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Andre Gil

Mr. O’Neil

Honors United States History

8 April 2024

The Diplomatic Effects of the Failed Bay of Pigs Invasion

Upon the conclusion of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, historian Theodore Draper described it

as “one of those rare events in history—a perfect failure” (qtd. in Rasenberger). The invasion,

intended to overthrow Cuban dictator Fidel Castro, earned this title by being a disaster in all

regards. Tension originally arose between the United States and Cuba a year before the invasion,

in 1960, when Cuban Minister of Industry Ernesto Guevara appropriated United States holdings

in Cuba (“The Bay…”). This issue was compounded when the Soviet Union, the United States’

Cold War rival, was reported to have met with Cuban representatives on the island. In response,

President Dwight Eisenhower dissolved diplomatic relations with Cuba and began devising a

plan to overthrow Cuban leader Fidel Castro. The secret project was then inherited and

ultimately carried out by President John F. Kennedy. The general premise of the plan was to train

a group of Cuban exiles, known as Brigade 2506, to invade Cuba and insight a rebellion (“The

Bay…”). The invaders, however, were fended off by the Cuban military in what became an

international embarrassment for the United States. Cuba went on to form a more formal

relationship with the communist Soviet Union, causing numerous diplomatic issues to arise. The

failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion solidified Fidel Castro’s power in Cuba, forced the United

States to reevaluate its Cuban policies, and accentuated Cold War tension between the United

States and the Soviet Union.

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By effectively maneuvering the invasion, Castro’s administration was strengthened in

Cuba, allowing him to declare Cuba a socialist country and establish a more formal relationship

with the Soviet Union. When asked to recollect the events of the invasion, Castro explained: “We

defeated them, after a terrible battle in which we lost more than one hundred and fifty men and

had hundreds of wounded … the next day, at the burial of the victims, I proclaimed the Socialist

nature of our Revolution” (Castro 257). Castro and Cuba had emerged triumphant against the

powerful United States, a feat that did not go unnoticed. Many Latin Americans, not just Cubans,

viewed the victory as a jab against American imperialism. This newfound support asserted

Castro’s role as the leader of Cuba and he saw his popularity soar. Basking in the limelight,

Castro was presented with ideal circumstances to announce the Socialist ideals that guided his

administration. This announcement paved the way for a relationship to be established between

Cuba and the Soviet Union. The first instance of this connection was at a United Nations

conference in New York where Castro and Premier Nitika Khrushchev met. In his memoir,

Khrushchev described: “We (the Soviet delegation) demonstratively walked across the entire

meeting hall and greeted each other. Castro and I embraced again, showing that fraternal

relations were being established between us and that we were treating Cuba as a friend”

(Khrushchev 272). This encounter marked the beginning of an alliance between Cuba and the

Soviet Union. The two sides expressed unity regarding colonialism and the aggression displayed

by imperialistic powers. Not only this, but the Soviet Union began sending aid to Cuba,

including military assistance. A close relationship between the two countries was maintained

until the Soviet Union was dissolved in 1991 (“The Bay…”). Upon hearing news of this alliance,

Americans, particularly President Kennedy, knew that actions must be taken to extinguish the

fire of the Communist Cuban Revolution.

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The emergence of Communist leader Fidel Castro in Cuba forced President Kennedy to

reevaluate the United States’ policies regarding Cuba and devise a plan to remove him from

power. To achieve this goal, Kennedy developed a political program aimed at social reform and

economic aid for Latin America. Fidel Castro described this plan, known as the Alliance for

Progress, as “a very astute strategy for putting the brakes on revolution. He proposed a plan to

inject twenty billion dollars into the region over a period of ten years, and this money was to go

towards a program of agrarian reform” (Castro 270). Kennedy feared that with Cuba officially

adopting a communist government, other Latin American countries would follow suit. He

offered this twenty billion-dollar loan to Latin American countries that would promote

democracy and undertake certain social reforms. Kennedy preached that communism would keep

the Latin American people in a cycle of poverty and despair while democracy would offer an

escape from this undesirable fate. At the time, the Alliance for Progress was the largest United

States aid program created for developing the world, but was prompted by a fear of the spread of

Communism rather than pure goodwill (“The Bay…”). To supplement the Alliance for Progress,

the Central Intelligence Agency and the Department of Defense orchestrated Operation

Mongoose. Edward Lansdale, the director of Operation Mongoose, viewed the project as a

“coordinated program of political, psychological, military, sabotage, and intelligence operations,

as well as proposed assassination attempts on key political leaders, including Castro” (“The

Bay…”). Unlike the Alliance for Progress, Operation Mongoose was created with the sole

intention of removing Castro from power in Cuba. Every month, components of the operation

were implemented to destabilize the regime, including anti-Castro propaganda and the provision

of armaments for militant opposition groups. These steps led up to the ultimate goal of invading

Cuba in 1962 to forcefully remove the Castro Administration. This invasion, however, never
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materialized, and Operation Mongoose failed to achieve its underlying goal of overthrowing

Castro. The United States’ concerns regarding Cuba continued to amplify as tension grew

between the countries and reports of Cuba receiving Soviet weapons came flooding in.

Cold War tension climaxed as the Cuban Missile Crisis, a repercussion of the Bay of Pigs

Invasion, put the United States and Soviet Union on the brink of thermonuclear war. In July

1962, Premier Nikita Khrushchev reached a secret agreement with Fidel Castro that allowed the

Soviet Union to store nuclear missiles in Cuba. The agreement came after the Bay of Pigs

Invasion and Operation Mongoose and was a byproduct of Castro’s desire for protection. Pilot

Richard Bissel first noticed the missiles and captured an image in which “at least two

seventy-foot medium-range ballistic missiles were visible … one with a range of six hundred and

thirty miles, the other with a range of one thousand one hundred, both capable of hitting and

destroying large patches of America east of the Mississippi” (Rasenberger 363). In response to

the presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba, President Kennedy implemented a quarantine of the

region, allowing the United States to ensure that Soviet ships were not supplying Cuba with more

weapons. Despite this precaution, the situation continued to escalate as Cuban missile sites

neared potential readiness. The world was on the precipice of a devastating nuclear war and

Kennedy turned to diplomacy as his last resort. He reached an agreement with Premier

Khrushchev in which the Soviet Union would remove nuclear weapons from Cuba if the United

States did not invade the island. With its peaceful conclusion, the Cuban Missile Crisis yielded

numerous diplomatic changes, including the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963. President

Kennedy and Premier Khrushchev acknowledged how close they had come to nuclear war and

wished to prevent any future incidents. Khrushchev described the situation as “the two most

powerful nations ha[ving] been squared off against each other, each with its finger on the button”
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(qtd. in “Nuclear…”). Kennedy shared this concern and the two sides worked together to

formulate the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, prohibiting nuclear weapons tests or other

explosions underwater, in the atmosphere, or in outer space (“Nuclear…”). The treaty protected

the safety of individuals in the United States and the Soviet Union and they no longer needed to

live under the burden of an impending nuclear war. The Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty likely

would not have come to fruition if not for the Bay of Pigs Invasion and subsequent Cuban

Missile Crisis.

The Bay of Pigs Invasion, a failure in and of itself, had unintended diplomatic

ramifications that impacted the United States, Cuba, and the Soviet Union during the pinnacle of

the Cold War. First, weathering the invasion provided Castro with newfound support from

individuals throughout all of Latin America. He leveraged this situation to formally announce

Cuba as a socialist country and establish a diplomatic relationship with the Soviet Union.

Americans were weary of this declaration, and the United States developed projects to eliminate

Castro and prevent communism from spreading to other Latin American countries. These

programs, including the Alliance for Progress and Operation Mongoose, were partially

successful but failed at their ultimate goal of removing Castro from power. In reaction to these

efforts, Castro sought increased protection and turned to Soviet nuclear weapons for help,

igniting the Cuban Missile Crisis. Global nuclear war was prevented by President Kennedy’s

diplomacy as the United States and Soviet Union reached an agreement. This agreement was

followed by the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, ensuring that the world would never regress

into thermonuclear warfare. The United States’ “perfect failure” transformed the political

landscape of the Cold War and produced numerous diplomatic changes, all of which have left

imprints on the world that continue to be felt today.

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Works Cited

“Alliance for Progress (Alianza para el Progreso)” JFK Library,

https://www.jfklibrary.org/learn/about-jfk/jfk-in-history/alliance-for-progress. Accessed

25 March 2024.

The article “Alliance for Progress (Alianza para el Progreso)” discusses President John F.

Kennedy’s plan to prevent the spread of communism in Latin America. His proposal,

known as the Alliance for Progress, offered financial aid to Latin American countries that

would promote democracy and adopt certain social reforms. This decision was prompted

by the failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, specifically when Castro officially announced

Cuba as a socialist country. This, paired with Castro establishing diplomatic relations

with the United States’ Cold War rival the Soviet Union, alarmed Americans. Kennedy

used the Alliance for Progress, among other strategies, to ensure that communism would

spread no further.

This secondary source provides insight into the United States’ response to Fidel Castro

announcing Cuba as a communist nation. It can be included as evidence to support the

idea that the Bay of Pigs Invasion yielded immense diplomatic changes. It forced the

United States to take action to prevent the spread of communism and can be used to

segway into Operation Mongoose, the United States’ secret operation to remove Castro

from power. Overall, this source allows readers to gain background information critical to

understanding the impact of the Bay of Pigs Invasion and the actions that were taken after

its failure.

Castro, Fidel. My Life. Edited by Ignacio Ramonet, Allen Lane, 2007.

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Fidel Castro’s spoken autobiography My Life offers insight into Cuban history from the

perspective of Castro, the country’s long-time dictator. One section of the autobiography

details the events and aftermath of the Bay of Pigs Invasion. He explained that despite the

Cuban lives lost while fending off the invaders, the country was a major victory for Cuba

and its revolution. He leveraged the success of the Bay of Pigs Invasion to formally

announce Cuba as a communist nation and establish an official relationship with the

Soviet Union. He also went on to describe the actions the United States took to quell the

Cuban Revolution, including the Alliance for Progress and Operation Mongoose.

This primary source provides a valuable new perspective on the Bay of Pigs Invasion and

its aftermath. The majority of sources describe the invasion from the United States’

vantage point, but Castro’s descriptions tell it from a Cuban point of view. This

perspective makes this source a valuable asset in forming a complete understanding of

the event. Castro includes Cuba’s reaction to United States programs including the

Alliance for Progress and Operation Mongoose. As a whole, Castro’s autobiography

provides an unmatched description of the Bay of Pigs Invasion and the years after.

Khrushchev, Nikita Sergeevich. Khrushchev Remembers. Edited by Edward Crankshaw and

Strobe Talbott, translated by Strobe Talbott, Deutsch, 1970.

Nikita Khrushchev’s autobiography Khrushchev Remembers describes the important

events of the former Russian premier’s life. One section of the autobiography describes

an interaction that Premier Khrushchev had with Cuban leader Fidel Castro. They met at

a United Nations conference in New York in which they agreed on many political issues

of the time. Photographs of them embracing made United States news, evoking feelings

of concern out of millions of Americans. John F. Kennedy shared this concern and
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devised numerous plans to prevent the spread of communism and remove Castro from

power in Cuba. These proposals, known as the Alliance for Progress and Operation

Mongoose achieved varying degrees of success but failed at their ultimate goal of

eliminating Castro.

This primary source provides a first-hand account of the original meeting between Fidel

Castro and Nikita Khrushchev. Cuba and the Soviet Union went on the form an alliance

until the Soviet Union was dissolved in 1991. In the short term the meeting sparked an

immediate reaction from the United States government, This source can be used to

discuss these responses, including the Alliance for Progress and Operation Mongoose. It

provides a description of the events from a Soviet perspective, enriching the reader’s

understanding of the time period.

“The Cuban Missile Crisis” Milestones: 1961–1968 - Office of the Historian,

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/cuban-missile-crisis. Accessed 25 March

2024.

The article “The Cuban Missile Crisis” details the leadup, events, and aftermath of the

Cuban Missile Crisis. The Cuban Missile Crisis was a byproduct of the failure of the Bay

of Pigs Invasion. After the invasion, Cuba announced itself as a communist nation and

established a formal relationship with the Soviet Union. The United States, alarmed by

this relationship, made a continuous effort to overthrow Castro in Cuba. Castro turned to

the Soviet Union for protection and Cuba began receiving shipments of Soviet missiles.

The United States, located just north of Cuba, demanded that the Soviet Union stop

sending weapons to Cuba. The world was saved from the brink of nuclear warfare by
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President Kennedy’s diplomacy as the United States and Soviet Union reached an

agreement.

This secondary source provides useful background information regarding the Cuban

Missile Crisis. The Bay of Pigs Invasion is mentioned as a direct cause of the Cuban

Missile Crisis. The failure of the invasion allowed Castro to form a relationship with the

Soviet Union, allowing the Cuban Missile Crisis the occur. This secondary source goes

into depth on not only the event itself but the lead-up and aftermath of the missile crisis

as well.

“The Bay of Pigs Invasion and its Aftermath” Milestones: 1961–1968 - Office of the Historian,

https://history.state.gov/milestones/1961-1968/bay-of-pigs. Accessed 25 March 2024.

The article “The Bay of Pigs Invasion and its Aftermath” describes the causes and effects

of the Bay of Pigs Invasion. The United States originally devised the plan to invade Cuba

and insight a rebellion after Castro took power. Americans did not feel comfortable with

Soviet visits to the island and had suspicions that Castro was a communist. To combat

this, the Bay of Pigs Invasion was conducted to invade Cuba and overthrow him. The

plan, however, was unsuccessful and Castro maintained power in Cuba. This yielded

various diplomatic implications as the United States continued to try to remove him from

power. Not only this, but the Bay of Pigs Invasion was a direct cause of the Cuban

Missile Crisis only a few years later.

This secondary source includes useful background information regarding the Bay of Pigs

Invasion. It describes the causes and effects of the event while also describing the

invasion itself. The article leads into other areas of research including the Alliance for

Progress, Operation Mongoose, and the Cuban Missile Crisis. This source provides
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readers with broad background information and acts as a springboard to more specific

topics.

“Nuclear Test Ban Treaty.” JFK Library,

https://www.jfklibrary.org/learn/about-jfk/jfk-in-history/nuclear-test-ban-treaty. Accessed

25 March 2024.

The article “Nuclear Test Ban Treaty” discusses the terms of the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

and why it was implemented. The Soviet Union and the United States narrowly avoided a

nuclear war and wished to prevent such an incident in the future. To achieve this goal,

President Kennedy and Premier Khrushchev devised the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. The

treaty prohibited nuclear weapons tests or other explosions underwater, in the

atmosphere, or in outer space. The terms of the treaty are still applicable today to guide

nations away from nuclear warfare.

This secondary source includes in-depth information regarding the Nuclear Test Ban

Treaty. It is a great source to understand the cause of the treaty, its terms, and how it

continues to impact the military landscape of the world today. The information in the

article can also be connected back to the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Bay of Pigs

Invasion, presenting various avenues for future research.

Rasenberger, Jim. The Brilliant Disaster: JFK, Castro, and America's Doomed Invasion of

Cuba's Bay of Pigs. Scribner, 2011.

In his novel The Brilliant Disaster, Jim Rasenburg goes into great detail about all aspects

of the Bay of Pigs Invasion. He explained that the invasion was prompted by Fidel Castro

taking power in Cuba. The United States did not support Castro because he had a

relationship with the Soviet Union, the United States’ Cold War Rival. Americans also
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believed that Castro was a communist, only furthering the need for the invasion. The Bay

of Pigs Invasion, however, failed miserably. Castro maintained control over Cuba and

formed a deeper relationship with the Soviet Union, leading to the Cuban Missile Crisis

and other future conflicts.

The secondary source is an excellent source of specific information regarding the Bay of

Pigs Invasion. It is a great source for those who already have background information on

the Bay of Pigs Invasion but wish to further their understanding. Rasenburger also

discusses the effects of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, including the Alliance for Progress,

Operation Mongoose, the Cuban Missile Crisis, and the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. These

topics provide opportunities for continued research to enhance a reader’s understanding

of this time period.