Connective Tissue

● Binds, supports and strengthens other body tissues.

● Major transport system of the body (blood is a connective tissue).
● Primary location of stored energy reserves (fat or adipose tissue is a
connective tissue).
● It protects and insulates internal organs; compartmentalises structures such
as skeletal muscles.
● Is the main source of immune response.

Features of Connective Tissue

Unlike epithelia
❏ CT is not found on the body surfaces
- (think of where bones, cartilage and blood is located)
❏ CT can be highly vascular(rich blood supply) (
exceptions: cartilage which is avascular and
tendons/ligaments with very little blood supply).
Like epithelia
❏ CT is supplied by nerves ( exceptions: cartilage)

Composition of Connective Tissue

❏ Connective tissue (CT) is composed of:
❏ EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX (ECM) and CELLS
❏ CT= ECM + Cells

❏ THE ECM is composed of

❏ It is the material located between connective tissues’ widely spaced cells.
❏ Structure of ECM determines much of the tissues’ qualities.
❏ Ground substance (GS) in association with;
❏ Protein fibres (3 major types in different proportions).
❏ ECM= GS + Fibres
❏ The protein fibres of the ECM are secreted by the cells in the ECM.
❏ The structure/composition of the ECM largely dictates and determines. the
connective tissue qualities/properties
❏ e.g. Cartilage: ECM is firm and rubbery, but in bone hard and inflexible.

Connective tissue (extracellular Matrix)

● Ground Substance
● Supports cells, binds them together, stores water and provides a medium for
exchange of substances between the blood and cells.
● It plays an active role in how tissues develop, migrate, proliferate, and change
shape and in how they carry out their metabolic functions.
● Ground substance is composed of a mixture of:
● A. Water, B. Proteins (gelatin in jelly!), C. Polysaccharides (sugars)
● GS= H2O + proteins + polysaccharides
● The sugars include: Glycosaminoglycans (GAGS or mucopolysaccharides)
● GAGS join with core proteins to form proteoglycans.
Some Terminology
➔ Proteoglycans:
- Comprise Protein + Glycosaminoglycans.
➔ Glycosaminoglycans (GAGS):
- Other name ‘’mucopolysaccharides’’.
- Long unbranched polysaccharides.
- Repeating disaccharide unit
● Amino sugar e.g.N acetylglucosamine.
● Uronic sugar e.g. glucuronic acid.
● Have negative charges on them which attract positively charged ions making
them highly polar and so they attract/trap water (makes GS jelly like).

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGS)
Sulphated GAG examples:
● Dermatan sulphate, Heparin sulphate, Keratan sulphate, Chondroitin sulphate..
➔ These bind to proteins to form proteoglycans (PGs).
Non-sulfated GAG example:
● Hyaluronic acid:
● does not bind directly to the protein backbone but is joined to various PGs.
● The glycosaminoglycan hyaluronic acid is unusual in that it is not sulphated
nor covalently bound to a core protein.

● Also present in the ground substance are adhesion proteins, which are
responsible for linking components of the ground substance to one another
and to the surfaces of cells.
● The main adhesion protein of connective tissue is fibronectin, which binds to
both collagen fibres and ground substance linking them together.
● Fibronectin also attaches cells to the ground substance.

Application of GAGS
● Hyaluronic acid:
● A viscous slippery substance that binds cells together, lubricates joints and
maintains the shape of the eyeball.
 ● Hyaluronidase:
● Produced by white blood cells, sperm and some bacteria.
● Is an enzyme that breaks apart hyaluronic acid thus causing the ground
substance of CT to become more liquid.
● The ability to produce hyaluronidase helps WBCs move easily through CT to
reach sites of infections/
● also makes ground substance more liquid which aids the penetration of an
oocyte by a sperm cell during fertilisation they can move easily in it or make
access to the egg easier for sperm.

Application of GAGs as part of ground substance

● Chondroitin Sulphate: support and provide the adhesive features of
cartilage, bone, skin, blood and vessels, making the structures stick together.
● Keratan Sulphate: found in bone, cartilage; cornea of the eye.
● Dermatan Sulphate: found in skin, tendons, blood vessels, heart valves.
● Sometimes can get abnormal ECM ground substances.

Abnormal Periorbitcal ECM and thyroid disease (Exophthalmos)

● Most common in younger women.
● Goitre (swollen thyroid gland).
● Autoimmune response which over-activates thyroid by antibodies stimulating
receptors on thyroid cells (goitre).
● Autoimmune action on fibroblasts of the eye leading to increased ECM
deposition (exophthalmos).
● The deposition of glycosaminoglycans and the influx of water increase the
orbital content.

The ECM is composed of

Ground Substance in association with
➔ Three different major types of Protein Fibres* in different
proportions(*proteins secreted by the cells in ECM).

3 different types of connective tissue fibres in the extracellular matrix (ECM)

❏ Collagen fibres (thick):
❏ Very strong and thick but (they are not stiff
which allows them to be) flexible to resist
pulling forces.
❏ Features vary in different tissues e.g. more
water around collagen in cartilage than in bone.
❏ Collagen 25% of your body and is the most
abundant protein!
❏ Common in bone, cartilages, tendons (which attach muscle to bone) and
ligaments (attach bone to bone).
❏ Collagen fibres occur in parallel bundles (Collagen with a fibroblast) and this
arrangement adds great tensile strength to the tissue.
 Reticular fibres:
❏ Composed of fine collagen bundles surrounded with coating of glycoprotein.
❏ Collagen in fine bundles with coating of glycoprotein (more protein than sugar)
❏ Made by fibroblasts.
❏ Provide strength and support in the walls of
blood vessels .
❏ Form part of the basement membrane.
❏ Thinner, branching- spreads through tissue.
❏ Form branching networks in vessels and through
tissues especially adipose tissue, nerve fibres,
smooth muscle tissues.

Elastic fibres
❏ Thinner/smaller in diameter than collagen fibres.
❏ Branch and join together to form a Fibrous network.
❏ Consist of the protein elastin surrounded by the
glycoprotein fibrillin to give more strength&stability.
❏ Because of their unique molecular structure they are
strong but can be stretched 150% without breaking,
and can return to their original shape after being
stretched, a property called elasticity.
❏ Found in skin, blood vessels walls and lung tissue.
Marfan Syndrome:
● A hereditary defect in elastic fibres usually results from a dominant negative
mutation in a gene on chromosome 15, which codes for fibrillin.
● Fibrillin is a large glycoprotein (350kDA) that contributes to a structural
scaffold for elastin.
● Body produces growth factor, Transforming Growth Factor beta increases
growth because it does not bind normally to fibrillin to keep inactive.
● Individuals with Marfan Syndrome are: usually tall, long limbed, and often with a
chest deformity (e.g. protruding or collapsed sternum)
● Normal lifespan but need medical vigilance to control BP etc.
● They may have weakened heart valves and arterial walls, which can be life
threatening.
● Occurs in about 1 in 20,000 live births.

CT= ECM+Cells Two common connective tissue cell types

Cell type location function/structure

Fibroblasts Widely distributed in connective Are large flat cells with branching
tissues and found extensively processes.
through the body; migratory Secrete components of the matrix
(fibres and ground substance)
Adipocytes (fat cells) Under skin and around organs Store fat (triglycerides)
such as the kidneys and the
heart.

Other cells found in solid CT

name description/function location

Macrophages ● Phagocytic cells fixed and wandering ● Fixed: “dust cells” (reside in a particular
(histiocytes) forms in connective tissues (CT). tissue e.g. Alveolar macrophages in the
● Develop from monocytes (a type of ● (lung) or splenic macrophages (spleen)/
white blood cell) ● kupffer cells(liver); langerhans cells (skin)
● Have an irregular shape with short ● Wandering macrophages have the
branching projections and are capable ability to move throughout the tissue and
of engulfing bacteria and cellular gather in CT: sites of infection, and
debris by phagocytosis. inflammation or injury to carry on
phagocytosis.

Plasma cells ● Small cells that develop Form a type ● Many CT sites but especially in the
of WBCs called a B-lymphocyte. gastrointestinal and respiratory tract e.g.
● These produce antibodies (proteins in gut and lung, salivary glands, lymph
that attack or neutralise foregin nodes, spleen, red bone marrow.
substances in the body.)
● Are an important part of the body’s
immune response.

Mast cells ● Produce histamine that dilate small ● Alongside blood vessels that supply
blood vessels as part of the connective tissue.
inflammatory response (the body’s
response to injury or infection)

leucocytes ● White blood cells ● E.g. neutrophils (sites of infection),

● Migrate from blood into CT. eosinophils (parasitic invasions, allergies)

Classification of Connective Tissue:

Embryonic or Mature
a. Embryonic connective tissue
type Subtype structure/location/function

i) mesenchyme ● Gives rise to all other connective tissues.

(embryonic) ● Consists of connective tissue cells
(mesenchymal cells) in a semi-fluid ground
substance containing reticular fibres.
 ii) mucous ● Mucous CT has widely scattered fibroblasts
embedded in jelly like ground substance.
● Supports the umbilical cord of foetus.

Mature connective tissue

1. Loose connective tissue
a. Areolar connective tissue (most common form of CT).
type subtype structure/function/location

Loose Areolar ● Three types of fibres are present

(many cells, (collagen, reticular and elastic)
fewer fibres) ● Widely distributed around almost every
structure. Like a ‘’packing material’’.
● Strength, Elasticity, Support.

2. Loose connective tissue

b) adipose connective tissue.
type subtype function

Loose (many Adipose ● Adipocytes dominant.

cells, fewer ● Central triglyceride droplet.
fibres) ● Found with areolar connective tissue
(incl. fibroblasts).
● White adipose (energy storage) and
Brown adipose (heat production).
● Buttocks; flans; abdomen; orbit of eye
● Insulation. Energy Source.
Temperature Control.

3. Loose connective tissue

c) reticular connective tissue
type subtype function

Loose (many reticular ● Stroma (supporting framework) of liver; spleen;

cells, fewer lymph nodes; red bone marrow; reticular lamina
fibres) reticular of basement membrane; blood vessels &
fibres are muscles.
plentiful in this ● Forms stroma of organs, binds smooth
tissue muscle tissue cells.
● Filters/ removes worn out blood cells in the
spleen and microbes in lymph nodes.
 1. Dense connective tissue
a. Dense regular connective tissue
type subtype structure/location/function

Dense (more Regular ● Tendons (muscle to bone); ligaments (bone to

fibres, fewer bone); aponeurosis (muscle to muscle)
cells) ● Regularly arranged collagen.
● E.g. tendons (pulling along the fibre axis)
● Shiny white colour.
● Collagen fibres are not a living tissue.
● Slow healing & attachment.

Dense Irregular ● Made of collagen fibres; few fibroblasts

fibres are not ● Fasciae, reticular (deeper region) of dermis,
arranged in pericardium of heart, periosteum of bone,
parallel perichondrium of cartilage, capsules around
bundles as in various organs, submucosa of digestive tract.
dense regular ● Provides structural strength and is able to
CT withstand tension exerted in many directions.

Dense Elastic ● Has many Elastic fibres with few fibroblasts.

● Unstained tissue is yellowish.
● In: Lung tissue, walls of elastic, arteries, trachea,
bronchi, ligaments between back bone.
● Allows stretching of various organs. Strong.
Recoil to original shape after stretching.
● Elasticity and maintains pulsatile flow of blood
through arteries.

1. Supporting CT: Cartilage

- Hyaline cartilage
type subtype structure /location/function

Cartilage (dense hyaline ● Abundant

network of ● Relatively weak; resilient gel in which fibres
collagen and are present but not obvious.
elastic fibres) ● E.g. anterior ends of ribs; respiratory cartilage-
nose, trachea, bronchi, nasal septum, ends of
long bones.
● Provides flexibility and allows for movement.
● Contains lacunae which incase
chondrocytes.
cartilage elastic ● Chondrocytes in elastic fibres within ECM.
● Perichondrium present.
● Lid top of larynx (epiglottis), part of external
ear (auricle, auditory (eustachian) tubes.
● Provides strength and elasticity.
● Maintains shape of certain structures.

cartilage fibrocartilage ● Contains chondrocytes scattered among

thick bundles of collagen fibres within the
ECM.
● Lacks perichondrium.
● Public symphysis, intervertebral discs,
menisci (cartilage pads) of knee, tendons
insert into cartilage
● Support & joins structures together
● Strength & rigidity- strongest cartilage.
● Allows flexibility.

2. Supporting CT: Bone or osseous tissue

● Bones are organs composed of several connective tissue types including bone
tissue (which is either compact or spongy (BM).

● Compact bone
● Outer layer of bone and forms the shaft of long bones.
● It is also known as cortical bone.
● Compact bone is composed of many rod-shaped units known as either
Osteons or Haversian systems.

● Spongy Bone
● Porous inner bone tissue that lies underneath compact bone.
● Also known as Cancellous bone.
● Lacks osteons – instead it consists of column-like bone (trabeculae).

Bone or osseous tissue

➔ Bones are composed of several connective tissue types (including bone
tissue (which is either compact or spongy).
type subtype structure/location/function

bone spongy Lacks osteons, stores triglycerides (yellow

marrow), and produces blood cells (red
marrow).
bone compact ● Compact contains osteons.
● Stores calcium and phosphorus.
● Protection & support.

Four cell types are found in bone:

1. Osteogenic cells:
● mesenchymal stem cells that develop, start to lay down collagen; become
trapped and become osteoblasts.
2. Osteoblasts:
● Bone-forming cells. Lay down more collagen, mineralization process starts.
3. Osteocytes:
● Mature bone cells derived from osteoblasts trapped within the extracellular
matrix.
● Maintain bone tissue.
● Involved in exchange of nutrients and wastes.
● Have gap junctions.
4. Osteoclasts:
● Large, multinucleated cells.
● Formed from the fusion of blood monocytes.
● Break-down bone (releases enzyme out).

The Structure of Osteons (Haversian Systems):

The basic unit of compact bone is the osteon with 4 parts:
1. Lamellae
2. Lacunae
3. Canaliculi
4. Central (Haversian) canal
Osteons are aligned along lines of stress (e.g. long axis of bone shaft).
 Osteon structure
1. Lamellae:
● Concentric rings of mineral salts for hardness (e.g. calcium phosphate and
calcium hydroxide, which together form hydroxyapatite) and collagen (for
tensile strength).
2. Lacunae:
● Small spaces between lamellae that contain mature bone cells (osteocytes).
3. Canaliculi:
● ‘’minute canals’’ (containing EC fluid and minute osteocytic processes) that
radiate from lacunae and provide routes for oxygen, nutrients and waste.
4. Central (Harvesian) canal:
● blood, lymph and nerves.

• Osteoclasts reabsorb dead bone.

• Chondroblasts lay down hyaline cartilage callus.
• Osteoblasts lay down new bones.
• Osteoclasts remodel new bone.

3. Liquid connective tissue

- Blood
type subtype structure/location/function

liquid blood Consists of blood plasma ( a liquid extracellular matrix) and

forms elements (red cells, white cells, and platelets).

‘’Formed elements’’ of blood

❏ Erythrocytes transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.
❏ Leukocytes combat disease:
❏ Neutrophils and monocytes (macrophages) are phagocytic, engulfing
bacteria.
❏ Basophils (mobile) and mast cells (immature circulate; mature are fixed in
❏ tissues), release substances (e.g. histamine) that intensify the inflammatory
reaction.
❏ Eosinophils are effective against certain parasitic worms and in acute
allergic response.
❏ Lymphocytes are involved in the immune response.
❏ Platelets (thrombocytes) (from megakaryocytes in red marrow): clotting.