© Airbus Defence & Space

FLIGHT OPERATIONS BRIEFING NOTES

FOBN-007
Turbulence Awareness

December 2016
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FLIGHT OPERATIONS BRIEFING NOTES

Turbulence Awareness

FOBN
The Flight Operations Briefing Notes provide background
information, operational recommendations and training guidelines
for the implementation of the conclusions and recommendations of
diverse Airbus Defence and Space working groups. With its release,
experience gained during development, certification and in service
support programs is offered for benefit of the complete Airbus
Defence and Space community.

Lessons-learned from the Airbus Defence and Space analysis of

in-service ocurrences and training feedback is considered for its
preparation to promote an eye-opening and self-correcting
accident-prevention policy.

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Introduction

1
1. INTRODUCTION

Turbulence is one of the main causes of crew and passenger

injuries in flight. It can be created by jet streams, atmospheric
pressure, mountains waves, cold or warm fronts or thunderstorms.
Additionally, when following or crossing behind another aircraft,
localized turbulence - known as wake vortex turbulence – may be
encountered and can be severe. Turbulence can occur
unexpectedly, even when the sky appears to be clear, so it is
important to have a sound understanding of turbulence to be able to
deal with it safely.

This Flight Operations Briefing Note provides an overview of the key

points related to turbulence, and has been prepared with the
objective of:

Refreshing theoretical understanding of turbulence.

Increasing crew awareness of the hazards of turbulence.

Helping loadmasters to ensure safety in the cabin and

prevent turbulence-related injuries.

Providing information to help recognize the factors that

increase the risk of a wake vortex encounter.

Providing information to help recognize the effects of

different types of turbulence.

Recommending flying techniques to avoid wake turbulence

encounters.

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2 definition and types

2. TURBULENCE: DEFINITION AND TYPES

Turbulence is caused by the relative movement of disturbed air

through which an aircraft is flying. Its origin may be thermal or
mechanical and it may occur either within or clear of cloud. The
absolute severity of turbulence depends directly upon the rate at
which the speed or the direction of airflow (or both) is changing,
although perception of the severity of turbulence which has been
encountered will be affected by the mass of the aircraft involved.

The main types of turbulences are:

Turbulence:

Turbulence in thunderstorms, is turbulence present in all

thunderstorms. Strongest turbulence within the cloud
occurs between updrafts and downdrafts. Outside the
cloud, shear turbulence is encountered several thousand
feet above and up to 20 miles laterally from a severe storm.
A low-level turbulent area is associated with the gust front.
Often, a “roll cloud” or “shelf cloud” on the leading edge of
the storm marks the top of the extreme turbulence zone.
Gust fronts often move far ahead (up to 15 miles) of asso-
ciated precipitation. The gust front causes a rapid and
sometimes drastic change in surface wind ahead of an
approaching storm. The downward moving column of air in
a typical thunderstorm is large. The resultant outflow may
produce wind shear, and in some cases the most severe
type of wind shear, the microburst1.

Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) may also arise due to the

presence of strong temperature gradients near to a Jet
Stream2, is defined as “sudden severe turbulence occurring
in cloudless regions that causes violent buffeting of aircraft”.
The most comprehensive definition is high-altitude turbulen-
ce encountered outside of convective clouds.

1
A microburst is a small-scale, intense downdraft that when reaching the surface,
spreads outward in all directions from the downdraft center. Virga, streaks of preci-
pitation falling from a thunderstorm cloud but not reaching the ground, may precede
a microburst.
2
Jet streams are relatively narrow bands of strong wind in the upper levels of the
atmosphere following the boundaries between hot and cold air (most pronounced in
winter). There are three jet streams: the polar-front jet stream, the subtropical jet
stream, and the polar-night jet stream.

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definition and types

Anvil

Hail

MOVEMENT OF STORM
Turbulence:

Figure 1 - Movement of storm

This includes turbulence in cirrus clouds, within and in the

vicinity of standing lenticular clouds and, in some cases, in
clear air in the vicinity of thunderstorms. Generally, though,
CAT definitions exclude turbulence caused by thunders-
torms, low-altitude temperature inversions, thermals, strong
surface winds, or local terrain features.

The potential danger of CAT is that can be encountered

unexpectedly and frequently without a visual signal to warn
pilots of the hazard.

Wake Vortex Turbulence, very localised, but sometimes

severe, may be encountered when following or crossing
behind another aircraft. This turbulence is due to wing tip
trailing vortices generated by the preceding aircraft; howe-
ver, this phenomenon is distinctively transient.
Characteristics:

i. Sink rate: 300 to 500 fpm.

ii. Stabilization: 500 to 900 ft under the aircraft.

iii. Lateral movement at 5 knots, when reaching the

ground.

iv. Duration between more than 100 seconds in still air

and 30 seconds with 5-10 knots winds.

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definition and types Turbulence due to local terrain features, can be caused
by air moving over or around high ground creating turbulen-
ce in the lee of the terrain feature. This may produce violent
and, for smaller aircraft, potentially uncontrollable effects
resulting in pitch and / or roll to extreme positions.

Wind shear, Relative air movements which involve rapid

rates of change in wind velocity are described as wind shear
and, when severe, they may be sufficient to displace an
aircraft abruptly from its intended flight path such that subs-
tantial control input is required to compensate. The conse-
Turbulence:

quences of such encounters can be particularly dangerous

at low altitude where any loss of control may occur suffi-
ciently close to terrain to make recovery difficult.
The wind shear effect between the two jet streams in the
region of confluence and immediately downstream is often
highly turbulent. Turbulence is also related to vertical shear.
If vertical shear is greater than 5 kts per 1000 feet, turbulen-
ce is likely.

40 Knots
70 Knots
Higher
Horizontal 100 Knots
Wind Shear
Jet Core 130 Knots

100 Knots

Lower
Horizontal 70 Knots
Wind Shear

40 Knots

Figure
ure 2 - Wind Shear Turbulences

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definition and types Low Level Wind Shear, the extreme down-bursts which
occur below the base of cumulonimbus clouds are called
Microbursts and are a classic example of circumstances
conducive to this turbulence. Less severe low-level turbu-
lence can also be the result of convection occasioned by
surface heating.

Mechanical Turbulence, is caused by the passage of air

over the surface of the Earth, creating a turbulent layer
made up of vortices with a thickness of up to 1000 m. This
layer is known as the turbulent layer, whose formation is
Turbulence:

enhanced by obstacles and mountainous terrain.

Mountain Wave Turbulence, is a phenomenon in which

waves form in the flow of air perpendicular to a mountain
barrier. Upwind of the mountain, the air is forced upwards,
while downwind of the mountain, the air is forced down-
wards, producing a wave-like motion whose effect conti-
nues as the air moves down the valley.

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3 Classification by intensity 3. TURBULENCE: CLASSIFICATION BY INTENSITY

Wind gusts do not affect all aircraft in the same way, since aircraft
are designed to withstand a force value which depends on the
aircraft speed and the increment produced by the load factor. There
are two types of gust speed: Ue (effective) and Ude (derived).

JAR-25 states that commercial transport aircraft shall be built to

withstand a Ude value of 50 ft/sec at cruise speed (Vc) and a turbu-
lence penetration speed (VBmin) of 66 ft/sec, both applying up to
20000 ft. Beyond this altitude, these values reduce linearly down to
25 ft/sec and 38 ft/sec respectively.
Turbulence:

On this basis, turbulence can be classified according to load values

n= L/W, where L is lift and W is the aircraft weight. If the aircraft is in
equilibrium, L=W and n=1, however if turbulence causes vertical
acceleration, n will vary.

For the purpose of reporting and forecasting air turbulence is graded

on a relative scale, according to its perceived or potential effect on a
'typical' aircraft, such as Light, Moderate, Severe and Extreme:

Light turbulence is the least severe, causing slight, erratic

changes in attitude and/or altitude.

Moderate turbulence is similar to light turbulence, but of

greater intensity - variations in speed as well as altitude and
attitude may occur but the aircraft remains controllable at all
times.

Severe turbulence is characterised by large, abrupt chan-

ges in attitude and altitude with large variations in airspeed.
There may be brief periods where effective control of the
aircraft is impossible. Loose objects may move around the
cabin and damage to aircraft structures may occur.

Extreme turbulence is capable of causing structural

damage and resulting directly in prolonged, possibly termi-
nal, loss of control of the aircraft.

The assessment in-flight turbulence is essentially subjective. Routi-

ne encounters involving light or moderate turbulence, especially in
small aircraft, may seem severe, to inexperienced passengers (or
pilots).

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The perception of turbulence severity experienced by an aircraft

Classification by intensity depends not only on the strength of the air disturbance but also on
the size of the aircraft - moderate turbulence in a large aircraft may
appear severe in a small aircraft. Therefore, pilot when reporting
turbulence should mention the aircraft type to aid in assessing its
relevance for other pilots in, or approaching, the same area.

Turbulence G’s or IAS Ue/Ude

n Value Aircraft Reaction
type variation (ft/sec)
Light Turbulence that momentarily causes slight,
0.8 ≤ n ≤ 1.2 ±0.2 g 5/8 erratic changes in altitude and/or attitude
Level 1
(pitch, roll, yaw).
Turbulence:

This will cause changes in accelerometer

readings of around 0.5 – 1.0g at the
Moderate aircraft’s centre of gravity. Changes in
Level 2 0.5 ≤ n ≤ 1.5 ±0.5 g 15/24 altitude and/or attitude occur but the
aircraft remains in positive control at
all times. It usually causes variations
in indicated
Tableairspeed.
4 - RA actions
This will cause changes in the
accelerometer reading of greater than
Severe 1g at aircraft’s centre of gravity. Large,
0.0 ≤ n ≤ 2.0 ±1.0 g 25/40 abrupt changes in altitude and/ or attitude.
Level 3
It usually causes large variations in
indicated airspeed. Aircraft may be
momentarilyly out of control.

Extreme Abrupt vertical speed Greater Turbulence in which the aircraft

Level 4 oscillations greater than is violently tossed about and is
than 25 kt 30/48 practically impossible to control.

Table 1 - Turbulence Types

For this reason, one of the first actions to

take is to reduce the speed, when
possible, to below the limits (VB)

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Management: generically
4. TURBULENCE MANAGEMENT: GENERICALLY

4 Aircraft management: the best situation is one in which

turbulence is forecast and we are prepared to face the situa-
tion:

i. Fly the aircraft within the limitations range (VB or

VBmin).

ii. Try to delay configuring the flaps while the load factor is
changing.

iii. It is important to maintain the attitude and avoid holding

a target altitude.
Turbulence

In the event of a sudden encounter with turbulence, the

priority will be to maintain the aircraft in a safe attitude, as
specified in the last point.

During aircraft operation, the airframe must endure forces

generated from such sources as engine(s), aerodynamic
loads and inertial forces. In still air, when the aircraft is
manoeuvring or during in-flight turbulence, load factors (n)
appear and thereby increase loads on the aircraft. This
leads to the establishment of maximum weights and maxi-
mum speeds.

Crew Coordination: it can be implemented by SOPs in

order to improve communication between cockpit and cabin
members (loadmasters).

i. The flight crew should be briefed on the en-route

weather as part of the flight preparation. Therefore, the
flight crew are aware of possible areas of turbulence
that are forecast for the flight. The pre-flight briefing
between the flight and cabin crew should include infor-
mation about the areas of expected turbulence during
the flight, and the procedures to be applied if turbulence
is encountered.

ii. During the flight, the aircraft may encounter areas of

turbulence that were not forecast. For example, Clear
Air Turbulence (CAT), which usually occurs at high
altitudes, can be forecast but cannot be detected by
aircraft radar, so there is often no warning. Therefore, it
is possible that we haven’t got time to react.

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Management: generically
Cabin Management: operators should develop and imple-
ment strategies to enable the cabin crew to efficiently
manage the cabin, in order to ensure safety and prevent
turbulence-related injuries. For example:

i. Frequent checks of the cabin during the flight to ensure

that: the cabin is kept tidy in order to limit the amount of
loose objects, passenger baggage is not left in the
aisles or on seats and/or cargo hasn’t been moved.

ii. If the cabin crew implements the above-mentioned

strategies, they will need less time to secure the cabin
in the case of turbulence.

Passenger Management: the best way to help prevent

Turbulence

turbulence-related injury is to use seat belts. The flight and

cabin crew should encourage the use of seat belts and
stress the importance of passengers complying with the
SEAT BELT signs.

Post Turbulence: when the turbulence is over, the flight

crew will advise the cabin crew to go back to the normal
status. After moderate turbulence, the cabin must be chec-
ked for any damage or injured passengers.

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5 Best practices 5. BEST PRACTICES

Turbulence due to mountain wave:

Recommendations:

Before perpendicularly crossing a valley at low

altitude, analyse wind strength and direction.

Avoid crossing mountain chains at very low altitude

when wind speed is greater than 15 knots.

Avoid crossing completely perpendicularly, with a

maximum of 45º being recommended in the presence
of wind/turbulence.

Turbulence in thunderstorms:

It should be noted that if a pilot tries to maintain altitude

when the aircraft is subject to a strong downdraft, it will be
at the expense of maintaining a nose-down manoeuvre,
with the danger of doubling the nose-down manoeuvre if the
aircraft is subject to another downdraft afterwards.

During approach and landing, the most severe turbulence is

experienced within microbursts. However, an airport ground
radar is required to detect them, since no two cloudbursts
are identical.

Recommendations:

Maintain an “attitude” instead of an altitude, and if

possible, before penetrating the forecasted area of
turbulence, adjust power setting in level flight so that
IAS = VB and leave at this setting while maintaining a
constant attitude (common to all).

Fly at a distance of 20 NM from the storm if the radar

echoes are strong, and at a distance of 10 NM if the
echoes are weak.

Never fly below the storm.

If turbulence is strong, the autopilot should be disen-

gaged (common to all).

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Clear Air Turbulence (CAT):

Best practices Recommendations:

Adjust the speed according to the recommended

speed for flying in turbulent air.

If CAT is encountered in the jetstream, with direct

head- and tailwinds, flight level or heading should be
changed since the CAT area lengthens along the wind
direction, although little in terms of depth and width.

If the CAT is experienced with crosswind, climb or

descend after monitoring the temperature for a few
minutes. If the temperature increases, climb, and if the
temperature decreases, descend. This avoids flying
along an inclined tropopause or along the jetstream
front.

Inform air traffic control for better monitoring of such

phenomena by weather agencies and for their
reporting to pilots in flight.

Turbulence associated to windshear:

Detection cues: the following deviations should be

considered as indications of a possible windshear condition:

Indicated airspeed variations in excess of 15 kt.

Ground speed variations.

Analog wind indication variations: Direction and

velocity.

Vertical speed excursions of 500 fpm or more.

Pitch attitude excursions of 5 degrees or more.

Glide slope deviation of 1 dot or more.

Heading variations of 10 degrees or more.

Unusual power lever position to maintain speed in a

given configuration.

Recommendations:

Refer to FOBN-005 “Adverse Weather Operations”.

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Best practices Wake vortex:

In order to prevent wake vortex, it is important to keep in

mind the next bullets:

Short-wingspan aircraft will be more sensitive to a

specific vortex than long-wingspan aircraft. Even
high-performance aircraft (e.g, a jet fighter) will be
more sensitive to wake turbulence than a civilian
transport aircraft, because of its short wingspan.
Always notify the ATC of what separation is needed, in
order to avoid suspected wake turbulence (speed
reduction, trajectory change ...).

Wake vortex avoidance strategy should be adapted to

each flight phase:

When the factors that increase the life span of wake turbulence are
identified, crew should ensure that ATC are providing 2 to 3 minutes of
takeoff separation with respect to the previous aircraft. If possible the
Takeoff & flight crew shall ensure that the aircraft climbs above the trajectory of the
Climb leading aircraft. If not, the aircraft must remain upwind of the leading
aircraft’s trajectory. Headings that may cause the aircraft to cross the
trajectory of preceding aircraft, located behind and below the leading
aircraft, should be avoided.

The flight crew should consider keeping the seat belt signs ON when the
proximity to other aircraft is known. If necessary, the flight crew may
offset laterally from the cleared track, by up to 2NM, in order to alleviate
Cruise
the effects of wake turbulence. ATC should be advised of this
contingency action, but will not issue clearance for this type of lateral
offset. The aircraft should return to the cleared track as soon as possible.

If feasible, check the spacing with the leading aircraft using theTCAS
display. A visual estimation of the horizontal spacing is not sufficient and
should not be trusted. If flying a medium or heavy aircraft, the flight crew
should pay particular attention to positioning the aircraft exactly on the
Approach glide path, not above it. This will maintain wake turbulence below the
glide path, and may protect other aircraft from being trapped in the wake
vortex.
Note: if the flight crew accepts a visual separation, they are also
responsible for wake turbulence avoidance.

Landing When possible, the flight crew should land the aircraft beyond the
touchdown point of the preceding aircraft.

Table 2 - Strategies for Wake Vortex avoidance

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Best practices Factors increasing the risk:

1. Heavy, slow, and clean leading aircraft.

2. Leading aircraft performing a go around.
3. Parallel or crossing runways.
4. Reduction in separation between aircraft during visual
approaches (VMC).

5. Light crosswind (3 to 10 knots) or tailwind.

6. Stable atmosphere, temperature inversion (at sunrise
for example).

7. Flat surrounding terrain.

8. During the final descent, a tailwind can bring wake
vortices back to the glide path.

9. As long as Instrument Meteorological Conditions

(IMC) exist, only the air traffic controller is able to
maintain the spacing, by issuing appropriate
instructions. The air traffic controller’s responsibility is,
in fact, extended to any flight phase in which the
aircraft is radar-vectored. Air traffic controllers are also
responsible for providing correct information regarding
wake turbulence separation at takeoff. However, this
responsibility is transferred to the flight crew, when the
flight crew accepts to:

a. Maintain a visual separation.

b. Fly a visual approach.

ICAO regulation requests a minimum space between

aircraft, when the vertical separation is less than 1000 feet,
in order to prevent accidents (see table below).

Leading a/c Following a/c

Separation in NM Hvy (> 136 T) Med Light (7 T)

Hvy 4 5 6

Medium 3 3 5

Table 3 - ICAO regulation A/C separation

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Prevention plan
6
6. PREVENTION PLAN

Lessons learned from previous experiences show that:

The cabin crew does not follow the flight crew’s instructions
to be seated during turbulence.

The cabin crew does not have sufficient training to

understand the hazards associated with turbulence.

The Operator has no Standard Operating Procedures

(SOPs) to enable crew to effectively manage turbulence
encounters.

Communication between the flight crew and the cabin crew

is not effective: the cabin crew and the flight crew do not use
the same terminology, resulting in information that is not
accurate which may lead to errors in communication.

Ineffective securing of the cargo, for instance, CDS out of

the rollers during turbulence or movement of baggage.

Paratroopers injured due to turbulence because turbulence

hasn’t been seen as a showstopper during tactical
operations.

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7. KEY POINTS
Key points
7 Operators should develop Standard Operating Procedures
(SOPs) to enable the cabin crew to effectively manage the
cabin and galleys during turbulence, as well as hard
procedures for tactical operations, establishing limitations if
required.

Operators should encourage the use of seat belts. This is

the most effective preventive measure for protecting cabin
crew and passengers from turbulence-related injuries.

The responsibility for wake turbulence avoidance is

transferred to the flight crew, when they have accepted to:

Maintain a visual separation.

Fly a visual approach.

The flight crew must monitor wake turbulence closely when:

In VMC.

The wind is calm, between 0 to 10 knots, with no gusts.

With flat terrain upwind of the runway.

When the atmosphere is stable.

The flight crew should be aware of surrounding traffic.

The aircraft must remain upwind of and above the

preceding aircraft, in order to avoid wake turbulence.

During wake turbulence, the flight crew should not use

rudder control.

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Key points Operators’ Flight Safety Offices should:

Include a training program for pilot and dispatcher (or

operational control) personnel, which contains
background information on the causes of CAT and the
potential effects and use of modern analysis and
forecast products.

Promulgate a corporate philosophy of avoidance as

the first line of defence, which includes a process to
reduce turbulence encounters and mitigate the result
of these encounters.

All pilots and other personnel concerned with flight planning

should carefully consider the hazards associated with flight
through areas where pilot reports or aviation weather
forecasts indicate the presence of turbulence, including
mountain wave turbulence. The hazards associated with
turbulence include severe jolts that cause structural
damage to aircraft, airspeed fluctuations and G-loading that
lead to high-altitude upset or low-speed buffeting, and/or
injury to passengers.

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References
8
8. REFERENCES:

http://www.jaa.nl

FEE Advisory Circular – AC 120-88A- “Preventing Injuries

Caused by Turbulence”

FOBN Cabin Operations – Turbulence Threat Awareness

ICAO - Annex 2 - Rules of the Air

ICAO – Doc 4444

FAA – AIM 7.3 - Wake Turbulence

(http://www.faa.gov/atpubs/AIM/Chap7/aim0703.html)

Airbus Operations Policy Manual – Guide for JAR-OPS 1

Operations Manual (Part A) – Operating Procedures –
Flight Procedures – Wake Turbulence

Advisory Circular – FAA (AC 00-30C) “CAT Avoidance”

Advisory Circular – FAA (AC 00-24C) “Thunderstorms”

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RESPONSIBILITY
Responsibility This FOBN is part of a set of Flight Operations Briefing Notes
that provide an overview of the applicable standards, flying
techniques and best practices, operational and human
factors, suggested risks prevention strategies and personal
lines-of-defence related to major threats and hazards to flight
operations safety.

This FOBN is intended to enhance the reader's flight

safety awareness but it shall not supersede the applicable
regulations and the Airbus Defence and Space or
operator's operational documentation; should any
deviation appear between this FOBN and the Airbus
Defence and Space or operator’s AFM, (M)MEL, FCOM /
AOM, QRH, FCTM, CLM and/or CCOM,... the latter shall
prevail at all times.

In the interest of aviation safety, this FOBN may be

reproduced in whole or in part - in all media - or
translated; any use of this FOBN shall not modify its
contents or alter an excerpt from its original context. Any
commercial use is strictly excluded. All uses shall credit
the author of the information.

This FOBN could be based upon sources of information

outside Airbus Defence and Space, in consequence Airbus
Defence and Space assumes no liability or responsibility for
the use of the FOBN or the materials contained in it.
Additionally, Airbus Defence and Space further disclaims
any responsibility for the correctness or accuracy of any
duplication, adaptation or translation and for the updating
and revision of any duplicated version.

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