GEOLOGY OF IRAQ

Cretaceous
 Throughout the late Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Paleogene, the Middle East
and North Africa lay on the southern shelf of the Tethys Ocean. The Middle
East was bounded in the south and southwest by the Arabo-Nubian Shield.
Henson (1951) divided the Middle East into four structural-paleogeographical
zones: The Arabian Shield, the stable shelf, the mobile shelf, and the
Orthogeosyncline. Buday in 1980 utilizing the work of Bolton (1955-1958),
divided the Orthogeosyncline into Eu- and Miogeosynclinal realms, and
further subdivided the Paleogene Eugeosynclinal realm into three: Qandil and
associated groups as an inner belt, the Walash facies in the centre and the
Naopurdan group as an outer belt. The Eugeosynclinal realm is mainly found
in Iran and Turkey. Buday re-described the Eugeosynclinal realm of Iraq in
1980 in an attempt to unify his previous work (1973) and other studies carried
out in neighboring Iran and Turkey. As a result he divided the Eugeosynclinal
realm into an outer sedimentary- volcanogenic belt consisting of the
Naopurdan and Walash units of Tertiary age, and an inner, mostly
metamorphosed zone (Qandil) of pre-Tertiary and Tertiary age.
Henson (1950), Dunnington (1955-1960), A1-Rawi (1975, 1978) and Buday
(1980) ascribed the thickness and facies changes to deep seated faults in
the Arabo-Nubian basement.
Jassim and Goff (2006) revised the work of Buday (1980) and Buday and
Jassim (1987) according to the new ideas of plate tectonics and sequence
stratigraphy.
 The Tithonian - Middle Berriasian stages
are marked, at the beginning, by a temporary
cease of the tectonic unrest. There is an
important regional unconformity of Mid
Tithonian age (149 Ma) on the Arabian Plate
which marks the boundary between
Megasequences AP7 and AP8 (Sharland et
al., 2001). This unconformity may be a “break
up unconformity” which formed as a result of a
possible phase of ocean floor spreading
around the northern margin of the Arabian
Plate with the opening of a southern Neo –
Tethys Ocean. In Late Tithonian time major
paleogeographic changes occurred in the
northern and eastern Arabian Plate which are
not explained by previous plate tectonic
models of the region (Jassim & Goff, 2006).
Consequently, the lagoonal saline deposition
had been replaced by neritic to pelagic
sedimentation in a paleogeographically
relatively uniform basin.
 During the Berriassian, the Kimmerian
tectonic unrest had been renewed. The areas of
the High Folded Zone and of the adjacent units
in the northeast and the area of the Nahr Umr –
Mussaiyib paleouplift and those lying to the
southwest of it were uplifted and a residual
basin, lying mainly on the Foothill Zone and on
the northeastern parts of the Mesopotamian
Zone developed between them and was filled in
with the Karimia Mudstone Formation.
Buday (1980) mentioned that it should be
stressed that the lntra-Berriasian movements are
confined mainly to the areas lying relatively near
to the geosyncline. The prevailing parts of the
Stable Shelf in Saudi Arabia were not affected by
these movements at all. On the remaining parts
of the shelf the Tithonian – Berriasian neritic
sedimentation, which began after the closure
of the Kimmeridgian anhydritic sedimentation,
continued into the Valanginian.
 A. THE BERRIASIAN–APTIAN SUBCYCLE
The paleogeographic development during the
Late Berriasian – Aptian was directed by that
land mass, which was progressively rising in
the west and southwest and comprising the
Mardin and Khleisia Uplifts in the north (the first
until the Aptian) and the Shield and essential
parts of the Stable Shelf in the south (Ditmar et
al., 1971). On the Iraqi territory, lying to the
east and north of that continent, a system of
troughs, marked by different type of
sedimentation, developed. These troughs were
separated from others by ridges running
roughly in northwest – southeast, i.e. Zagros
direction and were mostly superimposed on the
old ridges which affected the sedimentation in
earlier times too.
On the extreme northeastern areas of Iraq,
there were troughs developed and separated
from the basins of the Unstable Shelf by a new
ridge running in Zagros direction between the
Rikan and Zibar areas in northwest and the
Sirwan areas in the southeast.
 Jassim & Goff (2006) argued that the
Late Tithonian – Early Turonian
Megasequence AP8 was deposited in a
large intra – shelf basin
contemporaneous with a new phase of
ocean floor spreading in the Southern
Neo – Tethys. The opening of the
Southern Neo – Tethys led to drifting
away of a narrow microcontinent; a new
passive margin formed along the NE
margin of the Arabian Plate. The Rutbah
Uplift formed the western margin of the
Mesopotamian Basin; while the NE
margin was formed by a carbonate ridge
along the north facing passive margin of
the Southern Neo – Tethys.
 The Ratawi Formation is composed in the
type locality of dark, slightly pyritic shales,
interbedded in the lower part with stringers and
beds of buff, pyritic, pseudoolitic, detrital
limestone with fossils, in some areas contains
inlayers of sandy shales and sands.
The thickness of the formation in the type area
ranges between 220-300m, decreases towards
the west and north partly due to the facies
passage into the synchronous Zubair.
The formation represents the sediments of a
partly euxinic lagoon fringing the shore of the
Lower Cretaceous sea at the beginning of the
Valanginian transgression in southern Iran and
in the adjacent parts of Kuwait and Saudi
Arabia. Jassim & Goff (2006) considered the
upper Ratawi shale as a pro-delta facies
passes both upwards and westwards into the
sandy deltaic Zubair facies.
The fossils indicate Hauterivian age for the
upper-prevalently shaley-part, the lower part is
not precisely dated and supposed to be
Valanginian.
Both contacts are conformable. The formation
passes gradually into the Zubair Formation.
 The Zubair Formation is essentially
composed of alternating shales and sandstones
with some siltstones. The variation in lithology
displays some regularity, towards the shore the
amount of the pelitic components rapidly
decreases. In the west the formation is
composed mostly of sands only. Towards the
basin the formation contains more and more
shales and becomes almost purely shaly near
the Dujaila area.
The formation represents a littoral, partly
deltaic, sedimentary sequence composed of the
products of erosion of the Arabian Shield and
Stable Shelf which were uplifted during the late
Kimmerian movement.
Fossils are abundant; the age of the formation,
as determined on the basis of both fossils and
regional correlation, is Hauterivian till Early
Aptian.
The contacts of the formation are mostly
gradational and conformable.
 The Garagu Formation is composed of oolitic
sandy limestone, with marls and sandstones in
its upper and lower parts, and of organic detrital
limestone in its middle part.
The formation represents the sediments of the
lagoonal realm outside the reach of the stronger
terrigenous supply. Based on the evidence of
fossils the age can be clearly defined as late
Berriasian – Hauterivian.
The Lower Qamchuqa Formation is
represented by massive, rather argillaceous.
fossiliferous limestone, with some disseminated
quartz silt, sometimes glauconitic, often
dolomitized, interbedded with crystalline
dolomites. The formation was deposited in a
purely- marine neritic environment
(carbonate inner shelf facies (Jassim & Goff,
2006)), not at all, or to a very slight degree
affected by terrigenous supply.
The age of the formation is firmly established
as Hauterivian till Aptian. The contacts of the
formation are mostly conformable.
 The Lower Sarmord Formation is composed
in the type area (Surdash anticline) of a
monotonous sequence of brown and bluish
marls, with alterations of manly neritic
limestone. The age of the formation is late
Berriasian – Aptian. The formation often
intertongues with both the Balambo and
Qamchuqa Formations and in such areas it is
impossible to make a clear distiction between
those formations.
The formation represents the sediments of the
deeper parts of the marine neritic zone (outer
shelf to basinal (Jassim & Goff, 2006)).
Fossils, mainly microfossils are very
abundant. The contacts of the formation are
different in accordance with the position of the
section. The tongues are conformable, as it is in
the type section.
 The Balambo Formation embraces the
deep water bathyal sediments deposited in the
outer shelf - basinal areas of north and
northeastern Iraq during almost the whole
Cretaceous i. e from the Valanginian up to the
Turonian (Buday, 1980, and Jassim & Goff,
2006)).
The Lower Balambo Formation is thin -
bedded blue ammonitiferous limestone, with
intercalations of olive green marls and dark blue
shales. Fossils are very abundant. The age of
the Lower Balambo is certainly Valanginian-
Albian.
The lower contact of the formation in the type
section and area seems to be non sequential,
but without visible unconformity. The basal
Valangin-ian and the Berriasian are missing
there. The upper boundary of the Lower
Balambo Formation is always gradational and
conformable.
 B. THE ALBIAN SUBCYCLE
The paleogeographical development during
the Albian did not principally differ from that,
which started in the Late Berriasian. The
Sedimentation continued without any break
and roughly with the same facies distribution.
In the areas on and near to the Stable Shelf,
however, the Albian is separated by a break
from the Aptian and the Albian sediments are
transgressive. This is the reason why the
Albian is treated as a separate subcycle.
Buday (1980) mentioned that the pelagic
Balambo Formation continued without
interruption, and the same for the neritic belt,
where the sedimentation on the Upper
Qamchuqa complex with Sarmord and
Balambo tongues continued. The neritic belt
was, however, broader than its Valanginian –
Aptian predecessor and reached the middle
parts of the Foothill Zone. To the southwest,
there is a lagoonal facies zone ( Jawan local
basin), which lay essentially on the remaining
part of the Foothill Zone.
 Nahr Umr Formation is composed of black
shales interbedded with medium to fine grained
sands and sandstones with lignite, amber, and
Pyrite.
The formation is clearly terrigenous, shallow
water, littoral sediment, comprising deltaic
sequences and some continental (lignite) and
neritic marine inlayers (limestone with fossils)
too. It was considered by Jassim & Goff (2006)
as clastic inner shelf facies.
Fossils found in the formation are mainly
foraminifera. The age of Nahr Umr Formation
is Albian.
The lower contact of the formation is
conformable and gradational. The upper
contact of the formation is conformable in Iraq.
 The Rim Formation has a very restricted
areal distribution. The formation is composed
of silty pyritic marls, marly siltstones, thin
sandstones and anhydritic marls.
The formation represents a shallow water
nearshore environment with lagoonal
influences, without a deltaic character,
deposited within the inner shelf (Jassim & Goff,
2006).
Fossils were not found. The age of the
formation is therefore not clearly defined and
might be determined as Albian with possible
Aptian parts at its base.
The Jawan Formation is composed of
pseudoolitic limestone, marly limestone, marly
dolomites, recrystallized limestone, and
anhydrites. The formation is clearly a neritic,
semi- lagoonal, and deposited in the inner shelf
(Jassim & Goff, 2006).
Fossils are relatively rare and bear evidence
on the hypersaline environment of the basin.
The, age of the formation is Albian.
 Upper Qamchuqa and Mauddud
Formations are lithologically practically
identical and are of the same age. They
are consist prevalently of dolomites,
replacing neritic organic - detrital
limestone and of non dolomitized detrital
limestone.
The formations were deposited in neritic,
sometimes shoal environment (carbonate ramp
(Jassim & Goff, 2006)). Fossils are abundant
mainly in the Mauddud part. The age is
Hauterivian – Albian.
Upper Sarmord Formation is a relatively
not too widespread unit, consist-ing of marl,
marly limestone, and neritic limestone,
sometimes with some shales and shaly
limestone.
The environment of deposition is the deeper
neritic. Fossils are relatively rare, indicating
Albian age. The formation has a strongly
patchy distribution.
 2- THE CENOMANIAN - LOWER CAMPANIAN CYCLE
In Late Cenomanian – Early Turonian time
the micro- continents that had split of the
Arabian Plate in Late Tithonian time approached
the trench of the intra- oceanic subduction zone.
The onset of growth of N-S trending structures
in S Iraq, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia at this time
may have been caused by the diachronous
collision of these micro-continents with the fore-
arc region above the trench. A foreland basin
formed around the northern margin of the
Arabian Plate in response to loading of the crust
by thrust sheets generated as a result of
compression (Jassim & Goff, 2006).
The Cenomanian - Lower Campanian
formations were deposited during an epoch
marked by strong tectonic unrest throughout the
area. The tectonic unrest was caused ,by the
strong Mid Cretaceous orogeny (Austrian –
Subhercynian passes).
 A. THE CENOMANIAN – EARLY TURONIAN SUBCYCLE
This subcycle was terminated by a new
wave of the Mid Cretaceous orogeny in the
area. Because these movements belong to the
paroxysmal Subhercynian phases of that
orogeny, the pulses of the movements were
repeated in shorter intervals and were more
intensive. The individual movements affected
the Unstable Shelf very strongly and caused
the several gaps, facies changes, and the
irregular distribution of the sediments of the
relatively long Turonian - Lower Campanian
Subcycle.
A common feature of the subcycle had been
the progressive shifting of the sedimentary
basins towards the southwest, and
simultaneously, the progressively older age of
the transgressions in the same direction
(Buday, 1980).
 The Rutbah Formation represents sediments
of the beginning of the Middle Cretaceous
transgression on the Stable Shelf in Iraq. It
consists of white varicolored, locally ferruginous,
coarse to fine grained, cross bedded quartz
sands and (locally calcareous or argillaceous)
sandstones, or quartzites.
This Formation was laid down mostly in
continental, exceptionally in littoral marine
environment, which was considered by Jassim
& Goff (2006) as inner shelf facies. The age of
the formation was controversial.
The Ahmadi Formation is composed of
shales, grey in the lower parts and green,
greenish - grey, and chocolate brown in the
upper division. At the base a limestone bed,
characterized by the ostracod species Cythereis
Bahraini. This formation represents the
sediments of shallow water (inner shelf facies
(Jassim & Goff, 2006)), with strong terrigenous
effect, marine basin, fringing the depositional
area of Wasia delta in Saudi Arabia. The age of
the formation is Cenomanian.
 The Rumaila Formation consists of two
rock types i.e. fine –grained, marly,oligosteginal
limestone, and marls above, and fine -grained,
chalky limestone below.
This Formation was deposited in a deep inner
shelf (Jassim & Goff, 2006), subsiding basin
with locally and temporarily occurring lagoonal
conditions, connected mainly in the north with
anomalous salinity, testified by the dwarfed
character of the fauna. The deeper basinal
conditions were temporarily interrupted, and
neritic normal saline sedimentation took place.
In the north terrigenous clastics indicate the
nearby continent and its local oscillations.
Fossils are relatively rich. The age of the
formation, including all facies, ranges within the
Cenomanian – Early Turonian.
 The Mishrif Formation is composed of grey–
white, dense, algal limestone with gastro-pods
and shell fragments above, and of brown,
detrital, porous, partly very shelly and
foraminiferal limestone, with banks of Rudists
below.
The formation was deposited in typical oolitic,
reef or fore-reef environment, considered as
rudist reef facies, with the exception of the
M'sad facies in the Rutbah area, where littoral
influences are clearly evidenced and
considered as inner shelf facies (Jassim &
Goff, 2006).
Fossils are very abundant. The age of the
formation is Cenomanian (most probably
higher) and very Early Turonian.
The contacts of the formation is, as a rule,
conformable.
The Kifl Formation is composed mainly of
anhydrites and of oolitic and pseudoolitic
limestone, representing the deposits of a relic
lagoon with mostly hypersaline sedimentation
and in some places freshwater sedimentation
too. Considered by Jassim &Goff (2006)
as evaporitic inner shelf lagoonal facies. The
age is Cenomanian–Early Turonian.
 The Dokan Formation consists of light
colored grey and white oligosteginal limestone,
locally rubbly, with glauconitic coatings of the
pebble - like masses.
The environment of the deposition was that of
restricted deep basin (Jassim & Goff, 2006),
evidenced by the abundant pelagic faunal
elements, including Ammonites. The age of the
formation is Cenomanian throughout. Both, the
contacts of the formation are unconformable.
The Upper Balambo Formation represents
mainly the Cenomanian and Turonian, and
cannot be lithologically separated from the
Valanginian - Albian Lower Balambo.
The formation is composed of a monotonous
sequence of thin bedded globigerinal, passing
downwards to radiolarian limestone. The
environment, of the formation is marine deep
neritic - bathyal, with pelagic faunas, considered
by Jassim &Goff (2006) as open marine facies.
The age is Cenomanlan and Turonlan.
 B. THE TURONIAN - LOWER CAMPANIAN SUBCYCLE
At the end of the Turonian the renewed
movements caused the rising of the ridge area
and the origin of a deeper basin along its
southwestern margins. This late Turonian basin
occupied a territory, which had been uplifted till
the Turonian. The basin is situated mainly on
the area of the Makhul Subzone of the Foothill
Zone and occupied the marginal parts of the
Stable Shelf around the Khleisia Uplift too,
forming there east - west trending embayment
in the Anah, Mushorah, and (?) Makhul area
(Buday, 1980).
Jassim & Goff (2006) stated that the Late
Turonian – Danian Megasequence AP9 is the
most widespread megasequence in Iraq.
This basin was continuing towards the
southeast, but it became shallower and less
subsiding on the area of the Mesopotamian
Zone to the southeast of Kut and Dujaila.
 The Khasib Formation is the most near
shore unit of this Subcycle. The formation has
a bipartite lithological division. The lower part
(20 m. thickness) is composed of dark grey and
greenish grey shale, alternating with grey, fine
grained, marly limestone. The upper division
(30 m. thickness) consists of grey, fine grained,
marly limestone only.
The depositional environment of the
formation had been mostly lagoonal as
evidenced by the prevailing oligosteginal fauna
and by the dwarfed character of the other
Fossils, so it was considered by Jassim & Goff
(2006) as deep inner shelf and lagoons. The
position of the sequence favours the Turonian-
Lower Campanian age.
The Tanuma Formation is composed of
black fissile, sometimes pyritic shale with
streaks of grey, microcrystalline, marly, detrital
limestone, sometime glauconitic. the sediments
of a near shore basin with apparently
sometimes restricted communication with the
open sea and with partly euxinic, partly
lagoonal episodes. The fossils are not decisive
for age determination.
 The Sa’di Formation is the highest,
thickest, and most widespread formation of the
tripartite Turonian - Early Campanian Subcycle
of South Iraq.
The formation being composed of white,
chalky, marly, globigerinal limestone with one
well developed marl bed of 60 m. thickness.
The formation is typical neritic sediment, with
clearly marked open sea influences, testified by
the frequent occurrence of planktonic
foraminiferal faunas (deep inner shelf facies
(Jassim & Goff, 2006)).
The age of the formation was not exactly
ascertained. Similarly as it is suggested for the
Khasib and Tanuma, Saidi considered by
Buday (1980) as a younger part of the
Turonian - Lower Campanian Subcycle. The
lower contact of the formation is usually
conformable and gradational. The upper
boundary is usually an unconformity.
 The Kometan Formation is the most
widespread Turonian formation of northern and
central Iraq. The formation is composed of light
grey, thin bedded, globigerinal - oligosteginal
limestone, locally silicified, with chert
concretions in occasional beds, and glauconitic,
especially at the base.
The formation had been laid down in different
environments, attributed by Jassim & Goff (2006)
as outer shelf and basinal. The Mushorah facies
represents the purely oligosteginal facies,
deposited in a partly isolated basin, in which,
sometimes, hypersaline conditions occurred.
The Gulneri Formation occupies a somewhat
peculiar position within this subcycle, because it
is separated by breaks from both the underlying
Cenomanian and the overlying Turonian units.
The formation consists of black, bituminous,
finely laminated, calcareous, shale with some
glauconite and collophane in its lower part.
Considered by Jassim &Goff (2006) as a
restricted deep basin facies. The age of the
formation is Lower Turonian.