Journal of Family Studies
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Parenting, autonomy and academic achievement
in the adolescence
Eduardo Aguirre-Dávila, Miguel Morales-Castillo & Manuel Moreno-Vásquez
To cite this article: Eduardo Aguirre-Dávila, Miguel Morales-Castillo & Manuel Moreno-Vásquez
(2023) Parenting, autonomy and academic achievement in the adolescence, Journal of Family
Studies, 29:1, 63-76, DOI: 10.1080/13229400.2021.1871935
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JOURNAL OF FAMILY STUDIES
2023, VOL. 29, NO. 1, 63–76
https://doi.org/10.1080/13229400.2021.1871935
Parenting, autonomy and academic achievement in the
adolescence
Eduardo Aguirre-Dávila , Miguel Morales-Castillo and
Manuel Moreno-Vásquez
Research Group on Socialization and Parenting, Department of Psychology, Human Sciences Faculty,
Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia
ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY
Development as a configuration of personal and social conditions Received 15 May 2020
makes important to consider both sources of contribution to Accepted 1 January 2021
understand specific trends in adolescence. This study examined
KEYWORDS
the role of adolescent autonomy in the relation between Parenting; adolescence;
parenting and academic achievement. Two hundred and twenty- autonomy; academic
nine mothers and their adolescents (mean age=11.8; SD=0.93) achievement
were surveyed in a cross-sectional design with schools in
Colombia, South America. Parenting practices evaluated include
parental involvement, expression of affection, communication,
and rule-setting; multidimensional autonomy covered cognitive,
motivational, and social dimensions in the academic context;
academic achievement included grades in Social Sciences,
Mathematics, Language, and Natural Sciences. Data were
analyzed by estimating structural equation models. Major
findings indicate that parenting had indirect effects on academic
achievement with the intervention of adolescent autonomy.
Communication and parental expression of affection show the
greater contribution of parenting to the explanatory model.
Cognitive, motivational, and social dimensions of autonomy, in
that order, contribute to explain academic achievement, where
Social Sciences and Mathematics are the academic areas with
major loads. Conclusions include an analysis of parenting
practices studied and their relationship with adolescent
behaviours and outcomes. Implications address the opportunities
offered for the intervention and future studies.
Introduction
Parenting is defined as the orientation of efforts and resources of parents to influence the
well-being, development, and behaviour of their children (Aguirre-Dávila, 2015; Power
et al., 2013; Smetana, 2017), which implies that parent’s actions can affect the learning
of skills, behaviour patterns, values, and motivations necessary for social and culturally
competent functioning of adolescents (Campione-Barr & Smetana, 2018). Although ado-
lescence is a period of particularities for the relationship between parents and children
(Smetana et al., 2015), parenting remains relevant in the adolescent conquest of auton-
omous functioning and its consequences (Suizzo, 2020).
This article has been republished with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.
© 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
64 E. AGUIRRE-DÁVILA ET AL.
A parenting practice that has received attention is the parental rule-setting, which
encompasses the manifestation of limits and parameters that can influence adolescent
behaviour (Rodríguez-Fernández et al., 2019) acting as a protective factor in risk situ-
ations (de Looze et al., 2012) and promoting general positive trends in adolescence (Grol-
nick et al., 2015). Similarly, parent’ manifestation of emotions and teaching children to
give and receive affection could buffer against social pressure (Marion et al., 2014) and
influence positively adolescent adjustment (Miranda et al., 2016). In the same way, com-
munication between parents and children may affect adolescent behaviour, as a set of
interactions in which parents express beliefs and values while sharing emotional elements
(Hollmann et al., 2016), which could be a beneficial practice, so that increases in parent–
child communication are related to increases in the positive performance of adolescents
(Trung & Ducreux, 2013). Additionally, parental involvement as an active implication of
parents in adolescent experiences (Morales-Castillo & Aguirre-Davila, 2018) has been
identified as an important source of influence in adolescent functioning (Wang et al.,
2014).
In this frame, while parents are oriented to participate in the development of their
children, the latter grow in terms of self-affirmation as individuals (Campione-Barr,
2020). Previous works have examined theory-based psychosocial factors to understand
adolescent development. Self-determination theory has been used to provide a frame-
work for autonomy in adolescence, integrating motivation and behavior (Ryan, 2016).
From this point of view, parent-adolescent relationships offer a supportive context for
the manifestation of autonomy, expressing rationale for activities, acknowledging feel-
ings about activities, avoiding controlling behaviors whenever possible, and allowing
the adolescent to choose whether to engage in activities (Ryan et al., 2015; Soenens
et al., 2017). In this sense, autonomy corresponds to the personal capacity to be an
agent with initiative which compromises different kind of expressions (Deci & Ryan,
2017), and a multidimensional approach to autonomy includes cognitive, motivational,
and social components. Cognitive autonomy implies deployment of planning, organiz-
ation, and evaluation strategies that guide decision-making (Gestsdottir et al., 2010),
while motivational autonomy refers to the desire of carry out an action, either for an
intrinsic interest or for the integration of external values in the intrapersonal order
(Ryan, 2016), and social autonomy implies that the adolescent takes the initiative in
social contexts as an expression of the individual sense of identity (Kirshner, 2018).
Although autonomy could be taken as a tendency towards independence, it can actu-
ally be a positioning process with respect to social demands, which insinuates a related
autonomy (Grolnick et al., 2017). For parents, to guide their adolescents and promote
a healthy development in terms of autonomy is specially challenging, but active
expressions of parenting could affect adolescent’s experience of act willingly based on
true interests or internalized values (Soenens et al., 2017). Specifically, parental beha-
viours that are related with adolescent autonomy include setting rules (Ren et al.,
2017), expression of affection (Kocayörük et al., 2015), communication (Wuyts et al.,
2018), and involvement (Wang & Cai, 2017).
In addition, one area of sensible interest in adolescence is academic performance,
where decreases, failure, and dropout are relevant concerns (Hanewald, 2013; Song
et al., 2015). In this context, parenting has been related to adolescent performance in
specific areas such as math and science (Degol et al., 2017; Morgan et al., 2016), where
JOURNAL OF FAMILY STUDIES 65
the significant effects have entailed adolescent variables (Farley & Kim-Spoon, 2016).
Similarly, it has been argued that parental involvement training plays a determining
role in the academic success of adolescents taking science and math courses (Rozek
et al., 2015).
Family functioning during adolescence is relevant to understanding developmental
trends, where mothers have received special attention for the specific contribution that
they can offer. In this regard, it has been pointed out that mothers pay more attention
to the academic performance of adolescents and there is a greater interaction with
them in educational activities (Hsu et al., 2011), which have effects positive in academic
results (Lansford et al., 2018), where a powerful predictor of adolescent academic
achievement appears, such as mother’s involvement. The foregoing is critical when con-
sidering that academic interest tends to decline during adolescence (Gnambs & Hanf-
stingl, 2016) and the influence of mothers can be positively related to better trends
(Lerner & Grolnick, 2019). In this regard, it is also necessary to consider that academic
performance of adolescents is affected by levels of autonomy in terms of cognitive (Gests-
dottir et al., 2010), motivational (Froiland & Oros, 2014; Ryan, 2016), and social dimen-
sions (Kağitçibaşi & Yalin, 2015), so that both the role of parents and adolescents must be
included to understand the levels of academic achievement in adolescence.
The relation of parenting with adolescent adjustment considering autonomy of ado-
lescents has been explored (Roche et al., 2019). In this context, studies with Latino popu-
lation have reported positive outcomes for adolescent adjustment with oriented-
parenting to positive promotion of autonomy as opposed to coercive forms of socializa-
tion (Sher-Censor et al., 2011), although Latino parents could tend to express high levels
of regulation and affection over adolescent’s decision-making what shapes their behav-
iour trends (Halgunseth, 2019). However, differences in parenting outcomes may not
be homogenous among Latino parents (Roche et al., 2014), which suggests that singular-
ities are not necessarily due to ethnic origin but to other particularities of the relationship
between parents and children.
In sum, parenting practices of mothers could affect academic the achievement of ado-
lescents, but it is relevant to consider variables as adolescent autonomy in the analysis of
this relation. Likewise, the specific relation of parenting practices and autonomy with
academic achievement in adolescence has not been sufficiently explored with the
Latino population.
In this context, this study is oriented to expand current knowledge about parenting
practices and academic achievement in adolescence including the role of multidimen-
sional autonomy. Regarding the above, as Figure 1 depicts, it is considered that parenting
has a positive association with adolescents' academic achievement (H1), autonomy posi-
tively influences the academic performance of adolescents (H2), and adolescent auton-
omy mediates the relationship between parenting academic and achievement (H3).
Method
Participants
The sample consisted of 229 mothers and their children from 10 schools of seven muni-
cipalities in Colombia, South America. The schools were intentionally selected for
66 E. AGUIRRE-DÁVILA ET AL.
Figure 1. Theoretical model of relations between variables.
convenience considering ease of access. Among the inclusion criteria was that the ado-
lescents were between 10 and 14 years old at the time of answering the questionnaires
with no disability diagnoses. Adolescents covering students from public (65.9%) and
private schools according to the categorization of the Ministry of Education of Colombia
(2018). The average age of mothers was 37.9 years (SD=6.9), and of children 11.8 years
(SD=.93), including boys (49%) and girls, that were in sixth (58.1%) and seventh grades.
Almost half of the mothers (51,9%) had an educational diploma after school education,
including mothers with a university degree (29.6%), and only 23.6% did not have full
school studies. 27.5% of mothers don’t receive monthly incomes, 29.4% less than
233,84 USD, 2.6% between 233,84 USD and 475,89 USD, and 22.5% more than 475,89
USD. Most of the mothers were married at the moment of the study (92.4%).
Measures
Parenting practices
The Parenting Practices and Academic Achievement Questionnaire (CRP-AAQ)
(Aguirre-Dávila, 2017) measure actions of parents related to achievement of adolescents,
and consists of 20 items (global α =0 .858) organized in four scales, which was confirmed
by factor analysis (AFC) in the current study with an adequate fit to the proposed model
of the items (CMIN/DF = 1.865; CFI = 0.918; RMSEA = 0.062; SRMR = 0.066). Scales of
CRP-AAQ evaluate: Parental Involvement (5 items, α = 0.789), which refers to strategies
used by parents to be part of children’s school life (e.g.: ‘I help my child to study for
tests’); Affective Manifestation (5 items, α = 0.802), is the way in which parents express
emotions and teach their children to give and receive affection through caresses,
words, hugs, and plays (e.g. ‘If my child gets good grades, I congratulate and encourage
him/her to continue like this’); Communication (15 items, α = 0.802), it refers the way
like parents communicate their expectations to their child in relation to the academic
achievement, taking into account the attitude, the clarity of the message, and the time
and place where they do it (e.g. ‘I ask my child what she/he learned during the day.’);
JOURNAL OF FAMILY STUDIES 67
and Setting Rules (5 items, α = 0.822), is the way that parents give norms of behaviour to
the child, making explicit their academic responsibilities and the consequences of com-
pliance or non-compliance with this responsibilities (e.g. ‘I punish my child when she/he
gets a bad grade.’). Parents rated items with a four-point Likert scale (‘Strongly Agree’,
‘Agree’, ‘Disagree’, ‘Strongly Disagree’). High scores indicated higher levels of positive
parenting in each scale.
Perceived academic autonomy
The Academic Autonomy Perception Questionnaire (AAPQ) was originally proposed
by Aguirre-Dávila and Ruiz (2016) to measure perception of autonomy in academic
situations, and consists of 21 items (α = 0.804) fitted in the present study in three
scales according to a principal component analysis (KMO=0.780 p<.001) and a CFA
(CMIN/DF=1.666; RMSA=0.054; SRMR=0.066), as follows: cognitive autonomy (α =
0.605) refers to the processing of information, decision-making to coping everyday
problems and the management of learning strategies (e.g. ‘I reflect before acting.’);
Social autonomy (α = 0.635) refers to the way of interacting with people, including
communication skills, conflict resolution and the ability to self-regulate emotions in
social situations (e.g. ‘I am intolerant with people who have different ideas than
mine’); and Motivational autonomy (α = 0.641) is the desire to act for oneself (intrinsic
motivation) and the desire to execute a behaviour to obtain an external reward (e.g. ‘I
am motivated to continually exceed my goals’). Adolescents rated items with a four-
point Likert scale (‘Never’, ‘Sometimes’, ‘Usually’, ‘Always’). High scores indicated
higher levels of autonomy in each scale. Considering the number of items and the
nature of the variables, reliability values greater than .6 are considered acceptable
(George & Mallery, 2016).
Academic achievement
Schools reported grades of students in Social Sciences, Language, Mathematics, and
Natural Sciences, at the beginning and end of the second semester of the academic
year. Average of grades was calculated and included for surveyed students. Grades are
expressed in a one to five scale, where five represents the highest level.
Procedure
This study was approved for the Research System of Universidad Nacional de Colombia,
and all ethical principles related to research with human participants were followed. A
pilot study was developed with the research team to manualize the application require-
ments. In the first semester of the academic year, a letter was sent to directors of the
schools selected to inform them about the objectives and procedures of the study and
to invite them to participate in the research. After approval, specific materials and
instructions were shared with schools to organize the details.
The instruments were administered at the beginning of the second semester of the aca-
demic year. The school staff distributed the CRP-AAQ to the mothers with a consent
form. The mothers who agreed to participate returned the signed consent form and com-
pleted the questionnaire. A total of 229 surveys (46.4% of distributed) were returned. Stu-
dents whose mothers returned the questionnaire and the parent consent form received
68 E. AGUIRRE-DÁVILA ET AL.
the AAPQ in a class during their regular school hours, where the questionnaire was com-
pleted under the supervision of teachers who supported research assistants in distribut-
ing the questionnaires to students. The instruments were administered at the beginning
of the second quarter of the academic year. The school staff sent academic reports of the
surveyed students. The raw data were submitted by the schools and digitized in the
research group.
Data analysis
Data were cleaned and structured with the software SPSS version 24 (IBM, 2016a).
Descriptive statistics and correlations of studied variables were calculated. Structural
equations models (SEM) were run with the Amos software version 24 (IBM, 2016b).
The fit of the model was tested considering small and non-significantly values of Chi-
square (χ²), normalized Chi-square (CMIND/DF) values under 3, Comparative Fit
Index (CFI), Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI), and Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) values over
0.90, and Standardized Root Mean Squared Residual (SRMR) and Root Mean Square
Error of Approximation (RMSEA) values under 0.080 (Hair et al., 2019; Kline, 2015).
The comparison between models was made taking into account the values of the
Akaike information criterion (AIC), preferring small values.
Results
As Table 1 indicates, parenting measures were significantly correlated with the
exception of Rule-Setting that only correlated with Involvement. In this context,
the relation between Communication and Expression of affection stood out when
relating parenting practices (r=0.552; p <.01). All autonomy measures were signifi-
cantly correlated, and Cognitive and Motivational dimensions were the best related
(r=0.654; p <.01). In the academic achievement, Language and Mathematics had a
relevant correlation (r=0.512; p <.01), with all the academic subjects significantly
correlated.
Communication was the only significantly correlated parenting variable with aca-
demic subjects, including Social Sciences (r=0.141; p <.05) and Math (r=0.137; p <.05).
Social Sciences was the only academic achievement variable no significantly correlated
with autonomy variables. Considering the above, there are sufficient reasons to consider
the measured variables grouped in each latent variable and all the latent variables as
independent.
The baseline SEM with original theoretical model (Figure 1) was tested, obtaining a
poor adjustment in terms of: χ² (41) = 120.81 with p<.001, CMIN/DF=2.931,
CFI=0.876, TLI=0.833, GFI=0.913, RMSEA=0.092, and SRMR=0.072. In this case, AIC
value was equal to 170.181. Considering the correlations and modification indices pro-
vided by the software used, an alternative model was tested to achieve better values,
obtaining an AIC of 114.545.
Since the Rule-Setting had no significant contribution to parenting in the original
model, its exclusion allowed improvements in the fit of the obtained model. In this
case, the global fit test resulted in a χ2 (31) = 39.043, with p-value of .152, which
allows not to deny the hypothesis of equality of the covariance matrices of the model
Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations matrix for study variables.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Involvement
Affection 0.264**
Communication 0.436** 0.552**
Rule-setting 0.454** −0.002 0.099
Social A. −0.036 0.054 0.067 −0.016
Cognitive A. 0.113 0.074 0.073 0.037 0.507**
Motivational A. 0.130 0.067 0.103 0.212** 0.427** 0.654**
Social Sc. 0.067 0.073 0.141* −0.083 −0.003 0.109 0.118
Language −0.106 −0.046 −0.007 −0.049 0.132* 0.238** 0.194** 0.394**
Math −0.022 0.100 0.137* −0.085 0.155* 0.159* 0.170* 0.512** 0.360**
Natural Sc. −0.064 -0.110 -0.088 0.065 0.067 0.156* 0.156* 0.289** 0.383** 0.245**
Mean 16.35 17.25 17.77 13.86 18.546 21.39 22.87 3.759 3.54 3.594 3.706
SD 2.993 2.538 2.513 4.039 2.962 3.441 3.186 0.689 0.579 0.6519 0.615
JOURNAL OF FAMILY STUDIES
Skewness −1.132 −1.62 −1.966 −0.760 −0.381 −0.384 −0.490 −0.44 −0.461 −0.307 −0.343
Kurtosis 1.481 4.466 6.306 −0.238 −0.112 −0.604 −0.238 −0.173 0.134 0.27 −0.415
Bolt correlations with *p <.05 and *p <.01 (bilateral).
69
70 E. AGUIRRE-DÁVILA ET AL.
Figure 2. Structural model, with *p <.05 and **p<.01.
and the observed data. Also, it was obtained a CMIN/DF of 1.259, a CFI of .986, a TLI of
.980, a GFI of .968, a SRMR equals to .0515 and a RMSEA of .034, with a 90% confidence
interval of [.000–.063]. AIC was equal to 87.043.
The estimated parameters don’t show signs of misspecification and were stable
throughout changes in the structure of the model. All fit indexes were considered in
the range of satisfactory fit. Figure 2 displays the results of the structural modelling.
In the structural model exhibited in Figure 2, a direct relation of parenting with aca-
demic achievement (H1) was not significant in this model (β= .10, p=.232). It is
confirmed the contribution of parenting to adolescent autonomy (H2) (β= .17, p=.025),
and the effect of autonomy on academic achievement (H3) (β= .26; p<.01). Thus, the
path that connects parenting with autonomy and the latter with achievement is significant.
Communication (λ = .94, p < .001) and Expression of affection (λ = .69, p < .001) were
two relevant practices that contribute to parenting in the model, followed for Involve-
ment (λ = .56, p < .001). Cognitive (λ = .86, p < .001) and Motivational Autonomy (λ
= .77, p < .001) were the dimensions of greatest contribution when measuring autonomy,
with a smaller but significant load of Social Autonomy (λ = .59, p < .001). In the Aca-
demic Achievement side, Social Sciences had a relevant contribution in this part of the
model (λ = .73, p < .001), followed by Mathematics (λ = .69, p < .001) and Language (λ
= .54, p < .001), with a significative covariance between Language and Natural Sciences
(r = .23, p < .01).
Discussion
In this study, the direct path between mothers' parenting practices and academic per-
formance was not significant, parenting had a direct effect on autonomy of the adoles-
cents, and autonomy contributes to academic achievement mediating the relation
between parenting and achievement, which suggests that parenting could have an indir-
ect effect on adolescent achievement. Likewise, in each of the latent variables analyzed,
some observable variables stood out by their load, as follows: communication in parent-
ing and the cognitive dimension in autonomy.
JOURNAL OF FAMILY STUDIES 71
Although the relationship with parents is implied in the possibility of adolescents
reaching educational goals (Parris et al., 2020), their direct contribution could report
low values (Hsu et al., 2011). In the current study this relation has not been structurally
supported, despite direct correlations between parent-child communication and some
indicators of academic achievement. As previous works had indicated, parenting prac-
tices could affect outcomes in adolescence through the behavioral repertoire of adoles-
cents (Soenens et al., 2019); thus, it is possible to pose that parenting affects adolescent
outcomes considering autonomy trends (Roche et al., 2019), and this is supported
when assessing academic achievement. In this way, parenting and autonomy configure
a complex support system for the levels of performance in academic areas.
When parenting is measured in terms of involvement, expression of affection, and
communication, their direct and positive effects are clear on the behavior of adolescents
(Kocayörük et al., 2015; Wang & Cai, 2017; Wuyts et al., 2018). The benefits of these prac-
tices are relevant in many domains of adolescence (Miranda et al., 2016; Morales-Castillo
& Aguirre-Davila, 2018), with a special place for communication, so that increases in the
quality of this parenting practice favor the performance of adolescents (Trung &
Ducreux, 2013). This contrasts with a harsh setting of parental rules, because this may
not contribute or negatively affect adolescent adjustment (Simpkins et al., 2009),
which is supported by the exclusion of rule-setting in the final model.
As proposed by the Theory of Self-determination, relationships with parents provide a
context for the emergence of multiple expressions of autonomy in adolescence (Ryan,
2016), providing explanations about the demands made on them, paying attention to feel-
ings of their children, and, whenever possible, avoiding controlling their behaviors (Ryan
et al., 2015). In the presented model, the autonomy of adolescents is mainly represented
in terms of the cognitive and motivational dimensions, what supports previous approaches
that postulates the integrated value of cognition and motivation in the contribution of
autonomy to adolescent outcomes (Deci & Ryan, 2017). The small but significant load of
the social dimension shows the importance of the relational component in understanding
autonomy, which provides support to the concept of a related autonomy (Kağitçibaşi, 2017).
In addition, sensitive academic areas of adolescent performance are implied in the
proposed model. It has been found a covariation between language and science achieve-
ment, which could be supported by previous works where language skills benefit science
works of adolescents (Uccelli et al., 2019), considering the common use of abilities such
as writing in the scientific domain.
Adolescent performance in the academic domain represents a frequent cause of
concern for educators and parents. Consequences of these conclusions impact the orien-
tation of parental training, a decisive opportunity for social intervention with parents and
adolescents (Morales-Castillo et al., 2019), where work with parents can be enriched with
the complementarity of involvement, affection, and communication, while the adolescent
participation can be focused on healthy development in terms of volitional, self-regulat-
ory, and responsible decision-making. Specifically, school interventions could be
enriched including positive parenting relation with adolescent development of cognitive
and motivational autonomy, as a social source to strengthened academic performance in
a critical period marked by decline (Gnambs & Hanfstingl, 2016). In the same way, it
could be relevant to consider that the mothers’ perspective on the academic courses of
their children affects the results obtained by adolescents (Harackiewicz et al., 2012).
72 E. AGUIRRE-DÁVILA ET AL.
Among limitations, it is relevant to consider the characteristics of the sample, includ-
ing the size, the age of adolescents and the origin of participants. About the rate of
returned questionnaires, a possible reason of this amount of surveys could be related
with a low parental participation in local schools, a common issue reported in Latino
population (Ceballo et al., 2017). Finally, it is recommended to future studies a longitudi-
nal design to confirm the long-term consequences of measured variables and evaluated
relations. Likewise, non-considered variables could be included, like other components
of parenting practices that affect adolescent behaviours and outcomes such as parental
beliefs (Morales-Castillo, 2020) or children characteristics that affect behavioural
trends in adolescence like gender (Vantieghem & Van Houtte, 2018), which could
help to deep in the nature of described relations.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s). All procedures performed in this
study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and
international declarations related, or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent was
included for all participants in this study.
Funding
This work was supported by Universidad Nacional de Colombia: [Grant Number 37519].
Data availability statement
The data set associated with the document is available in the database files of the Socialization and
Parenting research group of the National University of Colombia.
ORCID
Eduardo Aguirre-Dávila http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3292-5414
Miguel Morales-Castillo http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6626-6694
Manuel Moreno-Vásquez http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9813-6912
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