ADDITIONAL CONCEPTS

MULTIFINALITY refers to the phenomenon where the Consider two children who both
same initial condition or cause leads to experienced early childhood trauma. One
different outcomes. It highlights the child might develop anxiety and
variability in developmental pathways, depression, while the other might exhibit
where individuals exposed to the same resilience and have no significant mental
experiences or risks can have divergent health issues. Despite the same initial
outcomes. experience (trauma), the outcomes differ.
POLYGENIC refers to traits or characteristics that are Intelligence is a polygenic trait, as it is
influenced by multiple genes, rather than influenced by the combined effects of
a single gene. Most complex traits, such many genes, each contributing a small
as height, intelligence, and risk for many effect. The interaction of these genes,
diseases, are polygenic. along with environmental factors,
determines an individual’s cognitive
abilities.
EQUIFINALITY Equifinality is the concept that different Consider three individuals who all develop
initial conditions or pathways can lead to major depressive disorder. One person
the same outcome. It reflects the idea that might have a genetic predisposition,
various factors or events can result in a another might experience a significant
similar endpoint, even if they are different loss, and the third might develop
in nature. depression due to chronic stress. Despite
different causes, they all arrive at the
same outcome (depression).
MULTIDIMENSIONAL Multidimensional refers to the idea that a Intelligence is often viewed as
phenomenon, trait, or issue can be multidimensional, as it encompasses
understood or assessed through multiple various types of cognitive abilities such as
dimensions or aspects. It suggests that verbal reasoning, mathematical skills,
complex constructs cannot be fully spatial abilities, and emotional
captured by a single dimension and intelligence. Assessing intelligence
instead require a holistic approach. requires considering these different
dimensions rather than relying on a single
measure.
 LEARNING THEORIES (BEHAVIOR PSYCH)

Observational Learning Observational learning, also known as A child watches their older sibling receive
social learning or modeling, occurs praise for cleaning their room. The child
when an individual learns by observing then decides to clean their own room,
the behaviors of others and the anticipating similar praise. This learning
consequences of those behaviors. This occurs through observing the sibling's
type of learning does not require the actions and the associated rewards.
observer to perform the behavior or
receive direct reinforcement.
Instrumental Learning Instrumental learning is another term for A rat learns to press a lever to receive
operant conditioning. It refers to food. Over time, the rat presses the lever
learning in which behaviors are more frequently, demonstrating that it has
strengthened or weakened based on the learned the behavior due to the positive
consequences they produce. Positive consequence (receiving food).
reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
punishment, and extinction are key
components of instrumental learning.
Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is a type of learning A student studies hard for an exam and
where behavior is controlled by receives a high grade. The positive
consequences. Key concepts in operant outcome (the high grade) reinforces the
conditioning include reinforcement (which behavior of studying hard, making it more
increases behavior) and punishment likely that the student will study hard
(which decreases behavior). The learner again in the future.
actively engages in behaviors that are
either rewarded or punished.
Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning is a type of In Pavlov’s famous experiment, dogs
associative learning in which a previously were conditioned to salivate when they
neutral stimulus becomes associated with heard a bell because the bell had been
a stimulus that naturally elicits a repeatedly paired with the presentation of
response. Through repeated pairings, the food. Eventually, the bell alone, even
neutral stimulus comes to evoke a similar without food, triggered the salivation
response on its own. response.
 APPROACHES IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR

Developmental Perspective The developmental perspective focuses A developmental psychologist might study
on how people change and grow over the how children's cognitive abilities evolve
course of their lives. It examines physical, from early childhood to adolescence,
cognitive, social, and emotional exploring how factors like education,
development across different stages of parenting, and brain maturation contribute
life, from infancy to adulthood and old to changes in thinking and reasoning
age. This perspective is concerned with skills.
understanding the processes of
maturation and the influence of
experiences over time.

Key Focus: Changes over time, stages of

life, maturation, learning, age-related
processes.
Biological Perspective The biological perspective examines the A researcher studying the biological
physiological and genetic influences on perspective might investigate how
behavior and mental processes. It neurotransmitter imbalances contribute to
focuses on the brain, nervous system, mood disorders like depression, or how
hormones, and genetics, looking at how genetic predispositions influence the
these biological factors interact with the likelihood of developing certain mental
environment to shape behavior and health conditions.
cognition.

Key Focus: Genetics, brain structures,

neurotransmitters, hormones,
physiological processes.
Psychological Perspective The psychological perspective, also A psychologist using this perspective
known as the individual or cognitive might explore how cognitive distortions
perspective, focuses on internal (like negative thinking patterns) contribute
processes such as perception, memory, to anxiety, or how an individual's
thought, and emotion. This perspective self-esteem influences their behavior and
examines how individuals think, feel, and decision-making.
behave based on their mental processes
and personal experiences.
 Key Focus: Cognition, emotions,
personality, mental processes, individual
differences.
Sociocultural Perspective The sociocultural perspective emphasizes A sociocultural psychologist might study
the role of social and cultural factors in how cultural differences in parenting
shaping behavior and mental processes. styles affect children's development, or
It considers how societal norms, cultural how social identity and group membership
practices, socialization, and group influence behaviors and attitudes in
dynamics influence an individual's different cultural contexts.
thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Key Focus: Social interaction, cultural

norms, societal influences, group
dynamics, socialization.

Learning theory in behavioral psychology

Stimulus A stimulus is any object, event, or factor In Pavlov's experiments with dogs, the
in the environment that elicits a response sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus)
from an organism. In psychological terms, eventually became a stimulus that elicited
a stimulus can be something external, like salivation (conditioned response) after
a sound or light, or internal, like a thought being paired with food (unconditioned
or feeling. In classical conditioning, stimuli stimulus).
are often categorized as unconditioned
(naturally eliciting a response) or
conditioned (eliciting a response through
learning).
Disinhibition Disinhibition refers to the temporary If a dog has been conditioned to stop
increase in the strength of a previously salivating to the sound of a bell (through
extinguished response due to the extinction), and suddenly hears a loud
introduction of a new, unrelated stimulus noise while the bell rings, the salivation
or context. It occurs when a behavior that response might reoccur, showing
was previously suppressed or inhibited disinhibition.
reappears in the presence of a novel
stimulus.
Generalization Generalization occurs when an organism A child who has been bitten by a dog may
responds to stimuli that are similar to the develop a fear of all dogs, not just the
original conditioned stimulus. It reflects specific one that bit them. This fear
the process by which a conditioned response generalizes from one dog to all
response is triggered not only by the dogs.
exact stimulus that was conditioned but
also by similar stimuli.
Inhibition Inhibition in psychology refers to the After a dog learns that the bell no longer
process of suppressing or restraining a predicts food, the salivation response may
response. It can occur naturally as part of be inhibited (reduced or eliminated) over
conditioning, where a conditioned time. In a different context, a person might
stimulus loses its ability to elicit a inhibit their impulse to speak out in a
response after being repeatedly situation where they feel it's inappropriate.
presented without the unconditioned
stimulus (as in extinction), or through
active suppression of a behavior.
Discrimination Discrimination is the process by which an A dog trained to salivate to a specific tone
organism learns to respond differently to of bell may learn not to salivate to a
similar but distinct stimuli. It involves different tone. This shows the dog's ability
distinguishing between the conditioned to discriminate between the two tones,
stimulus and other stimuli that are not responding only to the specific one that
associated with the unconditioned predicts food.
stimulus.

BEHAVIORAL THERAPIES

Systematic Desensitization Systematic desensitization is a behavioral A person with a fear of flying might start
therapy technique used to reduce phobic by imagining being at an airport, then
or anxiety responses. It involves progress to watching videos of planes,
gradually exposing a person to the feared and finally take a short flight, all while
object or situation in a controlled manner practicing relaxation techniques to
while teaching them relaxation manage their anxiety.
techniques. The goal is to replace the
anxiety response with a relaxation
response through repeated exposure to
the feared stimuli.
 Steps:
1. Relaxation Training: The
individual learns relaxation
techniques, such as deep
breathing or progressive muscle
relaxation.
2. Hierarchy of Fears: The
individual creates a list of
anxiety-provoking situations
related to their phobia, ordered
from least to most frightening.
3. Gradual Exposure: The individual
is gradually exposed to each item
on the hierarchy while using
relaxation techniques to stay calm.
Aversive Conditioning Aversive conditioning is a type of To help someone stop smoking, a
behavioral therapy that uses unpleasant therapist might pair the act of smoking
stimuli to reduce or eliminate undesirable with a foul-tasting substance. Each time
behaviors. The individual learns to the person smokes, they experience the
associate the negative behavior with unpleasant taste, which eventually leads
something unpleasant, leading to a them to reduce or stop smoking due to
decrease in the behavior over time. the negative association.
Modeling Modeling, also known as observational A child who is afraid of dogs might watch
learning, is a technique in which another child interacting positively with a
individuals learn new behaviors by dog. Observing the other child's calm and
observing others. This technique is positive interaction can help reduce the
especially useful in teaching social skills first child's fear, and they may eventually
or coping strategies. The model feel more comfortable approaching the
demonstrates the behavior, and the dog themselves.
observer learns by watching and imitating.
In Vivo Technique The in vivo technique involves real-life For someone with a fear of heights, an in
exposure to feared situations or stimuli. vivo technique might involve gradually
Unlike systematic desensitization, which visiting higher and higher floors of a
might start with imagined or symbolic building. The person would confront their
exposure, in vivo exposure directly fear directly by standing on balconies or
 confronts the feared object or situation in looking out of windows, under the
the real world. It is commonly used in the guidance of a therapist.
treatment of anxiety disorders, particularly
phobias and obsessive-compulsive
disorder (OCD).
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) CBT is a widely used therapeutic A person with social anxiety might use
approach that focuses on identifying and CBT techniques to challenge negative
changing negative thought patterns and thoughts about social interactions and
behaviors. It operates on the principle that gradually expose themselves to social
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are situations to build confidence.
interconnected, and changing
maladaptive thoughts and behaviors can
lead to changes in feelings and overall
mental health.
Key Features:
● Cognitive Restructuring:
Identifying and challenging
irrational or distorted thoughts.
● Behavioral Activation: Engaging
in activities that promote positive
emotions and behaviors.
● Skill Development: Learning
coping strategies and
problem-solving skills.
Typical Applications:
● Anxiety disorders
● Depression
● Post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD)
● Obsessive-compulsive disorder
(OCD)
Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) DBT is a form of CBT developed An individual with BPD might use DBT
specifically for individuals with borderline skills to manage emotional dysregulation
personality disorder (BPD) and other and improve their ability to communicate
mood disorders. It combines effectively in relationships.
cognitive-behavioral techniques with
 mindfulness, distress tolerance, emotion
regulation, and interpersonal
effectiveness strategies. DBT aims to help
individuals manage intense emotions and
improve relationships.
Key Features:
● Mindfulness: Cultivating
awareness and acceptance of the
present moment.
● Distress Tolerance: Developing
skills to manage crises without
resorting to harmful behaviors.
● Emotion Regulation: Learning to
identify, understand, and manage
emotions.
● Interpersonal Effectiveness:
Improving communication and
relationship skills.
Typical Applications:
● Borderline personality disorder
(BPD)
● Self-harming behaviors
● Suicidal ideation
● Substance abuse
Brief Motivational Intervention (BMI) BMI is a short-term therapeutic approach A brief motivational intervention might be
aimed at enhancing an individual’s used to help a person with alcohol use
motivation to change problematic disorder explore their reasons for wanting
behaviors, particularly in the context of to reduce drinking and commit to a plan
substance abuse or other health-related for behavior change.
behaviors. It often uses motivational
interviewing techniques to explore and
resolve ambivalence about change.
Key Features:
● Motivational Interviewing: A
client-centered approach that
 elicits and enhances motivation for
change.
● Goal Setting: Helping individuals
set and commit to specific
behavioral goals.
● Feedback: Providing feedback on
the risks and benefits of current
behaviors.
Typical Applications:
● Substance abuse
● Health behavior change (e.g.,
smoking cessation, weight loss)
Interpersonal and Social Rhythm IPSRT is a psychotherapy approach An individual with bipolar disorder might
Therapy (IPSRT) designed to treat bipolar disorder by use IPSRT to create a consistent daily
focusing on the regulation of daily schedule and address conflicts with family
routines and interpersonal relationships. It members that contribute to mood
aims to stabilize mood by addressing instability.
factors that can disrupt social rhythms
and interpersonal relationships.
Key Features:
● Social Rhythm Regulation:
Establishing and maintaining
regular daily routines (e.g., sleep,
meal times).
● Interpersonal Therapy:
Addressing interpersonal issues
and improving relationship skills.
● Psychoeducation: Educating
individuals about bipolar disorder
and its management.
Typical Applications:
● Bipolar disorder
● Mood stabilization
 ADDITIONAL BRAIN STRUCTURES

Hippocampus The hippocampus is primarily responsible When you remember where you parked
for the formation, organization, and your car or recall details from a book you
storage of new memories. It is crucial for read last week, your hippocampus is
converting short-term memories into actively involved in retrieving and
long-term memories and plays a organizing those memories.
significant role in spatial navigation and
contextual information processing.
Prefrontal Cortex The prefrontal cortex is involved in When you weigh the pros and cons of a
higher-order cognitive functions, including difficult decision, plan your day, or resist
decision-making, problem-solving, the urge to act on an impulse, your
planning, reasoning, and self-control. It is prefrontal cortex is actively guiding these
also crucial for regulating social behavior, processes.
impulse control, and emotional
responses. The prefrontal cortex enables
individuals to think ahead, consider
consequences, and make informed
decisions.
Amygdala The amygdala is primarily responsible for If you encounter a dangerous situation,
processing emotions, especially those like seeing a snake on a hiking trail, your
related to fear and threat detection. It amygdala quickly activates, triggering a
plays a key role in emotional learning, fear response and preparing your body for
such as fear conditioning, and is involved fight or flight. The amygdala also helps
in the regulation of arousal and the you remember emotionally charged
formation of emotional memories. events, such as a frightening experience.

A mental status examination (MSE) is a structured assessment used to evaluate a patient's cognitive, emotional, and psychological
functioning. It provides a comprehensive overview of a person's current mental state and helps in diagnosing and planning treatment.
The MSE typically covers the following areas:
1. Appearance
● Description: Observations about the individual's physical appearance, including grooming, dress, and hygiene.
● Example: A patient may appear disheveled and unkempt, indicating potential issues with self-care.
2. Behavior
● Description: Assessment of the individual's behavior, including psychomotor activity, level of cooperation, and any unusual or
inappropriate behaviors.
● Example: The patient may exhibit agitation, restlessness, or unusual mannerisms.
3. Speech
● Description: Evaluation of speech characteristics such as rate, volume, fluency, and coherence.
● Example: The patient may speak rapidly (pressured speech) or have difficulty finding words (aphasia).
4. Mood and Affect
● Description: Mood refers to the patient's self-reported emotional state, while affect refers to the observable expression of
emotion.
● Example: A patient might describe their mood as "depressed," while their affect might be flat or restricted.
5. Thought Process
● Description: Examination of the organization and flow of thought, including coherence, logic, and speed.
● Example: The patient might demonstrate tangential thinking, where their thoughts deviate from the topic at hand.
6. Thought Content
● Description: Assessment of the substance of thoughts, including delusions, obsessions, or preoccupations.
● Example: The patient might express paranoid delusions or obsessive thoughts about contamination.
7. Perceptions
● Description: Evaluation of sensory experiences such as hallucinations (auditory, visual, tactile) or illusions.
● Example: The patient might report hearing voices that others do not hear (auditory hallucinations).
8. Cognition
● Description: Assessment of cognitive functions such as orientation (awareness of time, place, person), attention, memory,
and executive functioning.
 ● Example: The patient might be disoriented to time or place, or have difficulty with tasks requiring planning and organization.
9. Insight
● Description: Evaluation of the patient's awareness and understanding of their own condition, including recognition of
symptoms and the need for treatment.
● Example: The patient may have poor insight, denying the presence of symptoms or the need for intervention.
10. Judgment
● Description: Assessment of the patient's ability to make sound decisions and understand the consequences of their actions.
● Example: The patient might make poor decisions regarding safety or finances, indicating impaired judgment.

CULTURAL BELIEFS ABOUT MENTAL HEALTH CONDITIONS

Vitus Dance Vitus Dance, also known as St. Vitus A historical case might describe a person
Dance or Sydenham's chorea, is a exhibiting uncontrollable movements and
historical term for a neurological disorder being subjected to rituals or prayers to rid
characterized by involuntary movements, them of supposed demonic possession.
jerks, and twitches. The name originates
from St. Vitus, the patron saint of dancers,
as it was once believed that the disorder
was caused by supernatural forces or
possession.

Historical Context: In the past, Vitus

Dance was often attributed to religious or
supernatural causes, and affected
individuals were sometimes believed to
be possessed or under a curse. Today, it
is understood as a manifestation of
rheumatic fever and related autoimmune
disorders, with a more scientific
explanation.
Exorcism Exorcism is a practice in various religious An exorcism might involve a religious
traditions intended to drive out evil spirits leader performing prayers, using holy
or demons believed to be possessing or water, and invoking divine powers to
influencing an individual. It involves expel an evil spirit from a person thought
rituals, prayers, and other religious rites. to be possessed.

Historical Context: Historically, exorcism

was used to address what was perceived
as mental illness or behavioral
disturbances, attributing them to
supernatural causes. In modern times, it
is mostly practiced in specific religious
contexts and is not typically used in
mainstream medical or psychological
treatment.
Lunacy Lunacy is an old term historically used to Historically, someone exhibiting erratic
describe mental illness or insanity. The behavior might have been described as
term is derived from the Latin word luna, suffering from lunacy, and treatments
meaning moon, reflecting the ancient could have included various forms of
belief that mental disturbances were confinement or supernatural remedies.
linked to lunar phases or other celestial
influences.

Historical Context: In historical contexts,

lunacy was often associated with bizarre
or irrational behavior, and treatments
ranged from supernatural interventions to
early medical practices. Today, the term is
outdated and considered derogatory;
modern terminology focuses on specific
mental health diagnoses rather than using
such general terms.

Lycanthropy Lycanthropy refers to the mythological or A person believed to have lycanthropy

folkloric belief in the ability of a person to might have been thought to transform into
transform into a wolf or werewolf. In a wolf during the full moon, and the belief
 historical and cultural contexts, it was could have led to severe social and legal
often associated with supernatural powers consequences, including witch trials.
or curses.

Historical Context: In medieval and early

modern Europe, lycanthropy was linked to
witchcraft and supernatural beliefs.
Individuals accused of lycanthropy might
have faced persecution, and the condition
was often confused with mental disorders
such as schizophrenia or other delusional
states.

Analog research models are experimental approaches used in psychology and other fields to study complex phenomena by
creating simplified or analogous versions of real-world conditions. These models allow researchers to investigate the underlying
mechanisms of a phenomenon in a controlled and measurable way. Here’s an overview of key types of analog research models:
1. Animal Models
Description: Animal models involve studying animals to understand human behavior, diseases, or psychological conditions. By
manipulating variables in animals, researchers can observe effects that are analogous to human conditions.
Examples:
● Rodent Models: Used to study neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease or depression, by inducing similar
conditions in rodents.
● Primates: Used for more complex studies of social behavior or cognitive processes due to their closer physiological and
genetic similarity to humans.
2. Simulations
Description: Simulations use computer models or virtual environments to replicate real-world conditions or processes. These can be
used to study complex systems, such as human behavior under different scenarios or the effects of interventions.
Examples:
● Traffic Simulations: Used to study driver behavior and the impact of different traffic management strategies.
 ● Virtual Reality (VR) Simulations: Used in psychological research to simulate environments for studying phobias, social
interactions, or cognitive functions.
3. Laboratory Analogues
Description: Laboratory analogues involve creating controlled, simplified versions of real-world situations in a lab setting. These
models help researchers examine specific aspects of behavior or cognitive processes without the complexity of real-world variables.
Examples:
● Social Interaction Tasks: Laboratory tasks designed to study social behavior, such as trust or aggression, in a controlled
environment.
● Memory Tests: Experimental tasks that simulate aspects of real-world memory challenges to study cognitive processes.
4. Clinical Analogues
Description: Clinical analogues involve using simplified or analogous versions of clinical conditions to study psychological or
physiological responses. These models are often used to understand mechanisms underlying mental health disorders or treatment
effects.
Examples:
● Stress-Induction Protocols: Simulating stressful situations in a controlled setting to study stress responses and coping
mechanisms.
● Experimental Analogues of Psychopathologies: Using laboratory conditions to mimic symptoms of disorders like anxiety
or depression to test interventions.
5. Human Analogues
Description: Human analogues involve creating scenarios or tasks in human subjects that are analogous to real-life problems or
conditions. These models help researchers understand how specific factors influence behavior or cognitive processes.
Examples:
● Decision-Making Tasks: Experimental tasks designed to study decision-making under conditions that mimic real-life
uncertainty or risk.
 ● Behavioral Economics Experiments: Studying economic decision-making by creating analogues of financial choices and
market behavior in a controlled setting.

Comparison:
● Schizoid Personality Disorder (SPD):
o Core Issue: Lack of interest in social relationships and limited emotional expression.
o Behavior: Detached and indifferent; prefers solitude.
o Social Interaction: Minimal interest or desire for social interaction.
● Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD):
o Core Issue: Intense fear of social situations due to fear of negative evaluation.
o Behavior: Avoids or endures social situations with anxiety; symptoms are specific to fear of social embarrassment.
o Social Interaction: Fearful and anxious about social interactions, but may still have a desire to engage socially.
● Avoidant Personality Disorder (AVPD):
o Core Issue: Deep-seated feelings of inadequacy and extreme sensitivity to negative evaluation.
o Behavior: Avoids social situations due to fear of rejection and feelings of inadequacy.
o Social Interaction: Desire for social interaction is present but overshadowed by fear of rejection and feelings of
inferiority.
Malingering Example
Scenario: A worker who has been repeatedly late to work and is in danger of being fired suddenly starts complaining of severe back
pain, claiming they are unable to sit or stand for long periods. They visit multiple doctors, requesting disability leave. The worker is
careful to only complain of symptoms when their employer is around, and they seem to get better as soon as they are on leave.
Motivation: The worker's primary motivation is to avoid losing their job and to gain paid leave without actually being
incapacitated by any genuine illness or injury. They are aware that they are faking or exaggerating their symptoms to achieve
this external benefit.
Factitious Disorder Example
Scenario: A woman frequently goes to the hospital with various symptoms, such as feigning severe abdominal pain, undergoing
numerous tests and surgeries, and sometimes even tampering with lab results or medications to make her symptoms appear worse.
Despite the treatments and interventions, she continues to present new symptoms, never fully recovering. Her primary interactions
with the healthcare system revolve around being treated and cared for, and she seems to derive significant emotional satisfaction
from being in the patient role.
Motivation: The woman’s actions are driven by a deep psychological need for attention and care. She is not seeking external
rewards like financial gain but instead is motivated by an internal need to be seen as ill and to receive the emotional support and
attention that comes with being a patient. Her behavior often reflects a pattern of self-sabotage or a deep-seated need to assume the
sick role.