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The Role of Insects in Ecosystems, an in-depth Review of Entomological

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 International Journal of Environment and Climate Change

Volume 13, Issue 10, Page 4340-4348, 2023; Article no.IJECC.106733

ISSN: 2581-8627
(Past name: British Journal of Environment & Climate Change, Past ISSN: 2231–4784)

The Role of Insects in Ecosystems, an

in-depth Review of Entomological
Research
Rajesh Chandra Verma a^, Mohammed Abdul Waseem b++,
Neha Sharma c, K. Bharathi d++, Sarvendra Singh e++,
Anto Rashwin A. f, Shivam Kumar Pandey g
and Bal Veer Singh h*
a
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Ghazipur, Acharya Narendra Deva University of Agriculture & Technology,
Kumarganj, Ayodhya, UP- 224229, India.
b
Department of Basic and Social Sciences, Forest College and Research Institute, Mulugu,
Telangana- 502279, India.
c
Department of Entomology, JNKVV University Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, India.
d
Department of Agriculture, Erode Sengunthar Engineering College, Thuduppathi, Tamil Nadu,
India.
e
Department of Agricultural, Entomology, RMP PG College Gurukul Narsan, Haridwar, Affiliated to
SDS Uttarakhand University, Badshahi Thaul, Tehri Garhwal, India.
f
Agricultural College and Research Institute, Vazhavachanur, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India.
g
Rashtriya Raksha University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India.
h
Department of Agronomy, Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture and Technology,
Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Authors’ contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. All authors read and approved the final
manuscript.

Article Information
DOI: 10.9734/IJECC/2023/v13i103110

Open Peer Review History:

This journal follows the Advanced Open Peer Review policy. Identity of the Reviewers, Editor(s) and additional Reviewers,
peer review comments, different versions of the manuscript, comments of the editors, etc are available here:
https://www.sdiarticle5.com/review-history/106733

Received: 14/07/2023
Review Article Accepted: 20/09/2023
Published: 29/09/2023

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
^
Sr. Scientist & Head;
++
Assistant Professor;
*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];

Int. J. Environ. Clim. Change, vol. 13, no. 10, pp. 4340-4348, 2023
 Verma et al.; Int. J. Environ. Clim. Change, vol. 13, no. 10, pp. 4340-4348, 2023; Article no.IJECC.106733

ABSTRACT
Insects, integral to Earth's ecosystems, play multifaceted roles that underpin environmental balance
and human survival. Spanning roles from pollination to decomposition, these organisms also
intersect with socio-economic, cultural, and public health sectors. This review delves into the
diverse spheres of insect interactions within ecosystems, from their evolutionary histories to their
roles as both predators and prey. The paper sheds light on the intricate predator-prey dynamics,
emphasizing insects' roles in pest control and as pivotal food sources for various taxa. The
significance of insects in soil ecosystems is elaborated upon, highlighting their contribution to soil
health, nutrient cycling, and plant growth. With the looming threats of climate change, habitat
destruction, and pollution, insects face unprecedented challenges, which in turn can have
cascading effects on ecosystems. In the realm of public health, the review underscores the role of
insects as disease vectors, necessitating a balanced approach to ecosystem health and disease
management. As vectors, they also catalyze the spread of diseases, creating an intricate balance
between maintaining biodiversity and safeguarding human health. The review also touches upon
the cultural and economic contributions of insects, from traditional medicine to their utilization in
contemporary diets, demonstrating their deep-rooted ties with human societies. With burgeoning
technological advancements, the research landscape in entomology is undergoing a seismic shift.
Embracing tools such as molecular studies, drones, and AI, the field is poised for groundbreaking
insights. As the review suggests, the path forward demands an interdisciplinary approach,
amalgamating knowledge from varied scientific domains to grasp the complexities of insect
behaviors and interactions fully. In conclusion, insects, though diminutive in size, cast a vast
shadow on our planet's functioning. Understanding their roles, challenges, and potential can pave
the way for sustainable futures, balancing ecological health with human progress.

Keywords: Entomology; ecosystems; biodiversity; interdisciplinary; conservation.

1. INTRODUCTION that can be observed at multiple trophic levels.

Ecosystem services, such as water purification,
The delicate balance of nature is a testament to air quality regulation, and pollination, are all
the complexity and diversity of life on Earth. products of this balance, highlighting the intricate
Ecosystems, which refer to the interactive dependence of humans on the health and vitality
tapestry of living organisms and their abiotic of these systems [1]. Enter the vast world of
environment, underscore a delicate interplay of insects, a domain representing the epitome of
relationships, dependencies, and synergies. biodiversity. To truly comprehend the magnitude
These systems, whether terrestrial or aquatic, of their diversity, consider this: scientists estimate
tropical or temperate, have developed over that there are approximately 10 million different
millions of years and consist of countless species of insects, accounting for over 90% of all
variables that contribute to their stability and known life forms on Earth [2]. They inhabit nearly
productivity. Among the myriad species that every conceivable habitat, from the frozen
contribute to this equilibrium, none are quite as tundras of the Arctic to the dense rainforests of
ubiquitous or as influential as insects. With their the Amazon. Insects have evolved to fill almost
exceptional diversity and near-global distribution, every ecological niche, adapting to their
insects play a critical role in maintaining the surroundings in ways that continue to astonish
health, complexity, and resilience of ecosystems. and inspire scientists and naturalists alike. From
Ecosystems function as a result of intricate beetles that can navigate using the Milky Way [3]
processes, such as nutrient cycling, energy flow, to ants that farm their own food, the adaptability
and biotic interactions like predation, herbivory, and innovativeness of insects are unparalleled.
and mutualism. Each organism, regardless of its Diversity in itself is a marvel, but the
size or significance in the food web, plays its geographical distribution of insects amplifies their
part. The butterfly pollinating flowers, the significance. You'd be hard-pressed to find a
earthworm aerating the soil, the predator hunting location on Earth devoid of insects. They have
its prey—all serve to create a harmonious conquered land, air, and even water. The vast
balance. Disturbances to this balance, either number of species and their wide distribution
natural like volcanic eruptions, or human-induced mean that they have an influence on and are
like deforestation, can have cascading effects influenced by local conditions and larger global

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patterns. With climate zones changing due to genetics, development, and evolution. This tiny
global factors, the distribution of certain insect insect, with its short life cycle and easily
species has been observed to shift, reflecting observable mutations, became a cornerstone in
their adaptability but also emphasizing the biological research, influencing not just
potential consequences of drastic environmental entomology but the broader landscape of
changes [4]. genetics and developmental biology.

2. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 3. INSECTS AS POLLINATORS

Delving into the annals of history reveals a The delicate dance of life on Earth is composed
profound and intricate relationship between of countless intertwined relationships, with some
humans and insects, marked by fascination, of the most crucial partnerships formed between
wonder, and occasionally fear. The historical flowering plants and the insects that pollinate
perspective on insects is not merely a chronicle them. This relationship, driven by the mutual
of our understanding but also a reflection of our benefits it offers both parties, has not only
evolving relationship with the natural world. It shaped the evolution of countless species but
was during the Renaissance, with its spirit of also profoundly impacts our own existence. At its
inquiry and the invention of the microscope, that core, pollination is a reproductive process in
the study of insects—or entomology—began to plants wherein pollen grains are transferred from
resemble a scientific discipline. Pioneering the male anther of a flower to the female stigma.
entomologists like Jan Swammerdam in the 17th This process is the precursor to the formation of
century embarked on detailed studies of insect seeds, ensuring the continuation of plant
anatomy. Swammerdam's meticulous dissections species. In the grand tapestry of nature, wind,
and documentation, especially of the life stages water, and animals play roles in aiding this
of insects, contradicted the long-held belief in transfer, but it's the insects that emerge as the
spontaneous generation, showing that insects predominant and most efficient pollinators [8].
undergo metamorphosis [5]. This revelation was The role of insects as pollinators can be traced
profound, as it not only deepened understanding back millions of years, and this evolutionary bond
of insects but also steered the broader trajectory has resulted in various adaptations in both plants
of biological sciences. Another seminal figure in and insects. For instance, the vibrant colors,
early entomological studies was Carl Linnaeus, aromatic scents, and intricate patterns on flowers
whose binomial nomenclature system in the 18th have evolved as beckoning signals for their
century brought order to the teeming diversity of insect allies. Among the diverse cast of insect
life, including insects. His system of pollinators, bees undeniably stand out as the
classification, though not without its flaws, was most significant. Their daily quest for nectar and
instrumental in bringing coherence to the study of pollen has fashioned them into adept pollinators.
insects, facilitating more systematic research and As they forage, bees inadvertently ferry pollen
exchanges of knowledge [6]. As scientific between flowers, driven by an insatiable appetite
methodologies improved and the spirit of and the need to collect food for their colonies.
exploration surged in the 19th and 20th centuries, Notably, some plants have co-evolved with
entomological studies expanded both in scope specific bee species, resulting in mutual
and depth. Charles Darwin, during his voyages adaptations that benefit both. The morphology of
on the HMS Beagle, made numerous certain flowers, for example, is so specialized
observations on insects, particularly beetles. His that it aligns perfectly with the body structure of
notes on their variations, adaptations, and roles their primary bee pollinators [9]. Beetles, another
in ecosystems contributed to his broader thesis group of insect pollinators, have a more ancient
on evolution by natural selection [7]. The growing relationship with plants. Many ancient flowering
global movement of goods and people led to an plants, which evolved before the appearance of
increased awareness of insects as vectors of bees and butterflies, formed partnerships with
diseases, culminating in foundational research beetles. Instead of nectar, these plants often
into mosquitoes and their role in transmitting provide beetles with pollen as a food source. The
maladies such as malaria. The 20th century, relationship is less specialized than that of bees
characterized by technological advancements, or butterflies, and as beetles munch on flowers,
witnessed a paradigm shift in entomological they inadvertently aid in the transfer of pollen
studies. The emergence of genetic studies led to [10]. For humans, the role of insect pollinators in
groundbreaking research on the fruit fly food production is paramount. A study estimates
Drosophila melanogaster, revealing insights into that around 75% of the leading global food crops

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benefit from animal pollination, with insects being compounds [13]. By doing so, they transform
the dominant contributors [11]. Crops such as dead plant matter, which would otherwise
fruits, vegetables, nuts, and seeds, which accumulate, into organic compounds that can be
constitute essential components of human diets, utilized by other organisms.
are particularly reliant on insect pollination. The
economic value of this ecosystem service runs 4. INSECTS AS PREDATORS AND PREY
into hundreds of billions annually, underscoring
the economic dependency of agriculture on these The intricate web of life is replete with
tiny pollinators. multifaceted relationships, and among the most
riveting are those of predators and their prey.
3. INSECTS AS DECOMPOSERS Within the vast realm of the insect world, these
dynamics play out on a microscopic scale, yet
The natural world operates in cycles, and one of their implications resonate through ecosystems,
the most crucial facets of this cyclical existence shaping biodiversity, controlling populations, and
is the decomposition of organic matter. While dictating the evolutionary trajectory of countless
decomposition might be perceived as nature's species. Insects, due to their immense diversity
way of cleaning up, it's fundamentally a process and abundance, find themselves both as hunters
of transformation – turning the old into the raw and the hunted. This dual role underscores their
materials for the new. In this grand cycle, insects significance in maintaining ecological balance.
play an indispensable role, ensuring that death Predator insects, such as mantises, ladybugs,
and decay give way to life anew. Decomposition and dragonflies, employ a variety of strategies to
is the process where organic substances are capture and consume their prey. These predators
broken down into simpler organic or inorganic are evolutionarily equipped with specialized
matter. This breakdown is achieved through two appendages, keen sensory organs, and often,
primary mechanisms: physical decomposition, stealthy behaviors, all fine-tuned for the hunt. For
where organic materials are mechanically instance, the praying mantis, with its raptorial
disassembled, and chemical decomposition, forelegs and an ability to swivel its head almost
where organic substances undergo chemical 180 degrees, is a formidable predator,
reactions, typically aided by enzymes, to consuming anything from insects to small
transform into simpler compounds. Insects excel vertebrates [14]. The ladybug, often symbolized
in both mechanisms, often introducing organic for its benign appearance, is a voracious
material to microbes that further aid the predator of aphids, safeguarding plants from
decomposition process. One cannot discuss potential pest damage. The role of predatory
decomposition without highlighting the invaluable insects in controlling pest populations is
role of beetles, particularly the carrion beetles invaluable, especially in the context of
and the dung beetles. Carrion beetles are agriculture. Pest insects, which can decimate
nature's undertakers. They are attracted to the crops and result in significant yield losses, are
carcasses of dead animals, where they not only naturally kept in check by their insect predators.
feed on the decomposing flesh but also lay their Biological control, an approach that harnesses
eggs. As their larvae hatch and grow, they the predator-prey dynamics of insects, is
continue the process of breaking down the employed to manage pest populations without
carcass, converting what was once a living resorting to chemical pesticides. By introducing
creature into simpler organic compounds [12]. or encouraging the proliferation of natural
Dung beetles, on the other hand, specialize in predators, pest populations can be reduced,
another kind of decomposition. These beetles ensuring crop health. For instance, the release of
consume feces, aiding in breaking down complex ladybugs in fields and gardens to combat aphid
organic materials present in dung, which often infestations has been a widely recognized
contains undigested plant material. By burying practice in sustainable agriculture [15].
and consuming dung, these beetles play a role in
recycling nutrients and organic matter back into 5. INSECTS IN SOIL ECOSYSTEMS
the soil. Termites, often perceived as pests for
their wood-eating habits, are undeniably master From the sweeping forests to the vast
decomposers. These insects feed on cellulose, grasslands, beneath our feet lies a world teeming
the primary component of plant cell walls. With with life, both intricate and profound. This
the help of microbes in their gut, termites can subterranean realm, the soil, is the very
break down cellulose, converting wood, dead foundation of terrestrial ecosystems. And in the
leaves, and other plant materials into simpler diverse tapestry of life that thrives within it,

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insects play a role that is pivotal, complex, and organisms that transmit infectious agents from
yet often understated. Their activities influence one host to another. While various organisms
the soil's physical structure, its biological can serve this role, insects have historically been
networks, and its interactions with the world the most impactful vectors for humans and other
above - the plants. Let's begin with one of the animals. Their capacity to harbor and spread
most tangible impacts of insects on the soil: infectious agents arises from their close
aeration and turnover. The simple act of interactions with hosts and their adaptability to
burrowing and tunneling by numerous insects various environments. This adaptability ensures
facilitates the movement of air and water through that they often thrive even in changing
the soil. Earthworms, though not insects, are ecosystems and human-modified landscapes. In
often the most celebrated of soil engineers. the annals of human history, few insects have left
Insects such as beetles, ants, and termites as indelible a mark as mosquitoes. Mosquitoes,
engage in similar behaviors with equally particularly species of the genera Anopheles,
profound impacts. Dung beetles, for instance, Aedes, and Culex, are responsible for
burrow into the soil to bury feces, which serves transmitting a host of diseases. Malaria, a
as both food and a nesting place. This activity disease caused by the Plasmodium parasite, is
not only aids in nutrient recycling but also in transmitted to humans through the bite of
improving soil structure by creating channels that infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. With
enhance water infiltration and reduce erosion hundreds of millions of cases reported annually,
[16]. Ants, with their intricate underground malaria remains a significant public health
colonies, are another group of master soil concern, especially in parts of Africa, Asia, and
engineers. Their subterranean chambers and South America [17]. Beyond malaria, mosquitoes
tunnels can stretch extensively, significantly play a role in transmitting other infectious
impacting soil structure. The act of tunneling and diseases, including dengue, Zika, and West Nile
transporting soil particles from deeper layers to virus, each having its own set of health, social,
the surface, a behavior particularly prominent in and economic implications. Ticks, while
ant species, aids in mixing the soil – a process technically arachnids and not insects, are
analogous to natural tilling. This constant another significant group of disease vectors.
movement and redistribution of soil particles These ectoparasites, by feeding on the blood of
promote aeration, ensuring that even the deeper their hosts, can transmit a suite of pathogens.
soil layers receive adequate oxygen, essential for Lyme disease, a growing concern especially in
microbial activity and root respiration. Termites, North America and parts of Europe, is caused by
especially the subterranean species, engage in bacteria transmitted to humans through the bite
behaviors that shape the soil ecosystem. of infected black-legged ticks. Additionally, ticks
Feeding on dead plant material, they break down are vectors for other diseases like Rocky
complex organic compounds, transforming them Mountain spotted fever and tick-borne
into simpler substances. But beyond their role as encephalitis, which impact both human and
decomposers, their nesting and foraging animal health.
activities, similar to ants, lead to soil turnover.
They transport soil particles, mix them with 7. IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL
organic matter, and in doing so, influence both CHANGES ON INSECTS
the soil's physical structure and its chemistry.
In the grand theater of life on Earth, insects
6. INSECTS AS DISEASE VECTORS occupy roles so numerous and varied that their
significance cannot be overstated. These tiny,
Across the broad expanse of life on Earth, the multitudinous beings impact every corner of our
influence of insects stands paramount, not just in biosphere, from the deepest forests to the urban
their sheer numbers, but in their profound sprawl of our cities. But in the shadow of the
interactions with other living organisms. While Anthropocene, a new epoch marked by profound
their roles in pollination, decomposition, and as human influence, these insects are navigating a
members of the food web are well celebrated, it world rapidly changing. The overarching
is equally essential to understand and narrative of environmental changes, be it through
acknowledge their capacity as vectors of climate shifts, habitat alterations, or direct
diseases. This capability, not merely a biological anthropogenic pressures like pollution, holds
mechanism, has broader implications for public immense sway over the fate of insect populations
health, ecology, and the balance we seek to worldwide. Let us first turn our gaze to the
maintain in ecosystems. Disease vectors are omnipresent issue of our time: climate change.

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With the steady rise in global temperatures, position in the food web. Their decline could
driven by human activities and the greenhouse precipitate a cascade of negative effects,
effect, the ecosystems and habitats insects impacting predators and the ecosystems they
inhabit are undergoing vast changes. Many inhabit [19].
insect species, being ectothermic, rely heavily on
external environmental temperatures to regulate 9. CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC ROLES
their metabolic processes. As a result, even OF INSECTS
slight shifts in temperature can influence their life
cycle events, such as breeding, hatching, and When contemplating the significance of insects
migration. For example, studies have shown that to our lives, the instinctive reactions might often
certain butterfly species are now emerging earlier revolve around their ecological roles: pollinators,
in the spring than they did a few decades ago, a decomposers, predators, and even vectors of
clear response to warming temperatures [18]. disease. An exploration into human history,
But such changes are not without consequences. cultural practices, and economic systems reveals
If insects and the plants or animals they interact a nuanced relationship. Insects have, for
with respond differently to climate change, it can millennia, played pivotal roles in traditional
result in a mismatch. Such mismatches can be medicines, diets, religious rituals, art, and
detrimental, for instance, if pollinators emerge at commerce. The intertwining relationship between
a time when their host plants haven't flowered humans and insects expands beyond ecology,
yet. delving deep into the realms of culture and
economy. Tracing back to ancient civilizations,
8. CONSERVATION OF INSECT insects have been consistently integrated into
DIVERSITY human diets. Entomophagy, or the consumption
of insects, has been a dietary practice in various
In the vast kaleidoscope of life on Earth, insects cultures worldwide, from Africa to Asia, and even
represent the majority of biodiversity, showcasing in some parts of the Americas. Rich in proteins,
an incredible array of forms, functions, and essential fats, vitamins, and minerals, insects
ecological roles. Their sheer numbers and variety present a nutritious source of food [20]. For
are unparalleled in the animal kingdom, making instance, the larvae of palm weevils, popular in
them a critical component of our planet's parts of Africa and Asia, not only provide proteins
ecosystems. From decomposers that recycle but also essential amino acids and
organic matter to pollinators vital for flowering micronutrients. Similarly, silkworm larvae,
plant reproduction, insects are central to crickets, grasshoppers, and ants are consumed
maintaining the balance of nature. But as with in various preparations, whether roasted, boiled,
many components of our world's biodiversity, or integrated into traditional dishes. Beyond the
insects too are under threat. Recognizing these immediate nutritional value, insects play a
threats and understanding the importance of significant role in traditional medicines. For
conserving insect diversity are essential instance, in Traditional Chinese Medicine, certain
endeavors for our time. The significance of insects are considered to possess therapeutic
conserving insect biodiversity cannot be properties, beneficial for various ailments.
overstated. Insects, given their myriad roles, Ground cicada slough is believed to have cooling
serve as the backbone of many ecosystems. properties, providing relief for fevers or eye
Their interactions with plants, other animals, and issues. Similarly, the blister beetle, when utilized
the environment ensure the continued under precise conditions, is thought to possess
functioning of these ecosystems. For instance, aphrodisiac qualities, a concept echoed in
pollinators like bees, butterflies, and beetles several cultures beyond China [21]. The intricate
enable the reproduction of a staggering number relationship between humans and insects isn't
of plant species, including those that constitute a limited to diet and medicine; it spills into the
significant portion of human food sources. realm of commerce and trade.
Without these diligent pollinators, our landscapes
and diets would be drastically different. Similarly, 10. FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
insect decomposers play a pivotal role in
breaking down dead organic material, cycling Entomology, the scientific study of insects, has
nutrients back into the soil, and providing a witnessed significant advancements over the
foundation for plant growth. As prey for past few centuries. The exploration began with
numerous animals such as birds, reptiles, and rudimentary observations, where insects were
amphibians, insects occupy a fundamental studied for their visible behaviors and anatomy.

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With the advent of modern technology and the genetic codes of insects, researchers can gain
surge in interdisciplinary research endeavors, the insights into their adaptive mechanisms, their
study of insects is not merely confined to resistance to pesticides, or their evolution in
understanding their physiology or behavior. It response to changing environments [22]. These
now stretches its tendrils into molecular studies, genetic explorations can be pivotal in devising
the world of artificial intelligence, and even the strategies for pest control, especially at a time
use of drones, opening a plethora of avenues for when many traditional pesticides are becoming
future research directions. Historically, the less effective due to increasing resistance. The
magnifying lens and the observational prowess evolving landscape of technology has also
of researchers were the primary tools in brought forth the potential of drones in
entomological studies. Today, there's a shift entomological studies. Drones, or unmanned
towards understanding the intricate genetic aerial vehicles (UAVs), offer a bird's eye view of
makeup of insects. Molecular studies promise a habitats, enabling researchers to monitor vast
deeper understanding of insect biology, behavior, areas efficiently. This is especially crucial in
and evolution. For instance, by analyzing the understanding migratory patterns, habitat

Table 1. Estimated numbers of described species across the largest orders of insects (>1,000
species), as of 2019a [24]

Order Common name Feeding habit Numbers of described

species
Blattodea∗,b Cockroaches/termites Detritivores 5,710
Coleoptera Beetles Various 392,415
Dermaptera Earwigs Detritivores 1,982
Diptera True flies Various 160,591
Ephemeroptera Mayflies Aquatic predators 3,281
Hemiptera Bugs Herbivores/predators 104,165
Hymenoptera Bees, ants, wasps Predators/herbivores 152,677
Lepidoptera Butterflies, moths Herbivores 158,570
Mantodea∗ Mantises Predators 2,447
Neuroptera Net-winged insects Predators 5,937
Odonata Dragonflies, damselflies (Aquatic) predators 6,650
Orthoptera Grasshoppers, crickets Herbivores 24,481
Phasmida∗ Stick insects Herbivores 3,270
Plecoptera Stoneflies Aquatic herbivores 3,930
Psocodea Booklice, true lice Parasites/detritivores 10,746
Siphonaptera Fleas Parasites 2,086
Thysanoptera Thrips Herbivores 6,157
Trichoptera Caddisflies Aquatic predators 15,233
Table 2. Some examples of ecosystem services provided by insectsa [25]

Order Ecosystem service Feeding guild Examples

Hymenoptera Biological control Predators Formicidae (ants), Vespidae (wasps)
Hymenoptera Biological control Parasitoids Ichnemonidae, Braconidae, Chalcidoidea
Hymenoptera Pollination Herbivores Mostly Apidae (bees)
Hymenoptera Seed dispersal Scavengers Formicidae (ants)
Hymenoptera Bioturbation Scavengers Formicidae (ants)
Coleoptera Biological control Predators Carabidae (ground beetles),
Coccinellidae (ladybugs)
Lepidoptera Pollination Herbivores Moths, mostly nocturnal
Diptera Animal Scavengers Many families
decomposition
Blattodea Plant decomposition Decomposers Termites, dung beetles, weevils
Many Human food Many Termites, locusts, beetle larvae
Blattodea Bioturbation Decomposers Termite constructions

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Table 3. Roles of Various Insect Orders in Soil Ecosystems [26]

Order Role in Soil Ecosystem Feeding Guild Examples

Hymenoptera Soil Aeration Scavengers Formicidae (ants)
Coleoptera Nutrient Cycling Detritivores Scarabaeidae (dung beetles)
Isoptera Decomposition Decomposers Termites
Diptera Organic Matter Decomposition Scavengers Various families of flies
Orthoptera Soil Tilling Herbivores Crickets, mole crickets
Lepidoptera Organic Matter Incorporation Herbivores Various species of soil-dwelling
larvae
Thysanoptera Fungal Decomposition Fungivores Various families of thrips
Hymenoptera Soil Fertility Predators Sphecidae (digger wasps)
Collembola Soil Structure Detritivores Springtails
Chilopoda Predator Role Predators Centipedes
Diplopoda Organic Matter Decomposition Detritivores Millipedes

Table 4. Insect Orders as Vectors of Human and Animal Diseases [27]

Order Disease Feeding Guild Examples

Diptera Malaria Blood-feeding Anopheles mosquitoes
Diptera Dengue Fever Blood-feeding Aedes mosquitoes
Diptera West Nile Virus Blood-feeding Culex mosquitoes
Diptera Sleeping Sickness Blood-feeding Tsetse flies
Siphonaptera Plague Blood-feeding Fleas
Hemiptera Chagas Disease Blood-feeding Kissing bugs (Triatominae)
Hemiptera Typhus Blood-feeding Lice
Phthiraptera Louse-borne diseases Blood-feeding Human lice
Diptera Yellow Fever Blood-feeding Aedes mosquitoes
Diptera Leishmaniasis Blood-feeding Sandflies

preferences, or even the spread of certain insect- COMPETING INTERESTS

borne diseases. A study in the African
savannahs, for instance, can utilize drones to Authors have declared that no competing
monitor the movement and population density of interests exist.
locust swarms, which are notorious for their
devastating impacts on agriculture [23]. REFERENCES
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