Subject- World Geography

Topic- Continental Drift Theory

• Continental Drift theory was put forth by Alfred Wegener, a German
meteorologist, polar explorer, astronomer, and geologist. He is in fact known as
the father of continental drift.
• In a lecture in 1912, Wegener proposed a startling theory of ‘continental drift’.
• The movement of continents across the ocean bed is known as continental drift.
This drifting takes millions of years to complete this process.
• According to Wegener, all the continents formed a single continental mass
which is called “Pangaea” which means all earth. This supercontinent was
surrounded by a mega ocean called “Panthalassa” meaning all water.
• Subsequently, Laurasia and Gondwanaland continued to break into various
smaller continents that exist today. Thus, Wegener proposed that continents are
floating and constantly drifting on the earth’s surface. His hypothesis later
became the basis of present-day plate tectonic theory.
Various Stages of Continental Drift Theory
• The first stage occurred during the Carboniferous period, when Pangea, a
supercontinent, was encircled by Panthalassa, a mega-ocean.
• In the second stages around 200 million years ago in the Jurassic period, the
supercontinent, Pangaea, began to split. Pangaea first broke into large
continental masses as Laurasia and Gondwanaland forming the northern and
southern components respectively.
• In the third stages, the Tethys Sea progressively filled the area between
Laurasia and Gondwanaland during the Mesozoic epoch, and it gradually
broadened.
• In the fourth stage around 100 million years ago when North and South
America drifted westward, resulting in the emergence of the Atlantic Ocean.
The Rockies and Andes were formed by the westward drift of North and South
America.
• The Orogenetic Stage in which mountain-building activity took place is the
fifth stage.
Note: The Himalayas and Alps were constructed by the folding of Tethys Sea
deposits.

Forces responsible for Continental Drift

There are two factors which are responsible for continental drift which are as follows:
• The continental drift was equatorward due to the combined action of
gravitational forces, pole-fleeing force, and buoyancy force because the
planet is not perfectly round and has a bulge at the equator.
• Note: The ‘pole-fleeing force’ is caused by an increase in centrifugal force
from the poles towards the equator.
• The continental drift was westward due to tidal currents caused by the earth’s
rotation.
• However, these two factors were eventually discovered to be insufficient
reasons for continent drifting, which is considered a criticism of Wegener’s
theory.
Evidence in support of the Continental Drift Theory
• The Matching of Continents (Jig-Saw-Fit): When facing one another, the
shorelines of South America and Africa form a similarity. Similarly, when
matched, Africa, Madagascar, and India’s east coast all fit together.

• Geological structure- there is a remarkable similarity in geological structure

along the two coasts of the Atlantic. The best example is provided by the
Appalachian Mountains of North America which come right up to the coast and
continue their trend across the ocean in the old Hercynian Mountains of
southwest Ireland, Wales, and central Europe. The opposite coasts of Africa
and Brazil display even greater resemblance in their structure and rocks.
• Pre-carboniferous glaciations- it presents strong proof that at one point in
time these landmasses were assembled since the evidence of this glaciation is
found in Brazil, Falkland Island, South Africa, the Indian peninsula as well as
Australia. It is difficult to explain these extensive glaciations based on the
existing distribution of landmass and water. According to Wegener at the time
of Pangaea, the South Pole was situated near Durban of the present coast of
South Africa.
• Distribution of Fossils: Identical species and animals were found on both sides
of the marine barrier. For example, the Mesosaurus, a freshwater crocodile-like
reptile that lived between 286 and 258 million years ago, is only found in
Southern Africa and Eastern South America.
• Paleoclimatic evidence- Coal deposits have been found in temperate and polar
regions; however, coal is formed in tropical regions.
• Biological evidence- The lemmings have the tendency to migrate westwards
for the search of land, but these creatures have no idea that the land has shifted
 westwards and the sea awaits for their mass suicide i.e. the migratory pattern of
some animal species also hints towards the joined landmass. For example, the
entire lemming (a rodent) population crosses North America and falls in the
Atlantic. This is estimated that they have not forgotten their route when the
landmasses were joined, the might have traveled to Europe and Central Asia.

Criticism of Continental Drift Theory

• The continental drift theory was undeniably convincing. But so much of the
theory was based on speculation and inadequate evidence. It provoked a lot of
criticism and controversy.
• The greatest criticism of this theory was due to the controversial forces which
were stated to have caused the drift.
 • According to experts, the gravitational force of the moon or sun was so strong
to cause the landmass to break, then it would have stopped the rotations of the
earth and made it stationary.
• Also to cause a drift in a landmass, the rotations required should be at such a
high speed that it would have thrown the atmosphere (the gases) and everything
else in outer space away from the earth’s gravitational pull.
• Precarboniferous history not known
• Why only northward and westward drift
• Sial floating over Sima – in reality, the lithosphere is floating on
aesthenosphere
• The formation of mountains (Rockies and Andes) due to friction by Sima is
self-contradictory
• Did not explain the formation of oceanic ridges and Island arcs.

Plate Tectonic Theory

The term plate tectonics was first used by Tuzo Wilson, of the University of Toronto
but the Plate Tectonics theory was first published by W.J Morgan of Princeton
University in 1962.
Plate tectonics is a scientific theory describing the large-scale motion of 7 large plates
and the movements of a larger number of smaller plates of the Earth ‘s lithosphere,
over the last hundreds of millions of years.
The theoretical model builds on the concept of continental drift developed during
the first few decades of the 20th century. The geo scientific community accepted
plate-tectonic theory after seafloor spreading was validated in the late 1950s and early
1960s.

Plate Tectonics Theory

• The comprehensive theory which tries to explain most of the dynamism of
earth crust and features of the endogenetic forces.
• The development towards the theory began in the 1960s with extensive seafloor
mapping
 • This theory is based on the 2-principle hypothesis – Arthur Holmes
convection current hypothesis, and the concept of seafloor spreading’
advocated by Hess.
• It is an improvement over the Wegener’s continental drift theory and has been
considered as the most sophisticated and comprehensive theory about the drift
of continents and the expansion of sea floors.
• The lithosphere, which is the rigid outermost shell of a planet (the crust and
upper mantle), is broken up into tectonic plates. The Earth’s lithosphere is
composed of seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined)
and many minor plates.
• Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of
boundary: convergent, divergent, or transform.
• Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench
formation occur along these plate boundaries. The relative movement of the
plates typically ranges from zero to 100 mm annually.

Postulates of Plate tectonics theory

• The earth’s interiors according to mechanical rigidity can be classified into –
o Lithosphere
o Asthenosphere
o Mesosphere
• The theory rejects the ideas of SIAL, SIMA based classification.
Lithosphere – The crust and part of the upper mantle = lithosphere (100 km thick, and
less dense than the material below it so it “floats”)
Asthenosphere – The plastic layer below the lithosphere = asthenosphere (The plates
of the lithosphere float on the asthenosphere)
According to Plate tectonics theory –
• the lithosphere is believed to have been broken into fragments that are
floating on a ductile layer called asthenosphere (upper part of the mantle).
• The movement of these plates is attributed to the convention currents being
generated in the upper mantle.
• Plates move horizontally over the asthenosphere as rigid units.
• The lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle with its thickness range
varying between 5-100 km in oceanic parts and about 200 km in the
continental areas.
• The oceanic plates contain mainly the Simatic crust and are relatively thinner,
while the continental plates contain Sialic material and are relatively thicker.
• Lithospheric plates (tectonic plates) vary from minor plates to major plates,
continental plates (Arabian plate) to oceanic plates (Pacific plate), sometimes
a combination of both continental and oceanic plates (Indo-Australian plate).
• The movement of these crustal plates (due to convection currents in the mantle)
causes the formation of various landforms and is the principal cause of all earth
movements.
 • The margins of the plates are the sites of considerable geologic activity such as
seafloor spreading, volcanic eruptions, crustal deformation, mountain building,
and continental drift.

Lithospheric Plates
A plate is a broad segment of the lithosphere, that floats on the underlying
asthenosphere and moves independently of the other plates.
Broadly they can be classified into continental plates and oceanic plates.
La Pichon divided the earth into seven major and nine minor plates.

Major tectonic plates

1. Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate – (Surrounded by divergent

boundaries.)
2. North American plate – (shifting westwards, velocity 4-5 cm/year. It is half
oceanic—half continental)
3. South American plate – (shifting westwards, Half continental — half oceanic.
3-4 cm/year)
4. Pacific plate – (Truly oceanic plate. Shifting NW 2- 3cm/year)
5. India-Australia-New Zealand plate
6. Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
7. Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate – (mostly continental, shifting
eastwards. Velocity -2-3cm/year)
Minor tectonic plates

1. Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian landmass

2. Bismark plate (North Bismarck Plate & South Bismarck Plate)
3. Caribbean plate
4. Carolina plate [straddles the Equator in the eastern hemisphere located north
of New Guinea]
5. Cocos Plate
6. Juan de Fuca Plate (between Pacific and North American plates)
7. Nazca plate
8. Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and Pacific plate
9. Persian Plate
10. Anatolian Plate [or the Turkish Plate is a continental tectonic plate comprising
most of the Anatolia (Asia Minor) peninsula (and the country of Turkey)]
11. China plate
12. Fiji plate [located b/w the Pacific Plate and the Indo-Australia Plate.]
Three types of motion are possible between the plates:
1. Separation or divergent or constructive plate margins
2. Closing together or convergent or destructive plate margins
3. Transform or conservative plate margin
Divergent Boundaries
• A divergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates move away from each
other.
• Along these boundaries, lava spews from long fissures and geysers spurt
superheated water.
• Frequent earthquakes strike along the rift. Beneath the rift, magma—molten
rock—rises from the mantle.
• It oozes up into the gap and hardens into solid rock, forming new crust on the
torn edges of the plates.
• Magma from the mantle solidifies into basalt, a dark, dense rock that underlies
the ocean floor.
• Thus, at divergent boundaries, oceanic crust, made of basalt, is created.
Features of Divergent Boundaries –
• Mid-ocean ridges
• rift valleys
• fissure volcanoes
Continental rift Valleys

• Divergent boundaries can also develop within a continent resulting in a

continental rift valley such as The East African Rift, the Baikal Rift Valley,
the West Antarctic Rift, and the Rio Grande Rift are Earth’s major active
continental rift valleys.
Convergent Boundaries
• When two plates come together, it is known as a convergent boundary.
• The impact of the two colliding plates buckles the edge of one or both plates
up into a rugged mountain range and sometimes bends the other down into a
deep seafloor trench.
• A chain of volcanoes often forms parallel to the boundary, to the mountain
range, and to the trench.
• Powerful earthquakes shake a wide area on both sides of the boundary.
• If one of the colliding plates is topped with oceanic crust, it is forced down into
the mantle where it begins to melt.
• Magma rises into and through the other plate, solidifying into new crust.
Magma formed from melting plates solidifies into granite, a light colored, low-
density rock that makes up the continents.
• Thus, at convergent boundaries, continental crust, made of granite, is created,
and oceanic crust is destroyed.
The three types of convergent boundaries are –
1. Oceanic–continental convergence,
2. Oceanic–oceanic convergence,
3. Continental–continental convergence.

Oceanic–Continental Convergence
• Oceanic crust may collide with a continent. The oceanic plate is denser, so it
undergoes subduction. This means that the oceanic plate sinks beneath the
continent.
• The dense oceanic plate slowly and inexorably sinks into the asthenosphere
in the process of subduction. The subducting slab pulls on the rest of the
plate—such “slab pull” is probably the main cause of most plate movement,
pulling the rest of the plate in after itself, as it were.

Oceanic–Oceanic Convergence
• In collisions between two oceanic plates, the cooler, denser oceanic
lithosphere sinks beneath the warmer, less dense oceanic lithosphere. As
the slab sinks deeper into the mantle, it releases water from dehydration of
hydrous minerals in the oceanic crust.
• As one of the oceanic plates' subducts beneath the other, an oceanic trench is
formed, shallow and deep-focus earthquakes occur, and volcanic activity is
initiated with volcanoes forming on the ocean floor.
• With time, a volcanic island arc (such as the Aleutian Islands and the
Mariana Islands) develops; such an arc may eventually become a more mature
island arc system (such as Japan and the islands of Sumatra and Java in
Indonesia are today).
Continental-Continental Convergence
• Continent-Continent (C-C) convergence is formed between two continental
plates. When the plates converge, oceanic sediments are squeezed and upthrust
between the plates and these squeezed sediments appear as fold mountains
along the plate margins.
• The Himalayan Mountains are an example of this type of convergent plate
boundary.
Transform Fault Boundaries
A transform fault or transform boundary is sometimes called a strike-slip
boundary, is a fault along a plate boundary where the motion is predominantly
horizontal. Transform Plate Boundaries are locations where two plates are sliding
past each other, and there is no creation or destruction of landform but only
deformation of the existing landform. The fracture zone that forms a transform plate
boundary is known as a transform fault.
In oceans, transform faults are the planes of separation generally perpendicular to
the mid-oceanic ridges.
North Anatolian Fault & San Andreas Fault [(Silicon Valley lies dangerously
close to the Faultline) along the western coast of the USA] is the best example for a
transcurrent edge on continents.

San Andreas fault in California

 San Andreas fault

Evidence
• Ocean deep drilling- Glomar challenger
• JOIDES- Joint Oceanographic Institutions for Deep Earth Sampling)
• Hot spots
• Paleomagnetism
• Magnetic reversal and seafloor spreading
The significance of Plate Tectonics
• Almost all major landforms formed are due to plate tectonics.
• New minerals are thrown up from the core with magmatic eruptions.
• Economically valuable minerals like copper and uranium are found near the
plate boundaries.
• From the present knowledge of crustal plate movement, the shape of
landmasses in the future can be predicted.
• For instance, if the present trends continue, North and South America will
separate. A piece of land will separate from the east coast of Africa. Australia
will move closer to Asia.

Comparison: Continental Drift & Sea Floor Spreading & Plate

Tectonics

Continental Drift Sea Floor Spreading Plate Tectonics

Arthur Holmes explained
In 1967, McKenzie and
Convectional Current
Parker suggested the
Theory in the 1930s.Based
Explain Put forward by Alfred theory of plate
on convection current
ed by Wegener in the 1920s tectonics. Morgan
theory, Harry Hess
later outlined the
explained Sea Floor
theory in 1968
Spreading in the 1940s
Explains the
Movement of
Explains the
Explains the Movement of Lithospheric plates
Theory Movement of
Oceanic Plates only that include both
Continents only
continents and
oceans.
Forces
Buoyancy, gravity, Convection currents
for Convection currents in the
pole-fleeing force, in the mantle drag
movem mantle drag crustal plates
tidal currents, tides, crustal plates
ent
Evidenc Apparent affinity of Ocean bottom relief, Ocean bottom relief,
e physical features, Paleomagnetic rocks, Paleomagnetic rocks,
 botanical evidence, distribution of earthquakes distribution of
fossil evidence, Tillite and volcanoes etc. earthquakes and
deposits, placer volcanoes,
deposits, rocks of gravitational
same age across anomalies at
different continents trenches, etc.
etc.
Too general with silly Doesn’t explain the
Drawba
and sometimes movement of continental ———————
cks
illogical evidence. plates
Accepta
Discarded Not complete Most widely accepted
nce
Helped in the
evolution of Helped us understand
Usefuln Helped in the evolution of
convection current various geographical
ess plate tectonics theory
theory and seafloor features.
spreading theory

Seafloor Spreading Theory

The hypothesis of seafloor spreading was put forward by H. Harry
Hess in 1960. Using the sonar, Hess was able to map the ocean floor and
discover the mid-Atlantic ridge (mid-ocean ridge).
He also found out that the temperature near to the mid-Atlantic ridge
was warmer than the surface away from it.
He believed that the high temperature was due to the magma that leaked
out from the ridge. The Continental Drift Theory of Alfred Wegener
in 1912 is supported by this hypothesis on the shift position of the
earth’s surface.
Convection Current Theory

• Convection Current Theory is the soul of the Seafloor Spreading

Theory.
• Arthur Holmes in the 1930s discussed the possibility of
convection currents in the mantle.
• These currents are generated due to radioactive elements causing
thermal differences in the mantle.
• According to this theory, the intense heat generated by radioactive
substances in the mantle (100-2900 km below the earth’s surface)
seeks a path to escape and gives rise to the formation of convection
currents in the mantle.
• Wherever rising limbs of these currents meet, oceanic ridges
are formed on the seafloor due to the divergence of the
lithospheric plates (tectonic plates), and wherever the failing limbs
meet, trenches are formed due to the convergence of the
lithospheric plates (tectonic plates).
• The movement of the lithospheric plates is caused by the
movement of the magma in the mantle.
Paleomagnetism

• Paleomagnetism is the study of the record of the earth’s

magnetic field with the help of magnetic fields recorded in
rocks, sediment, or archaeological materials.
• The polarity of the Earth’s magnetic field and magnetic field
reversals are thus detectable by studying the rocks of different
ages.
• Rocks formed from underwater volcanic activity are mainly
basaltic (low silica, iron-rich) which makes up most of the ocean
floor.
• Basalt contains magnetic minerals, and as the rock is solidifying,
these minerals align themselves in the direction of the magnetic
field.
• This locks in a record of which way the magnetic field was
positioned at the time.
• Paleomagnetic studies of rocks have demonstrated that the
orientation of the earth’s magnetic field has frequently alternated
(geomagnetic reversal) over geologic time.
• Paleomagnetism led the revival of the continental drift hypothesis
and its transformation into theories of Sea Floor Spreading and
Plate Tectonics.
• The regions that hold the unique record of earth’s magnetic field
lie along the mid-ocean ridges where the seafloor is spreading.
• On studying the paleomagnetic rocks on either side of the oceanic
ridges, it is found that alternate magnetic rock stripes were
flipped so that one stripe would be of normal polarity and the next,
reversed.
• Hence, paleomagnetic rocks (paleo: denoting rocks) on either side
of the mid-ocean or submarine ridges provide the most important
evidence to the concept of Sea Floor Spreading.
• Magnetic field records also provide information on the past
location of tectonic plates.
• These oceanic ridges are boundaries where tectonic plates are
diverging (moving apart).
• The fissure or vent (in between the ridge) between the plates
allowed the magma to rise and harden into a long narrow band of
rock on either side of the vent.
• Rising magma assumes the polarity of Earth’s geomagnetic
field at the time before it solidifies on the oceanic crust.
• As the conventional currents pull the oceanic plates apart, the
solidified band of rock moves away from the vent (or ridge), and a
new band of rock takes its place a few million years later when the
magnetic field was reversed. This results in this magnetic striping
where the adjacent rock bands have opposite polarities.
• This process repeats over and over giving rise to a series of narrow
parallel rock bands on either side of the ridge and alternating
pattern of magnetic striping on the seafloor.
Sea Floor Spreading theory

• Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges,

where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity
and then gradually moves away from the ridge.

• The idea that the seafloor itself moves (and carries the continents
with it) as it expands from a central axis was proposed by Harry
Hess.
• According to this theory, the intense heat generated by radioactive
substances in the mantle (100-2900 km below the earth’s surface)
 seeks a path to escape and gives rise to the formation of
convection currents in the mantle.
• Wherever rising limbs of these currents meet, oceanic ridges are
formed on the seafloor and, wherever the failing limbs meet,
trenches are formed.
• Adds new material to the ocean floor while pushing older rocks
away from the ridge.
• New ocean floor forms along cracks in the ocean crust as molten
material erupt from the mantle spreading out and pushing older
rocks to the sides of the crack.
• The new ocean floor is continually added by the process of
seafloor spreading.
Mid-Ocean Ridge – the longest chain of mountains in the world—these
are divergent plate boundaries.

Evidence for Seafloor Spreading

1. Evidence from Molten Material

2. Evidence from Magnetic Stripes
3. Evidence from Drilling Samples
4. Subduction
5. Deep-Ocean Trench
Evidence from Molten Material – Rocks shaped like pillows (rock
pillows) show that molten material has erupted again and again from
cracks along the mid-ocean ridge and cooled quickly.

Evidence from Magnetic Stripes – Rocks that make up the ocean floor
lie in a pattern of magnetizing stripes that hold a record of the reversals
in Earth’s magnetic field.

Evidence from Drilling Samples – Core samples from the ocean floor
show that older rocks are found farther from the ridge; the youngest
rocks are in the center of the ridge.
Subduction – Process by which the ocean floor sinks beneath a deep-
ocean trench and back into the mantle; allows part of the ocean floor to
sink back into the mantle.

Deep-Ocean Trench – This occurs in subduction zones. Deep

underwater canyons form oceanic crust bends downward.
Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes along the
mid-ocean ridges

• The normal temperature gradient on the seafloor is 9.4° C/300 m,

but near the ridges it becomes higher, indicating an upwelling of
magmatic material from the mantle.
• Dots in the central parts of the Atlantic Ocean and other oceans are
almost parallel to the coastlines. This indicates that the seafloor has
widened with time.
• In general, the foci of the earthquake in the areas of mid-oceanic
ridges are at shallow depths whereas, along the Alpine-Himalayan
belt as well as the rim of the Pacific, the earthquakes are deep-
seated ones.

Seafloor spreading solved many of the unsolved

problems

• It solved the problem of younger age crust found at the mid-

oceanic ridges and older rocks being found as we go away from the
middle part of the ridges.
• It also explained why the sediments at the central parts of the
oceanic ridges are relatively thin.
• The seafloor spreading also proved the drifting of continents as
propounded by Alfred Wegener and helped in the development of
the theory of plate tectonics.