ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE AC CIRCUITS

AC through purely resistive circuit

Consider a pure resistance R connected across an ac voltage v = Vm sin⁡(ωt).

By Ohms’s law the current I at any instant t is:

i= v/R
= Vm sin⁡(ωt)/R
Vm
i= sin ωt = ⁡ Im sin⁡(ωt + 0).
R

which is the instantaneous current through R.

Vm
Maximum value of current Im = and phase ∅ = 0°
R

Ie., there is no phase difference between applied voltage and current produced
or voltage and current are in phase in a pure resistance.
Waveforms Phasor diagram

Power:
Instantaneous power consumed, P = Instantaneous voltage x instantaneous
current
= v⁡ × i
= Vm sin⁡(ωt) × Im sin⁡(ωt)
= Vm Im sin2 ⁡(ωt)
Vm Im
= (1 − cos 2ωt)
2
 Vm Im Vm Im
P =⁡ − (cos 2ωt)
2 2

Constant component fluctuating component

with double the frequency
of applied voltage.
Since the average value of cosine component over one cycle is 0, the average
power consumed in one cycle = constant power component
Vm Im Vm Im
Pavg = ⁡ = .
2 √2 √2
Pavg = Vrms × Irms watts
= V × I = I2 R⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡watts

AC through purely inductive circuit

Consider an ac voltage v = Vm sin⁡(ωt) is applied across
a pure inductance of L henries. An alternating
current i is produced in the circuit. At any instant
applied voltage v will be equal and opposite to the self
induced emf of the inductor.
di
v = −(−L )
dt
di
Vm sin(ωt) = L
dt
Vm
di = sin(ωt) dt
L
Vm
i = ∫ di = ∫ sin(ωt) dt
L
 Vm − cos 𝜔𝑡
= ×
L 𝜔

−Vm 𝜋 Vm 𝜋
= sin( − 𝜔𝑡) = sin(𝜔𝑡 − )
ωL 2 ωL 2
𝜋
𝑖 = Im sin(𝜔𝑡 − )
2
Vm Vm
Where 𝐼𝑚 = = and 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡Ω
ωL 𝑋𝐿
Thus the current is also sinusoidal with phase angle ∅ = −90° . ie., the
current lags voltage by 𝟗𝟎° in a pure inductor when ac is applied.
waveforms Phasor diagram

Inductive Reactance: It is defined as the opposition offered by an inductance

of a circuit to the flow of an alternating current through it. In purely inductive
circuit,
Vm Vm
𝐼𝑚 = =
ωL 𝑋𝐿

where 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿⁡⁡⁡Ω

The term 𝑋𝐿 is called inductive reactance. Unit is ohm. 𝑋𝐿 is directly

proportional to frequency of applied voltage.

XL ∝ f
(Since frequency f of dc voltage is zero,
inductance offers zero reactance to the flow
of dc or steady current through it.)

Power:
Instantaneous power consumed, P = Instantaneous voltage x instantaneous
current
 = v⁡ × i
𝜋
= Vm sin⁡(ωt) × Im sin⁡(ωt − )
2

= −Vm Im sin⁡(ωt)cos⁡(ωt)
V I
P = − m2 m sin⁡(2ωt)

Ie, Instantaneous Power is sinusoidal with frequency double that of appied

voltage.
Average value of sine wave over a complete cycle is 0.
2𝜋
V m Im
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ − sin⁡(2ωt) 𝑑𝜔𝑡 = 0
0 2

Average power consumption is zero. Ie., pure inductor never consumes

power.

AC through purely capacitive circuit

Consider an ac voltage v = Vm sin⁡(ωt) is applied
across a pure capacitance of C farads. An
alternating current i is produced in the circuit and
charges the capacitor. If q is the charge on capacitor
at any time t, then q=Cv

dq d(CVm sin⁡(ωt))
= i=
dt dt
Vm π
i = CVm ω cos ωt = sin (ωt + )
1 2
ωC
 π
i = Im sin (ωt + )
2
Vm
where Im = and X C = 1/ωC = 1/2πfC⁡⁡Ω⁡
XC

ie., current through a pure capacitor is also sinusoidal with phase angle
∅ = +𝟗𝟎° . Current leads the applied voltage by +𝟗𝟎° .
Waveform Phasor diagram

Capacitive Reactance:
It is defined as opposition offered by the capacitance of a circuit to the flow of
sinusoidal alternating current. In purely capacitive circuit
Vm
Im =
XC

where X C = 1/ωC = 1/2πfC⁡⁡Ω⁡

The term XC is called capacitive reactance. Unit ohms. Capacitive reactance is
inversely proportional to the frequency of applied ac.

(For dc frequency =0, capacitive

reactance is infinity. Hence a
pure capacitor acts as open
circuit to dc or it blocks dc)

Concept of Impedance (Z)

Impedance is defined as opposition of a circuit to flow of alternating current.
It is denoted by Z and unit is ohms.
In a circuit with resistance, inductive and capacitive reactance, let current
lags the applied voltage by ∅° . The current and voltage across resistance,
inductive and capacitive reactance is represented as shown:
 Voltage Triangle Impedance Triangle

If all the sides of voltage triangle is divided by current, the sides of triangle
becomes resistance, reactance and impedance. The triangle obtained is called
impedance triangle. Thus impedance is obtained as the vector sum of
resistance, inductive and capacitive reactance of a circuit. It is a complex
quantity whose real part is the resistance and imaginary part is reactance,
denoted by: Z = R + jX⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡⁡, where⁡⁡X = XL − XC
R = Z cos ∅ ⁡and⁡X = Z sin ∅

In polar form impedance is: Z = |Z| < ∅ where |Z| = √R2 + X 2

X
and ∅ = tan−1 R

Q. A 50 Hz 150 V (rms) ac voltage is applied to a) Resistance 10 Ω b)

Inductance of 0.2 H c) Capacitance of 50 µF independently. Find
instantaneous current in each case and draw the phasor diagram.
Solution:
Case a: R = 10⁡Ω
v = Vm sin ωt
Vm
Vrms =
√2
Vm = √2Vrms = √2 × 150 = 212.13⁡V
Vm 212.13
Im = = = 21.213⁡A
R 10
In pure resistive circuit current and voltage are in phase. Phase angle ∅ = 0°
Instantaneous current, i = Im sin⁡(ωt + 0) = 21.213 sin(2πft)
i = 21.213 sin 100πt ⁡A

Phasor diagram
 Case b: L = 0.2⁡H
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋 × 50 × 0.2 = 62.83⁡Ω
Vm 212.13
Im = = = 3.37A
XL 62.83
𝜋
Current lags voltage by 90° purely inductive circuit, phase angle ∅ = − 2 rad

Instantaneous current,
π π
i = Im sin(ωt − ) = 3.37 sin (100πt − ) A
2 2 Phasor diagram

Case c: C = 50⁡µF
1 1 1
XC = = = = 63.66⁡Ω
ωC 2πfC 2π × 50 × 50 × 10−6
Vm 212.13
Im = = = 3.33⁡A
XC 63.66
𝜋
Current leads voltage by 90° purely capacitive circuit. phase angle ∅ = 2 rad
π π
i = Im sin(ωt + ) = 3.33 sin (100πt + ) A
2 2

Phasor diagram

POWER & POWER TRIANGLE

The total power supplied by an ac source is called the apparent power denoted
by ‘S’. Measured in volt-ampere or VA. It is the product of rms voltage and
current.

S = Vrms Irms ⁡⁡⁡⁡volt − ampere

Apparent power consists of 2 components: a) Active power component (P) and

b) Reactive power component (Q)

a) Active Power (P): Power consumed by the resistive elements in a circuit

is called active power or actual or real or true power. It is denoted by P.
 Actual power performs useful work for running appliances. Unit is
watts (W).
P = Vrms Irms cos ∅ ⁡⁡W

Where ∅ is the phase angle between voltage and current.

b) Reactive Power (Q): It is the part of total power which oscillates between
source and energy storing reactive elements like inductor and capacitor.
It does no useful work. It is stored in the reactive elements and returned
to source in every cycle. Unit is volt-ampere reactive or VAR.

Q = Vrms Irms sin ∅ ⁡⁡VAR⁡

Therefore total or apparent power (S) is the vector sum of active and reactive
power.

⃗S = ⃗P + ⃗Q = P + jQ

Apparent power is the complex power with real part as active power and
imaginary part as reactive power.

In polar form 𝑆 = |𝑆| < ∅

|𝑆| = √(𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 ) = √(Vrms Irms cos ∅)2 + (Vrms Irms sin ∅)2 = Vrms Irms

Hence the power triangle can be obtained with hypotenuse as apparent power
S.

AC THROUGH SERIES RL CIRCUIT

Consider a circuit consisting of pure

resistance R Ω in series with a pure
inductance L henry. Ac voltage

v = Vm sin ωt is supplied to the RL circuit.

Impedance of the circuit

Z = R + jXL
 In polar form: Z = |Z| < ∅ where |Z| = √R2 + 𝑋𝐿 2
X𝐿
and ∅ = tan−1 R

v Vm sin ωt Vm
Current in the circuit, i=Z= |Z|<∅
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − ∅)
√R2 +𝑋𝐿 2

i = Im sin(ωt − ∅)
Current lags the applied voltage by angle ∅ in an RL series circuit.

Phasor diagram, voltage and impedance triangle:

Let 𝑣𝑅 and 𝑣𝐿 be the voltage across resistor and inductor respectively. In
resistor current and voltage are in phase. Therefore i & 𝑣𝑅 are in phase. In
inductor, i lags 𝑣𝐿 by 90𝑜 . The vector sum of 𝑣𝑅 and 𝑣𝐿 gives total voltage v.

VR R
cosΦ = =
V Z

Phasor diagram Voltage triangle

From the voltage triangle V = √VR2 + VL2 = √((IR)2 + (IXL )2 ) = I√(R2 + XL2 )

V = IZ
Where Z is the impedance of the circuit. In series RL circuit current lags the
voltage by angle Φ.
If all the sides of voltage triangle is divided by I, we get impedance triangle.
Impedance triangle
XL
tanΦ = R = ZcosΦ, X L = ZsinΦ
R

Rectangular form:
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 ⁡⁡Ω
Polar form:
𝑍 = |𝑍|<Φ
2 2 XL
Where Z = √(R + XL ) and Φ = tan−1 R

Phase angle Φ is positive for RL circuit.

Power and Power factor in RL series circuit:
Instantaneous power 𝑝 = v × i
= Vm sin ωt × Im sin(ωt − ∅)
= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 [sin ωt × sin(ωt − ∅)]
cos(∅) − cos(2ωt − ∅)
p = Vm Im [ ]
2
1 1
p = ⁡Vm Im cos∅ + Vm Im cos(2ωt − ∅)
2 2
Average of 2nd term is 0 over a cycle.
1 Vm Im
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ⁡Vm Im cos∅ = . cos∅
2 √2 √2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos∅ = 𝑉𝐼cos∅ watts

cos∅ is the power factor of the circuit. Power factor is lagging for RL circuit.
Average or active power is the real power consumed by the RL circuit.
Reactive power 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼⁡sin∅
Unit: volt-ampere Reactive or VAR
Total power or apparent power, 𝑺=𝑷+𝑸

|𝑆| = √(𝑃2 + 𝑄 2 ) = √((𝑉𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠∅)2 + (VIsin∅)2 ) = 𝑉𝐼

Unit: volt-ampere or VA
Q. A sinusoidal voltage V = 230 < 15o of frequency 50 Hz is applied to a series
RL circuit consisting of R=5 Ω and L=0.1 H. Calculate (i) rms current and its
phase angle (ii) power factor (iii) average power (iv) reactive power and (v)
apparent power drawn by the circuit.
Solution:

V = 230 < 15o

L=0.1 H, 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 = 2𝜋 × 50 × 0.1 = 31.42⁡Ω

Impedance Z = √(R2 + X2L ) = √(52 + 31.422 ) = 31.8Ω
(i) 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 230𝑉
Irms = Vrms /Z = 230/31.8 = 7.23⁡A
 Phase angle: Φ = tan−1 (XL /R) = tan−1 (31.8/5) = tan−1 6.284 = 81𝑜
(ii) Power factor = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛷 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠81𝑜 = 0.156
(iii) Average Power (Active power) P = Vrms Irms cosΦ
= 230⁡x⁡7.23⁡x⁡0.156
P = 259.7⁡W
(iv) Reactive power Q = VIsinΦ
= 230⁡x⁡7.23⁡x⁡sin81o = 1642.8⁡VAR
(v) Apparent power 𝑆 = Vrms Irms
= 230⁡𝑥⁡7.23 = 1662.9⁡𝑉𝐴

AC THROUGH SERIES RC CIRCUIT

Consider a circuit consisting of pure

resistance R Ω in series with a pure
conductance C farad. Ac voltage

v = Vm sin ωt is supplied to the RC circuit.

Vm sin ωt
Impedance of the circuit
Z = R − ⁡jXC

In polar form: Z = |Z| < ∅ where |Z| = √R2 + 𝑋𝐶 2

X𝐶
and ∅ = tan−1 R

V Vm sin ωt Vm
Current in the circuit, i= = |Z|<∅
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
Z
√R2 +𝑋𝐶 2

i = Im sin(ωt + ∅)
Current leads the applied voltage by angle ∅ in an RC series circuit.

Phasor diagram, voltage and impedance triangle:

Let 𝑣𝑅 and 𝑣C be the voltage across resistor and capacitor respectively. In
resistor current and voltage are in phase. Therefore i & 𝑣𝑅 are in phase. In
capacitor, i leads 𝑣C by 90𝑜 . The vector sum of 𝑣𝑅 and 𝑣C gives total voltage v.

VR R
cosΦ = =
V Z

Phasor diagram Voltage triangle

From the voltage triangle V = √VR2 + VC2 = √((IR)2 + (IXC )2 ) = I√(R2 + XC2 )

V = IZ
Where Z is the impedance of the circuit. In series RC circuit current leads
the voltage by angle Φ.
If all the sides of voltage triangle is divided by I, we get impedance triangle.

XC
tanΦ = R = ZcosΦ, X C = ZsinΦ
Impedance triangle R

Rectangular form:
Z = R − jX C ⁡⁡Ω
Polar form:
Z = |Z|<Φ
2 2 XC
Where Z = √(R + XC ) and Φ = tan−1 R

Phase angle Φ is negative for RC circuit.

Power and Power factor in RC series circuit:
Instantaneous power p = v × i
= Vm sin ωt × Im sin(ωt + ∅)
= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 [sin ωt × sin(ωt + ∅)]
cos(-∅) − cos(2ωt + ∅)
p = Vm Im [ ]
2
1 1
p = ⁡Vm Im cos∅-⁡ Vm Im cos(2ωt + ∅)
2 2
Average of 2nd term is 0 over a cycle.
1 Vm Im
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ⁡Vm Im cos∅ = . cos∅
2 √2 √2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos∅ = 𝑉𝐼cos∅ watts

cos∅ is the power factor of the circuit. Power factor is leading for RC circuit.
Average or active power is the real power consumed by the RC circuit.
Reactive power 𝑄 = 𝑉𝐼⁡sin∅
Unit: volt-ampere Reactive or VAR
Total power or apparent power, 𝑺=𝑷+𝑸