ELECTRIC ACTUATOR

An electric actuator is a mechanical device used to convert electrical energy

into kinetic energy in either a single linear or rotary motion. It automates damper
or valve in order to increase process efficiency. Designs for electric actuators
are based on the specific tasks they accomplish within the processes for which
they are intended and they can vary in both dimension and size. There are more
applications of electric actuators due to the movement toward massively
increased decentralization taking place in automation technology. New process
controllers can now be equipped with electric actuators which makes it simpler
to meet recently updated automation standards.

Applications

Electric actuators appear in a number of industries. They are used in industrial

applications associated with manufacturing valves, pumps and motors. The
automated industrial valves and many technical process plants use them. It also
finds application in;

· Upstream, midstream and downstream oil and gas plants

· Wastewater treatment plants

· Power plants

· Food and beverage plants

· Farming and agricultural plants

· Pulp and paper plants

Advantages of Electric Actuators

Electric actuation tends to be the best choice when the application requires
speed, accuracy, flexibility and control. Below are a few more key advantages
of electric actuators

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 • Very accurate control and positioning
• Able to stop at any point of the stroke
• Easy to set acceleration and deceleration
• No external sensors
• Low operating costs
• Help adapt machines to flexible processes
• Superior performance at high speeds
• Minimal maintenance
• Low risk of contamination

Disadvantages of Electric Actuators

Some of the disadvantages are;

• Higher initial equipment cost.
• Sensitive to vibration
• More complex technology
• Electric actuators have a poor torque - speed characteristic at low speed

Factors to consider when selecting an actuator

• Load capacity
• Precision
• Environment and Safety.
• Cost
• Movement Required (linear or rotary)
• Energy Input
• Speed
• Operating Conditions;
Is it for indoor or outdoor application?
What are the temperature requirements (heat, cold, moisture)?
What are the cleanliness requirements (clean room, dirty, etc...)?
Does it need to be explosion-proof?

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 Is it susceptible to corrosion?

There are three types of motors used in control applications.

• A.C. motors.
• Stepper motors.
• D.C. motors.

A.C. Motors

A.C. motors are mainly used for producing large power outputs at a fixed
speed. Typically, these are 1420 or 2900 rev/min. Such motors are controlled
by switching them on and off. Increasingly, speed control is being used with
A.C. motors on applications such as pumps where it is found to be more
economical to control the flow rate by changing speed rather than by opening
or closing a pipe line valve. Speed control is achieved electronically by
varying the frequency or by chopping the power supply. These motors are
usually geared down in order to produce a greater torque and increase the
control range. They may also have the rotation converted into linear movement
by a lead screw mechanism.

Alternating current motors can be classified in the groups single phase and
polyphase, with each group being further subdivided into induction and
synchronous motors. Single-phase motors are used for low power
requirements while polyphase motors are used for higher powers. Induction
motors tend to be cheaper than synchronous motors and are thus very widely
used.

Stepper Motors
Stepper motor produces rotation through equal angles, the so-called steps for
each digital pulse supplied to its input. Thus, for example, if with such a motor
1 pulse produces a rotation of 6° then 60 pulses will produce a rotation through
360°. There are various types of stepper motors.

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Variable reluctance stepper
Figure 4.1 shows the basic form of the variable reluctance stepper motor.

Pole

Figure 4.1: Variable reluctance stepper motor

In this form, the rotor is made of soft steel and is cylindrical with four poles, that
is, fewer poles than on the stator. When an opposite pair of windings have
current switched to them, a magnetic field is produced with line of force which
pass from the stator poles though the nearest set of poles on the rotor. Since
lines of force can be considered to be rather like elastic thread and always
trying to shorten themselves, the rotor moves until the rotor and stator poles
align. This is termed the position of minimum reluctance. This form of stepper
generally gives step angles of 7.5° or 15°.

Permanent magnet stepper

Figure 4.2 shows the basic form of the permanent magnet motor.

Figure 4.2: Permanent magnet stepper motor

As shown in Figure 4.2, permanent magnet stepper motor has a stator with four

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poles. Each pole is wound with a field winding, the coils on opposite pairs of
poles being in series. Current is supplied from a dc source to the windings
through switches. The rotor is a permanent magnet and thus when a pair of
stator poles have a current switched to it, the rotor will move to line up with it,
hence the rotor moves to the 45° position. If the current is then switched so that
the polarities are reversed, the rotor will move a further 45° in order to line up
again. Thus, by switching the currents through the coils the rotor rotates in 45°
steps. With this type of motor, step angles are commonly 1.8°, 7.5°, 15°, 30°,
34° or 90°.

Hybrid stepper
Hybrid stepper motors combine the features of both the variable reluctance and
permanent magnet motors, having a permanent magnet encased in iron caps
which are cut to have teeth (Figure 4.3).

Figure 4.3: Hybrid stepper motor rotor

The rotor sets itself in the minimum reluctance position in response to a pair of
stator coils being energized. Typical step angles are 0.9° and 1.8°. Such
stepper motors are extensively used in high accuracy positioning applications,
for example, in computer hard disc drive.

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Stepper Motor Specifications/Characteristics

Figure 4.4: Stepper motor characteristics

The following are some of the terms commonly used in specifying stepper
motors;
1. Phase
Phase refers to the number of independent windings on the stator, e.g. a four-
phase motor. The current required per phase and its resistance and inductance
will be specified so that the controller switching output is specified.

2. Step angle
This is the angle through which the rotor rotates for one switching change for
the stator coils.

3. Holding torque
This is the maximum torque that can be applied to powered motor without
moving it from its rest position and causing spindle rotation.

4. Pull-in torque
This the maximum torque against which a motor will start for a given pulse rate
and reach synchronism without losing a step.

5. Pull-out torque
This the maximum torque that can be applied to a motor, running at a given

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stepping rate, without losing synchronism.

6. Pull-in rate
This is the maximum switching rate at which a loaded motor can start without
losing a step.

7. Pull-out rate
This is the switching rate at which a loaded motor will remain in synchronism
as the switching rate is reduced.

8. Slew range
This is the range of switching rates between pull-in and pull-out within which
the motor runs in synchronism but cannot start up or reverse.

D.C. Motors
Direct current motors are more widely used in control applications and they
are usually referred to as Servo motors. The development of more powerful
magnets is improving the power to weight ratio but they are still not as good
as hydraulic motors in this respect. Servo motors usually have a transducer
connected to them in order to measure the speed or angle of rotation.

Principle of Operation of a D.C. Motor

A machine that converts d.c power into mechanical power is known as a d.c
motor. Its operation is based on the principle that when a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor experiences a mechanical
force. The direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left-hand rule and
magnitude is given by;
F = BIL Newtons
Basically, there is no constructional difference between a d.c motor and a d.c
generator. The same d.c machine can be run as a generator or motor.

Working of D.C. Motor

Consider a part of a multipolar d.c motor shown below;

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When the terminals of the motor are connected to an external source of d.c
supply:
(i) the field magnets are excited developing alternate N and S poles;
(ii) the armature conductors carry currents. All conductors under N-pole carry
currents in one direction while all the conductors under S-pole carry currents in
the opposite direction. Suppose the conductors under N-pole carry currents into
the plane of the paper and those under S-pole carry currents out of the plane of
the paper as shown above. Since each armature conductor is carrying current
and is placed in the magnetic field, mechanical force acts on it. Applying
Fleming’s left-hand rule to the Figure above, it is clear that force on each
conductor is tending to rotate the armature in anticlockwise direction. All these
forces add together to produce a driving torque which sets the armature
rotating. When the conductor moves from one side of a brush to the other, the
current in that conductor is reversed and at the same time it comes under the
influence of next pole which is of opposite polarity. Consequently, the direction
of force on the conductor remains the same.

Back E.M.F
When the armature of a d.c motor rotates under the influence of the driving
torque, the armature conductors move through the magnetic field and hence
e.m.f is induced in them as in a generator The induced e.m.f acts in opposite
direction to the applied voltage V (Lenz’s law) and is known as back or counter
e.m.f, Eb. The back e.m.f (Eb) is always less than the applied voltage V, although
this difference is small when the motor is running under normal conditions.
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Consider a shunt wound motor shown below;

When d.c voltage V is applied across the motor terminals, the field magnets are
excited and armature conductors are supplied with current. Therefore, driving
torque acts on the armature which begins to rotate. As the armature rotates,
back e.m.f, Eb is induced which opposes the applied voltage V. The applied
voltage V has to force current through the armature against the back e.m.f, Eb.
The electric work done in overcoming and causing the current to flow against
Eb is converted into mechanical energy developed in the armature. It follows,
therefore, that energy conversion in a d.c. motor is only possible due to the
production of back e.m.f, Eb.
Net voltage across armature circuit = V - Eb
If Ra is the armature circuit resistance, then,

Since V and Ra are usually fixed, the value of Eb will determine the current drawn
PφZN
by the motor. If the speed of the motor is high, then back e.m.f, Eb = is
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large and hence the motor draws less armature current and vice-versa.

Significance of Back E.M.F

The presence of back e.m.f makes the d.c motor a self-regulating machine, that
is, it makes the motor to draw as much armature current as is just sufficient to
develop the torque required by the load.

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(i) When the motor is running on no load, small torque is required to overcome
the friction and windage losses. Therefore, the armature current Ia is small and
the back e.m.f is nearly equal to the applied voltage.
(ii) If the motor is suddenly loaded, the first effect is to cause the armature to
slow down. Therefore, the speed at which the armature conductors move
through the field is reduced and hence the back e.m.f Eb falls. The decreased
back e.m.f allows a larger current to flow through the armature and larger
current means increased driving torque. Thus, the driving torque increases as
the motor slows down. The motor will stop slowing down when the armature
current is just sufficient to produce the increased torque required by the load.
(iii) If the load on the motor is reduced, the driving torque is momentarily in
excess of the requirement so that armature is accelerated. As the armature
speed increases, the back e.m.f, Eb also increases and causes the armature
current Ia to decrease. The motor will stop accelerating when the armature
current is just sufficient to produce the reduced torque required by the load. It
follows, therefore, that back e.m.f in a d.c motor regulates the flow of armature
current i.e., it automatically changes the armature current to meet the load
requirement.

Voltage Equation of D.C. Motor

Let, in a d.c motor;
V = applied voltage
Eb = back e.m.f.
Ra = armature resistance
Ia = armature current
Since back e.m.f, Eb acts in opposition to the applied voltage V, the net voltage
across the armature circuit is V- Eb. The armature current Ia is given by;

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This is known as voltage equation of the d.c. motor.
Power Equation
If the equation (i) above is multiplied by la throughout, we get,
VIa = EbIa + IaRa
This is known as power equation of the d.c motor.

4.7 Condition for Maximum Power

The mechanical power developed by the motor is Pm = EbIa

Hence mechanical power developed by the motor is maximum when back e.m.f.
is equal to half the applied voltage.

Limitations
In practice, we never aim at achieving maximum power due to the following
reasons:
(i) The armature current under this condition is very large, much excess of rated
current of the machine.

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(ii) Half of the input power is wasted in the armature circuit. In fact, if we take
into account other losses (iron and mechanical), the efficiency will be well below
50%.
Armature Torque of a D.C. Motor
Torque is the turning moment of a force about an axis and is measured by the
product of force (F) and radius (r) at right angle to which the force acts.
T=Fxr
In a d.c motor, each conductor is acted upon by a circumferential force F at a
distance r, the radius of the armature (Figure below). Therefore, each conductor
exerts a torque, tending to rotate the armature. The sum of the torques due to
all armature conductors is known as gross or armature torque (Ta).

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Alternatively, the torque may be expressed as follows:

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Speed of a D.C. Motor

Torque and Speed of a D.C. Motor

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Applications of D.C. Motors

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Fault in D.C. Motors

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Comparison between stepper motor and DC motors
Operation/Controllability
Stepper motors can operate within an open-loop system, which means that the
motor’s precise position is determined by the exact number of steps or pulses
sent to the motor. Because they operate in discrete, easily quantified steps,
stepper motors do not need position control. However, stepper motors do
require an external device, such as a microcontroller (MCU), to adjust the
motor’s speed and direction.
Brushed DC motors are powered by a DC power supply that is connected to the
rotor via carbon brushes. Simple brushed DC motors can be controlled via an
open-loop system, but more advanced motors may require feedback
mechanisms. DC motors do not require external controllers and they can be
easily adjusted. For example, adjusting the motor’s voltage changes its speed.
Lifecycle
Due to their simplicity, stepper motors are highly reliable and can be used for
upwards of 4 to 5 years or for about 10,000 hours.
DC motors are also relatively reliable but brushed DC motors require continuous
maintenance to prevent failure from the brushes, with a general lifespan of a
few thousand hours before maintenance.
Brushless DC motors have a longer lifespan than brushed DC motors since they
do not experience the same mechanical wear and tear from the brushes and
they can operate for over 10,000 hours.

Efficiency and Noise

Stepper motors tend to be less efficient because they lose energy through heat
dissipation. In addition, stepper motors operate at their maximum current at all
times, which means they demand high amounts of energy. DC motors are more
efficient, with brushless DC motors being the most efficient because they do not
lose as much energy through friction from the brushes.
In terms of noise generation, stepper motors produce the most noise because
of their discrete steps, which results in a whirring or ratcheting sound when the
motor is rotating at a continuous speed. Brushed DC motors are less noisy, but
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when the brushes brush over the commutator, this still generates noise.

Example 2
Determine the torque developed by a 350 V dc motor having an armature
resistance of 0.5 Ω, armature current of 60 A and running at the speed of 15
rev/s.
Solution

Example 3
A 240 V shunt motor takes a total current of 30 A. If the field winding resistance
Rf is 150 Ω and the armature resistance Ra is 0.4 Ω. Determine;
(a) the current in the armature
(b) the back e.m.f.

Solution

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