Editor:

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the following people for their support in the course of this
exercise: colleagues in the Department of Language, Cultural and Creative Studies,
the Centre for Open, Distance and e-Learning for making this project possible and
finally my family and friends for their patience and understanding when I spent most
of my time glued to this project.

1
General introduction to the module

Welcome to the first module in African Languages and Linguistics. This module is a

half unit for African Languages and Linguistics course you will study in the first
semester of your first year. You have some idea of the languages that are spoken in
Malawi since most of you are native Malawians. This module will build on that
knowledge in order to equip you with additional knowledge of Malawi’s indigenous
languages.

Aim of the module

The aim of the module is to introduce students to different languages spoken in

Malawi with special emphasis on people’s attitudes and the place of the languages in
the nation.

Objectives of the module

By the end of this module you should be able to:

 Identify major languages spoken in all the regions in Malawi

 Critique the state of each language in the Malawi nation
 Examine people’s attitudes towards their local languages
 Assess some language policies of the Malawi nation

The structure of each study unit

Each study unit begins with an introduction and learning objectives. Then the study
material with various activities follows including comments on the activities. Each
study unit ends with a test yourself exercise that enables you to check whether one
has achieved the objectives which we set out at the beginning of the unit or not.

2
Introduction

In the introduction, we briefly explain the context of the study unit. We sometimes
explain how the material in the study unit relates to the previous study units.

Objectives

After the introduction, we give you the learning objectives, which you are expected to
achieve if you work through the study carefully and methodically.

Once you have achieved these learning objectives, you will have completely
mastered the material in the study unit. The learning objectives also give you an
overview of the topics in the study unit.

The learning objectives which we have set for each study unit give you an idea of the
knowledge and the skills you have to attain and master. This means the objectives
tell you what you have to be able to do when you have finished studying the study
unit.

Content

The study material for each study unit follows the learning objectives. The content of
each study unit is divided into different sections which are separated from each other
by headings. Under each heading, we discuss different aspects of the material in
that section.

Activities

In most of the sections, there are activities which you have to do. The activities are
based on the study material which is dealt with in that specific section. To complete
the activity successfully, you have to properly understand the material on which it is
based.

Self-assessment

At the end of every study unit, you will find a test yourself exercise with the type of
questions that you will probably get in the examination. This is how you go about the
self-assessment tests step by step:

3
  answer the questions without referring to the notes

 go through your notes to check if your answers are correct

 if you fail a lot of questions in the test, it means you have not fully understood
the content in the unit. You need to study the unit again.

Module test

At the very end of this module after all units have been discussed, you will find a
module examination. This examination covers the topics that have been discussed in
the module. You need to work on all these questions in order for you to test your
understanding of the whole module.

How to use this module

 begin each study unit by reading the introduction

 read the following objectives so that you know what you have to be able to do
after you have finished the study unit

 read the content

 once you have mastered the study material in any section, do the activity
which relates to that material. Do not read the comments or answers before
you have completed the activity

 once you have worked through all the material in a study unit and are sure
that you understand it, you should do the self-assessment test for that unit.

We hope that the material in this module will make you aware of the different areas
of study in the field of African Languages and Linguistics. We hope you will complete
this module successfully and get a better grasp of language.

4
 Contents

Acknowledgements

Introduction

Unit 1 The Languages of Malawi

 Languages in the Northern Malawi
 Languages in the Central Region
 Languages in the Southern Region

Unit 2 Patterns of Language Choice and Use

 Domain of Language Use
 Language Use in Education
 Age as a Determiner of Language Choice
 Language Shift

Unit 3 Language Attitudes and Loyalty

 Language in Education
 Materials written in Local Languages

Unit 4 Language Policies in Malawi

 National Language
 Language in Education

Unit 5 Endangered Languages

5
Unit 1: The Languages of Malawi

Introduction

In this unit, we are going to describe all the languages spoken in Malawi. We will pay
particular attention to the languages spoken in each of the three regions of Malawi,
and where exactly they are spoken.

Key words

dialect, variety, mutual intelligibility, standard language, prestigious language,

segmental features

Areas of emphasis

 Differences between a dialect and a language

 Languages spoken in the northern, central and southern region of Malawi

 Similarities and differences among the languages

 Classification of languages into different groups

Learning objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Explain the differences between a dialect and a language

 Describe languages spoken in the northern, central and southern region of

Malawi

 Explain similarities and differences among the languages spoken in the

northern region

 Classify languages spoken in the northern region into different groups

Prerequisite knowledge

The knowledge you have about the languages spoken in Malawi will help you
understand the concepts that are used in this unit.

6
Other resources needed

Centre for Language Studies, (2006). Language Mapping Survey for Northern
Malawi. Zomba: University of Malawi.

Centre for Language Studies, (2009). Language Mapping Survey for the Southern
and Central Regions of Malawi: Languages and their Dialects. Zomba: University of
Malawi.

Kayambazinthu, E. (1998). The Language Planning Situation in Malawi. Journal of

Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 19 (5), 369-439, DOI:
10.1080/01434639808666363

Time required

You will need at least ten hours to study this unit.

1.1 Differences between a language and a dialect

We will use the definition of a language that Kayambazinthu (1998:370) adopted

which is based on geopolitical and genetic factors. She defines a language as a
collection of mutually intelligible dialects’ or varieties. While, on the other hand,
dialects are regarded as subdivisions of a particular language (Chambers & Trudgill,
1980:5). It becomes difficult to distinguish between a dialect and a language
because of political and social factors. There is no universally accepted basis for
distinguishing between the terms ‘dialect’ and ‘language’ (Coulmas, 2005). However,
linguists use the criterion referred to as mutual intelligibility in order to distinguish a
dialect from a language. If speakers of one language are able to understand
speakers of another language variety and vice versa, then the languages are
mutually intelligible and are therefore known as dialects. Therefore, using this
criterion, Malawian languages such as Khokhola and Lomwe would be considered
dialects of the same language because of their mutual intelligibility while Yao and
Lomwe would be different languages because of lack of mutual intelligibility.
However, note that some languages that are mutually intelligible are known as
languages and not dialects because of political and social factors. In most cases,
speakers of languages that are closely related prefer to refer to them as languages
and not dialects because they fear that in doing so their languages/dialects would
7
lose their socio-political importance (Centre for Language Studies, 2006). On
account of this, “the definition and count of different languages may vary
considerably from the traditional or official count, especially in Chitipa District, where
the definitions are based on an exaggerated older state of linguistic knowledge and
or sociopolitical considerations than linguistic ones” (Centre for Language Studies,
2006:14).

Activity 1
Think of the languages/dialects that you speak. Which ones are languages and
which ones are dialects? Justify your answers.

1.2 Languages spoken in the northern region of Malawi

In Malawi, language names derive from the ethnic groups by adding (or not adding)
either the prefix Chi-, Ci-, Ki- or Kya- depending on the language. Sometimes
Malawians refer to their languages without using any of the prefixes listed here (see
Kayambazinthu, 1998). Table 1.1 presents a list of languages spoken in the northern
region of Malawi according to the census that was conducted by the Centre for
Language Studies (2006). Note that in the list we have Kyangonde or Cinyakyusa.
You may be asking a question why we have an either Kyangonde or Cinyakyusa in
the list. This either or option is there in the list because of the fact that one language
is spoken by two ethnic groups, that is Ngonde’s and Nyakyusa’s (Centre for
Language Studies, 2006). Remember what we said at the beginning of this section
that the names of the languages spoken in Malawi derive from the ethnic groups.
However, according to Centre for Language Studies (2006), Nyakyusa is regarded
as the parent language from which Kyangonde and Cinkhonde originated. Even
though Nyakyusa is the parent language, it has a small number of speakers. As a
result it has been overshadowed by Kyangonde which is now recognised as the
most prestigious language in Karonga district. Another language that has a low
status is Cinkhonde. Cinkhonde is not given much recognition because it is regarded
as leaning heavily towards Citumbuka. However, note that there are more speakers
of Cinkhonde than Kyangonde/Cinyakyusa.

You may also have noted that the list in Table 1.1 includes languages such as
Chichewa and Ciyawo. These are non-indigenous languages of the northern region.

8
Chichewa being Malawi’s national language, it is mostly spoken and understood in
the urban areas of the northern region more than the rural remote areas. Ciyawo, on
the other hand, found its place in the northern region because of migration in pursuit
of employment in estates and trade.

Table 1.1: Languages of Northern region of Malawi

Serial Name of Known name of Language dialects

Number Language
1 Cilambiya
2 Cindali Ciŵeta
3 Cisukwa
4 Ciŵandya Cimphangala
5 Cimambwe
6 Ciŵemba
7 Cinamwanga
8 Cinyiha Cinyika
9 Ciswahili
10 Citumbuka Ciphoka, Cihenga, Cisisya, Cinyaluwanga,
Citumbunyika, Cimphangweni
11 Citonga
12 Kyangonde/ Cinkhonde
Cinyakyusa
13 Cinkhonde
14 Cingoni
15 Chichewa
16 Ciyawo

1.2.1 Description of languages spoken in the northern region of Malawi

In this section, we focus on the description of languages spoken in the northern
region of Malawi in terms of where they are spoken, that is, what languages are
spoken in which district.

1.2.1.1 Languages of Chitipa

According to Centre for Language Studies (2006), Chitipa district has the following
languages and dialects: Chichewa, Ciwandya, Cilambya, Cibemba, Cinamwanga,
Cisukwa, Citumbuka, Cindali, Ciweta, Kiswahili, Cimambwe, Cinyika/Cinyiha. It is
however a challenge to classify some of these languages as different languages or
9
related dialects because of their close similarities. Results of a survey conducted by
the Centre for Language studies confirm that the languages spoken in Chitipa are
quite similar. The respondents in the survey grouped the languages/varieties
according to the degree of similarities where the more closely related varieties were
put in one group. The respondents acknowledged the various degrees of similarities
and mutual intelligibility across the varieties and the groupings for the varieties were
as follows:

a) Cindali, Cisukwa, Cilambya, Ciwandya

b) Cilambya, Cisukwa,, Cinyiha

c) Ciwandya, Cinamwanga, Cimambwe, Cinyiha

The respondents demonstrated that the closeness for the languages in a) was
greater than the closeness for the languages in c). Centre for Language Studies also
report that the respondents regarded Cisukwa, Cilandali and Cilambya as being very
similar varieties deserving to belong to one group in a similar manner as Cimambwe
and Cinamwanga. The way these languages were grouped together by the
respondents confirms the observation that most of the language varieties
encountered in Chitipa are merely dialects despite their being called different
languages by their speakers. The results of the survey enabled the researchers from
Centre for Language Studies to group the languages spoken in Chitipa in terms of
their linguistic similarities (i.e. their phonological and lexical similarities) as follows:

Language group 1: Cindali>Cisukwa>Cilambya

Language group 2: Cinamwanga>Cimambwe>Ciwandya

Language group 3: Cinyiha/Cinyika

Language group 4: Chichewa

Language group 5: Citumbuka

Language group 6: Cibemba

Language group 7: Kiswahili

10
According to Centre for Language Studies (2006), the phonological similarities in the
language groups with several dialects are in terms of segmental features of certain
sounds, the operation of certain phonological processes and tonal realizations. For
instance, Centre for Language Studies (2006:15) reports that

post-nasal stops in Cindali and Cisukwa are voiced but they are not in the
other related dialects, Cilambya, and even in the other distant dialects hence

the word for‘person’is‘umundu’in Cindali and Cisukwa but‘umunthu’ in

Cilambya and the other dialects. Likewise, grasshopper is ‘imbashi’ and

‘imbasi’ in Cindali and Cisukwa but ‘imphanzi’ in Cilambya and the other
related dialects.

On segmental features, the two most closely related dialects, Cisukwa and Cindali

do not have voiced fricatives while Cilambya does (e.g. the words for‘scorpion’are

kalisya, kalisha and kalizga for the three varieties respectively while the words for

‘maize’are ifilombe (for Cisukwa and Cindali) and ivilombe (for Cilambya) (Centre for

Language Studies, 2006).

Centre for Language Studies (2006) reports that the two languages, Kiswahili and
Cibemba, which have been listed under group 5 and 6 respectively, are not
indigenous since they are spoken by immigrants from Tanzania and Zambia
respectively. Furthermore, some of the language varieties given above are spoken
across the borders although they are indigenous to Chitipa (for instance Cinyiha is
also spoken in Tanzania and Zambia).

According to the results of the survey conducted by Centre for Language Studies
(2006), Cilambya is demographically the most dominant language/variety. In
addition, it is generally spoken and/or understood by speakers of other languages of
the district. The results of the survey also indicate that each traditional authority in
the district has at least one dominant language/variety. The results of the survey
further reveal the following:

Cinyiha/Cinyika is the main language spoken in Mwenekameme on the North

western border with Tanzania and Zambia. Mwenekameme also borders TAs
11
 Mwenemwabulambya on the East where Cilambya is spoken and
Mwenewenya in the South where Cinyika, a dialect of Cinyiha with influence
from Ctumbuka, is spoken. Citumbuka is dominant in Mwenewenya and
Nthalire in the South (Centre for Language Studies, 2006:16).

The unofficial results obtained by Centre for Language Studies from their survey
reveal that the population of Cinyiha speakers in Malawi, Tanzania and Zambia is
over ten million. This figure however needs to be verified as it is on the higher side.
The results further reveal that the dialect of Cinyiha of Mwenewenya is heavily
influenced by Citumbuka hence the -ka in its name Cinyika. The results further
reveal the great influence that that Tumbuka-Nyika has on a dialect locally known as
CitumbuNyika spoken around Cinsenga area where speakers of these two
languages are found. However, it is worth noting that the area around T/A Nthalire,
which borders Rumphi on the south, is a predominantly Citumbuka-speaking area.

Mwenemwabulambya, one of the areas in Chitipa, is reported to have so many

languages/dialects which are spoken across the vast area. The large number of
languages/dialects found in T/A Mwabulambya is “attributed to the hugeness of the
area as well as its being in the centre of the district where it borders almost all
traditional authorities except one (i.e. T.A. Nthalire)” (Centre for Language Studies,
2006:16). The following T.A.s border Mwenemwabulambya: Mwenemisuku in the
NorthEast, Wenya in the South, and Kameme in the West. According to Centre for
Language Studies (2006:16). Mwenemisuku is a predominantly Cindali and
Cisukwa-speaking area with Cindali speakers being in the majority. We already
pointed out above that the two are dialects of one language as a result they share
many linguistic similarities. Cindali is the main language from the centre of
Mwenemisuku stretching down the Songwe river into Karonga district while Cisukwa,
the other dialect, is a dominant language on the southern border with T/A
Mwenemwabulambya (Centre for Language Studies, 2006:16).

Activity 2
In what way are the languages spoken in Chitipa similar or different?

12
1.2.1.2 Languages of Karonga

According to Centre for Language Studies (2006:16), the following are

languages/varieties that are spoken in Karonga district: Citumbuka, Kyangonde,
Cinkhonde, Nyakyusya, Cindali, Cisukwa, Cimambwe and Kiswahili. Kyangonde is
listed as the most dominant language in the district which is mainly spoken in T/As
Kilupula, Mwakawoko and Kyungu while Cinkhonde, a related dialect, is spoken in
Mwirang’ombe, Kilupula, Kyungu and Karonga central areas. Citumbuka, on the
other hand, is spoken in all areas of T/As Wasambo and Mwirang’ombe and parts of
Kilupula and Kyungu. Kiswahili has a few speakers in some areas of Karonga
because of the border with Tanzania. Furthermore, there are also speakers of
Cindali, Cimambwe and Cisukwa especially in areas that border with Chitipa along
the Misuku hills and Songwe valley.

We mentioned earlier on about the relationship among the following

languages/varieties: Nyakyuska, Kyangonde and Cinkhonde. Nyakyuska, though
spoken by very few people (hence a minority language), mainly at Iponga in Sub T/A
Mwakawoko’s area, is regarded as the parent language from which Kyangonde and
Cinkhonde originated. Kyangonde, on the other hand, is regarded as the most
prestigious and standard language/dialect of the district. Although Citumbuka is
spoken by many people in the district (hence majority language in the district), it is
not regarded as one of the main languages of the district and preference goes to
Kyangonde. Similarly, Cinkhonde is not regarded as the main language/dialect due
to the fact that it is largely influenced by Citumbuka. As a result, it is basically seen
as a dialect of Kyangonde which has been heavily influenced by Citumbuka, “an
influence detested by many people who recognize Kyangonde as the language of
Karonga” (Centre for Language Studies, 2006:17). According to Centre for Language
Studies, such feelings have led to deliberate efforts to promote Kyangonde in various
domains such as the media (national radio), religion (religious literature) etc.
Furthermore, the district has the Kyangonde Language Association whose main
objective is to promote the language. However, note that it is a fact that Citumbuka
and Cinkhonde have large numbers of speakers and their influence is growing
(Centre for Language Studies, 2006:17).

13
Activity 3
a) What is a standard language?

b) What is a prestigious language?

c) When do you use a standard language and when do you use a non-standard
language? Justify your answers.

1.2.1.3 Languages of Rumphi

According to the results of the survey conducted by the Centre for Language
Studies, the following are the languages/dialects spoken in Rumphi: Citumbuka,
Chichewa, Ciyawo, Cilambya, Ciphoka, Cibemba and Cinyanja (Centre for
Language Studies, 2006). Citumbuka is the most dominant language as it is spoken
in almost every area of the district. It is important to note that the Citumbuka spoken
in the district has geographical names. Also note that that there are two well-known
dialects of Citumbuka in the district (Centre for Language Studies, 2006). The first
one is Cihenga because it is largely spoken in the Henga valley. The second one is
Ciphoka which is spoken in the Livingstonia escarpments. Note that these two
dialects of Citumbuka are named according to the areas where they are spoken. On
the other hand, Cinyanja (which literally means Citumbuka of the lake) is the dialect
of the Citumbuka spoken along the lake. It is easy for one to confuse this dialect with
a totally different dialect/language altogether known by the same name ‘Cinyanja’
(Centre for Language Studies, 2006).

Ciyawo, Chichewa and Cilambya are other languages spoken in the districts due to
the following reasons: Rumphi is a tobacco farming district and has large populations
of migrant workers speaking languages also found in other districts of the country
(Centre for Language Studies, 2006).

1.2.1.4 Languages of Mzimba

Mzimba has in the past been portrayed as a Cingoni-speaking district when actually
Cingoni is only spoken by a few people. Results from a survey conducted by the
National Statistics Office in 1998 indicate that Cingoni is a dominant language in the
district. On the contrary, results from the survey conducted by Centre for Language
Studies (2006) reveal that Cingoni is no longer dominant in the district but

14
Citumbuka. Citumbuka is spoken by nearly all the people of the district. The chiefs
who took part in the survey conducted by the Centre for Language Studies (2006)
also agree that Cingoni used to be an influential language in the past but such a
situation changed because of intermarriages between Ngoni men and Tumbuka
women with the latter having more influence on the language spoken by children
born out of such marriages. Currently, Cingoni is spoken by a few senior chiefs and
indunas. Traits of Cingoni can especially be found at Chief Mpherembe’s
headquarters where the Chief and his indunas converse in the language (Centre for
Language Studies, 2006:19). The language is completely dead in most parts of the
district. However, deliberate efforts are being made to revive it and its culture, for
example, through the teaching of the language at the Mzuzu museum using
materials that are sourced from South Africa where Isizulu, a related dialect, is also
spoken (Centre for Language Studies, 2006:19).

Apart from Citumbuka and Cingoni, there are also some traits of Citonga speakers in
areas bordering Mzimba with Nkhatabay district especially in the area of Chief
Khonsolo Gwaza (Centre for Language Studies, 2006:19).

Activity 4
a) Why is Cingoni language spoken by a few people?

b) What factors contribute to the death of a language?

1.2.1.5 Languages of Nkhatabay

The results of Centre for Language Studies’ (2006) survey reveal that Nkhatabay
has the following languages: Citonga, Citumbuka and Chichewa. Citonga is the
dominant language as it is spoken in almost all the areas of the district. Citumbuka,
on the other hand, “is spoken in areas along the lake bordering Rumphi in the north
of the district especially in Mwausisya, Boghoyo, Mbwana (where the dialect is
known as Cisisya), and in the west of Mzimba district” (Centre for Language Studies,
2006:19). Centre for Language Studies (2006:19) reports that “the Citonga spoken in
these areas is largely influenced by Citumbuka especially in areas that border with
Mzimba and Rumphi”.

15
1.3 Languages spoken in the central region of Malawi
The central region of Malawi has the following languages: Chichewa, Citumbuka,
Ciyawo, Cinsenga and Citonga. Table 1.2 presents a list of languages spoken in the
central region of Malawi and their dialects.

Table 1.2: Languages of the Central Region of Malawi and their dialects

Name of language Known name of language dialects

Chichewa Cizaliwa, Ciciwere, Cinyanja, Cilikoma, Cimbo, Cingoni

Citumbuka No variety stated

Ciyawo Cicawasanga, Cicawa

Cinsenga No variety mentioned

Citonga Citonga-ciwali, Cimatanje, Cinkhotamo (Cikotakota)

1.3.1 Description of languages spoken in the central region of Malawi

In this section, we focus on the description of languages spoken in the central region
of Malawi in terms of where they are spoken, that is, what languages are spoken in
which district.

1.3.1.1 Languages of Dedza

There are two languages that are spoken in Dedza; these are Chichewa and Ciyawo
(Centre for Language Studies, 2009). Chichewa is the dominant language because it
is spoken in most TAs of the district, i.e. Kachere, Tambala, Chilikumwendo,
Kaphuka, Kachindamoto and Kasumbu. However, Ciyawo is the dominat language
in TA Tambala. According to the Centre for Language Studies (2009), Ciyawo is also
spoken in the following areas: Mphanthi and Lasani in TA Kachere; Chikwasa,
Chimasula, Chilopa, Malindima, Nampala, Kalima, Mbela and Chibwana in TA
Kaphuka; Kaphulika, Saiti and Msokera in TA Kachindamoto; Mpotola and Kanyenda
in TA Kasumbu. The Centre for Language Studies reports that Chichewa is also
known as Cingoni in some parts of Dedza because some of its speakers belong to
Ngoni ethnic group.

16
1.3.1.2 Languages of Dowa
According to Centre for Language Studies (2009), Dowa is predominantly Chichewa
speaking. Chichewa is spoken in all the TAs found in the district, that is, Chakhadza,
Kayembe and Chiwere. However, note that speakers of Ciyawo and Citumbuka are
also found in some parts of the district such as Madisi in TA Chakhadza; Kasuntha
and Chisepo Trading Centres at Nambuma in TA Kayembe (Centre for Language
Studies, 2009).

1.3.1.3 Languages of Kasungu

Chichewa and Citumbuka are the two main languages spoken in Kasungu district
(Centre for Language Studies, 2009). However, there is also evidence that
languages such as Cilomwe, Ciyawo and Cisena are spoken in estates and trading
centres. Chichewa is spoken in almost all the areas of TAs Chiwere, Mwase, Lukwa,
Kapelula, Santhe and Kaomba. Chichewa is also a dominant language in some of
the following parts of the district where there are also traces of other languages:

TA Chilowamatambe; where Ciyawo, Citumbuka and Cisena are spoken by

migrant workers in the estates; TA Wimbe, where Citumbuka, Cilomwe and
Ciyawo are also spoken among migrant workers in the estates; TA Njombwa;
where Citumbuka, Cilomwe and Ciyawo are spoken in the estates and trading
centres (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:26).

Centre for Languages Studies (2009:26) further indicates that Citumbuka is the
dominant language in TA Simulemba and is spoken at Msikawanthu, Maluvenji,
Kamchocho, Nyalubanga, Kaunda, Kawetu, Chileta and Kapopo while Chichewa is
spoken at Manjodo, Chibinga, Chikulu, Chiwotha, Mawawa, Chikomeni, Bautani and
Jumbo. Another area that is dominantly Citumbuka speaking is TA Kaluluma (Centre
for Language Studies, 2009).

1.3.1.4 Languages of Lilongwe

Chichewa is the most dominant language in Lilongwe because it is spoken in all the
TAs of the district as follows: Kabudula; Masambankhunda, Chadza, Mazengera,
Khongoni, Tsabango, Chitukula, Mtema, Chimutu, Njewa, Kalolo, Malili, Kalumbu
and Chiseka (Centre for Language Studies, 2009).

17
1.3.1.5 Languages of Mchinji
Chichewa and Cinsenga are the two main languages that are spoken in Mchinji
(Centre for Language Studies, 2009). The Centre further reports that both Chichewa
and Cinsenga are spoken in many areas of TA Nyoka. However, note that Ciyawo is
also spoken in Mtchutchu village which is situated in TA Nyoka (Centre for Language
Studies, 2009). Additionally, Chichewa and Cinsenga are both spoken in TA
Mlonyeni. Finally, Chichewa is a dominant language in TA Mavwele while TA
Mkanda is an exclusively Chichewa speaking area with pockets of Ciyawo in the
trading centres (Centre for Language Studies, 2009).

1.3.1.6 Languages of Nkhotakota

Chichewa and Citonga are the two main languages that are spoken in the district
(Centre for Language Studies, 2009). The Centre for Language Studies (2009:27)
reports that Chichewa is spoken in all the TAs, that is, Mwansambo, Mwadzama,
Malengachanzi, Kanyenda, Mphonde and Kafuzira while Citonga is spoken in
Nkhotakota north, TA Kanyenda (starting from Nkhunga trading centre going
northwards) and TA Kafuzira. However, note that Citumbuka and Ciyawo are also
spoken the district. Citumbuka is spoken in areas bordering Mzimba such as Heta in
TA Kafuzira while Ciyawo is spoken in an area under Principal Village Headman
Msamala in TA Mwadzama (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:27).

1.3.1.7 Languages of Ntcheu

Chichewa is the dominant language in Ntcheu because it is spoken in all the TAs in
the district as follows: Champiti, Mpando, Kwataine, Gomani and Chakhumbira
(Centre for Language Studies, 2009:27). We mentioned earlier on that Chichewa is
commonly known as Cingoni in Ntcheu because most of the people are of Ngoni
ethnic origin.

1.3.1.8 Languages of Ntchisi

Chichewa is the main language in Ntchisi and it is spoken in all the TAs as follows:
Kalumo, Kasakula, Mchonjo, Chakhadza, Nthondo and Chilowoko (Centre for
Language Studies, 2009:27). However, note that Ciyawo is also spoken at Ntchisi
Boma.

18
1.3.1.9 Languages of Salima
Salima has two dominant languages; these are Chichewa and Ciyawo (Centre for
Language Studies, 2009). The Centre for Language Studies (2009:28) reports that
both languages are spoken in all the areas in the district but Chichewa, on the one
hand, is dominant in TAs Khombedza, Ndindi, Kalonga and Pemba while Ciyawo is
dominant in TAs Msosa and Bibi Kuluwunda. Note also that Citonga is spoken in the
district especially at Lifuwu trading centre in TA Bibi Kuluwunda (Centre for
Language Studies, 2009:28).

Activity 5
What factors have contributed to the dominance of Chichewa language in all the
districts of Malawi?

1.4 Languages spoken in the southern region of Malawi

The southern region of Malawi has the following languages: Chichewa, Ciyawo,
Cilomwe, Cisena and Citonga. Table 1.3 presents a list of languages spoken in the
southern region of Malawi and their dialects.

Table 1.3: Languages of Southern Region of Malawi and their dialects

Name of language Known name of language dialects

Chichewa Cimang'anja, Cinyanja, Cilikoma, Cimbo, Cingoni,
Cimagololo
Ciyawo Cicawasanga, Cicawa
Cilomwe Cimihavani, Cithakwani, Cikhokhola, Cimarenje,
Cimaratha, Cimuhekani, Cimakuwa, Cimalokotera
Cisena Cinyungwi
Citonga Citonga-chiwali, Cimatanje, Cinkhotamo
(Cikotakota)

1.4.1 Description of languages spoken in the southern region of Malawi

In this section, we focus on the description of languages spoken in the southern
region of Malawi in terms of where they are spoken, that is, what languages are
spoken in which district.

19
1.4.1.1 Languages of Balaka
The following languages are spoken in Balaka district: Chichewa, Ciyawo, Cisena
and Cilomwe (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:18). The Centre for Language
Studies reports that Chichewa is the most dominant language because it is spoken
nearly in all parts of the district. The Centre for Language Studies (2009:18) further
reports that Ciyawo is another dominant language in the district because it is spoken
in most parts of STA Nkaya, TA Msamala, STA Kachenga and TA Kalembo. Cisena,
on the other hand, is spoken in Shire North in STA Nkaya while Cilomwe is spoken
in Bonongwe area in TA Msamala. However, note that in Balaka, Chichewa is
referred to as Cingoni by most of the people because some parts of Balaka are
ethnically Ngoni (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:18).

1.4.1.2 Languages of Blantyre

According to the Centre for Language Studies (2009:19), the following languages are
spoken in Blantyre: Chichewa, Ciyawo, Cilomwe and Cisena. Chichewa is the most
dominant language in Blantyre because it is spoken in all the areas of the district.
The Centre for Language Studies (2009:19) also reports that Ciyawo is a dominant
language in the district because it is spoken in the following TAs: TA Machinjiri
(Ching’amba 1 and 2, Mkawajika and Likoswe areas), TA Makata (Mili, Chilipa,
Mtambo, Simama and Cholokoto areas), TA Somba (Makalani, Bakili, Somba 1,
Ntetete and Loleje areas) and TA Kunthembwe (at Che Issa). Furthermore, Cilomwe
is spoken in TA Makata particularly at Gawaza and Majamanda while Cisena is
spoken at Ngwaya and Chirombo in TA Chigalu (Centre for Language Studies,
2009:19). Finally, the Centre for Language Studies reports that Cimang’anja, a
dialect of Chichewa, is spoken at Katimbanya in TA Somba along the border with
Chikwawa.

1.4.1.3 Languages of Chikwawa

The following languages are spoken in Chikwawa district: Chichewa (variety known
as Cimang’anja), Cisena, Cilomwe and Cinyungwe (Centre for Language Studies,
2009:19). Centre for Language Studies (2009:19) reports that Chichewa is the most
dominant language in Chikwawa as it is spoken in all the TAs such as Chapananga,
Maseya, Lundu, Ngabu and Katunga. However, note that Cimang’anja is simply a
dialect of Chichewa; Chimang’anja and the Chichewa spoken in the central region of
20
Malawi are mutually intelligible. Apart from Chichewa, Cisena is another language
spoken in many areas of Chikwawa because the district borders with Nsanje where
Cisena is exclusively dominant (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:19). Cinyungwe
is spoken in TA Chapananga in areas such as Finiasi, Madewu and Siali on the
Mozambique border while Cilomwe is spoken in some parts of TA Maseya along the
border with Thyolo (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:19).

1.4.1.4 Languages of Chiradzulu

Chichewa is the most dominant language in Chiradzulu district because it is spoken
in all the TAs such as Kadewere, Chitera, Mpama, Likoswe, Ntchema and Nkalo
(Centre for Language Studies, 2009:20). However, note that most of the chiefs in
these areas are of Yawo origin. It is therefore not a surprise to learn that Ciyawo is
another common language in this district because it is spoken in the following TAs:
TA Kadewere (Kadewere, Simika, Chiyambe, Malimusi and Nkaweya areas), TA
Chitera, TA Likoswe (Malika, Chibwana, Njeresa, Makanje, Kandulo and Malumwe
areas), TA Nkalo (M’boola and Walasi areas), TA Mpama (Pheluwa, Chochela,
Kazemba, Mpama, Nsanja, Malika-Mpenya and Ntyala areas) (Centre for Language
Studies, 2009:20). Cilomwe is another language spoken in the following areas in the
district: Bowadi, Nlula, Matimati, Moto and Baluti in TA Ntchema; Nkalo and Saukila
in TA Nkalo; Ng’omba and Mawuwa in TA Chitera; Kohola, Makatanje and
Chikwakwata in TA Kadewere (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:20). However,
note that Cilomwe is an endangered language because it is only spoken by very old
people and mostly among themselves. In chiradzulu district, Ciyawo is also referred
to as Cicawa, which is a derogatory term while Cicawasanga is a term that refers to
a diluted form of Ciyawo (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:20).

1.4.1.5 Languages of Machinga

The following languages are spoken in Machinga: Ciyawo, Chichewa and Cilomwe.
Ciyawo is the most dominant language in the district because it is spoken in all the
TAs such as Sitola, Chikweo, Nkula, Chamba, Liwonde, Mposa, Kapoloma, Nyambi,
Ngokwe, Chiwalo, Kawinga and Nsanama (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:20).
Chichewa is also dominant in the district because it is spoken in all the TAs as well
(Centre for Language Studies, 2009:20). Cilomwe is another language spoken in the
district in the following areas: Tengula, Mlowe, Labukingi and Matola in TA Chikweo;
21
Matandika area in TA Nkula; Misewe in TA Chamba; Mwambala and Mjahito in TA
Liwonde; North of TA Mlomba; along the Lingoni River in TA Mposa; Mbwabwa,
Puluma 2, Matwaya, Mlanje, Mkwinda and Mchimbo in TA Nyambi; Mwawa,
Manyenga, Njete, Khungwa, Mwephetha and Khotiwa in TA Ngokwe; Saidi, Nayuchi,
Mchingusa in TA Kawinga; and Chimanga, Mpita, Molipa, Sela and Naseti in TA
Nsanama (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:20-21).

1.4.1.6 Languages of Mangochi

Centre for Language Studies (2009:21) reports that Ciyawo, Chichewa, Cilomwe,
Citumbuka and Citonga are the languages that are spoken in Mangochi. The Centre
also reports that Ciyawo is the most dominant language in all except one of the TAs
as follows: TAs Mponda, Chimwala, Makanjira, Jalasi, Katuli and Chowe. Chichewa
is another dominant language in the district because it is spoken in all the areas in
the district (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:21). Note that Chichewa is the most
dominant language in TA Nankumba and Ciyawo comes second. Note also that in
Malindi area TA Chowe, Chichewa is referred to as Chilikoma because the people
around the area originally migrated from Likoma Island (Centre for Language
Studies, 2009:21). Some people in the district refer to Chichewa as Cinyanja.
Furthermore, Cilomwe, another language in the district, is spoken in Masanje area in
TA Chowe (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:21). Finally, Citumbuka and Citonga
are spoken along the lake in TAs Makanjira and Nankumba among the migrant
fishers (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:21).

1.4.1.7 Languages of Mulanje

The following languages are spoken in the district: Chichewa, Cimang’anja,
Cinyanja, Cilomwe, Cikhokhola and Ciyawo. Note that Cimang’anja is a dialect of
Chichewa (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:21). According to the Centre,
Chichewa is the most dominant language because it is spoken in all the TAs. The
Centre (2009:21) also reports that Chichewa is more dominant than Cilomwe
because of the fact that it is taught in schools and it is therefore used by many young
people compared to Cilomwe which is now mostly used by elderly people. Cilomwe
is spoken in the following areas: Nzongwe, Ndunde, Sekheya, Mwamonda,
Makokola and Nsikita in TA Laston Njema; Sabuni, Mwetiheni, Mthokole, Nakoma,
Robeni, Magareta, Magombo, Nogwe and Nalikata in TA Mkanda; Mandanda in TA
22
Chikumbu (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:21). According to the Centre
(2009:21-22), Cikhokhola is spoken at Ng’ong’ola in TA Mkanda but note that
Cikhokhola is a dialect of Cilomwe alongside Cimihavani, Citakhwani, Cimarenje,
Cimuhekani, Cimaratha and Cimakuwa. Finally, Ciyawo is spoken in several areas
like Limbuli Trading Centre in TA Laston Njema; Chanje, Mwachumu and Chikwenda
in TA Mkanda; Kachingwe in TA Chikumbu and some parts of TA Juma (Centre for
Language Studies, 2009:22).

1.4.1.8 Languages of Mwanza

Chichewa is a common language in Mwanza in the following TAs: Kanduku, Nthache
and Govati (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:22). Some people in the district refer
to Chichewa as Cingoni or Cimang’anja. The name Cingoni is used because some of
its speakers belong to Ngoni ethnic group.

1.4.1.9 Languages of Neno

Chichewa is the most common language in all the areas of Neno, that is, TAs
Dambe and Chekucheku (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:22). Chichewa is also
known as Cimang’anja in the district.

1.4.1.10 Languages of Nsanje

The following languages are spoken in the district: Cisena, Chichewa and Cilomwe
(Centre for Language Studies, 2009:22). Cisena is however the most common
language especially in the following TAs: Makoko, Ndamera, Malemia, and
Chimombo (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:22). The Centre (2009:22) reports
that Cisena and Cimang’anja (a variety of Chichewa) are spoken in the following
TAs: Tengani, Mulolo, Mbenje and Ngabu. Note that most people in Nsanje speak
the Chichewa variety with a Cisena accent. Cisena is also common at Phokera in TA
Mbenje (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:22). Finally, Cikhokhola, a variety of
Cilomwe is spoken in some parts of TA Mulolo particularly in areas like Mulambala,
Mchacha, Ng’ombe, Kabuluzi, Gatoma, Alufazema, Mkwiri and Gugumiya (Centre
for Language Studies, 2009:22).

1.4.1.11 Languages of Phalombe

According to Centre for Language Studies (2009:23), Phalombe has the following
languages: Chichewa, Cilomwe, and the Cilomwe variety called Cikhokhola.
23
Cilomwe and Chichewa are the dominant languages although Chichewa is used
mostly by the younger generation compared to the elderly people who mostly
converse in Cilomwe (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:23). The younger
generation are more familiar with Chichewa than Cilomwe because they study it as a
subject in school. People from TA Mkhumba are familiar with both Cilomwe and
Chichewa and they are able to codeswitch between the two (Centre for Language
Studies, 2009:23). However, Cilomwe is the dominant language in TA Nazombe
although Chichewa is spoken in many areas. The Centre for Language Studies
(2009:23) report that the following varieties of Cilomwe: Cimihavani, Cikhokhola and
Cimarenje are used in some parts of TA Nazombe. Finally, Chichewa is the
dominant language in TAs Kaduya and Jenala because Cilomwe is mostly spoken
by the elderly people (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:23).

1.4.1.12 Languages of Thyolo

The following languages are spoken in Thyolo: Chichewa, Cilomwe and Ciyawo.
Chichewa is commonly referred to as Cimang’anja in Thyolo even though some
people think that Chichewa and Cimang’anja are completely different languages
(Centre for Language Studies, 2009:23). However, note that Cimang’anja is the
dialect of Chichewa. Cimang’anja is also called Cimagololo in some areas of Thyolo
such as TA Mbawela. People who speak Chichewa around TA Bvumbwe
headquarters think that the Chichewa they speak is Cingoni when actually this is not
the case. They refer to their language as Cingoni because they belong to Ngoni
ethnic group. However, note that Chichewa is the common language in all TAs, i.e.
TAs Nsabwe, Nanseta, Thomas, Kapichi, Mphuka, Changata, Khwethemule,
Mbawela, Chimaliro, Bvumbwe and Mchilamwela (Centre for Language Studies,
2009:23). Note also that in all the TAs, there are also traces of Cilomwe and its
dialects such as Cimihavani, Cikhokhola, Cimuhekani, Cimakuwa, Cithakhwani,
Cimaratha and Cimarenje (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:23). Finally, Ciyawo is
spoken in some areas such as Sani, Kasalika and Jangiya and Chimbalanga in TA
Nanseta; William, Nsenga, Ngamwani and Matache in TA Mphuka; Kadzuwa in TA
Bvumbwe (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:23).

24
1.4.1.13 Languages of Zomba
There are two main languages that are spoken in Zomba namely; Chichewa and
Ciyawo (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:24). Cilomwe is also spoken in Zomba.
Amongst the three languages, Chichewa is the dominant one; it is spoken in almost
all the areas in Zomba. Furthermore, Chichewa is spoken and understood by native
speakers of Ciyawo. In particular, Chichewa is spoken in all areas of the TAs in
Zomba, i.e., TAs Chikowi, Kumtumanji, Mbiza, Malemia and Mlumbe (Centre for
Language Studies, 2009:24). Even though Chichewa is spoken almost everywhere
in the district, there are some areas such as TAs Kumtumanji, Malemia and Mlumbe
where Ciyawo dominates and is thus spoken by the majority (Centre for Language
Studies, 2009:24). Finally, there are some traces of Cilomwe in the following TAs:
Mwambo, Mbiza and Chikowi even though it is only very few old people who are
conversant with it (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:24).

Activity 6
Explore the origins of the names of dialects of the languages spoken in central and
southern regions of Malawi.

Unit test
1. Describe languages spoken in the northern, central and southern region of
Malawi.

2. Why are some of the languages described in this unit on the verge of dying?
In your answer, you need to identify these languages first.

3. Use data provided by the Centre for Language Studies (2009) to explain the
phonological and lexical similarities among the languages of Chitipa.

Unit 1 summary

In this unit, we have done the following: explained the differences between a dialect
and a language; described languages spoken in the northern, central and southern
region of Malawi; explained similarities and differences among the languages spoken
in the northern region; classified languages spoken in the northern region into
different groups. In the next unit, we are going to discuss patterns of language
choice and use.

25
Unit 2: Patterns of Language Choice and Use

Introduction

In this unit, we are going to discuss patterns of language use. We will focus on how
the languages discussed in the previous unit are used in different domains. We will
also look at how age is a determiner of language choice. Finally, we will look at the
practice of language shift in Malawian communities.

Key words

domain, language choice, language shift, language maintenance, language revival,

revitalisation

Areas of emphasis

 Domain of language use

 Language use in education

 Age as a determiner of language choice

 Language shift

Learning objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Explain the different domains in which Malawian languages are used

 Describe how Malawian languages are used in the education domain

 Discuss how age is a determiner of language choice

 Examine the practice of language shift in Malawian communities

26
Prerequisite knowledge

The knowledge you have about the languages spoken in Malawi will help you
understand the concepts that are used in this unit. Above all, information you have
learnt in the previous unit concerning languages of Malawi will be very helpful in the
understanding of this unit.

Other resources needed

Centre for Language Studies, (2006). Language Mapping Survey for Northern
Malawi. Zomba: University of Malawi.

Centre for Language Studies, (2009). Language Mapping Survey for the Southern
and Central Regions of Malawi: Languages and their Dialects. Zomba: University of
Malawi.

Kayambazinthu, E. (1998). The Language Planning Situation in Malawi. Journal of

Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 19 (5), 369-439, DOI:
10.1080/01434639808666363

Time required

You will need at least six hours to study this unit.

2.1 Factors that influence language choice and use

Centre for Language Studies (2006, 2009) reports that language choice and use
depends on various factors such as domain, knowledge of the language to be used,
availability of literature, age group of the speakers, mobility of the speakers,
population of speakers, and levels of language loyalty among other things. In this
module, we focus on the following factors: domain of language use, language use in
education, age as a determiner of language choice and language shift.

2.1.1 Domain of language use

Centre for Language Studies (2009) define domain as a combination of factors which
influence choice of code (language, dialect, style). Some of these factors include
participants (in a conversation) topic and location. For example, in a family or
domestic domain, one would use an informal style of speech; this might happen at a

27
home location where family participants might discuss the usual day to day topics.
When discussing the term domain in this unit, our focus is on language choice and
place. In other words, we look at language choices Malawians make and the places
where the languages are used. For instance, it is typical of most Malawians to use
their own indigenous languages at funeral ceremonies regardless of who is attending
the ceremony. The trend, therefore, is that most Malawians use their own languages
in more intimate domains such as initiation ceremonies, traditional weddings,
funerals, etc. According to Centre for Language Studies (2009), a funeral ceremony
in rural communities of, for example, Mulanje, Machinga and Mchinji would be
conducted in the languages that are typical of such communities e.g. Cilomwe,
Ciyawo and Cinsenga respectively. Similar practices have also been observed
among Kyangonde, Cindali, Cisukwa, Cilambya and Cimambwe speakers (Centre
for Language Studies (2006). Centre for Language Studies (2006, 2009) reports that
members of most communities in Malawi are not ashamed to speak their indigenous
languages within their speech communities. However, they do not cling to their
indigenous languages when they move to urban areas such as Lilongwe and
Blantyre. They instead speak Chichewa. Centre for Language Studies (2006, 2009)
mentions that such change in their language use is typical behaviour among the
youth who associate speaking their native languages in urban areas with being
‘uneducated’. Above all, some youths from the northern region do not speak their
languages in public places to avoid being laughed at and mocked or being called
achinasibweni (sibweni is a Tumbuka term for uncle) (Centre for Language Studies,
2006).

Similar to the observations above, some speakers of Cilomwe, Ciyawo and certain
dialects of Chichewa (e.g. Cizaliwa in Nkhotakota, Ciciwere in Nkhotakota and
Ntchisi) speak their languages freely only within their speech communities (Centre
for Language Studies, 2009). They are, however, ashamed to use them in public
domains because they fear being laughed at. For example, Ciyawo speakers rarely
pray in their language during public gatherings in places such as Nkhotakota and
Salima (Centre for Language Studies, 2009). In a similar manner, Cilomwe speakers
feel uncomfortable to use their language in public in places such as Zomba, where
Ciyawo and Chichewa are dominant languages. Similar behaviour is also reported in

28
Chitipa, the Cimambwe speakers are ashamed to speak their language in public
because of fear of being laughed at by speakers of other languages (Centre for
Language Studies, 2006). They usually opt for a language of wider communication
like Cilambya when they meet speakers of other languages. Note, however, that
Tanzanians make language choices that are in contrast to Malawians’ language
choices (Centre for Language Studies, 2006). Tanzanians do not shun their
language, Swahili; they use it freely in public places.

Citumbuka and Chichewa are the most common languages used by the service
deliverers e.g. at the hospital, police, and other work places. Sometimes other
languages (e.g. Cilambya in Chitipa, Citonga in Nkhata Bay, Kyangonde/Cinkhonde
in Karonga, Ciyawo in Mangochi, Citumbuka in Mzimba, and Cisena in Nsanje) are
used depending on whether service deliverers can speak the languages of their
clients or not (Centre for Language Studies, 2006, 2009). The trend for most
Malawians is that they use a language of wider communication in public places e.g.
in most trading centres traders use language of wider communication to carter for
communication with multilingual customers. Because of the existence of several
similar languages in Chitipa, traders have to speak their own language or speak the
language of the majority, that is, Cilambya and Citumbuka (Centre for Language
Studies, 2006). Those that fail to speak the language of the majority stick to their
own indigenous languages, e.g. Kiswahili, Ciyawo, Chichewa and Cibemba.
Similarly, in the central or southern region traders speak Chichewa, the language of
majority, or their own languages depending on whether they can be understood by
their customers or not (Centre for Language Studies, 2009).

Activity 1
What languages do you use in the following places: market, church, classroom,
hospital/clinic, home, hostel and library? Justify your answers.

2.1.2 Language use in education

Most Malawians are aware of the benefits that are associated with the use of a
particular language as a subject of study and medium of instruction (Centre for
Language Studies, 2009:30). They capitalise on the so called benefits in order to
have their language recognised and taught in schools as a way of preserving it, e.g.

29
those from Mchinji, Dedza, Ntcheu and some parts of Balaka would like Cingoni,
which is an endangered language, to be introduced in schools as a subject of study
as a way of reviving and preserving it (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:30).
Similarly, Cinsenga speakers in Mchinji, Ciyawo speakers in Dedza, TA Kaphuka
and Cilomwe speakers in Zomba, Machinga, Chiradzulu, Mulanje, Phalombe and
Thyolo districts would like their indigenous languages (i.e. Cinsenga, Ciyawo and
Cilomwe) to be used as a medium of instruction to facilitate its acquisition (Centre for
Language Studies, 2009:30). In this way, the languages in question can be revived
and preserved. People from the areas mentioned above think that the presence of
Chichewa in schools is affecting the acquisition of Cingoni, Cinsenga, Ciyawo and
Cilomwe among the youth. These people therefore think that their children would
learn better in their own familiar languages. Chichewa speakers, on the other hand,
are very proud of their language. They especially like it when other ethnic groups
admire and learn Chichewa at the expense of their own languages. Note that
Chichewa is admired because of its status as a national language and also because
it is the only indigenous language used in the education domain. However, other
Chichewa speakers feel that it is about time other languages (e.g. Citumbuka,
Ciyawo and Cilomwe) were introduced in schools as subjects of study to enable
them to communicate with people outside their speech communities (Centre for
Language Studies, 2009).

Throughout Malawi, pupils and teachers predominantly use a local language of the
area for learning and communicating on a daily basis (Centre for Language Studies,
2006, 2009). This is in contrary to the government policy which recognises Chichewa
as the only medium of instruction all over the country. However, teachers claim to
operate within the rules and regulations as they indicate that Chichewa remains the
medium of instruction with occasional switches to a local language of the area, e.g.
switches to Ciyawo in Ciyawo speaking areas in Machinga, Balaka and Mangochi
helps pupils who are not conversant with Chichewa (Centre for Language Studies,
2009). Similarly, switches to Cisena in Cisena speaking areas in Chikwawa and
Nsanje are the order of the day to enhance pupil’s understanding of subject content.

Similar scenarios have been observed in Chitipa where pupils and teachers regularly
use a local language of the area for learning and communicating (Centre for
30
Language Studies, 2006). In other districts such as Nkhata Bay, Karonga and
Chitipa, Citumbuka and Chichewa are very common in school environments
especially in areas where Citumbuka is not commonly spoken (Centre for Language
Studies, 2006). Above all, Citumbuka is actually used as a medium of instruction in
the northern region despite the fact that there are no teaching materials written in
this language. However, as observed above, this is against government policy which
states that Chichewa should be the only medium of instruction all over the country
(Centre for Language Studies, 2006). However, according to Centre for Language
Studies, 2009), teachers justify their use of Citumbuka in the form of code-switches
(i.e. from Chichewa to Citumbuka) in order to help the pupils who are not conversant
with Chichewa. Nonetheless, the use of a local language of the area for learning and
communicating appears to be within the dictates of the 1996 ministerial directive that
pupils from standard 1-4 should be taught in their familiar languages (Centre for
Language Studies, 2006). Therefore, one would argue that teachers are not violating
the government policy when they teach in the familiar local language of an area even
though teaching and learning materials remain a challenge to those teaching in other
local languages.

Something interesting to note is the preference for some teachers towards the use of
Chichewa during instruction. Centre for Language Studies (2009) reports that some
teachers prefer teaching in Chichewa than in Ciyawo or Cisena for fear of being
labelled ‘uneducated’ even when the pupils would understand better in Ciyawo or
Cisena. In this case, the teachers regard Chichewa as a mark of being ‘educated’
because it is an accepted medium of instruction in lower primary school as well as a
subject of study throughout the country (Centre for Language Studies, 2009).

Activity 2
a) What language(s) should be used for instruction in Malawi? Justify your
answer.

b) What language was used for instruction when you were in primary school?

c) Why are some languages regarded as inferior to others?

31
2.1.3 Age as a determiner of language choice
Age is another significant variable that influences the patterns of language choice
and use among Malawians. It is a major source of variation in language choice and
use. Centre for Languages Studies (2006, 2009) reports that most of the elderly
people are loyal to use their own native languages while the youth prefer using a
‘foreign’ language. Most youths who have acquired other languages other than
Chichewa as their first languages prefer using Chichewa. The elderly, on the other
hand, are comfortable to be identified with their native languages such as Ciyawo,
Citonga, Cilomwe, Citumbuka, Cilambya, Cimambwe and Cisena. The youth think
that using Chichewa gives them a sense of pride, or social status as it signals being
‘educated’, or having been exposed to cities such as Lilongwe, Blantyre and Zomba
where Chichewa is dominant.

Most youths who have acquired other languages as their first languages other than
Chichewa think that speaking their languages limits communication at national level
(Centre for Language Studies, 2006, 2009). Centre for Language Studies (2006,
2009) reports that the youth would rather get used to Chichewa so that they
confidently speak it when they travel to cities where Chichewa is predominantly
spoken. Some youth prefer to be identified more with Chichewa than their own native
languages especially when they are away from their home environments. Older
people, on the other hand, are proud and comfortable to be identified with their own
local languages as it identifies them and their culture (Centre for Language Studies,
2006, 2009). They believe that language is a carrier of one’s culture, traditions and
customs. If they do not speak their languages, their languages die alongside their
own identity and culture. They see the need to use their languages to preserve their
identity and culture. Age of speakers therefore has a great influence on the patterns
of language choice and use.

Activity 3
What language do you use when interacting with the following people? Justify your
answers.

a) Mother or any female guardian

b) Father or any male guardian

32
 c) Peers

d) Relations from maternal side

e) Relations from paternal side

2.1.4 Language shift

Centre for Languages Studies (2009:32) defines language shift as “a process
whereby a community (often a linguistic minority) gradually abandons its original
language and via a (sometimes lengthy) stage of bilingualism shift to another
language”. The Centre for Language Studies (2009) reports that the shift in most
cases happens gradually and domain by domain and normally the original language
has the chances of being retained if it is used regularly in informal family-type
contexts. However, note that language shift is different from code-switching. Code-
switching is when you switch between different languages or varieties in the same
utterance or turn or conversation. Language shift involves a situation in which one
language is displaced by another in the linguistic repertoire of a community. In code-
switching, therefore, no language is displaced.

There are several factors that contribute to language shift. Some of the factors
include the following: economic/social/political factors, demographic, institutional
support and status. These factors are discussed in detail below.

Now the question is how do economic/social/political factors contribute to language

shift? We will firstly focus on the economic factor. There is a financial gain or loss
when one is able or not able to speak a particular language. For instance, if a
Ciyawo or Chisena speaker wants to do business at one of the trading centres in
Mzimba, it would be necessary for him to acquire Citumbuka, the dominant language
in the district. In so doing, he would attract several customers to buy his products
because he would be interacting with them freely in their language. However, note
that an economic factor is the most salient factor because sometimes it is not
necessary or sufficient to account for shift. As in the above example, the trader may
or may not completely shift to Citumbuka. However, note that there is a high
probability for the trader’s children to completely shift to Citumbuka.

33
As regards to the political factor, it is very likely for a politician to woo his supporters
through the use of a particular language. If the politician completely shifts from his
language to using the supporters’ language, s/he might manage to win the trust of
the supporters and eventually get their ultimate support through votes. Politicians,
especially members of parliament, are influential in the sense that they play a great
role in the policies or laws that are made in Malawi. For instance, they have the
power to influence the choices of languages in terms of which language to be used
as a medium of instruction, national or official language. If a language is chosen to
fulfil any of these functions, then there is likelihood for people to shift from their
indigenous languages to using languages that have gained status because of the
recognition through policies or laws of Malawi. A case in point is how some
Malawians have shifted from their indigenous languages to using Chichewa which is
a national language and also a subject of study in school (Centre for Language
Studies, 2006, 2009).

In view of the social factor, language for socialisation matters. Sometimes a member
of a youth group may have no choice but to shift to a language that is more popular
amongst the youth group. Earlier on, we mentioned how most youth prefer using
Chichewa more than their indigenous languages when they relocate to cities such as
Lilongwe, Zomba and Blantryre.

Having looked at the factors above, our next focus is on demographic factors.
Demographic factors also influence speakers to shift from using one language to
another. For instance, a language that has a small number of speakers may be a
threat to itself. In other words, the smaller the speech community, the more likely the
language to be at risk especially when the speakers are not loyal to it. Generally a
language becomes at risk if it is spoken by the minority who do not pay much
attention to its maintenance. Speakers who are not loyal to or proud of their
language do not apply any effort to maintain it. They instead shift to using other
languages other than their own. The-at-risk language may, however, be maintained
by making the younger generation acquire or learn it. The-at-risk language may also
be maintained if speakers facilitate its spread to other communities and avoid
preferring or shifting to other languages at the expense of their own. Some of the-at-
risk languages in Malawi include Cingoni and Cilomwe.
34
Institutional support might help in maintaining the-at-risk language. The-at-risk
language may be supported through using it in religion, education, the media,
administration, etc. Such use may facilitate the maintenance or revitalisation of the
language. However, there are limits to the extent in which the support itself could be
used. If the-at-risk language is studied in school and speakers rarely use it in the rest
of the domains (i.e. family or domestic, friendship domains, etc.) then the efforts of
maintaining it may be in vain. However, note that institutional support may also
encourage speakers to shift from their indigenous languages to using languages that
are receiving support. Think about how speakers of other languages have shifted to
using Chichewa because of the support that Chichewa has received in Malawi, e.g.
Chichewa is studied as a subject, it is a medium of instruction and it is also widely
used in the media (print news, radio, etc.).

Finally, regarding status, a group’s self-esteem and the language’s status seems to
have an effect on language shift. There is a tendency for people to shift to using a
language that has prestige and status. In Malawi, most people who are not native
speakers of Chichewa have learned the language because of its status. Some have
completely shifted from their indigenous languages to using Chichewa. Others have
ended up losing competence in their indigenous languages especially if they happen
to spend most of their time in areas where Chichewa is dominant. However, some
people have worked hard to prevent the shift by ignoring the status that Chichewa
has and focusing much on the cultural identity that is associated with the use of their
indigenous languages. For instance, people from the northern region have not
completely shifted to languages of the central or southern region. They have instead
clung to their indigenous languages such as Citumbuka, Cindali or Cinkhonde to
identify with each other when they are in the other regions. Citonga speakers
similarly behave in the same was as they converse in Citonga with fellow speakers
of the language when they meet each other in places like Blantyre, Lilongwe,
Zomba, etc. This is done for purposes of solidarity. Speakers of Citumbuka and
Citonga are well known for their solidarity on matters concerning language choice all
over the country (Centre for Language Studies, 2006).

35
Activity 4
a) Revitalisation is an important process that may prevent language shift from
occurring. What is revitalisation?

b) How can a language be revitalised?

Unit test
a) Using examples, explain how domain of language use influence language
choice.

b) Discuss any four ways that would prevent a shift from occurring.

c) How is age one of the factors that influence language choice and use?

d) Why should people consider the aspect of benefits when it comes to selection
of language(s) for use in education?

Unit 2 summary

In this unit, we have discussed patterns of language choice and use. In relation to
this, we focused on some of the factors that influence language choice and use as
follows: domain of language use, language use in education, age as a determiner of
language choice and language shift. In the next unit, we are going to discuss
attitudes and language loyalty.

36
Unit 3: Language Attitudes and Loyalty

Introduction

In this unit, we are going to discuss language attitudes and loyalty. In particular, we
will focus on attitudes and loyalty that Malawians have towards various languages
spoken in the country. Thereafter, the focus will be on Malawians’ preferences on
what language(s) to use in education. Finally, the unit will describe materials that are
written in local languages.

Key words

language attitude, language loyalty

Areas of emphasis

 Language attitudes and loyalty

 Language in education

 Materials written in local languages

Learning objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Explain Malawians’ attitudes and loyalty towards languages spoken in the

country

 Discuss Malawians’ preferences on what language(s) to use in education

 Describe materials written in local languages

Prerequisite knowledge

37
The knowledge you have about the languages spoken in Malawi will help you
understand this unit. Above all, knowledge gained from the previous unit concerning
patterns of language choice and use will be very helpful in the understanding of this
unit.

Other resources needed

Centre for Language Studies, (2006). Language Mapping Survey for Northern
Malawi. Zomba: University of Malawi.

Centre for Language Studies, (2009). Language Mapping Survey for the Southern
and Central Regions of Malawi: Languages and their Dialects. Zomba: University of
Malawi.

Kayambazinthu, E. (1998). The Language Planning Situation in Malawi. Journal of

Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 19 (5), 369-439, DOI:
10.1080/01434639808666363

Time required

You will need at least four hours to study this unit.

3.1 Language attitudes and loyalty

Most Malawians regard their languages (i.e. languages associated with their ethnic
groups) highly than those of others. For instance, Chewas regard Chichewa more
highly than other languages. In a similar manner, Tongas, Senas, Lomwes,
Tumbukas, etc., are proud of their ethnic languages respectively. Because of this,
one would not be surprised to see Malawians preferring languages associated with
their ethnic groups if they are asked to choose a language that would be used as a
lingua franca for their district as well as a medium of instruction in education (Centre
for Language Studies, 2006, 2009). Note that for some Malawians, their choices
would be influenced by the dominance of the language over other languages in the
district. Others, on the other hand, would opt for languages that are not
predominantly spoken. For instance, in a survey that was conducted by Centre for
Language Studies (2009), they found out that in some districts; some Malawians
chose languages that are not dominant in their districts. For instance, in Dedza, TA

38
Tambala and in a few Ciyawo speaking villages under TA Kaphuka, Ciyawo was
chosen to be the district lingua franca as well as medium of instruction when Ciyawo
is not a dominant language in the district (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:35).
Ciyawo speakers in this area therefore highly value their languages more than
others. This shows “the strength of the people’s attitude towards their languages”
(Centre for Language Studies, 2009:35). The results of the survey further reveal that
most Malawians regard language as a symbol of their identity and that it embraces
their culture. It would therefore be unwise for them to promote other languages other
than their own as a lingua franca or medium of instruction in education because
according to most Malawians “one’s culture can best be expressed and preserved
through one’s own language” (Centre for Language Studies, 2009:35).

Note also that some Malawians think that it is about time the country started
recognising other languages other than Chichewa. Similarly, most Malawians in the
northern region would like other languages spoken in the northern region to be
recognised as a lingua franca. Currently, the northern region recognises Citumbuka
as its lingua franca. The Nkhonde people of Karonga think that designating one
language for a region is unfair practice considering that there are also other
languages that are spoken the northern region (Centre for Language Studies, 2006).
Similar sentiments have also been expressed by speakers of other languages in
Malawi especially over the recognition of Chichewa as a lingua franca at the
expense of other languages. For instance, Citonga speakers in Nkhotakota argue
that much as they acknowledge that Chichewa is the most common language
spoken in the district, there are also many Citonga speakers especially in the
northern part of the district and along Lake Malawi (Centre for Language Studies,
2009). Because of this, they argue that Citonga needs to be recognised. Their
argument is based on the fact that there are speakers of other languages who
neither speak nor understand Chichewa and it would be unfair to ignore the minority
voices. They further argue that the minority need to be given a chance to have their
languages developed for their own socio-economic development (Centre for
Language Studies, 2009:35-36). Overall, most Malawians who are speakers of
minority languages would like their languages to be given a chance to flourish just
like the national language, Chichewa, has flourished. According to Centre for

39
Language Studies (2009:36), most Malawians acknowledge that for the southern
and central regions of Malawi, Chichewa is the most common language but its
promotion should not be to the detriment of other minority languages in the country.
They would like their languages to be given a chance to flourish since they also play
a vital role in the lives of those who use them (Centre for Language Studies,
2009:36).

Activity 1
Explain the following:

a) Language attitudes

b) Language loyalty

3.2 Language in education

Centre for Language Studies (2006, 2009) conducted a survey in which they wanted
Malawians to declare their choice of languages to be used as media of instruction in
the early years of primary education. Findings reveal that most Malawians chose
their mother tongue as the most appropriate language to be used in the districts’
schools as a medium of instruction. They justified their choices by indicating that
their mother tongue was the common language and was understood well by most
people in their area. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 show the languages that Malawians chose
as media of instruction and subjects in different districts in Malawi during the survey
that Centre for Languages (2006, 2009) conducted.

Table 3.1: Languages chosen as subjects and media of instruction by district

in the central and southern regions

District Language to be used as medium of Language to be taught

instruction as a subject
Kasungu Chichewa and Citumbuka Chichewa and Citumbuka
(Kasungu North)
Nkhotakota Chichewa and Citonga Citonga and Chichewa
Salima Chichewa and Ciyawo Chichewa
Lilongwe Chichewa Chichewa
Mchinji Chichewa Chichewa
Dowa Chichewa Chichewa
Ntchisi Chichewa Chichewa
40
Dedza Chichewa Chichewa, Ciyawo and
Cingoni
Ntcheu Chichewa Chichewa and Cingoni
Balaka Chichewa Ciyawo
Mangochi Ciyawo Ciyawo
Machinga Chichewa and Ciyawo Ciyawo
Zomba Chichewa Ciyawo
Chiradzulu Chichewa Ciyawo and Cilomwe
Mulanje Chichewa Cilomwe
Phalombe Chichewa Cilomwe
Blantyre Chichewa Chichewa
Thyolo Chichewa Cilomwe
Mwanza Chichewa Chichewa
Neno Chichewa Chichewa
Chikwawa Chichewa Chichewa and Cisena
Nsanje Cisena Chichewa and Cisena

The data in Table 3.1 reveals languages that are predominantly spoken in each
district in the central and southern regions. These are the languages that most
Malawians in the two regions invariably prefer as media of instruction and subjects of
study (Centre for Language Studies, 2009). The data further reveals that Chichewa
is widely spoken in several districts of the two regions while Ciyawo is widely spoken
in Mangochi, Machinga, Zomba and Balaka (Centre for Language Studies, 2009).

Table 3.2: Languages chosen as subjects and media of instruction by district

in the northern region

District Language to be used as medium Language to be taught as a

of instruction subject
Chitipa Cilambya and Citumbuka Cilambya and Citumbuka
(Nthalire and Wenya)
Karonga Kyangonde and Citumbuka Kyangonde and Citumbuka
(Mwirang’ombe and Wasambo)
Rumphi Citumbuka Citumbuka
Mzimba Citumbuka Citumbuka
Nkhatabay Citonga and Citumbuka (Sisya) Citonga and Citumbuka

41
Similar to Table 3.1, Table 3.2 reveals languages that are predominantly spoken in
each district in the northern region. These are the languages that most Malawians in
the northern region chose as media of instruction and subjects of study (Centre for
Language Studies, 2006). The data in this table reveals that Cilambya is the most
dominant language in many of the areas in Chitipa while Citumbuka is dominant in
Nthalire and Wenya. The data further reveals that in Karonga, Kyangonde and
Citumbuka are the preferred languages for instruction in schools and subjects of
study. Furthermore, in Karonga and Rumphi respondents chose Citumbuka because
it is the common language in the two districts (Centre for Language Studies, 2006).
Note that most of the respondents in Mzimba would have loved to have Chingoni as
a subject of study in schools as means of reviving it but they opted for Citumbuka
because it is the dominant language in the district (Centre for Language Studies,
2006).

Most people in Nkhatabay, a predominantly Tonga speaking district, chose Citonga

and Citumbuka as the languages to be used in schools. Finally, the data in Table 3.2
reveals that Citumbuka is particularly recommended for areas bordering Rumphi in
the North in Usisya and areas bordering Mzimba in the west. Note that even though
most respondents chose major languages to be used in schools in most districts,
speakers of minor languages still preferred to use their languages because they
argued they are languages their children understand (Centre for Language Studies,
2006). They further argued that using minor languages in schools would be means of
promoting them.

Activity 2
1. Why do you think most Malawians choose their mother tongue as the most
appropriate language to be used in the districts’ schools as a medium of
instruction?

2. Do you think such choices as in 1 above are viable or workable?

3.3 Materials written in local languages

The results of a survey that was conducted by the Centre for Language Studies
(2006) reveal that not many Malawians know materials that are written in any of the
local languages spoken in the three regions of Malawi. 81.4% (i.e. 611 out of 751
42
respondents) of the respondents in the northern region that the Centre engaged in
their study indicated that they had some knowledge of materials written in local
languages. However, most of the respondents were unable to give further details
regarding the materials such as author’s name, publisher, date of publication and
year of publication. Most of the respondents could not remember such information.

The results from the Centre’s survey further reveal that Citumbuka has a lot of
written materials. The rest of the languages, Cilambya, Cindali,
Kyangonde/Cinkhonde, Citonga and others have a few written materials. The fact
that the rest of these languages are not developed or standardised could contribute
to the few written materials that are available. Read the summary of the materials
and the local languages in which they are written as provided in the Appendix 2 of
the Centre for Language Studies’ (2006) report.

The Centre argues that there is a need to harmonise the writing system of each
language so as to come up with standard orthographies. According to the Centre for
Language Studies (2006), if these languages are to be used as media of instruction
in schools then it would be recommended that:

a) Orthography rules for each language be properly developed and standardised

based on the writing systems already in place
b) For languages that have materials that are educational in nature, such
materials should be carefully evaluated and be adapted for use in schools
since some of the materials have:
 Moral lessons
 Cultural values that cannot be obtained from Chichewa oral and written
traditions
c) The implementation of a policy on familiar language of instruction should be
done in phases starting with languages that already have quite a handful of
written materials

Regarding the survey that the Centre for Language Studies (2009) conducted in the
central and southern regions, the results reveal that 772 out of 1802 respondents
(representing 42.8%) indicated that they had some knowledge of the materials
written in local languages. However, the respondents could not remember
43
information such as title, author, publisher, date and year of publication of the
materials that they were familiar with. According to the Centre, poor literacy levels
and lack of reading culture could be some of the reasons why the respondents could
not avail information regarding author’s name, title, etc. of the written materials that
they were familiar with. The findings of the survey reveal that Chichewa has the
longest list of publications compared to other languages such as Citumbuka, Ciyawo,
Cisena, Cilomwe and Citonga. The long list of publications in Chichewa is attributed
to the fact that Chichewa is one of the languages that has been fully standardised.
Besides this, Chichewa is Malawi’s national language. Read the summary of the
materials and the local languages in which they are written as provided in the
Appendix 2 of the Centre for Language Studies’ (2009) report.

Activity 3

1. Name at least two materials written in local languages that have you read?

2. Provide the title, author, publisher, date and year of publication of the
materials that you have read?

3. What was the author’s focus in each of the materials that you read?

Unit test

1. What languages have people in the following regions chosen to be studied as

subjects and used as media of instruction in schools? What are their
justifications for their choices?

a) Southern region

b) Central region

c) Northern

2. How do people’s attitudes and loyalty influence their language choices and
use?

3. What do you think should be done in order for Malawi to have more works
written in local languages?

44
Unit 3 summary
In this unit, we have explained the kind of attitudes that Malawians have towards
their languages. Attitudinal factors play a role in the choices that Malawians make
when it comes to language use in education. The unit has also discussed language
in education by focussing on Malawian preferences in terms of language of
instruction and language to be studied in school. Finally, the unit has looked at
whether or not Malawians are familiar with materials that are written in local
languages. Overall, it has been observed that compared to the rest of the languages
in Malawi, Chichewa and Citumbuka have a lot of materials written in these two
languages respectively.

45
Unit 4: Language Policies in Malawi

Introduction

The focus in this unit is on language policies in Malawi. In particular, we will discuss
the national language, official language and the languages that are used in
education in Malawi.

Key words

language policy, national language, official language

Areas of emphasis

 Language policy

 National language

 Official language

 Language in education

Learning objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Explain the term language policy

 Discuss the national language of Malawi and factors that led to choosing it as
a national language

46
  Discuss the official language of Malawi and factors that led to choosing it as a
official language

 Examine languages that are used in education in Malawi

Prerequisite knowledge

The knowledge you have about the languages spoken in Malawi will help you
understand this unit. Above all, knowledge gained from the previous unit concerning
patterns of language choice and use will be very helpful in the understanding of this
unit.

Other resources needed

Baldauf, R.B. Jr. & Kaplan, R.B. (2004). Language Policy and planning in Botswana,
Malawi, Mozambique and South Africa: some Common issues. In R.B. Jr. Baldauf &
R.B. Kaplan (Eds.). Language planning and policy: Africa, Vol. 1, Botswana, Malawi,
Mozambique & South Africa. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

Hara, A. C. (in press). An exploratory study of language use and preferences among
nursing lecturers and students at Mzuzu University in Malawi. Journal of Humanities
and Social Sciences, University of Zambia.

Kaphesi, Elias. (2003). The Influence of Language Policy in Education on

Mathematics Classroom Discourse in Malawi: The Teachers’ Perspective. Teacher
Development 7(2), 265-285.

Kayambazinthu, E. (1998). The Language Planning Situation in Malawi. Journal of

Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 19 (5), 369-439, DOI:
10.1080/01434639808666363.

Kishindo, P. J. (1990). An historical survey of spontaneous and planned

development of Chichewa. In I. Fodor & C. Hagege (Eds.), Language reform: History
and future (Vol 5) (pp. 59-82). Hamburg: Helmut Buske Verlag.

K r e t z e r, M. M. & Kumwenda, J. I., (2016). Language policy in Malawi: A study of

its contexts, factors for its development and consequences. Marang: Journal of
Language and Literature, 27, 20-38.
47
Matiki, A. J. (2006). Literacy, Ethnolinguistic Diversity and Transitional Bilingual
Education in Malawi, International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism,
9(2), 239-254, DOI: 10.1080/13670050608668643

Matiki, A. J. (2001). The social significance of English in Malawi. World Englishes, 20

(2), 201-218.

Time required

You will need at least four hours to study this unit.

4.1 Language policy

Language policy is an official policy resulting from language planning and imposed in
a deliberate attempt to influence language behaviour by means of official codes.
Kretzer and Kumwenda (2006) describe language policy as a deliberate effort to
change or influence a community‘s use of a particular language, a variety of a
language or languages. Language policy is particularly concerned with official efforts
to influence the relative status and use of one or more languages. Language
planning, on the other hand, is defined as “a deliberate language change … planned
by organisations established for such purposes” (Rubin, 1984:4) to influence the
behaviour of others with respect to the acquisition, structure or functional allocation
of their language codes’ (Cooper, 1989:45).

Activity 1

In your own words, explain the difference between language policy and language
planning.

4.2 Malawi’s national language

Chichewa is Malawi’s national language while Citumbuka, Citonga, Ciyawo,

Chilomwe and Chisena are used for public communication in the media such as
radio. According to Kishindo (1990), Malawi adopted Cinyanja as a national
language in 1968. Cinyanja gained the lead over the other languages for various
reasons. It geographically favourably spread in both the central and southern parts of
Malawi. Secondly, the colonial government documented languages that it considered
vital in the running of the country. Having settled in an area where Cinyanja was the
48
dominant language and a lingua franca, the government chose Cinyanja as their
language for administration and promoted it through a series of publications.

Thus, Cinyanja became the official language of the police and the army (Kishindo,
1990). Other languages that were promoted by the government (but not so much as
a national or regional lingua franca) were Yao and Ciitumbuka. During the post-
colonial period since 1964, Cinyanja was a well-established lingua franca in Malawi.
According to Kayambazinthu (1998), during the 1968 Annual Convention of the then
ruling Malawi Congress Party held in Lilongwe, the question of national unity
resurfaced and the Convention recommended that in the interest of national unity:

a) Malawi should adopt Cinyanja as a national language.

b) That the name Cinyanja should henceforth be known as Chichewa.

c) That Chichewa and English should be the official languages of the state of
Malawi and that all other languages should continue to be used in everyday
private life in their respective areas.

The pre- and post-referendum period (1992-1994) (that is, during Bakili Muluzi’s
era), signalled ethnic language resurgence. United Democratic Front’s UDF News
and The New Voice started publishing in languages such as Lomwe, Sena,
Tumbuka and Yao. After the referendum the government took an active policy of
linguistic pluralism on the radio and schools. A new wave of ethnic consciousness
emerged among Malawians.

The 1995 Malawi Government Constitution stipulated in article 26 on culture and

language that ‘every person shall have the right to use the language and to
participate in the cultural life of his or her choice’ (1995:18). The constitution,
however, was and is still silent on what the national language and the official
languages are. The 1996 UDF Government Education Policy Document was also
silent on the issue.

The Muluzi era posed its own problems and idealism resulting from the Zasintha
philosophy (Kayambazinthu, 1998). There was an assumption that all Malawian
languages could be fully utilised or rehabilitated into full use. It had been a period of

49
general protest and political activism where sections of the population had mobilised
to agitate for social reform in the promotion of the lesser-used languages as if the
nation had the resources to sustain such a policy.

Activity 2

1. Explain the term lingua franca.

2. Was the ethnic language resurgence that took place during President Bakili
Muluzi’s reign necessary in Malawi?

4.3 Malawi’s official language

Malawi was once a British colony. Consequently, it had adopted English as an

official language even before independence in 1964 (Matiki, 2001). English remained
an official language after independence. It has been on the school curriculum since
education was introduced in the country. In fact, passing the English test is a
precondition for a certificate in school examinations. Apart from English, Chichewa is
also considered an official language in Malawi. However, English is favoured more
than Chichewa (Matiki, 2001) since it is the dominant language in all formal domains.
Such dominance of English is not only peculiar to Malawi but it is rather a situation
that is applicable to most nations. According to Matiki (2001:205), “English and
English teaching have become widespread with functions ranging from large-scale to
global politics to the intricacies of people’s lives”.

Matiki (2001) discusses the range and functions of English in Malawi to highlight its
dominance over Chichewa as it is used to fulfil almost all of the following official
functions: the instrumental function, the regulative function, the imaginative or
innovative function and the interpersonal function.

4.3.1 The instrumental function

The instrumental functions are performed by both English and Chichewa as media of
learning at various stages in the educational system of Malawi (Matiki, 2001).
However, English performs more instrumental functions than Chichewa. Chichewa is
used to aid the learning of English and other subjects in primary school while English
is the medium of instruction from primary, secondary up to tertiary level. Both English
and Chichewa are studied as subjects but English is the compulsory subject and
50
sole medium of instruction in all subjects. Among all school subjects in primary and
secondary schools, English has more class periods per week than any other subject.
Furthermore, it is a requirement for all candidates to have a pass in English for them
to be admitted into university. English also dominates at public and private
universities. All national examinations in all subjects except Chichewa are written in
English whether at primary, secondary or tertiary level.

4.3.2 The regulative function

According to Matiki (2001), the regulative function is the use of a language or

languages to regulate conduct. Some of the regulatory contexts include the
legislature, the judiciary, and government administration. All MPs are required to be
proficient in English. Even though Chichewa is an official language, it cannot be used
in parliament. Matiki therefore advocates for an English-Chichewa bilingual policy for
Malawi parliament. In Malawi, English is used in courts except for traditional courts
that are presided over by local chiefs. When English is not understood, the court
engages the services of an interpreter to translate the court proceedings into the
local language.

All other official government communication is conducted in English. Chichewa and

other local languages are mostly used during face to face communication between
government officials and local people (Matiki, 2001). Sometimes government officials
may code-switch from English to Chichewa or any other local language during
interactions with local people. Finally, mass communication through the broadcast
and print media is mostly in English. Most newspapers use English with a few pages
devoted to stories in Chichewa. The national radio stations, Malawi Broadcasting
Cooperation (MBC) Radio 1 and Radio 2, have programmes that are predominantly
in English and Chichewa. English appears to dominate programmes that are aired
on MBC Radio 2.

4.3.3 The imaginative/innovative function

The imaginative/innovative function refers to the use of language in various literary

genres, especially written ones (Matiki, 2001). English has dominated the writing in
various literary genres in Malawi. According to Matiki (2001), the publishing industry
promotes writing in English because it has a wider market, internationally, than local
51
languages. Some writers have written their works in Chichewa and other local
languages but their current literary output is confined to poetry, music and religious
tracts. This is attributed to the fact that the publishing industry is motivated largely by
profits; hence publishing in local languages is rendered unprofitable.

4.3.4 The interpersonal function

Chichewa and other local languages score highly over English when it comes to
interpersonal function (Matiki, 2001). Amongst the local languages, Chichewa is the
one that mostly fulfils this function. As pointed out in other sections, Chichewa is
Malawi’s lingua franca. Most Malawians from different linguistic backgrounds
therefore use Chichewa to bridge their linguistic differences. English may also be
used as a lingua franca amongst Malawians who are not comfortable conversing in
Chichewa. Due to the given prestige that is associated with English, the language is
displacing indigenous languages in certain traditional domains for socio-economic
and political capital (Matiki, 2001).

Having discussed the range and functions of English in comparison with Chichewa, it
is important to briefly explain the status of other languages. During Bakili Muluzi’s
era, the functional attribution of Tumbuka, Yao, Lomwe, Sena, Tonga to institutional
domains such as education, administration and jurisdiction gives these languages
‘semi-official status’. This status was substantiated by other types of formal and
institutional recognition of these languages. However, there are no statements in the
Malawian constitution or Malawian laws that clearly name these five languages as a
specific class within the totality of Malawian languages

Activity 3

1. Both English and Chichewa are Malawi’s official languages. Why is English
more favoured than Chichewa?

2. What languages do you use to fulfil the following functions:

a) The imaginative/innovative function

b) The interpersonal function

c) Provide a justification to your answers in 2 a) and b) above.

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4.4 Language use in education

According to Kaphesi (2003), often the language of the school is the country’s official
or national or regional language chosen to help bring unity to a political entity but
invariably consisting of diverse cultural and language groups. There are only two
languages that are taught as subjects in schools in Malawi; these are Chichewa and
English. According to Rose (1970), Chichewa became a school subject as early as
the day when education was introduced in the country (Rose, 1970). According to
Kishindo (1990), Chichewa became a subject of study in all schools in 1968. It was
taught alongside other languages such as Citumbuka. The practice during the
colonial era was that all Malawi children of African origin were taught using local
languages during the first two years of schooling. According to Kaphesi (2003),
Chichewa was introduced as a subject in the University of Malawi in 1971. In the
same year, other languages were dropped from the school curriculum, leaving only
Chichewa. This facilitated the spread of Chichewa to all corners of the country. As a
result, Chichewa is the most widely spoken language in the country.

English is the second language for most Malawians. It is taught as a subject right
from primary school up to university. It should be noted that studying English as a
subject is compulsory in both primary and secondary schools. Further to this, English
is also the medium of instruction from primary, secondary up to tertiary level. As
pointed out in section 4.3.1, among all school subjects in primary and secondary
schools, English has more class periods per week than any other subject.

Regarding other local languages, language policies under Muluzi era saw the
introduction of languages such as Tumbuka, Yao, Lomwe, Sena, Tonga on the radio
without prior identification of resources and training of personnel (Kayambazinthu,
1998). According to Kayambazinthu (1998), a significant directive on education
policy came on 28 March 1996, introducing a three plus or minus language formula.
The Secretary for Education stated that:

The Ministry of Education would like to inform all…that with immediate effect,
all standards 1, 2, 3 and 4 classes in all our schools be taught in their own
mother tongue or vernacular language as a medium of instruction. English
and Chichewa will however, continue to be offered as subjects in the primary

53
 curricula. In the past Chichewa was used as both a medium of instruction and
subject, making it very difficult for beginners to grasp ideas. However, English
will be used as a medium of instruction beginning in standard 5. (Secretary for
Education’s Letter. Ref. No. IN/2/14.)

According to Kayambazinthu (1998), Malawians reacted to the education policy

during Muluzi’s reign as follows:

 If pupils from Standards 1 to 4 are to be instructed in local language dominant

or common in an area in which a school is located, children will get inferior
education and will end up drawers of water and hewers of wood.

 It is a political decision because the ruling United Democratic Front does not
want to be reminded of the former ruling party, the MCP, which made the
teaching of Chichewa in primary schools compulsory …

 The use of the mother tongue will encourage tribalism in the country. Smaller
groups of people will want to identify themselves with their mother tongue.

 What happens to children staying with their parents in areas where their
mother tongue is not dominant? Will they have to transfer back to their home
district to be taught in their mother tongue? (Malawi News, 22–28 June 1996).

 The policy is aimed at saving the face of some teachers who, according to
some people, are not conversant with English.

 New teachers’ guides, textbooks, manuals, pupils’ reading materials in all

dialects or vernaculars will need to be produced and printed.

The recognition of six languages on the radio, the introduction of other vernaculars in
schools and the protection of minority languages was a commendable idea, but it
raised a number of questions that remain to be answered. Malawian planners have
to realise that status planning decisions will have to be reflected in corpus planning
decisions. The implementation of specific language policies will be problematic
politically, economically and educationally. Where should the line be drawn? If equity
is the criterion, then all languages should be treated equally, an undertaking that the

54
government cannot afford. Would the president refuse the Ngoni if they agitate for it
to be broadcast on the radio?

Malawians need to consider questions such as: are there any economic benefits for
the use of Malawian languages? Should the monopoly of English as the catalyst for
socioeconomic development be broken? Malawians need to think about a language
that it can use to tackle global issues and in this case English will still be needed as
a global language. The popularity of English among both the educated and
uneducated as the language to learn shows that English has a positive profile in
Malawi. Hence, Malawi language-in-education policy as announced in March 2014
by the Ministry of Education stipulates that all subjects ought to be taught in English,
with the exception of the use of Chichewa when teaching or learning it as a subject.
The constitution, however, has not been revised to incorporate these changes.
Nonetheless, teachers are currently not implementing the 2014 language-in-
education policy. Most of them use local languages when teaching in primary school
as guided by the policy which was announced by the Ministry of Education in its
1996 circular. Additionally, teachers generally use a lot of code-switching (from
English to a local language and vice-versa) during instruction. This could be due to
challenges that are encountered when an English only medium is used (see Hara in
press) for details.

Unit test
1. What rationale did Malawi use to choose the following?

a) Chichewa as national language

b) English as an official language

c) Chichewa as an official language

2. The recognition of five other local languages in Malawi’s language policy was
faced with a number of challenges. Explain any four of these challenges.

3. What four factors should be considered when choosing a medium of

instruction and a language to be studied as a subject in school?

55
 4. Do you think it is possible to have a policy that is accepted by every
Malawian?

Unit 4 summary
This unit focused on four important areas. Firstly, it provided an explanation of what
language policy is all about. Then, the unit discussed the national language as well
as the official languages of Malawi. Under this point, we looked at the different
functions that are performed by the official languages of Malawi. We discovered that
English is more recognised as an official language than Chichewa. Finally, the unit
discussed language use in education.

56
Unit 5: Endangered Languages in Malawi

Introduction

The focus in this unit is on endangered languages in Malawi. In particular, we will

explain the term endangered language. Thereafter, we will discuss factors that
contribute to endangerment of languages. Finally, we will describe endangered
languages in Malawi.

Key words

language endangerment, language loss, language death

Areas of emphasis

 Language endangerment

 Factors that contribute to endangerment of languages

 Endangered languages in Malawi

Learning objectives

By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Explain the term endangered language

 Discuss factors that contribute to endangerment of languages

 Describe endangered languages in Malawi

Prerequisite knowledge

The knowledge you have about the languages spoken in Malawi will help you
understand this unit. Above all, knowledge gained from the previous units concerning
57
patterns of language use, language shift and language death will be very helpful in
the understanding of this unit.

Other resources needed

Bello, M. (2013). Assessing language vitality and language endangerment of Lɛtɛ

(Larteh), M. Phil thesis, University of Ghana, retrieved from http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh

Kishindo, P. J. (2002). Flogging a Dead Cow?: The Revival of Malawian Chingoni.

Nordic Journal of African Studies, 11 (2), 206-223.

Matiki, A. J. I. (2009). Re-examining language shift cases in Malawi in the context of

Fishman's GIDS, Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 30 (6), 535-
546, DOI: 10.1080/01434630903215117.

Matiki, A. J. I. (1996/7). Language shift and maintenance: Social determinance of

linguistic change among the Lomwe people. Journal of Humanities, 10/11, 1-25.

Time required

You will need at least ten hours to study this unit.

5.1 Language endangerment

The term language endangerment is explained differently by different scholars. Thus,

scholars do not have one clear-cut definition of the term. However the explanations
that they provide are enough for one to understand its meaning. Hence, before we
give you the explanations, we will provide you with the context in which the term is
used. According to Krauss (1992), about half of the estimated 6,000 languages on
earth are spoken only by adults who have not managed to pass on their languages
to their younger generation. In other words, 90 percent of existing languages today
are likely to die or become seriously threatened within the next century. This entails
that 10 percent of the world’s languages, about 600 languages, currently remain
relatively secure.

Language endangerment occurs when two different languages of unequal status co-
exist in a community and where one of these languages is widely spoken and well
recognized but the other is spoken by a small group of people or by virtue of the fact
58
that it is not used in different domains (Batibo, 2003). The environment in which a
language is used can pose a problem especially when a dominant language
(language understood by a lot of people in a given society) is regularly used in the
community instead of the native language.

Furthermore, an endangered language is a language that is threatened by extinction

(Batibo, 2003). The threat may arise because the number of speakers is declining
rapidly especially when the language is not acquired by the younger generation (e.g.
making children learn an international language such as English) or when the
language is not used regularly in the language community. When children are not
given a chance to acquire their indigenous languages they are deprived of
knowledge to create, develop and even function properly in the society in which they
live.

To explain the term further, an endangered language is a language that will have no
speakers left within few generations (Bobaljik et al., 1996). This may be due to
several factors as discussed below. These factors will definitely cause a language to
start losing its speakers gradually until one day their language will cease to be used.
A lot of languages in Africa are currently experiencing a gradual language death.

Activity 1

Language does not become endangered in a day, it is a process. Explain the

process of language endangerment.

5.2 Factors that contribute to endangerment of languages

The following are some of the factors that contribute to endangerment of languages:
geographic and geo-demographic factors, social factors, the size of language
speakers, amount and quality of documentation, domains of language use, historical
factors, political factors, attitudes of speakers, sociolinguistic factors, socio-economic
factors, intergenerational language transmission, globalisation/modernisation and
urbanization. These factors will be discussed in detail below.

59
5.1.1 Geographic and geo-demographic factors

Geographic factors are concerned with the area(s) where the languages are spoken
while geo-demographic factors focus on the areas as well as the number of speakers
of certain languages. A high concentration of languages in certain areas provides
room for too many contacts, overlap, competition and conflict. This eventually
causes some languages to dominate others. Languages always compete to achieve
supremacy in a high concentration of languages. In most cases, the stronger the
language, that is in terms of number of speakers, the higher the probability that the
weak language would assimilate to it. In addition, languages that are spoken by
isolated and scattered groups will be swallowed up by larger and stronger groups.
An isolated language group that is joined by a stronger language group is likely to
have its language assimilated to the stronger language group.

In view of geography, some speech communities are found in rural areas while
others are situated in urban areas. If a rural speech community is closer to urban
areas, there is a high likelihood of contact between the rural and urban groups
(Fishman, 1964:52-53). In this case, there is a high likelihood that the rural group
would assimilate to an urban group; hence the high possibility of the rural group’s
language to change because in most cases the rural group is the weaker group. On
another hand, there is a high probability that the isolated speech community can
maintain a language (Fishman, 1964:52; Krauss, 2001:23) if the following measures
are taken into consideration: sustenance of intergenerational transmission, no
contact with other languages and the use of the language in every domain in the
community.

Geography is known to be one of the catalysts that can fuel the process of language
loss (Edwards, 1992). Proximity can accelerate the loss of a language if a minority
language shares boundaries with dominant languages. If the dominant language is
not resisted by the minority language users, it will overpower the minority one.

Batibo (2005) considers the pressure that the weaker language experiences from a
more powerful or prestigious language as the main cause of language shift and
death. Demographic superiority is one of the causes of this pressure. Demographic
superiority arises when a language with the highest number of speakers comes into

60
contact with a language with few speakers. The risky outcome of all this is that the
speakers of the minority language would do their best to identify themselves with the
dominant language.

A decrease in population can also result into a language losing its speakers.
Population decrease can arise due to the following: natural catastrophes in the form
of volcanic eruption, floods, earthquakes, famine and many more. Additionally,
diseases such as HIV/AIDS, small pox, measles, influenza, leprosy can also kill a lot
of speakers of a language thereby reducing or even wiping out an entire population
(Hudson & McConnell, 1984).

5.1.2 Social factors

Social factors may also contribute to language endangerment. Are languages used
by certain social groups different from the members’ mother tongues? If they are,
then the members’ mother tongue may be under pressure especially if the members
tend to be spending more time with their social groups than the speakers of their
mother tongues. Additionally, the way of life of a group of people can encourage
language decline in one way or another. The more the group keeps their traditional
way of life, the stronger their language would be. It is important to know that most of
the customs, beliefs and traditions are embedded in a language, and as such they
are transmitted to the younger generation through language. When these traditional
ways of life are ignored then preserving a language becomes difficult (Kibrik, 1991).
Contact with other languages and culture tend to affect a language because of the
exchanges that take place between the languages and cultures in question.
Borrowing becomes evident and this eventually leads to language change.

Intermarriages may also endanger or maintain a language. Same group marriages

have a better chance of preserving languages because when both parents speak the
same language the language can easily be passed on to the children. Mixed or inter-
ethnic marriages, on the other hand, may lead to language shift. There is a high
probability that children who are born from mixed or inter-ethnic marriages will learn
their mother‘s language than their father‘s language. However, it is important to note
that intermarriages do not always endanger languages. Some married couples who

61
have followed one parent one language have managed to maintain each of the
couple’s language.

5.1.3 The size of language speakers

A language that has a small size of speakers can also induce language shift leading
to language loss. On the other hand, dense populations of speakers have a high
likelihood of maintaining their language (Fishman, 1972; Edwards, 1992). When a
language with a larger number of speakers comes into contact with one that has
fewer speakers, there is a high likelihood that the majority language will influence the
minority language e.g. the minority language assimilating into the majority language.
Because speakers of the majority language overpower speakers of the minority
language the possibility of minority speakers shifting to the use of the majority
language is high.

5.1.4 Amount and quality of documentation

A language is considered to be vibrant if it is well documented, transcribed,

translated. It is also considered lively if it has analysed materials such as
dictionaries, comprehensive grammars, extensive texts and abundant annotated
high-quality audio and video recordings (UNESCO, 2003). According to Dwyer
(2011), for a language to be strong there must be a lot of historical and
contemporary language materials. A strong language therefore survives and stories
about language death would be far from it.

5.1.5 Domains of language use

Domains of language use can influence language endangerment. The stronger the
language when it is used in all domains in the community and the weaker the
language when it is used in a fewer domains. The number and type of domains of
language use therefore determines the viability of a language (Batibo, 2005). It
becomes a challenge when a language different from the mother tongue dominates
the domains of use because in this case the mother tongue becomes threatened.
The domains and functions can lead a language to death particularly when dominant
languages begin to encroach on the domains of use of smaller languages. This is as

62
a result of young people switching to the language of wider communication and
transferring it with them into the social and family domain.

5.1.6 Historical factors

The history of a people may also be regarded as a contributing factor to the vitality of
a language. When an ethnic group values its history, it may also want to value its
language(s) because language is part of its history. When an individual uses a
language which is part of their ethnic group, it brings them closer to their ancestors.
This is the reason why some people still want to have some links with their ancestral
language even when they cannot speak it.

Historical factors that may endanger minority languages may include, conquests,
colonization and boundary disputes e.g. the Arab invasion of Northern Africa resulted
into the replacement of indigenous languages with Arabic. In addition, colonialism
has also contributed to the loss of languages across the world e.g. native American
languages got killed through various tactics and policies when the Europeans
conquered Northern Americas. Furthermore, through genocide, diseases and
forceful resettlement, most of the Native American languages were wiped out and
English became their mother tongue (Brenzinger, 1997). Finally, a language can be
threatened through boundary disputes and the rise of one group and their language
variety to political and cultural domination.

5.1.7 Political factors

Relocation of people voluntarily or involuntarily from their homelands can cause

language loss. For instance, some Malawians relocated to different countries during
Kamuzu era due to political factors. In addition, the pressure from the stronger or
majority language could take the form of political domination. For example, if the
speakers of the majority language dominate the political scene where they have
most of their people in authority, they will make policies that will favour their
languages. Furthermore, when some languages are recognised as national and
regional lingua francas, this contributes to the killing of other indigenous languages
that do not receive such recognition. Once a language is recognised, it enjoys
economic and social privileges. Political factors, such as the promotion of certain
languages to a new status (i.e. national or official language), confers power and
63
privileges on such languages. However, there are some weaker languages that
resist the pressure that is brought about by stronger languages, hence they end up
surviving and do not suffer any risks of being lost. In other words, a majority
language does not swallow a minority language when the minority language resists
the threats of the majority language and put in place protective mechanisms.

Furthermore, when a language is associated with power and comes into contact with
a language with no political influence; there is pressure on the powerless language.
In this case, minority speakers would want to identify themselves with the language
of political influence. As a result, the weaker language becomes dependent on the
language of power.

There will always be the existence of stronger languages as well as weaker

languages in many multilingual nations especially in Africa where developing
minority languages is seen as a threat to national development. In some African
nations, promoting the use of minority languages breeds tribalism and ethnicity
which can be a recipe for conflicts and wars. Each language speakers would want
their language to be acknowledged as important and as a result competition is
induced. When this happens, the tendency of tribal or ethnic conflict occurring is high
leading to the destruction of lives, sometimes wiping out an entire language group.

5.1.8 Attitudes of speakers

The topic ‘language attitude’ was already tacked in Unit 3. However, in this section
we want to link language attitudes to language endangerment. The kind of attitudes
that people have towards languages can help to save minority languages or they
might lead to the disappearance and death of minority languages. If little or no
respect is accorded to a minority language, definitely this will affect the speakers. If
this situation persists, speakers of such a language would prefer to associate
themselves with the majority language, thereby abandoning their native language.

Language attitudes and loyalty are very important factors to language loss. A
community that values multilingualism and variety would do their best to prevent any
form of language as opposed to a community that sees monolingualism as normal
and multilingualism as a threat to their local or national social and political status.

64
Language stigmatization also endangers certain languages (Dorian, 1986). There
are situations where speakers of dominant languages look down upon speakers of
the minority language and make derogatory comments about them. Because of
regular stigmatization, parents may refuse to teach their children their mother
tongue. For instance, the inferiority that is attached to speakers of Irish as opposed
to English in Ireland has prevented some people from speaking Irish language.
Furthermore, attitudes of some language communities can induce language
endangerment. For example, some people associate minority languages with
poverty, illiteracy and hardship, while the dominant language is associated with
development and affluence. Such situations may propel speakers of minority
language to shift to using majority language in order to enjoy the privileges the
majority language holds.

5.1.9 Sociolinguistic factors

How languages are used in the daily lives of the people are some of the
sociolinguistic factors that may influence language endangerment. For instance,
languages used by societies to help them uphold their cultural values, norms,
customs, and beliefs, among other things may or may not preserve and even
promote a minority language. As already pointed out above, most of the customs,
beliefs and traditions are embedded in a language, and as such they are transmitted
to the younger generation through language. If the language that is used to transmit
customs, etc. is a different one from the mother tongue, this would mark the
beginning of the process of language loss alongside the social group’s customs,
beliefs and traditions.

Sociolinguistic factors such as inequality in the public use of languages will favour
certain and promote some languages while other languages would become
redundant or marginalized. The use of a particular language in all domains of use
prevents the development and use of other languages rendering them redundant.
Sociolinguistic factors may play a role in language death if the structures laid down
by the said society do not favour all languages (Crystal, 2000). The more the
domains of language use the better the chance in saving minority languages.
Similarly, the more the language is favoured and promoted the better the chance in

65
reviving it. Any overwhelming economic value of the dominant languages
accelerates the death of minority languages.

5.1.10 Socio-economic factors

Lingua francas that are used as inter-ethnic media of communication, for trade,
education, administration, and mass media tend to attract speakers of other
languages (Batibo, 2005). It was mentioned in section 2.1.1 how the youth from the
northern region of Malawi are attracted to Chichewa. They do not usually speak their
indigenous languages when they move to urban areas such as Lilongwe and
Blantyre. Similar to this is the idea that socio-economic circumstances, such as
migration into other communities, will cause economic dependence on the host
communities. In this case, the migrant may be required to adjust to their new
environment e.g. learning the language of that community in order to communicate
with others. In addition to that, for security’s sake migrants would want to learn the
language of their new community in order to identify with and also to develop trust.

Furthermore, lingua francas have economic dominance (Blench, 1998) because they
are used for inter-ethnic trade. This situation gives pressure to other language
speakers to shift to learning such languages in order to transact business with
clients. In some countries such as Kenya, obtaining a job depends on your linguistic
background. For instance, fluency in Kiswahili is a requirement if one would like to
obtain certain jobs. However, note that English is the indispensable language for
high-level jobs in most African countries (Batibo, 2007). In this case, it is possible for
some people to be denied jobs because of their linguistic background.

5.1.11 Intergenerational language transmission

Intergenerational language transmission is an important factor for a language to

survive. Passing on a language to children is important regardless of whether the
children learn the language from their parents or not. A language is bound to lose its
speakers if parents communicate with their children in a dominant language, that is,
a language spoken by a larger population (socially, politically and economically).
This is due to the fact that low transmission of mother tongue leads to language shift
towards the dominant language. Children acquire a language that they are exposed
to from birth as their first language (L1). Whether the language is their parents’ L1 or
66
not, they still learn it as their L1 due to exposure. This is a situation in which parents
need to be mindful of the languages their children learn if they want their children to
uphold their cultural values, norms, customs, and beliefs because as it was already
pointed in sections 5.1.2 and 5.1.9 customs, beliefs and traditions are embedded in a
language. Language loss is most often associated with reducing proportion of a
given population using the language. This reduction can be facilitated if children are
not given a chance to learn certain languages. According to Austin (2006), some
minority languages, with 1000 or less speakers, that are spoken in some Asian
countries are not currently facing any form of danger because all the people use the
languages on a daily basis. On the other hand, other languages which have millions
of speakers are lost because many of the young people are dominant or monolingual
in the lingua francas (Austin, 2006).

5.1.12 Globalisation/modernisation and urbanisation

We are living in societies that have embraced western values. Western values are a
threat to our societies because they intimidate indigenous people’s traditional values,
etc. They also intimidate language multiplicity in our societies. Apart from this,
improved communication and mass media in dominant languages tend to
marginalise minority languages. Mass media, such as television, radio, films, video
CDs, newspapers, magazines, and books most often use lingua francas, that is,
languages that are understood by a majority of their target population. Most people
are eventually forced to learn the language of the media to access information.
Some of these media are very popular to the extent that most people in African
societies no longer value traditional pastimes such as storytelling, initiation rites, etc.;
through which elders transmit traditional norms and values, history and culture
(Crawford, 1995). Television is said to be the worst of all the mass media (Krauss,
1992).

Furthermore, modernization and urbanization are partners in endangering a lot of

languages. When people migrate to urban areas, they are expected to use a
common language due to economic and social factors. Most migrants become
bilingual in the dominant language of the urban areas for the sake of survival.
Migration to urban areas may result into some individuals losing grip of their mother
tongues. Also, some single migrants may end up getting married to people of
67
different linguistic background. As a result, such couples might resort to
communicating using a lingua franca of the urban areas as it is commonplace for
people who are native speakers of different languages to communicate in the new
language. Children born from such couples in most cases do not get an opportunity
to learn their parents’ mother tongue. These situations contribute to language loss.

The discussion above rightly points to the fact that weaker languages suffer from so
many debilitating circumstances that endanger them more than dominant or stronger
languages. Out of all the factors discussed above, intergenerational language
transmission appears to be the main cause of language endangerment. However,
this does not underrate the role that is played by the rest of the factors to language
endangerment.

Activity 2
Language endangerment sometimes happens due to a combination of factors.
Explain three combinations of factors that would lead to language endangerment.

5.3 Endangered languages in Malawi

In this section, we discuss two of Malawi’s endangered languages, namely, Chingoni
and Chilomwe. We will start by giving you a background to these languages and
thereafter discuss reasons why they are considered endangered languages in
Malawi.

5.3.1 Chingoni
The Ngonis are descendants of Zulu warrior groups. These groups broke away from
Shaka Zulu when they were dissatisfied with his autocratic rule (Matiki, 2009).
According to Matiki (2009), the groups that broke away settled in the area southeast
of Lake Tanganyika. Some of the members of these groups settled in northern and
central regions of Malawi in the 1830s. Those who went to the northern region
settled among the Tumbuka and the Tonga whom they conquered. Those who went
to the central region settled among the Chewa whom they subjugated. The Ngonis
wanted their language to dominate all the other languages that were being used by
the people that they had conquered (Matiki, 2009). They succeeded in the sense that
Chingoni was used by the rulers in all their conversations, all lawsuits, on public

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occasions and generally in village life. According to Matiki (2009), Chingoni was
effectively made the official language of Ngoniland.

Furthermore, Matiki (2009) reports that Chingoni was favoured by the missionaries
because it had some literature. Chingoni was therefore a language for
Christianisation and education. However, the groups that had been conquered could
no longer allow their masters to continue forcing Chingoni language on them. The
situation was made worse due to intermarriages that had taken place. Ngoni men
could marry Tumbuka women who failed to transmit the Ngoni language to their
children. Unfortunately, Ngoni men made it difficult for Tumbuka men to marry Ngoni
women who would have facilitated the transmission of Chingoni to their children. As
time went by, Chingoni started disappearing and the Ngoni customs started being
assimilated into the Tumbuka customs.

On the contrary, the Ngoni who had settled among the Chewa in central region of
Malawi did not impose their language on the Chewa, but instead adopted Chichewa
and many of the Chewa customs (Matiki, 2009). They also intermarried just like the
Ngoni who had settled in the northern region. As a result, the use of the language
was greatly reduced to the extent that it was only the older generation who had some
knowledge of the language.

5.3.1.1 Social factors

You may already have grasped some of the reasons that led to the disappearance of
Chingoni from the discussion above and also from your knowledge gained from
section 5.2. Social factors are the main factors that contributed to Chingoni’s decline.
The Ngoni had intermingled with a lot of tribes that spoke different languages. Their
intermingling resulted into intermarriages. With time, the whole society had become
multilingual and the numerically dominant languages such as Citumbuka and
Chichewa became the lingua francas (Kishindo, 2002). The children that were born
out of the intermarriages never had a chance to learn Chingoni. Currently Chingoni is
said to be beyond mere endangerment. As Kishindo (2002:209) puts it “unless its
course is somehow dramatically reversed, it is already doomed to extinction, like
species lacking reproductive capacity”. The Ngonis regret that they have lost their

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language in this manner. A group that was once considered as a warrior group can
no longer be regarded as a great people.

5.3.1.2 The size of Chingoni speakers

Another reason that led to the decline of Chingoni is the size of Chingoni speakers.
According to Kishindo (2002), the original migrants who had left Zululand in South
Africa had only a few pure Zulus/Ngonis1. By the time their leader Zwangendaba had
crossed the Zambezi River he had absorbed a large number of conquered
indigenous tribes. The few pure Zulus/Ngonis that had managed to settle in the
northern and central region of Malawi could no longer retain their pure Zulu/Ngoni.
Additionally, the intermingling that had taken place with several indigenous tribes
acerbated the dilution of the language. The reduced number of Ngoni speakers plus
the intermingling led to the decline of the Ngoni language.

There have been efforts by some groups to revive Ngoni language. For instance, a
group known as the Abenguni (or Ngoni) Revival Association was established in
1998 (Kishindo, 2002:214) with the following objectives in mind:

a) to revive the language which is not being passed on from their forefathers to
younger generations

b) to bring unity to the Ngoni from both central and northern regions

c) to foster Ngoni identity

Furthermore, another group known as Mzimba Heritage Association (MZIHA), an

affiliate of Abenguni Revival Association, was formed. According to Kishindo (2002),
MZIHA is currently performing the public relations activities for the Association. For
example, they have managed to trace and donate to churches old abandoned
Chingoni Bibles and hymn books in the district with an aim to revive the language
which has become extinct. However, all these efforts are in vain. The majority of the
people in Mzimba are still using Citumbuka and others are trying to learn English
instead. The efforts of the Abenguni Revival Association and MZIHA therefore need
to be applauded. However, note that “the voluntary and conscious efforts of

1
Chingoni language is almost identical with old Zulu.

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‘secondary bilinguals’ are not quite of the same vitality as the more ‘natural’ ones of
native speakers using their mother tongue in all domains to their children” (Kishindo,
2002:215-216).

5.3.2 Chilomwe
According to Matiki (2009), the Lomwe people came to Malawi in the 1800s in
pursuit of employment in the tea plantations of southern Malawi. Once in Malawi,
they intermingled with the ethnic groups they had found in their new location. The
integration learning new languages, such as Cinyanja and Ciyawo, used by the
ethnic groups that they had found in their new settlement area. It was necessary for
them to learn Cinyanja and Ciyawo for purposes of business and employment. With
time, the Lomwes became bilingual, speaking Cinyanja in their place of work and for
some time maintaining Chilomwe in their homes which is a typical pattern for
immigrant communities.

Most Lomwes have completely shifted to using Cinyanja or Ciyawo. Signs of

language shift were noticed especially after comparisons were made between 1966
and 1998 national population census results. In 1966, 14.5% of the total population
of Malawi indicated that they used Chilomwe as their home language while only
2.4% did so in the 1998 census. This sharp drop was attributed to language shift.
According to Matiki (2009), the Lomwes shift to either Cinyanja or Ciyawo entails that
they have managed to endure the linguistic dominance of Chichewa which is unlike
some ethnic groups in Malawi who have made Chichewa their option in as far as
shifting to other languages is concerned.

There are several studies that have been conducted that reveal the nature in which
the Lomwes have lost their language (Matiki, 2009). For instance, the results of a
study conducted by Boeder (1984) reveal that Chilomwe is only spoken by the older
generation while the younger generation appears to have lost grip of the language.
Similar results have also been revealed by Kayambazinthu (1989/1990) who noticed
that, in Domasi and Malindi, though not strong Chilomwe-speaking areas, the use of
Chilomwe had diminished even though there were a few Lomwes found in these
areas. Kayambazinthu observed that Chilomwe was only used in very restricted
domains by the elderly people. Finally, Matiki’s study which was conducted in nine

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villages of Phalombe, Mulanje, Thyolo and Chiradzulu reveal similar results. Matiki
found that Chichewa was the dominant language in all the domains including all
those traditional domains such as the home where one would expect the use of
Chilomwe. Overall, the results portray that the use of Chilomwe as a mother tongue
or second language has decreased considerably even though the Lomwe have
generally maintained their culture and traditions.

Several factors have contributed to the endangerment of Chilomwe such as socio-

economic factors, education and the media, family and attitudes. These factors are
discussed in detail below.

5.3.2.1 Socio-economic factors

It has already been pointed out at the beginning of this section that socio-economic
factors were the major force behind language shift among the Lomwes. The Lomwes
entered Malawi from Mozambique in pursuit of employment in the tea plantations.
They ended up shifting to a dominant language in domains of work and business
while maintaining Chilomwe in their homes. When compared to Chichewa, Chilomwe
speakers did not see any economic benefits behind their language. To the Lomwes,
Chichewa was proven to be of greater value than their mother tongue

Apart from this, when the Lomwes had entered Malawi their language was not liked
by the ethnic groups that the Lomwes had found in their new locations. For instance,
to most Yao and Nyanja ethnic groups, Chilomwe sounded very strange to the extent
that it was likened to the mutterings of a drunk. Attitudinal factors therefore played a
role to its endangerment as discussed below. Negative attitudes played a role to the
extent that Lomwes never used their language politically as a symbol of their ethnic
identity. As a result, Lomwes did not make an effort to transmit the language to the
younger generation.

5.3.2.2 Education and media

Regarding education and media, Matiki (2009) argues that the language policy in
education in Malawi has worked against the maintenance of Chilomwe. His
argument is based on the fact that Chilomwe has never been considered as a
language of instruction, neither has it been considered as a subject of study in
schools. The educational system in Malawi has therefore promoted the shift from
72
minority languages such as Chilomwe to Chichewa, a language that is recognised
both as a subject of study and a language of instruction. If Chilomwe were to be
included in the curriculum, it is still doubtful if this would make a significant effect on
the decline considering the given low literacy levels among the Lomwe.

Furthermore, although the media is very important in the maintenance of minority

languages, it has not facilitated the promotion of Chilomwe (Matiki, 2009). Most of
the radio broadcasts are conducted in Chichewa and English. Chilomwe is only used
when it comes to broadcasting of the news only on one public radio station called
Radio 1. The situation is made worse considering that there is nothing printed in the
language because there is no literacy in Chilomwe. According to Matiki (2009), the
media has not stimulated any interest in the culture and language of the Lomwe
people.

5.3.2.3 Family
Family plays an important role in the maintenance of a language. If family members
could have been interacting with children in Chilomwe, this would have been the best
solution to reviving this endangered language. However, things were different with
the Lomwe tribe. Parents who were fluent in both Chilomwe and Chichewa never
used the language when interacting with their children. They instead preferred to talk
to their children in Chichewa on the pretext that the children could not understand
Chilomwe. The situation was made worse by the fact that Lomwe women who could
easily help facilitate the transmission of the language to the younger generation
never took this role seriously. According to Matiki (2009), the fact that Lomwe
women have maintained Chilomwe somewhat more than men has not helped
matters for children. Such trends have arisen due to the laissez-faire attitude that
most Lomwe parents had towards their mother tongue. Matiki also attributes the
failure to maintain the language to the fact that Lomwe people never kept any
contacts with their people in their area of origin in Mozambique. Regular interactions
with family members in Mozambique would have been of help. Matiki (2009) argues
that although contacts with family members in Mozambique may not directly
contribute to matters of language shift and maintenance, they however provide a
motive for the maintenance of the Lomwe language.

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5.3.2.4 Attitudes
The Lomwe people may have had pride in their language but the way they were
treated by the host communities contributed to their negative attitudes towards their
language (Matiki, 2009). It was pointed out earlier on that the tribes that the Lomwes
had found in their new settlement ridiculed their language in several ways. This
contributed to their feeling of inferiority. The feeling of being ashamed to use their
language is only manifested among the uneducated Lomwes while the educated
Lomwes find a strong desire to speak Chilomwe. When they fail to use the language,
they have a feeling of regret. The educated Lomwes are even free to give their
children Lomwe names while the uneducated ones English and Chichewa names
are predominant.

According to Matiki (2009), the attitudes that the Lomwes have towards their
language have serious implications regarding mother tongue education. For
instance, if they no longer have pride in their language, they would end up choosing
other languages other than their mother tongue if they were given a chance to
indicate the language that they would want to .be used for instruction in schools.

Just like we observed with Chingoni, there have been some efforts to revive
Chilomwe. There are some associations which were established with an aim to
revive the language and also to induce some activities concerning the language.
One such association is Lomwe Tribe Representative Association (LTRA) which was
formed by Lewis Mataka Bandawe in 1943. Another association which is still vibrant
to date is known as Mulhako wa aLomwe. It was formed by the former president of
Malawi, Dr. Bingu wa Mutharika. The association has its headquarters in Mulanje
district at a place known as Chonde. One of the aims of the association is to expose
Lomwe children to customs and traditions and promote Lomwe language. In trying to
promote Lomwe language, the group has established schools not only at its
headquarters but also in other areas such as Lilongwe, Balaka, Mzuzu (Luwinga)
where they teach the language.

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Activity 3

1. Associations have tried to revive Chingoni and Chilomwe. Mention two other
ways that have not been mentioned in this section 5.3 of reviving endangered
languages.

2. Apart from Chingoni and Chilomwe, what other Malawian languages do you
think would be endangered in the near future if maintenance measures are
not being employed?

Unit test

1. Explain the following factors that contribute to endangerment of languages in

your own words:

a) Geographic and geo-demographic factors

b) Globalization/modernization and urbanization

2. Why do you think intergenerational language transmission is considered to be

the main cause of language endangerment

Unit 5 summary

This is the final unit in this module. The main focus was on endangered languages in
Malawi. Before discussing Malawi’s endangered languages, the unit provided an
explanation of the term ‘endangered languages’. Thereafter, we looked at factors
that contribute to the endangerment of languages. Then, the unit discussed two
languages that are considered to be endangered in Malawi and the factors that have
contributed to their endangerment.

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Answers to activities

Unit 1 – The languages of Malawi

Activity 1

A mother tongue speaker of Chichewa uses standard Chichewa language in official

communication (whether oral or written) while a dialect of Chichewa (e.g. the dialect
of Chichewa used in Nkhoma or Nsalu in Lilongwe) is used during interactions with
friends. The Chichewa used in formal writing conforms to the set standards in terms
of grammar, pronunciation, etc. while the dialect of Chichewa does not conform to
set standards.

Activity 2

The dialects spoken in Chitipa have phonological similarities in terms of segmental

features of certain sounds, the operation of certain phonological processes and tonal
realizations. Post-nasal stops in Cindali and Cisukwa are voiced but they are not in
the other related dialects, Cilambya, and even in the other distant dialects. On
segmental features, the two most closely related dialects; Cisukwa and Cindali do
not have voiced fricatives while Cilambya does.

Activity 3

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 a) It is a variety of language that has undergone codification of grammar and
usage.

b) It is a language which is generally considered by a society to be the most

‘correct’ or otherwise superior

c) A standard language is used in formal situations e.g. when making an official

communication while non-standard language is used in informal situations
e.g. when chatting with friends.

Activity 4

a) Chingoni is one of the endangered languages. It has not been transmitted

from generation to generation.

b) Patterns of language use: the fewer the domains the more the language
becomes at risk

Demographic factors: when a language does not have plenty of speakers

Attitudes towards the minority language: negative attitude towards the

minority language contributes to the decline in use of the language.

Activity 5

Institutional support: Chichewa receives institutional support. It is used in education,

media and administration. Literature is available in this language. It is a lingua
franca; hence it is spoken by the majority of Malawians.

Unit 2 – Patterns of language use

Activity 1

There are no specific answers to this question as students know different languages.

Activity 2

a) There are no specific answers to this question. The answers will vary
depending on students’ point of view.

77
 b) There are no specific answers to this question because students attended
their primary school at different periods of time. The policies followed during
their primary school years may not be the same.

c) Language attitudes, size of speakers, status and institutional support make

some languages to appear inferior to others.

Activity 3

There are no specific answers to this question as students know different languages.

Activity 4

a) Revitalisation is an attempt to halt or reverse the decline of a language or to

revive or bring to life an extinct one.

b) Creating recorded and printed resources. Recorded and printed

documentation are essential for preserving languages e.g. in terms of its
grammar, phonology, phonetics, morphology, etc.

Teaching and taking language classes

Using digital and social media outlets

Insist on speaking your native language

Unit 3 – Language attitudes and loyalty

Activity 1

a) Language attitudes are opinions, ideas and prejudices that speakers have
with respect to a language. For example, it is often said that in order to learn a
language, it often helps to have a positive attitude towards that language.

b) Language loyalty is pride in or preference for a particular language. The term

is also used to refer to continued use of a language because of this,
especially within a culture where another language is dominant.

Activity 2

78
 1. Any answer related to language attitudes and loyalty. Also, choosing their
mother tongue would facilitate its development.

2. Such choices may be viable if the mother tongue is already developed and
recognised. On the other hand, it may not be viable because it is not easy to
please everyone when it comes to language preferences in a nation that has
several languages. Besides, developing each and every language that is
available in a multilingual nation is expensive.

Activity 3

There are no specific answers to the questions in Activity 3 as students may have
read different books.

Unit 4 – Language policies in Malawi

Activity 1

A language policy is an official policy that a government in consultation with

language planners develops regarding changes that need to be considered or
implemented in as far as language use is concerned while language planning refers
to a deliberate language change planned by some organisations established
specifically for this purpose to influence the behaviours of others with respect to the
acquisition, structure or functional allocation of their language codes.

Activity 2

1. A lingua franca is a language that is used by people who do not have a

common language.

2. It was necessary because languages that were not recognised during

Kamuzu’s reign became recognised. On the other hand, it was not necessary
because the government failed to develop the newly recognised languages.

Activity 3

1. English is able to fulfil all the functions explained in this unit.

79
 2. There are no specific answers to this question because students know
different languages.

Unit 4 – Endangered languages in Malawi

Activity 1

There are several ways of explaining the process of language endangerment. For
instance, when monolingual migrants acquire a dominant language of their new
settlement, they end up being bilingual. With time, they find themselves using the
dominant language more than their mother tongue, a situation that leads to the loss
of their mother tongue. Once they lose their mother tongue, their mother tongue
ends up being in danger.

Activity 2

Three combinations of factors that can lead to language endangerment are: the size
of language speakers, domains of language use and intergenerational language
transmission. If a language is used by a few speakers in a few domains, and at the
same time if the language is not transmitted to the younger generation, then chances
of its survival may be minimal.

Activity 3

1. two other ways of reviving endangered languages:

a) Patterns of language use: use an endangered language in more

domains than before.

b) Political will: support from government would help in reviving

endangered languages.

2. Citonga and cinsenga: the transmission of these two languages to the

younger generation is not adequate if the two languages are to be maintained.

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Module Examination

MZUZU UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
Department of Language, Cultural and Creative Studies

END OF SEMESTER EXAMINATION

ALLE 1101: INTRODUCTION OF LANGUAGES IN MALAWI

DATE: TIME: 2 hours

Instruction: Answer any three questions. (………………)
___________________________________________________________________

1. Using one example in each case, explain the following terms:

a) Language attitudes

b) Language loyalty

c) Language revitalization

d) Mutual intelligibility

e) Language policy (20 marks)

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2. What factors were considered when choosing the following languages:

a) Chichewa as a national language

b) English and Chichewa as official languages (20 marks)

3. Explain in detail any four factors that influence language choice and use. (20
marks)

4. How important are the following in relation to language maintenance:

a) people’s attitudes and loyalty

b) writing in local languages (20 marks)

5. Discuss any four factors that contribute to language endangerment. (20

marks)

END OF QUESTION PAPER

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