Fundamentals of

Surveying
Engr. Jayson Z. Ferolin
INTRODUCTION
What is Surveying?
• Also known as “Geomatics”
• Science, art, and technology of
determining and establishing
the relative positions of
points on or beneath the
Earth's surface
Scope of Surveying

• Methods: Measuring,
collecting, and processing
information about the
Earth and environment.
• Purpose: Disseminating
information to various
clients.
Importance of Surveying Today

• Increasing Necessity:
As our population grows, land values increase, natural resources decrease, and
human activities put pressure on the quality of land, water, and air, measuring and monitoring
our environment has become more crucial than ever.
• Advanced Technologies:
Today’s surveyors use sophisticated ground, aerial, and satellite technologies, along
with powerful computer data processing, to gather and analyze data on a global scale.
• Unprecedented Information:
We now have access to an enormous amount of information, which is essential for:
1. Accurately assessing current conditions
2. Making informed planning decisions
3. Formulating effective policies
4. Managing land use, resource development, and environmental preservation
more effectively than ever before.
 Surveyor
A surveyor is a professional person with the
academic qualifications and technical expertise to
conduct one, or more, of the following activities:
• to determine, measure and represent the
land, three-dimensional objects, pointfields, and
trajectories;
• to assemble and interpret land and
geographically related information;
• to use that information for the planning and
efficient administration of the land, the sea and
any structures thereon; and
• to conduct research into the above practices
and to develop them
Historical Evolution of Surveying
❑ Ancient Beginnings:
Egypt (c. 1400 B.C.):
• Sesostris: Divided land for taxation;
used ropes for measurements.
• Early Surveyors: Called "rope-
stretchers"; replaced boundaries lost to
Nile floods.
❑ Greece (c. 200 B.C.):
• Eratosthenes: Calculated Earth's
circumference using measurements
between Alexandria and Syene.
• Heron: Authored The Dioptra;
introduced early surveying equipment
like the diopter.
Historical Evolution of Surveying
❑ Roman Innovations:
• 1st Century A.D.:
• Frontinus: Wrote influential works
on surveying.
• Roman Tools: Groma (sighting),
Libella (leveling), Chorobates
(leveling with water).
❑ Medieval Period:
• 6th Century:
• Codex Acerianus: Latin manuscript
detailing Roman surveying practices.
• 13th Century:
• Von Piso: Wrote Practica Geometria
and developed instruments like the
quadrans, astrolabe, and cross staff.
 Modern Advances and Technologies
❑ Advancements in the 18th and 19th
Centuries:
• England & France: Extensive surveys
with accurate triangulation.
• 1807: U.S. Coast Survey established,
evolving to National Geodetic Survey.
• Increased Demand: For accurate
mapping and boundary definitions due to
land value and public improvements.
❑ 20th Century Developments:
• Military and Space Contributions:
• World Wars & Conflicts: Stimulated
advances in measurement and mapping.
• Space Program: Enhanced equipment for
missile alignment and planetary mapping.
Modern Advances and Technologies
❑ Contemporary Technology:
• Modern Instruments:
• Electronic Total Stations: Measure and record
distances and angles automatically.
• Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS):
Provides precise location information (e.g., GPS).
• Laser-Scanning Instruments: Create dense grids of
coordinate points.
• Aerial Cameras & Remote Sensing: Digital imaging
for spatial information and maps.
❑ Current Tools:
• 3D Mobile Mapping Systems: Integrate scanners,
GNSS, and high-resolution cameras for high-speed,
detailed mapping.
• Softcopy Plotters: Process digital images for
accurate spatial data.
Geodetic and Plane Surveys
Geodetic Surveying:
Surveys accounting for Earth's curvature,
computations based on an ellipsoid.
• Method:
• Computation: Performed in 3D, Earth-
Centered, Earth-Fixed (ECEF) Cartesian
coordinate system.
• Equations: Derived from solid geometry
and calculus.
• Purpose: Determines relative positions of
widely spaced monuments; computes
lengths and directions over long distances.
Geodetic and Plane Surveys
Plane Surveying:
Assumes a flat horizontal surface for
computations; gravity is considered parallel
throughout the survey region.
• Method:
• Reference: Plane angles used; surface of the
Earth approximated as flat for small areas.
• Accuracy: Differences between ellipsoidal and
plane computations are minimal for small areas
(e.g., 0.02 ft difference over 5 mi).
• Techniques: Algebra, plane geometry, plane
trigonometry.
• Large Areas: Use map projections for accurate
plane-surveying computations.
 Importance of Surveying
Key Uses of Surveying Today:
1.Mapping the Earth: Above and below
sea level.
2.Navigational Charts: Essential for air,
land, and sea travel.
3.Property Boundaries: Defining private
and public lands.
4.Environmental Management:
Developing data banks for land use and
natural resources.
5.Geodetic Facts: Measuring Earth's
size, shape, gravity, and magnetic fields.
6.Extraterrestrial Surveys: Preparing
charts of the moon and planets.
Specialized Types of Surveys
• Control surveys - establish a network of horizontal and vertical
monuments that serve as a reference framework for initiating
other surveys
• Topographic surveys - determine locations of natural and
artificial features and elevations used in map making
• Land, boundary, and cadastral surveys - establish property
lines and property corner markers. The term cadastral is now
generally applied to surveys of the public lands systems.
• Hydrographic surveys - define shorelines and depths of lakes,
streams, oceans, reservoirs, and other bodies of water
Specialized Types of Surveys
• Sea surveying - is associated with port and offshore industries
and the marine environment, including measurements and
marine investigations made by shipborne personnel.
• Alignment surveys - are made to plan, design, and construct
highways, railroads, pipelines, and other linear projects.
• Construction surveys - provide line, grade, control elevations,
horizontal positions, dimensions, and configurations for
construction operations.
• As-built surveys - document the precise final locations and
layouts of engineering works, and record any design changes
that may have been incorporated into the construction
Types of Surveys
1. Cadastral Surveys: These surveys define
property boundaries and corners, mainly for
legal purposes. They are essential for
determining land ownership and resolving
disputes.
2. City Surveys: Conducted in urban areas,
these surveys help plan city expansions and
infrastructure improvements. They map
property lines and key land features.
3. Construction Surveys: These surveys provide
accurate data for construction projects,
ensuring buildings and structures are properly
positioned. They are crucial for aligning
construction work with design plans.
 Types of Surveys
4. Forestry Surveys: Used in managing
forests, these surveys measure forest
boundaries and tree growth. They support
conservation and sustainable forest use.
5. Hydrographic Surveys: These surveys
map water bodies and underwater features,
like lakes and rivers. They are important for
navigation, flood control, and water
resource management.
6. Industrial Surveys: Also called optical
tooling, these surveys ensure precise layout
and assembly in industries like shipbuilding.
They help accurately position heavy
machinery and structures.
Types of Surveys
7. Mine Surveys: These surveys determine the
positions of underground mining activities and
surface boundaries. They are essential for planning
and safely managing mining operations.
8. Photogrammetric Surveys: These surveys use
photos from planes or ground stations to create
maps and measure land features. They are often
used in topographic mapping and land planning.
9. Route Surveys: These surveys find the best paths
for roads, railways, and pipelines. They assess the
land along the route to ensure proper alignment
and construction.
10. Topographic Surveys: These surveys map the
shape and features of the land, like hills and
buildings. They are used in planning construction
projects and managing natural resources.
Development of Surveying Instruments
1. ASTROLABE
- invented by Hipparchus in 140 BC and further
improved by Ptolemy
- used to determine the altitude of stars

2. TELESCOPE
- invented by Lippershey (1607)
- Galileo constructed a refracting telescope for
astronomical observations in 1609.
- Only used in surveying after the cross hairs for
fixing the line of sight were introduced

3. TRANSIT
- invented by Young and Draper (1830)
- the universal surveying instrument
Development of Surveying Instruments
4. SEMICIRCUMFERENTOR
- used to measure and lay off angles and establish
lines of sight by employing peep sights
5. PLANE TABLE
- used in field mapping
- consists of a board attached to a tripod and can be
leveled or rotated to any direction
6. DIOPTRA
- invented by Heron of Alexandria
- used in leveling and measuring horizontal and
vertical angles
7. ROMAN GROMA
- for aligning or sighting points
- consists of cross arms with suspended plumb lines
fixed at right angles and pivoted upon a vertical
staff.
Development of Surveying Instruments
8. LIBELLA
- used by Assyrians and Egyptians
- had an A-frame with a plumb line suspended from its apex
- used to determine the horizontal
9. VERNIER
- invented by Pierre Vernier
- a short auxillary scale placed alongside the graduated scale of
an instrument to determine the fractional parts of the main scale
without interpolating.
10. DIOPTER
- developed by Greeks in 130 BC
- used for leveling, laying off right angles, and measuring
horizontal and vertical angles.
11. COMPASS
- for determining direction of lines and calculating angles
between lines
- consists of a magnetized steel needle which points at the
magnetic north
Development of Surveying Instruments
12. GUNTER’S CHAIN
- invented by Sir Edmund Gunter (1620)
- used for taping distances
- 66 ft long and contains 100 links
13. CHOROBATES
- for leveling work
- consists of a horizontal straight-edge about 6 m
long, a groove 2.5 cm deep and 1.5 m long on top.
- water is poured into the groove for leveling
14. MERCHET
- for measuring time and meridian
- used by Chaldeans in 4000 BC
- consists of a slotted palm leaf through which to
sight and a bracket from which a plumb bob was
suspended
The Field Survey Party
1. Chief of Party - responsible for the overall direction, supervision,
and operational control of the survey party.
2. Assistant Chief of Party - assists the chief of party in the
accomplishment of the task assigned to the survey party.
3. Instrument Man - sets up, levels, and operates the surveying
instruments.
4. Technician - responsible for the use and operation of all electronic
instruments required in the field.
5. Computer - performs all computations of survey data and works
out necessary computational checks required in the field.
The Field Survey Party
6. Recorder - keeps the record of all sketches, drawings,
measurements, and observations taken in the field.
7. Head Tapeman - responsible for the accuracy and speed of all
linear measurements with tape. Carries the zero end of the tape
ahead
8. Rear Tapeman - assists the head tapeman during taping
operations and in other related work. Holds the 30-m end or any
intermediate meter mark of the tape during measurement
9. Flagman - holds the flagpole or range pole at selected points as
directed by the instrument man.
10. Rodman - holds the stadia or leveling rod when sights are to be
taken on it.
The Field Survey Party
11.Pacer - checks all linear measurements made by the
tapeman. May also perform the job of the rodman.
12.Axeman/Lineman - clears the line of sight of trees, brush,
and other obstructions in wooded country.
13.Aidman - renders first aid treatment to members of the survey
party who are involved in snake or insect bites, accidents and
other health issues. May also be designated as assistant
instrument man.
14.Utilitymen - renders other forms of assistance needed by the
survey party or as directed by the chief of party.
Chapter 2
 Units of Measurement
❖ Essential Units: Foot).
• Commonly Used Units: Length, ❖ Area and Volume Units:
area, volume, and angle. • English System:
• Systems of Measurement: • Area: Square feet, Square yards,
English and Metric (SI). Acres.
• Volume: Cubic feet, Cubic yards,
❖ Length Units: Acre-foot.
• English System: ❖ Angle Units:
• Foot, Yard, Inch, Mile. • Degrees:
• Special units: Rod, Gunter's Chain, • 1° = 60 minutes, 1 minute = 60
Nautical Mile. seconds.
• Metric System: • Sexagesimal Units
• Meter as the standard unit. • Radian:
• Conversions: • 1 rad ≈ 57.3°.
• 1 foot = 0.3048 meters (International
Foot).
• 1 meter = 39.37 inches (U.S. Survey
Direct Observations
Applying a tape to a line, fitting a protractor to an angle, or turning an
angle with a total station instrument.

Indirect Observations
It is not possible to apply a measuring instrument directly to the
quantity to be observed.
As an example, we can find the distance across a river by observing
the length of a line on one side of the river and the angle at each
end of this line to a point on the other side, and then computing the
distance by one of the standard trigonometric formulas.
Errors in Measurement
Error – Difference between an observed value for a quantity and
its true value
𝐸 = 𝑋 − 𝑋ത
E – Error in the observation, X – Observed Value, X̄ - True Value

1. No observation is exact
2. Every observation contains errors
3. The true value of an observation is never known
4. The exact error present is always known
Mistakes
- Caused by misunderstanding the problem, carelessness, fatigue, missed
communication, or poor judgment.

Examples:
1. Recording 73.96 instead of the correct value of 79.36
2. Reading an angle counterclockwise, but indicating it as a clockwise angle in the field
notes;
3. Sighting the wrong target; or
4. Recording a measured distance as 682.38 instead of 862.38

Large Mistakes: These big mistakes need to be found through careful checking and
corrected by redoing some or all of the measurements.
Small Mistakes: Small mistakes are harder to spot because they blend in with normal
errors. If not found, they might be treated as regular errors, which could lead to inaccurate
results.
Sources of Errors in Making Observations
1.Natural Errors
• Caused by environmental factors like wind, temperature, humidity,
atmospheric pressure, refraction, gravity, and magnetic declination.
• Example: A steel tape changes length with temperature variations.
2.Instrumental Errors
• Result from imperfections in the construction or adjustment of instruments.
It can often be reduced or eliminated with proper procedures or
corrections.
• Example: A warped scale or unevenly spaced graduations.
3.Personal Errors
• Stem from the limitations of human senses (sight, touch).
• Example: Misalignment of a total station's cross hair on a target or a rod
held slightly out of plumb.
 Types of Errors
1.Systematic Errors (Biases)
• A type of measurement error that consistently affects all measurements in
the same way. Caused by factors within the "measuring system"
(environment, instrument, observer). Also known as cumulative errors
because they tend to add up.
• Example: A 100-ft steel tape that is 0.02 ft too long consistently introduces
a 0.02-ft error.
• Correction: Can be calculated and applied to correct the error.
2.Random Errors
• Occur after eliminating mistakes and systematic errors. Caused by
uncontrollable factors, following the laws of probability. Also known as
compensating errors since they tend to cancel out over multiple
observations.
• Example: Estimating measurements between scale marks, leading to
random over- or under-estimations.
Precision and Accuracy
Discrepancy - The difference between two observed values of the same
quantity.

Precision - The consistency or refinement of repeated measurements.

• High Precision: Small discrepancies between repeated observations.
• Example: Multiple close-range shots on a target, but not necessarily at the
bullseye.

Accuracy - How close a measurement is to the true value.

• High Accuracy: Measurements close to the actual value, regardless of
precision.
• Example: Shots on a target that are both close together and near the
 Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors
Mistakes in field operations are inevitable, but can be
minimized by experienced observers using consistent
procedures. Comparing multiple observations helps identify
errors, such as a transposed figure in a set of
measurements. It's better to repeat observations than to alter
recorded data.
Systematic errors can be corrected through calculations
or specific procedures. For example, equalizing the length of
measurements in leveling can cancel out errors from
misalignment.
Probability
• number of times something will probably occur over the range of
possible occurrences.
• in dealing with probability, it is assumed that we only refer to
accidental errors and that all systematic errors and mistakes are
eliminated.
Theory of Probability
1. small errors occur more often than large ones and that they are more
probable
2. large errors happen infrequently and are less probable
3. positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal frequency,
and they are equally probable
4. the mean of an infinite number of observations is the most probable value
Most Probable Value
- refers to a quantity which, based on available data, has more chance
of being correct than has any other
Σ𝑋 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + ⋯ + 𝑋𝑛
𝑀𝑃𝑉 = 𝑋ത = =
𝑛 𝑛

Example: A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to

measure a distance between two points marked on the ground. The
students came up with the following six different values: 250.25,
250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50, and 251.22 meters. Assuming these
values are equally reliable and that variations result from accidental
errors, determine the most probable value of the distance measured.
Most Probable Value
Example: A surveying instructor sent out six groups of students to measure
a distance between two points marked on the ground. The students came
up with the following six different values: 250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04,
250.50, and 251.22 meters. Assuming these values are equally reliable and
that variations result from accidental errors, determine the most probable
value of the distance measured.
Σ𝑋 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + ⋯ + 𝑋𝑛
𝑀𝑃𝑉 = 𝑋ത = =
𝑛 𝑛
Σ𝑋 250.25 + 250.15 + 249.90 + 251.04 + 250.50 + 251.22
ത
𝑀𝑃𝑉 = 𝑋 = =
𝑛 6
𝑀𝑃𝑉 = 250.51 𝑚
Most Probable Value
Example 2: The angles about a point O have the following observed
values. 130°15'20",142°37’ 30”, and 87°07’ 40“. Determine the most
probable value of each angle.
Most Probable Value
Most Probable Value
Measurement of three horizontal angles about a point P are: APB =
12°31'50", BPC = 37°29’20”, CPD = 47°36'30" if the measurement of the
single angle APD Is 97°37'00", determine the most probable values of
the angles.
Most Probable Value
Residual (Deviation)
- Difference between any measured value of a quantity and its most
probable value
ഥ
𝒗=𝒙−𝒙
Where: v – residual in any measurement
x – measure made of a particular quantity
x̄ - most probable value of the quantity measured

Residuals and Errors are similar but residuals can be calculated, while
errors cannot, because true values are unknown. Large residuals are
often discarded, and calculations continue with the remaining values
 Standard Deviation
- Measures how widely spread data points are; statistics that measures
the dispersion of a dataset relative to its mean

𝜮𝒗𝟐 𝜮𝒗𝟐
𝝈𝒙 = 𝒔𝒙 =
𝒏 𝒏−𝟏

Standard deviation of Standard deviation of

a population a sample
v = residual
n = size of data
 Standard Deviation
- Measures how widely spread data points are; statistics that measures
the dispersion of a dataset relative to its mean

𝜮𝒗𝟐 𝜮𝒗𝟐
𝑬=± 𝑬𝒎 =±
𝒏−𝟏 𝒏 𝒏−𝟏

Standard deviation / Standard Error of

Error the Mean
v = residual
n = size of data
Probable Error
- The value that, when added to or subtracted from the most probable
value, gives a range where there is a 50% chance the true value lies
𝜮 𝒗𝟐 𝜮 𝒗𝟐
- 𝑷𝑬𝒔 = ±𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟒𝟓 𝑷𝑬𝒎 = ±𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟒𝟓
𝒏−𝟏 𝒏 (𝒏−𝟏)

Where: PEs = probable error of any single measurement of a series

PEm = probable error of the mean
Σv² = summation of the squares of the residuals
n = number of observations
Probable Error
• The probable error helps indicate the accuracy of a
measurement. It gives a range where the true value is likely to
fall, but it's not exact because measurements are rarely
perfect, and conditions aren't always controlled.
• For example, if a measurement is 235.50 m with a probable
error of ±0.10 m, there's a 50% chance the true value is
between 235.40 m and 235.60 m.
• The probable error is an estimate based on the equipment,
experience, and conditions during the measurement, not the
actual error.
Relative (Error) Precision
• Relative error, or relative precision, shows the accuracy of a
measurement by comparing the error to the measured value.
• It is expressed as a fraction, with the error in the numerator
and the measured quantity in the denominator, both in the
same units. The numerator is simplified to 1 for easier
comparison.
• For example, if the error is 0.10 m and the measurement is
235.50 m, the relative precision is 1/2355, or 1:2355.

𝑃𝐸 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝑅𝑃 = =
𝑚𝑝𝑣 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Weighted Observations
• Weighted observations account for differences in reliability between
measurements taken under various conditions.
• When combining measurements, the reliability (or weight) of each one
must be estimated before determining the most probable values.
• Weights are often based on the surveyor’s judgment, the number of
measurements, and the inverse square of probable errors.
• For example, measurements taken in good weather might be
considered more reliable than those in bad weather. If group A takes
two measurements and group B takes four, group B’s measurements
are given twice the weight of group A’s, showing greater reliability.
• Weights are relative and can be adjusted proportionally.

Σ𝑃 Σ 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = =
Σ𝑊 Σ 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Interrelationship of Errors
The interrelationship of errors refers to how accidental errors in
measurements affect the final result of a calculation. Two key
principles used to understand this are the
1. Summation of errors, and the
2. Product of errors,
helping students grasp how errors can propagate in
computations.
1
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 =
𝑃𝐸 2
1 - Summation of Errors
When adding several measurements, each with its own errors,
the probable error of the total is found by taking the square root
of the sum of the squares of each individual error.

𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ± 𝑃𝐸12 + 𝑃𝐸22 + 𝑃𝐸32 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝐸𝑛2

Where: PEs = probable error of the sum

PE1, PE2, etc = probable error of each measurement
n = number of values added
2 - Product of Errors
When calculating a quantity from the product of two
independently measured quantities, the probable error of the
product is found using a specific formula.

𝑃𝐸𝑝 = ± 𝑄1 × 𝑃𝐸2 2 + 𝑄2 × 𝑃𝐸1 2

Where: PEp = probable error of the product

Q1 & Q2 = measured quantities
PE1 & PE2 = probable error corresponding to each
quantity measured
Example for Probable Error
The following values were determined in a series of tape measurements
of a line: 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000 .48, 1000.40, and 1000.46
meters. Determine the following:
a) Most probable value of the measured length
b) Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the
mean
c) Final expression for the most probable length
d) Relative precision of the measurement
The following values were determined in a series of tape measurements
of a line: 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000 .48, 1000.40, and 1000.46
meters. Determine the following:
a) Most probable value of the measured length
𝑛=6
Σ𝑋 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + 𝑋4 + 𝑋5 + 𝑋6
= 1000.58 + 1000.40 + 1000.38 + 1000.48 + 1000.40 + 1000.46
= 6002.70 𝑚

Σ𝑋
𝑋ത =
𝑛
6002.70
=
6
= 1000.45
The following values were determined in a series of tape measurements
of a line: 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000 .48, 1000.40, and 1000.46
meters. Determine the following:
b) Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the
mean
𝑣1 = 𝑋1 − 𝑋ത = 1000.58 − 1000.45 = +0.13
𝑣2 = 𝑋2 − 𝑋ത = 1000.40 − 1000.45 = −0.05
𝑣3 = 𝑋3 − 𝑋ത = 1000.38 − 1000.45 = −0.07
𝑣4 = 𝑋4 − 𝑋ത = 1000.48 − 1000.45 = +0.03
𝑣5 = 𝑋5 − 𝑋ത = 1000.40 − 1000.45 = −0.05
𝑣6 = 𝑋6 − 𝑋ത = 1000.46 − 1000.45 = +0.03
Σ𝑣 = 0.00
 𝑣1 = 𝑋1 − 𝑋ത = 1000.58 − 1000.45 = +0.13
𝑣2 = 𝑋2 − 𝑋ത = 1000.40 − 1000.45 = −0.05
𝑣3 = 𝑋3 − 𝑋ത = 1000.38 − 1000.45 = −0.07
𝑣4 = 𝑋4 − 𝑋ത = 1000.48 − 1000.45 = +0.03
𝑣5 = 𝑋5 − 𝑋ത = 1000.40 − 1000.45 = −0.05
𝑣6 = 𝑋6 − 𝑋ത = 1000.46 − 1000.45 = +0.03
Σ𝑣 = 0.00

𝑣12 = +0.13 2 = 0.0169 𝑣42 = +0.03 2 = 0.0009

𝑣22 = −0.05 2 = 0.0025 𝑣52 = −0.05 2 = 0.0025
𝑣32 = −0.07 2 = 0.0049 𝑣62 = +0.01 2 = 0.0001

Σ𝑣 2 = 𝑣12 + 𝑣22 + 𝑣32 + 𝑣42 + 𝑣52 + 𝑣62

= 0.0169 + 0.0025 + 0.0049 + 0.0009 + 0.0025 + 0.0001 = 0.0278
 Measured Length (X) Residual SQ of Residual
( v = X - X̄ ) ( v2 )
1000.58 m + 0.13 0.0169
1000.40 - 0.05 0.0025
1000.38 - 0.07 0.0049
1000.48 + 0.03 0.0009
1000.40 - 0.05 0.0025
1000.46 + 0.01 0.0001
Σx = 6002.70 Σv = 0.00 Σv2 = 0.0278

Σ𝑣 2 0.0278
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.6745 = ±0.6745 = ±0.05 𝑚
(𝑛 − 1) (6 − 1)
(𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡)

Σ𝑣 2 0.0278
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745 = ±0.6745 = ±0.02 𝑚
𝑛 (𝑛 − 1) 6 (6 − 1)
(𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛)
Example for Weighted Measurements
Four measurements of a distance were recorded
as 284.18, 284.19, 284.22, and 284.20 meters and
given weights of 1, 3, 2, and 4, respectively.
Determine the weighted mean.
Four measurements of a distance were recorded as 284.18,
284.19, 284.22, and 284.20 meters and given weights of 1, 3, 2,
and 4, respectively. Determine the weighted mean.
Example for Weighted Measurements
Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run
over four different routes. The observed elevations of the
point with probable errors are given below. Determine the
most probable value of the elevation of the point.
Line Observed Probable Error
Elevation (Elev) (E)
1 219.832 m ± 0.006 m
2 219.930 ± 0.012
3 219.701 ± 0.018
4 220.021 ± 0.024
Lines of levels to establish the elevation of a point are run over
four different routes. The observed elevations of the point with
probable errors are given below. Determine the most probable
value of the elevation of the point.
Example for Summation of Errors
The three sides of a triangular-shaped tract of land is given
by the following measurements and corresponding probable
errors: a = 162.54 ± 0.03 m, b = 234.26 ± 0.05m, and c =
195.70 ± 0.04 m. Determine the probable error of the sum
and the most probable value of the perimeter.
The three sides of a triangular-shaped tract of land is given
by the following measurements and corresponding probable
errors: a = 162.54 ± 0.03 m, b = 234.26 ± 0.05m, and c =
195.70 ± 0.04 m. Determine the probable error of the sum
and the most probable value of the perimeter.
Example for Product of Errors
The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with
certain estimated probable errors as follows: W=253.36 ±
0.06m and L = 624.15 ± 0.08 m. Determine the area of
the lot and the probable error in the resulting calculation.
The two sides of a rectangular lot were measured with
certain estimated probable errors as follows: W=253.36 ±
0.06m and L = 624.15 ± 0.08 m. Determine the area of
the lot and the probable error in the resulting calculation.