INTRODUCTION TO

PSYCHOLOGY
Lecturer
Clinical Psychologist
Ebru Ipek
ELEMENTS OF THE BIOLOGICAL BASES OF
PSYCHOLOGY

Neurons
Nervous system
Endocrine glands
Brain
Neurons
The process (action potential)
The chemistry (neurotransmitters)

Nervous System
Spinal cord
Somatic and autonomic nervous systems
Endocrine Glands
Pituitary gland (master gland)
Other glands (pineal, thyroid,
pancreas, gonads, adrenal)
• Glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream.
Bloodstream carries hormones to the organs, such as the heart, pancreas, and
sex organs.
Hormones affect behavior and emotions by stimulating muscles, organs, and
other glands in the body.
Longer time required for the effects be observed compared to the synapse.
Brain
Cortex: occipital, parietal,
temporal, frontal lobes
Hindbrain structures:
medulla, pons, cerebellum
Limbic system: thalamus,
hypothalamus,
hippocampus, amygdala
The Cortex
Outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons
Responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input
From top to bottom, a rat brain, sheep brain,
and human brain.
Note the differences in the amount of
corticalization, or wrinkling, of the cortex
between these three brains.
Greater amounts of corticalization are
associated with increases in size and
complexity.
Cerebral Hemispheres — the two sections of
the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain.
Corpos Callosum
Occipital Lobe Parietal Lobe
Contain the visual centers of the brain Contain the centers for touch, taste,
• Primary Visual Cortex and temperature sensations
• Visual Association Cortex • Somatosensory Cortex
Temporal Lobes
Contain neurons responsible
for the sense of hearing and
meaningful speech.
• Primary Auditory Cortex —
Processes auditory information
from the ears Frontal Lobes

• Auditory Association Cortex — Responsible for

Higher mental processes
Identifies and makes sense of
Decision making
auditory information
Production of fluent speech
 CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES

There are similarities and differences between the left and the right
hemispheres.
Both hemispheres have the same 4 lobes (occipital, parietal, temporal frontal).
But language appears to localize in the left hemisphere.
Split-brain research:
Roger Sperry, trying to cure epilepsy, cut through the corpus callosum that connects
the hemispheres.
Resulted in a sense of two brains in one body!
Evidence for hemispheric specialization.
Left side of the brain
Seems to control language, writing, logical thought, analysis, and math.
Processes information sequentially, good at breaking things down into smaller parts.

Right side of the brain

Controls emotional expression, spatial perception; recognition of faces, patterns,
melodies, and emotions.
Processes information globally (all at once; holistic style)
Cortex: occipital, parietal, temporal, frontal lobes (corpus callosum)
Medulla: Controls essential autonomic
functions such as heart rate, blood pressure,
and breathing. Regulates reflexes like
swallowing, coughing, and vomiting. Acts as a
communication pathway between the spinal
cord and the brain.
Pons: Involved in regulating sleep, arousal,
and facial expressions.
Cerebellum: Responsible for motor control,
balance, posture, and coordination. Ensures
smooth, coordinated movements by processing
information from the sensory systems, spinal
cord, and other parts of the brain.
Thalamus: Processes and transmits sensory information
to appropriate areas of the brain. Plays a role in
consciousness, alertness, and sleep regulation.
Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostatic functions such as
body temperature, hunger, thirst, and circadian rhythms
(sleep-wake cycles). Controls the autonomic nervous
system and endocrine system, especially by influencing the
pituitary gland to release hormones.
Hippocampus: Crucial for the formation, organization,
and retrieval of memories. Plays a significant role in spatial
navigation and learning. Important for converting short-
term memories into long-term memories.
Amygdala: Involved in the emotional aspect of memories,
especially fear-related memories.
Glial Cells
Provide support for neurons to
grow and hold them in place.
Help maintain a state of
homeostasis.
Deliver nutrients to neurons and
clear dead neurons.
Influence cognition (thinking,
memory)
Produce myelin to coat axons.
 What is a strong-enough stimulation that will result in action potential?

Neurons have a threshold for firing.

Each neuron receives many signals from other neurons.
When the “fire” signals are great enough, the threshold is passed and the neuron fires.
All-or-none law
Once a neuron fires, it cannot be interrupted or stopped.
A neuron will either fire at full strength, or it will not fire at all.

Strong stimulation, compared to weak stimulation?

Will cause the neuron fire repeatedly.
Will cause more neurons to fire.
 NEUROTRANSMISSION

How neurons use neurotransmitters to communicate

with each other and with the body?

When the action potential reaches the axon terminals, several events take place
to allow the communication of the neurons.
The Synapse: where communication between neurons happen.
Synaptic vesicles:
Sack-like structures that are found inside the axon terminal.
Within these vesicles are neurotransmitters suspended in fluid.
Neurotransmitters:
The chemical found in the synaptic vesicles.
When released, it has an effect on the next cell.
Neurotransmitters need to be cleared out of the way before the next stimulation occur.
Some of them just drift away through diffusion.
But most of them return back to the presynaptic neuron (axon terminals) and repacked
into the synaptic vesicles:
Reuptake: process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles.
 CENTRAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

Consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Makes sense of the information
received from the senses.
Makes decisions.
Sends commands out to the rest of the
body.
Responsible for cognition and thought.
 Spinal Cord
Two vital functions:
• Outer section (white)
–Composed of myelinated axons and nerves.
–A message pipeline.
• Inside section (gray)
–Composed of cell bodies separated by glial cells.
–A primitive kind of “brain”.
–Responsible for very fast, life-saving reflexes
Damage to the CNS —
permanent or repaired?
 Damage to the CNS —permanent or repaired?

Neuroplasticity
The ability to constantly change both the structure and function of cells in
response to experience and trauma.
Neurogenesis
Formation of new neurons.
 PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM

Somatic nervous system — Sensory pathway

and Motor pathway
Autonomic nervous system — Sympathetic
division and Parasympathetic division
 METHODS FOR STUDYING THE BRAIN

Lesioning Studies
Method used for animals or humans with brain damage.
Involves insertion of a thin, insulated wire into the brain.
Then an electric current is sent to the electrode that destroys the neurons of interest.
Not an ideal method to study with humans: no two human will have exactly the same
damage in their brains.
Brain Stimulation
Involves temporarily disrupting or enhancing the functioning of the part of the
brain, then studying the resulting changes in behavior or cognition.
Uses the method called Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB).
• Similar to lesioning, but with a milder current.
• No damage to the neurons.
• But causes the neurons to react as if they have received a message.
Invasive Techniques = stimulating from the inside
• Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)
–Electrodes are placed in specific deep brain areas.
–Those electrodes are connected to an impulse
generator, placed under the collarbone.
–The impulse generator sends impulses to the
electrodes to stimulate the specific brain areas of
interest.
–Used for treating disorders such as Parkinson’s
disease or seizures.
Noninvasive Techniques = stimulating from
the outside
• Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
–Magnetic pulses are applied to the cortex
using a special device positioned over the
head.
–Magnetic fields stimulate neurons in the
target area.
–Used in investigations of cognition (memory
retrieval, decision making etc.)
–Evaluated as a treatment option for some
psychological disorders (PTSD, depression)
and for stroke patients.
Mapping Structure
• Computed Tomography (CT)
Brain imaging method using computer-controlled X-rays of the brain.
Images slices of brain without harming the patient.
Used for diagnosing stroke damage, tumors, injuries, and abnormal brain structure.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Provides much more detail compared to a CT scan.
Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create 3D
images of the brain.
Used for investigating the concentration of
specific chemicals and neurotransmitters in the
brain.
Also used for investigating the connectivity in the
brain.
Multiple sclerosis, dementia, schizophrenia…
• Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Based on the electrical activity of the brain
Brain imaging method using computer-controlled X-
rays of the brain.
Results in waveforms that indicate things such as
stages of sleep and seizures.
Different waves are associated with different activity.
Used for diagnosing stroke damage, tumors, injuries,
and abnormal brain structure.
Gives an idea about the timing of events in the
brain, NOT about their location.
• Positron Emission
Tomography (PET)
Based on energy
consumption of the brain
(changes in blood oxygen
levels)
The participant is injected a
radioactive glucose after
which the computer detects
the activity of the brain cells.