Brain Organization

• Trillion interneurons fill the brain

• Up to 200,000 synapses each
• Levels of complexity
– Cerebral cortex
– Basal nuclei
– Thalamus
– Hypothalamus
– Cerebellum
– Brain stem
 Brain component

Cerebral cortex
Cerebral cortex

Basal nuclei
(lateral to thalamus)
Basal nuclei

Thalamus
(medial) Thalamus

Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
Cerebellum
Cerebellum

Midbrain
Brain stem
Brain stem Pons (midbrain, pons,
and medulla)
Medulla Spinal cord
 Major Functions
Brain component

1. Sensory perception
Cerebral cortex 2. Voluntary control of movement
3. Language
4. Personality traits
5. Sophisticated mental events, such as thinking memory,
decision making, creativity, and self-consciousness

Basal nuclei 1. Inhibition of muscle tone

2. Coordination of slow, sustained movements
3. Suppression of useless patterns of movements
1. Relay station for all synaptic input
Thalamus
2. Crude awareness of sensation
3. Some degree of consciousness
4. Role in motor control
1. Regulation of many homeostatic functions, such as temperature
Hypothalamus control, thirst, urine output, and food intake
2. Important link between nervous and endocrine systems
3. Extensive involvement with emotion and basic behavioral patterns
1. Maintenance of balance
Cerebellum
2. Enhancement of muscle tone
3. Coordination and planning of skilled voluntary muscle activity

Brain stem 1. Origin of majority of peripheral cranial nerves

(midbrain, pons, 2. Cardiovascular, respiratory, and digestive control centers
and medulla) 3. Regulation of muscle reflexes involved with equilibrium and posture
4. Reception and integration of all synaptic input from spinal cord;
arousal and activation of cerebral cortex
5. Role in sleep-wake cycle
Brain Overview
 The Forebrain

Telencephalon Diencephalon

1.Cerebral Cortex Thalamus

2.Limbic System
& Hypothalamus
3. Basal Ganglia
 Cerebrum
• Cerebrum is the largest and the most prominent part of
the brain
• Telencephalon ----- 2 symmetrical halves ( cerebral
hemispheres) make up cerebrum
• Cerebral hemispheres are covered with cerebral cortex
and contains limbic system and basal ganglia
• Highly developed
• Makes up about 80% of total brain weight (largest
portion of brain)
• Inner core houses the basal nuclei
• Outer surface is highly convoluted cerebral cortex
– Highest, most complex integrating area of the brain
– Plays key role in most sophisticated neural functions
 Cerebral Cortex
• Structure: greatly convoluted
• Convolutions consisted of sulci (small
grooves), fissures (large grooves) and gyri
(bulges between adjacent sulci and fissures)
• Three specializations
– Sensory areas - sensory input translated
into perception
– Motor areas - direct skeletal muscle
movement
– Association areas - integrate information
from sensory and motor areas, can direct
voluntary behaviors
 Cerebral Cortex
• Each half of cortex divided into four major lobes
– Occipital lobe - carries out initial processing of visual input

– Temporal lobe - initial reception of sound sensation, taste, smell

– Parietal lobe - somatosensory processing (touch, pressure, pain,

temperature, position, movement, vibration

– Frontal lobe responsible for

• Voluntary motor activity
• Speaking ability
• Elaboration of thought
• The main difference between cerebrum
and cerebral cortex is that cerebrum is
the largest part of the brain whereas
cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the
cerebrum. The cerebrum comprises
two cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral
cortex is made up of gray matter that
covers the internal white matter.
 Language
•Primary areas of cortical specialization for language
–Broca’s area governs speaking ability
–Wernicke’s area
•Concerned with language comprehension
•Responsible for formulating coherent patterns of speech

Figure 9-23: Cerebral processing of spoken and visual language

Functional Areas of the Cerebral Cortex

Figure 9-15
Function of Lobes
Brain Function: Cerebral Lateralization
• Each lobe has special functions

Figure 9-16
 a. Telencephalon

• Cerebral Cortex
• Schematic Linking of
Various Regions of the
Cortex
 Basal Nuclei
• Act by modifying ongoing
activity in motor pathways
• Primary functions
– Regulates muscle tone
throughout the body
– Selecting and maintaining
purposeful motor activity while
suppressing useless or
unwanted patterns of
movement
– Help to monitor and coordinate
slow, sustained contractions,
especially those related to
posture and support
– Controls large automatic
movement
 Basal Ganglia:
 Collection of sub- cortical nuclei (which are situated
at the base of the forebrain and top of the midbrain)
in fore brain. It lie beneath the anterior portion of the
lateral ventricle.
 Major parts are
 Caudate nucleus (storing and procession of
memories, actions, decision making, language)
 Putamen (regulate movements at various stages
(e.g. preparation and execution) and influence
various types of learning. It employs GABA,
acetylcholine, and enkephalin to perform its
functions)
 Globus pallidus involved in the regulation of
voluntary movement.
• Amygdala along with some regions of limbic cortex
are specifically involved in emotions such as
 Feelings and expression of emotions
 emotional memories
 Recognizing the signs of emotions in others

• Role in fear, anger and anxiety

b. Diencephalon
Thalamus
• Most of the neural input to
the cortex is received from
the thalamus
• Final relay point for
ascending sensory
information
• Contains two lobes
connected with a bridge of
gray matter (Massa
intermedia) which pierces
the middle of the 3rd
ventricle
• Several nuclei in thalamus
that receives sensory info
from the sensory system
http://www.driesen.com/diencephalon.htm
1. Lateral geniculate neuclei (visual
function)
2. Medial geniculate neuclei (auditory
function)
3. Ventro lateral nucleus (motor function)
• Coordinates the activities of the
cerebral cortex and basal nuclei
Domain-specific information processing
 Hypothalamus
• Receives indirect sensory
inputs from all sensory
systems
• Sends neural outputs to
various motor control
nuclei
• Sends neural outputs to
sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous
systems
• Sends both neural and
hormonal outputs to
pituitary gland
 Control of endocrine system
• Anterior pituitary • Posterior pituitary
gland (body’s
master gland) • Oxytocin (ejection
• Gonadotropin- releasing of milk and uterine
hormone (Gonadotropic contraction at the
hormone) important in time of child birth
reproductive physiology and
behavior, release of sex • Vasopressin:
hormones (by stimulating regulate urine
gonads)
• Prolactin and somatotropic
output by the kidney
hormones (growth
hormones)
 Hypothalamus
• Controls somatic motor activities
• Controls autonomic function
• Coordinates activities of the endocrine and nervous
systems
• Secretes hormones
• Produces emotions and behavioral drives
• Coordinates voluntary and autonomic functions
• Regulates body temperature
• Coordinates circadian cycles of activity
• 4Fs: feeding, fighting, fleeing, and mating
(fornication)
2. Mid Brain

Mesencephalon

Tectum

Tegmentum
 a. Tectum
• Superior colliculi: part of visual system
• Inferior colliculi: part of auditory
system
• Appear like four bumps on the dorsal
surface of the brain
 b. Tegmentum
• Portion beneath the tectum
• Areas
Reticular formation: 90 nuclei, sleep and arousal,
attention, muscle tonus, movement and vital reflexes
(manage internal body organs e.g. heart beat, blood
pressure, swallowing, stomach activity)
Periaqueductal gray matter: control sequence of
movements, fighting and mating behaviors
Red nucleus and substantia nigra: components of
motor system. Parkinson’s disease
 3. Hindbrain

Metencephalon Mylencephalon

Medulla
cerebellum
oblongata

pons
 Cerebellum
• Basic functions: coordination, balance, motor learning, etc.
• Vestibulocerebellum – balance and control of eye movement
• Spinocerebellum – enhances muscle tone and coordinates skilled
voluntary movement – important in synchronization and timing
– Receives input concerning desired action from motor cortex
– Receives feedback concerning actual action from proprioceptors (sensory
receptors that specifically respond to position and movement) , vestibular
apparatus, eyes
– Compares inputs and sends adjustments or corrective signals to motor tracts
• Cerebrocerebellum – planning and initiation of voluntary activity by
providing input to the cortical motor areas also involved in procedural
memories
 Brain Stem: Pons & Medulla
• An important link between spinal cord and higher brain levels, relays motor and
sensory impulses between other “higher” parts of the brain and spinal cord
• Midbrain – eye movement control
• Pons (sleep and arousal)
• Medulla (regulation of cardio-vescular system, respiration and skeletal muscle
tonus) (Detail of structures given in next slides)
Cranial Nerves

Table 9-1: The Cranial Nerves

 Pons
• Sensory and motor nuclei for four cranial nerves
• Nuclei that help control respiration
• Nuclei and tracts linking the cerebellum with the
brain stem, cerebrum and spinal cord
 Medulla oblongata
• Contains relay stations and reflex centers
– Cardiovascular and respiratory rhythmicity centers
• Cardiovascular center - regulates rate and force of heartbeat
and vasoconstriction/dilation
• Respiratory center - regulates basic breathing rhythm
• Reticular formation begins in the medulla oblongata and
extends into more superior portions of the brainstem