing, 98, 99
Sikhara, 185 Stream of consciousness, 559 Tempest, The (Shakespeare), 373 Japanese, 211
Silko, Leslie Marmon, 634 Strindberg, August, 493 ‘Temple of the Golden Pavilion, Japan, Mayan, 227, 228
Silk Road, 158, 167, 175, 194, 199 Structuralism, 63 1-632 528-529, 529 of Nebamun at Thebes, 32, 32
Simultanéisme, 543, 546 Stupas, 180, 181, 182 Temples of the Reliefs, Cerveteri, 97-98, 98
Sinan, 161-162, 164, 165, 166 Sturm und Drang, 463 of Amen-Mut-Khonsu, 28-29, 29 Sumerian, 10, 1
Siqueiros, David Alfaro, 577, 577, 588 Sublime, the, 36, 36 of Athena Nike, 69, 73, 74 Sutton Hoo, 249, 249, 250
Sirani, Elisabetta, 385, 386 Suburban Train Arriving at Paris (Sev- Etruscan, 97, 97 of Tutankhamen, 34, 35
Sisley, Alfred, 487 erini), 544, 546 of “Fortuna Virilis,” 101-102, 102 Tom Jones (Fielding), 440
Sistine Chapel, Vatican, 326-327, Sudden Shower Over Atake (Hiroshige), Greek, 58-59, 60 Torah, 125
329-330, 331, 332, 333 527, 528: of Hera I, 58-59, 60 Toreador Fresco, 47, 47
Sitar, 188 Suetonius, Gaius, 105, 118 Hindu, 185-186 Tori Busshi, 212-213, 213
Skene, 78, 373 Suffrage, 420 Horyu-ji, 212-213, 213 Totem poles, 235, 235
Skepticism, 89, 91 Sufis, 159-160, 169, 169 of Inscriptions, 227, 228 To the Lighthouse (Woolf), 560
Sky Cathedral (Nevelson), 612, 613 Suger, Abbot, 272, 272, 282 Mayan, 227, 227, 228 Toulmin, Stephen, 92
Slave Ship (Turner), 454-455, 455 Suiko, 213 of the Olympian Zeus, 86-88, 87, Tourist art, 582
Slave trade, 243, 460, 579 Sula (Morrison), 632 88 ‘Tower of Babel, 15
Smallpox, 236 Suleyman I (the Magnificent), 157 of Queen Hatshepsut, 27-28, 28 To Woo and to Wed (Pinsky), 62
Smith, Adam, 423-424 Sulla, Lucius Cornelius, 100 of Quetzalcoatl, 224 ‘Tragedy, 79, 103
Smohalla, 236 Sullivan, Louis, 502, 502, 605-606 of Ramesses II, 30, 31 ‘Trajan, 104
Smythson, Robert, 367, 369, 369 Sultan Sulayman, Mosque of (Sinan), Roman forum, 106 Tramp (film), 619
Snake Goddess/Priestess, 48, 49, 49 161-162, 164, 165, 166 Sumerian, 9-10 Transcendentalism, 459, 571
Soami, 530, 531 Sumerian civilization, 8-11, 17 of Vesta, 102, 103 Transept, 132, 133
Social contract, 409 “Sumer Is Icumen In,” 302 ‘Ten Commandments, 125-126, 149 Travels (Polo), 202
Social structure Summa Theologica (Aquinas), 289 Tenebrism, 382, 384 Travertine, 106
African, 240 Summer's Day (Morisot), 489, 490 Tennis Court Oath (David), 421, 422 Treasury of Atreus, 48, 50, 50
Egypt, 37 Summerspace (Cunningham), 616 Tenochtitlan, 228, 309 Trent, Council of, 379
Hindu, 177 - Sumo wrestling, 218 ‘Tenor, 293 Tres Grandes, Los, 588
Incan, 233-235 Sunday Afternoon on La Grande Jatte “Ten Thousand Ugly Ink Dots” (Shi- Tres Riches Heures, Les, 285, 285-286
Roman, 100 (Seurat), 496, 497, 498 tao), 511 Trial (Kafka), 560
Socrates, 80, 80-81 Sunni, 241 Teotihuacan, 223-226, 225 Tribhanga, 184, 185
Sokoto Caliphate, 581 Superego, 495 Terence, 103 Tribute Bearers Bringing Offerings, 18,
Solomon, 128, 163 Superman, 495 Teresa of Avila, St., 379 18
Solon, 67 Surahs, 157-158 Terra cotta, 47 Tribute Money (Masaccio), 315-316,
Sonatas, 442 Surasun-daris, 186 Terza rima, 290-291 316
Song cycles, 465 Surrealism, 551, 551-553, 552, 553 Tesserae, 148 Triglyphs, 69
Songhai, 242 Su Shi, 204 Tetrachy, 104 Trinity Church, Boston, 266
Song ofMeditation (Hakuin Ekaku), Sutton Hoo burial, 249; 249, 250 Tetzel, 359-360 Trinity with the Virgin, St. John the
526 Suzuki, D. T., 218 Thales, 61-62 Evangelist, and Donors (Masaccio),
Song ofRoland, 251 Swahili, 242-243 Theater of the Absurd, 606 316, 317
Song of Solomon (Morrison), 632 Swift, Jonathan, 432, 433-434 Theater Piece #1 (Kaprow), 614 Triptychs, 352, 352
“Song of the Harper,” 37 Swimming Hole (Eakins), 473, 474 Theme and variations, 442 Tristan and Iseult, 251
Songs ofInnocence (Blake), 461 Swing music, 574 Themistocles, 67-68 Tristan and Isolde (Wagner), 467
Sonnets, 323 Syllogisms, 82 Theocracy, 129 Triumph of Oriana, 370
Sophists, 80-81 Symbolism, 263, 286, 354. See also Theodora, 145 Triumph of St. Ignatius ofLoyola
Sophocles, 79, 83 Iconography Theodora and her Attendants, 123 (Pozzo), 386, 387
670 INDEX

‘Trivium, 288 Urna, 183 Vitruvius, 97, 115, 312, 365 Woolf, Virginia, 371, 548, 559-560
Trojan War, 48, 50, 54-55 Urnammu, Ziggurat of, Ur, Iraq, 9, 9 Vivaldi, Antonio, 388, 464 Word painting, 320-322, 370
Trojan Women (Europedes), 80 Uruk, 8 Vogel, Susan, 582-583 Wordsworth, William, 362, 459,
Trollope, Anthony, 479 Ushnishna, 183 Voltaire, 434 461-462, 499
Tropes, 255 Utamaro Kitagawa, 527, 528 Von Daniken, Erich, 234 Working class, 423-424
Trotsky, Leon, 549 Uthman, 157 Voting Rights Act of 1965, 420 Works Progress Administration
Troubadours, 262, 264-265 Utnapishtim, 10 Votussoirs, 259, 259 (WPA), 565, 568, 570
Troy, 42-43, 51 Utopia (More), 359 Voudoo, 244, 588 World Trade Organization (WTO),
Truman, Harry S, 600 Voussoirs, 161 635
Trumeau, 260 Vv World War I, 548
Tsai, Wen-Ying, 633, 633 Vaishyas, 177 WwW abstract sculpture, 553-554, 554
Tufa, 106 “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourn- Wabi, 217, 608, 611 architecture and, 554-555, 555
Tunnel vaults, 257-258 ing” (Donne), 411-412 Wacah Chan, 226 cinema, 560-561, 561, 562
Ture, Samori, 580 Vallon-Pont-d’Arc, France, wall paint- Wagner, Richard, 464, 467 Dada and, 549, 549-550, 550
Turner, J. M. W., 452, 454-455, 455 ings, 5 Wainwright Building, St. Louis, Mis- De Stijl, 553, 553
Tuscan order, 97, 101 Valmiki, 177-178 souri, 502, 502 Europe after, 540
Tutankhamen, 27, 34, 35 Valtorta Gorge, Spain, wall paintings, Waiting for Godot (Beckett), 608 literature, 556, 558-560
Twelfth Night (Shakespeare), 372 Oi Waka, 213 Modernism and, 555-560, 557, 558,
Twentieth century Vandals, 141 Walden (Thoreau), 190, 459, 480 559
architecture, 554-555, 555, 556, Van der Rohe, Mies, 302 “Walking” (Thoreau), 459 Russian Revolution and, 548-549
616-617, 618, 619 Van Dyck, Anthony, 395, 396 Wall painting Surrealism and, 5517, 551-553, 552,
art of the everyday, 610-614, 612, Van Eyck, Hubert, 353, 354, 355, 357 Ajanta caves, Gupta, 184, 185 553
613, 614 Van Eyck, Jan, 352-354, 353, 354, 355 Cycladic, 43-44, 44 World War II, 531, 598, 599-600
arts, 541, 541-545, 542, 544, 545, Van Gogh, Vincent, 498, 498-499, Etruscan, 98, 98, 99 Wren, Christopher, 403-404, 404
546, 547 499 Mayan, 226 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 516, 555, 556,
cinema, 560-561, 561, 562 Van Hemessen, Caterina, 365-366, Neolithic, 6, 7 605-606, 609
Cold War, 600 366 Paleolithic, 5, 6 Writing, 15, 224
Dada, 549, 549-550, 550 Vanitas pictures, 395, 397 Waltz (Claudel), 500, 502 calligraphy, 165-166
De Stijl, 553, 553 Variation for Orchestra (Schoenberg), Waltzes, 465 Chinese, 194, 217
diversity, 622-639 561-562 Wanapum, 236 cuneiform, 8
drama, 606, 608 Vasari, Giorgio, 316, 344-345, 345 Wanderer Above the Mists (Friedrich), Japanese, 217
early, 538-575 on Leonardo, 324 449 Linear A/B, 43
fascism, 562-564 Posthumous Portrait ofLorenzo War and Peace (Tolstoy), 480 Mayan, 226
eee 634-638 Medici, 308 Warhol, Andy, 597, 612, 613 Phoenician, 43
iterature, 556, 558-560, 617-619 on van Eyck, 353 War of 1812, 494 Wu Man, 519, 519
Modernism and, 555-560, 557, 558, Vases and vessels. See also Ceramics Warrior Vase, 51, 51 Wuthering Heights (Bronté), 462463
S59 black-figure, 57, 57-58, 58 Washington, George, 420, 437-438, Wu-wei, 197
music, 546-547, 619-620 Greek, 57, 57-58, 58, 76-77, 77 438 Wu Zhen, 508-509, 509, 510
philosophy, 601-602 red-figure, 58, 59 Washroom and Dining Area ofFloyd Wycliffe, John, 127
pop culture, 608, 610-621 white-ground, 76-77, 77 Burroughs’s Home, Hale County,
sculpture, 608, 610, 611 Vatican Alabama (Evans), 565-566, 566 x
structuralism and deconstruction, library, 326, 326 Waste Land (Eliot), 558, 559 Xerxes I, 17, 67
631-632 new St. Peter’s Basilica, 334, Watson and the Shark (Copley), Xian Xinghai, 520
Surrealism and, 557, 551-553, 552, 334-335, 335 436-437, 437 Xinhuali, 510
553 Sistine Chapel, 326-327, 329-331, Watt, James, 423 Xuefei Yang, 519
timeline of, 538, 596 331, 332 Watteau, Jean-Antoine, 425, 425-426
Vietnam wars, 600-601 Vaults, 108 Wealth, emphasis on, 375 Y
World War II, 600 barrel, 257-258, 258 Wedgwood, Josiah, 423 Yakshis, 181
Twenty-Eighth ofjay: Liberty Leading the cross/groin, 259, 259 Welsnas 600 Yasti, 181
People (Delacroix), 452, 453, 470 fan, 278-279, 280 Weelkes, Thomas, 302, 369-370, 464 Yax Moch xoc, 227
Twins, 586, 586 Gothic, 271 Weeper holes, 9 Yeats, William Butler, 548
Two Cheeseburgers, with Everything tunnel, 257-258 Wen, 196, 197 Yellow Calla (O’Keeffe), 555-556, 558
(Oldenburg), 613, 614 Vauxcelles, Louis, 541 Wen Tong, 204 Yellow, River Cantata (Xian Xinghai), 520
Two Fridas (Kahls), 588, 591 Vedas, 175 Westminster Abbey, London, Yin and yang, 198, 198
Two Legs, 237 Vedas, 177 278-279, 280 Yongle Emperor, 514
ie 260-261, 261 Velazquez, Diego, 396-397, 399 Westphalia, Peace of (1648), 380 Yoruba, 240, 586, 586
Tyndale, William, 127 Vellum, 249 West Side Story (Bernstein), 620 Yoshida, Fusako, 536
Tzara, Tristna, 543, 551 Venice, 335-337, 344 Wet-brush technique, 511 Yoshimasa, 216-217
Venturi, Robert, 616 Wetherill, Richard, 236 You Have Seen Their Face (Bourke-
U Verdi, Giuseppe, 465-467 Whaley, Arthur, 200 White, Caldwell), 566
Ukiyo-e, 527, 528 Verlaine, Paul, 493 When God Was aWoman (Stone), 49 Young Woman with a Water Pitcher
Ulysses (Joyce), 558, 559 Vermeer, Jan, 392, 393, 394 “When We Dead Awaken: Writing as (Vermeer), 392, 393
Umayyad dynasty, 157, 169 Vernacular, 298 Re-Vision” (Rich), 632 Yuan Hong-dao, 516-517
Unanswered Question (Ives), 571 Versailles, 401, 403, 403 Whistler, James Abbott McNeill, 491, Yuan Zhong-dao, 516-517
Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Stowe), 460 Vertue, Robert, 278-279, 280 491 Yun Kang caves, 200, 201
Unicorn Tapestries, 286-288, 287 Vertue, William, 278-279, 280 White-ground ceramics, 76-77, 77
United Nations, 624 Vesalius, Andreas, 363 Whitman, Marcus, 236 Z
United States Vesuvius, 105, 114 Whitman, Walt, 463 Zakat, 158, 159
architecture, 500-502, 502 Vichy France, 599, 601 Whitney, Anne, 478, 478 Zakro, 44
Civil War, 460 Victory Stele ofNaram-Sin, 12, 12, 13 Whole steps, 85 Zarathustra, 16
Continental Congress, 419-420 Vietnam, 520 Wilde, Oscar, 494 Zazen, 526
diversity in, 624-634 Vietnam Veterans’ Memorial, Wash- William of Champeaux, 289 Zen Buddhism, 216, 218
Enlightenment in, 433, 433 ington, D.C. (Lin), 629-631, 630 William of Ockham, 290 gardens, 530, 531
environmentalism, 480 Vietnam wars, 600-601, 617-619 Williams, Cootie, 574 influence of, 536
expansionism, 494 Vigée-Lebrun, Marie-Louise-Elisa- Williams, William Carlos, 463, 558 landscape painting, 525-526, 526
national parks, 456, 456 beth, 417, 427, 427 William the Conqueror, 255 Zentis, Jerome de, 405
New Deal, 564-565 Vignon, Pierre-Alexandre, 438-439, Wine-Making Scene, 136 Zeus, 52, 53, 139
painting, 472-473, 474 439 Winfrey, Oprah, 481 Temple of the Olympian, 86-88, 87,
regionalist literature, 569-570 Vijd, Joos, 353 Winged Victory, 89, 90 88
regionalist painting, 568, 569, 570, Vikings, 253 Winter, Fifth Avenue (Stieglitz), 476, 476 Zheng Xie, 512-513, 513
571 Villa at Boscoreale, 115, 116 Winter Landscape (Sesshu), 525, 526 Zhengzhou, 194
Vietnam War, 600-601 Villa-Lobos, Heitor, 592 Wittenberg University, 359 Zhuangzi, 198
woman suffrage in, 420 Villa of the Mysteries, Pompeii, 115, Wollstonecraft, Mary, 420, 423 Zhu Da, 512, 513
Unities, 411 IBY Woman (Venus) of Willendorf, 5-6, 7 Zhu Jan, 200-201, 203
Universals, 289, 290 Villa Rotunda, Vicenza, 345, 346 Woman Warrior (Kingston), 632 Zhu Yuanzhang, 509
Universe Symphony (Ives), 571 Vindication of the Rights of Woman Woman with a Hat (Matisse), 541, 541 Ziggurats, 9, 9, 15, 224
Universities, 288-289 (Nallssohectat), 420, 423 Women Zimbabwe, 243
Untitled (Judd), 614, 615 Virgil, 54, 62, 118-120 feminism, 473 Zitan armchair, 510
Untitles Film Stills (Sherman), 625, 625 Virgin and Child (Sirani), 385, 386 rights of, 423 Zola, Emile, 479
Upanishads, 177 Virgin Mary, 139 suffrage, 420 Zoroaster, 16
Ur, 17 relics, 273-274 Women and Dog (Escobar), 613-614, Zoroastrianism, 129
Uranos, 52, 53 sculpture, 283-284, 284 615 Zoser, 23
Urban II (Pope), 256 Vishnu, 176 Woodblock prints, Japan, 527, 528 Zuni, 236
Urban VIII (Pope), 379, 408 Visigoths, 141 Woodcuts, 363-364, 364, 365 Zwingli, Ulrich, 361
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