MỤC LỤC

*So sánh giữa VH việt và Mỹ, Anh...................................................................................................................................2

Chapter 1: Introduction intercultural competence.......................................................................................................3
2. COMMUNICATION...............................................................................................................................................3
2.1. Defining Communication.....................................................................................................................................3
2.2. Characteristics of Communication..................................................................................................................3
2.3. Interpersonal Communication.............................................................................................................................4
Chapter 2: Culture and Intercultural Communication................................................................................................5
1. Nêu được khái niệm về văn hóa liên quan đến giao tiếp...........................................................................................5
Key Components of Culture........................................................................................................................................5
2. Nêu được các thuật ngữ liên quan đến văn hóa.....................................................................................................6
3. Nêu được các hình tượng so sánh với văn hóa (Cultural anologies).....................................................................7
Chapter 3: Intercultural Communication Competence...............................................................................................7
1. Definition of Intercultural Communication Competence........................................................................................7
2. Components of Intercultural Competence (đặc trưng)........................................................................................7
CÁC THUẬT NGỮ LIÊN QUAN ĐẾN GIAO TIẾP LIÊN VĂN HÓA................................................................8
Chapter 4: Cultural Patterns and Communication: Foundations..............................................................................9
1. Defining Cultural Patterns.......................................................................................................................................9
2. Components of Cultural Patterns.............................................................................................................................9
3. Cultural patterns and Intercultural Competence...............................................................................................11
Chapter 5: Cultural patterns and communication: taxonomies................................................................................12
5.4 Các cách phân loại mô hình văn hóa (Taxonomies of cultural patterns).......................................................12
5.4.1. HALL’S HIGH- AND LOW-CONTEXT CULTURAL TAXONOMY.................................................12
5.4.2. HOFSTEDE’S CULTURAL TAXONOMY..............................................................................................13
5.4.3. THE GLOBE CULTURAL TAXONOMY...............................................................................................16
3.1. Power Distance.................................................................................................................................................16
3.2. Uncertainty Avoidance.....................................................................................................................................16
3.3. In-Group Collectivism......................................................................................................................................16
3.4. Institutional Collectivism..................................................................................................................................17
3.5. Gender Egalitarianism.......................................................................................................................................17
3.6. Assertiveness.....................................................................................................................................................17
3.7. Performance Orientation...................................................................................................................................18
3.8. Future Orientation.............................................................................................................................................18
3.9. Humane Orientation..........................................................................................................................................19
3.10. Comparing the GLOBE Dimensions..............................................................................................................19
5.5. Cultural Taxonomies and Intercultural Competence (Các cách phân loại văn hóa và năng lực liên văn
hóa)..............................................................................................................................................................................19
Chapter 6: Cultural identity and Cultural biases.......................................................................................................20
1. Cultural identity.....................................................................................................................................................20
 1.1. The nature of identity: involves how individuals perceive themselves and how they are perceived by others
within different cultural, social, and personal contexts...........................................................................................20
1.2. The formation of cultural identity (sự hình thành)............................................................................................20
1.3. Characteristics of cultural identity: (đặc điểm)..............................................................................................21
2. Cultural biases (thiên lệch văn hóa).....................................................................................................................21
2.1. Social categorizing:..........................................................................................................................................21
2.2. Ethnocentrism..................................................................................................................................................22
2.3. Stereotyping......................................................................................................................................................22
2.4. Prejudice...........................................................................................................................................................23
2.5. Discrimination..................................................................................................................................................23
2.6. Racism..............................................................................................................................................................23
3. Identity, biases, and intercultural competence....................................................................................................24
CHAPTER 7: VERBAL INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION: Giao tiếp liên văn hóa ngôn từ...................24
1. The power of language in intercultural communication................................................................................24
1. Definition of verbal codes..................................................................................................................................25
2. Distinguishing Intercultural Competence........................................................................................................26
Chapter 8: Nonverbal intercultural communication..................................................................................................26
1. Definition of “nonverbal codes”........................................................................................................................26
* Relationship of Nonverbal to Verbal Communication:...................................................................................27
* Cultural Universals in Nonverbal Communication.........................................................................................27
2. Cultural Variations in Nonverbal Communication........................................................................................27
3. Cultural Similarities and Differences in Nonverbal Communication (tương đồng, khác biệt trong giao
tiếp phi ngôn từ).........................................................................................................................................................27
4. Nonverbal Messages in Intercultural Communication (Thông điệp phi ngôn từ trong giao tiếp liên văn
hóa)..............................................................................................................................................................................28
* Cultural Differences in the Use of Space (Proxemics).....................................................................................28
* Cultural Differences in Touch and Territoriality............................................................................................29
* Intercultural Communication Challenges:.......................................................................................................30
* Overcoming Challenges:.....................................................................................................................................30
* Cultural Differences in Time Orientation........................................................................................................30
* Cultural Differences in Vocal Communication:...............................................................................................31
6. Synchrony of Nonverbal Communication Codes (Sự đồng thời của các mã giao tiếp phi ngôn từ)..............31
7. Nonverbal Communication and Intercultural Competence (Giao tiếp phi ngôn từ và năng lực liên văn hóa)
...................................................................................................................................................................................... 32
Vấn đề 9: Outcomes of intercultural contact...............................................................................................................32
1. Outcomes of Intercultural Contact......................................................................................................................32
2. Adaptation..............................................................................................................................................................32
3. Culture Shock vs. Adaptation...............................................................................................................................33
*So sánh giữa VH việt và Mỹ, Anh

1. Greeting Culture:
Vietnam: Vietnamese people generally do not greet strangers when passing by. When greeting, especially
elders, they show respect by slightly bowing their heads and using appropriate greetings.
United States: Americans are typically open and greet strangers with handshakes or light hugs. They avoid
discussing age, marital status, or income during initial conversations.
United Kingdom: British people usually greet each other with a handshake and say "Hello" or "Good
morning." They value politeness and often avoid personal topics during the first meeting.
2. Food Culture:
Vietnam: Family meals often begin after the youngest person has greeted everyone. Meals are eaten together
using chopsticks and bowls.
United States: Meals are typically divided into three courses: appetizers, main dishes, and desserts, and are
eaten with forks, knives, and plates. Americans often say a prayer before meals.
United Kingdom: Traditional British meals are similarly divided into courses like in the U.S. They use forks
and knives and have a custom of drinking tea in the afternoon.
3. Family Culture:
Vietnam: Multiple generations (two, three, or even four) often live under one roof, with children expected to
care for their elderly parents.
United States: Generally, only two generations live together. Adult children usually move out, and elderly
parents may live in nursing homes.
United Kingdom: Similar to the U.S., families typically consist of two generations. Young adults often leave
home when they become independent, and elderly parents may choose to live alone or in care facilities.
4. Fashion Culture:
Vietnam: Fashion styles are diverse, but wearing dark-colored trousers with white socks is common,
although it is not considered fashionable in Western cultures.
United States and United Kingdom: People often pay attention to matching colors in their outfits, such as
coordinating trousers and socks, showcasing a more refined fashion sense.
5. Education Culture:
Vietnam: Students undergo many significant exams and often attend extra tutoring sessions outside of
regular school hours.
United States and United Kingdom: Students typically have a few major exams, such as the SAT, ACT (in
the U.S.), or A-levels (in the U.K.). Extra tutoring is less common compared to Vietnam.
6. Communication Culture:
Vietnam: Communication tends to reflect a collectivist mindset, emphasizing respect for hierarchy and
relationships.
United States and United Kingdom: Communication is generally more individualistic, with a focus on
clarity, directness, and equal participation in conversations.

Chapter 1: Introduction intercultural competence

2. COMMUNICATION

2.1. Defining Communication

● Communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual process in which people create
shared meanings.

2.2. Characteristics of Communication

● Symbolic
○ Symbols are central to the communication process because they represent the shared
meanings that are communicated. A symbol is a word, action, or object that stands for or
represents a unit of meaning
○ People's behaviors, objects, and actions are often interpreted symbolically. For instance,
waving a hand symbolizes "goodbye" in the U.S., while flags and religious symbols represent
larger ideas or beliefs.
○ Many symbols, especially in verbal languages, are arbitrary and only hold meaning through
common agreement within a group.
○ Some nonverbal and visual symbols are less arbitrary, such as a growling stomach for
hunger or a child's tears for sadness, as they are closely tied to their referents and require
less cultural knowledge to understand.
○ Even widely used symbols, like international traffic signs, may not always be interpreted
identically across cultures, highlighting the potential for miscommunication.
○ Example: A handshake between two people symbolizes a greeting. This gesture doesn't carry
meaning beyond the shared agreement in society that it is a form of greeting.
● Interpretive
○ Communication involves interpreting the symbolic behaviors of others, meaning that people
don’t always consciously intend to communicate a specific message.
○ Different Interpretations: People may interpret messages differently, especially in
intercultural communication.
○ Understanding vs. Agreement:
■ Understanding: Participants share similar interpretations of a message. It is necessary
for communication.
■ Agreement: Participants share similar views, but it's not required for communication.
○ Communication Based on Purpose: Even if the full meaning isn’t understood, communication
can occur if the participants share enough understanding for the purpose at hand.
 ○ Example: When a person from another country bows, you interpret it as a form of greeting
based on your cultural understanding. However, the exact meaning of this gesture may differ
across cultures.
● Transactional
○ All participants work together to create and sustain the meanings that develop. Everyone is
both sending and receiving messages simultaneously during a conversation.
○ Transactional view ( Actional View, Interactional View có limitation nên dẫn tới sự phát triển
của trans view)
- Emphasizes the shared creation of meanings and messages
- Communication is not just about persuading, but about improving knowledge,
understanding, and developing agreements.
- Participants are simultaneously sending and receiving multiple messages at all times,
including verbal and non-verbal cues (tone, gestures, body language, etc.).
○ VD: Sara says, "We need to finish the report." She notices Tom looks worried, so she adds,
"We’ll split the work." Both Sara and Tom are sending and receiving messages at the same
time, adjusting based on each other’s reactions.
● Contextual
○ Physical Context:
■ Refers to the actual setting (indoors or outdoors, crowded or quiet, bright or dark,
etc.).
■ Influences topics discussed and how messages are interpreted.
■ Example: A conversation in a noisy café differs from one during a romantic candlelit
dinner.
○ Social Context:
■ Involves shared expectations about appropriate communication in different social
events.
■ Example: Communication at a funeral is different from that at a party.
■ Cultural differences can create misunderstandings about what behavior is appropriate.
○ Interpersonal Context:
■ Relates to the relationship between individuals (e.g., teacher-student, friends,
coworkers, or family).
■ Changes in relationships affect the nature of messages and interpretations.
■ Example: Communication among friends differs from that between colleagues.
● A Process
○ Communication is not fixed but is constantly changing, moving, and evolving
○ It consists of interconnected steps that influence each other over time.
○ No two communication events are identical, even if they seem similar.
○ The same message can have different meanings depending on the timing and stage of the
communication process.
● Communication Involves Shared Meanings
○ Meanings are created and shared by groups of people as they participate in the ordinary and
everyday activities.
○ Communication focuses on how people collectively "make sense" of their shared experiences
in the world.

2.3. Interpersonal Communication

2.3.1. Definition
 ● Interpersonal communication is a form of communication that involves a small number of
individuals who are interacting exclusively with one another and who therefore have the ability both
to adapt their messages specifically for those others and to obtain immediate interpretations from
them.
2.3.2. Characteristics
● A Small Number of People
○ Takes place between a limited number of people (e.g., couples, families, friends, small
groups).
○ Focuses on direct, face-to-face communication rather than addressing large audiences.
○ Creates a sense of connection between participants, even if the bond is brief or fragile.
● People Interacting Exclusively with One Another
○ Direct interactions allow for the use of various sensory cues (e.g., facial expressions, tone of
voice, gestures, touch) to convey and interpret messages.
○ Advances in technology, such as phones and the internet, enable interpersonal
communication over long distances without face-to-face interaction.
● Adapted to Specific Others
○ Participants can evaluate how their messages are understood and modify them accordingly.
● Immediate Interpretations
○ In interpersonal communication, the interpretation of messages happens almost instantly as
they are being created.
○ People can quickly adapt their messages based on immediate feedback, allowing subtle and
continuous adjustments during the interaction.

Chapter 2: Culture and Intercultural Communication

1. Nêu được khái niệm về văn hóa liên quan đến giao tiếp
● Culture is defined as a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values, norms, and social
practices that influence the behaviors of a relatively large group of people.
● This definition highlights several key aspects:
○ Culture is learned, not inherited, and is shaped through interaction with others, including
family, peers, and social systems.
○ Culture involves shared interpretations, where symbols and their meanings are understood
collectively, forming the foundation for communication.
○ Culture provides a way of life, guiding the behaviors and practices of a group.
Ex: Eating Habits in Different Cultures
In Vietnam, sharing food is a common practice. Meals are often served family-style, with dishes placed in
the center of the table for everyone to share. Using chopsticks and showing respect to elders by inviting
them to eat first are important cultural norms.
In contrast, in Western cultures like the United States, meals are usually served in individual portions.
People are accustomed to having their own plate, and sharing food from someone else's plate may be
considered unusual.

Key Components of Culture

● Beliefs, Values, Norms, and Social Practices:
○ Beliefs: Beliefs are the core ideas about how a group understands the world and reality,
helping them form their worldview. These beliefs are often rooted in history, religion, or the
shared experiences of a community.
Ex: One group may believe the world was created by a divine being, while another may trust scientific
principles to explain the origins of the universe.

○ Values: Values are shared ideas about what is considered good, important, and desirable
within a culture. They form the moral foundation of a community and guide how behaviors
and decisions are evaluated.

Ex:

+ In the U.S., personal freedom is highly valued, whereas in Japan, group harmony is often prioritized.
+ In many Asian countries, respect for elders is an important value, while in Western countries,
individual freedom and self-reliance are emphasized.
○ Norms: Norms are social rules (often unwritten) that guide appropriate behavior in specific
situations. They represent the shared expectations that members of a community understand
and follow.

Ex:

+ In Japan, bowing is a standard greeting, while in Western countries, handshakes are common.
+ In American culture, punctuality is highly valued, whereas in some South American countries,
arriving slightly late is acceptable.
○ Social Practices: Social practices are repetitive and predictable behaviors that reflect how
beliefs, values, and norms are enacted in daily life.

Ex:

+ Cultural festivals like Lunar New Year in Vietnam, Thanksgiving in the U.S., or Diwali in India
demonstrate social practices rooted in cultural values and beliefs.
+ Workplace behaviors, such as communication through emails, attending meetings, or decision-
making, are also examples of culturally specific social practices.
● Culture as a Behavioral Guide:
○ Culture establishes guidelines about what is meaningful, what is important, and what should
or should not be done.
○ These guidelines provide stability and predictability in human interactions, affecting how
people perform cultural routines in their daily lives.
● Culture Affects Behavior:
○ Shared cultural interpretations influence behavior at a group level, though individual
expressions may vary.
○ Cultural differences are reflected in how people interact and organize their daily lives.
● Involves Large Groups of People:
○ Culture is associated with large societal groups rather than smaller interpersonal groups.
○ It often aligns with ethnicity, nationality, or other broad demographic identities.
○ The emphasis is on shared patterns and practices that transcend individual relationships.

2. Nêu được các thuật ngữ liên quan đến văn hóa
● Nation: is a political term referring to a government and a set of formal and legal mechanisms
that regulate the political behavior of its people.
○ encompass (đề cập đến) : how leaders are chosen; by what rules the leaders must
govern, the laws of banking and currency, the means to establish military groups…
 ○ ex: Foreign policies, for instance, are determined by a nation and not by a culture.
● Race: commonly refers to certain physical similarities, such as skin color or eye shape, that
are shared by a group of people and are used to mark or separate them from others.
○ ex:
● Ethnicity: is actually a term that is used to refer to a wide variety of groups who might share
a language, historical origins, religion, nation-state, or cultural system.
○ ex: many people in the United States still maintain an allegiance to the ethnic group of
their ancestors who emigrated from other nations and cultures.

3. Nêu được các hình tượng so sánh với văn hóa (Cultural anologies)
● Analogy of Culture with an Onion:
○ Culture has many layers, just like an onion.
○ The outermost layer is easily visible and includes customs, language, dress, music,
food, and behaviors.
○ Peeling away the outer layers reveals the values, beliefs, and attitudes beneath. This
process requires care to avoid "tears" (conflicts or misunderstandings).
● Analogy of Culture with an Iceberg:
○ The visible part above the water represents the external expressions like behavior and
clothing.
○ The hidden part beneath the surface includes values, beliefs, and underlying
motivations.
○ Understanding culture takes time, observation, and deeper exploration to avoid
frustration or misunderstanding.
○ Similarly, a ship captain must watch both above and below the water to avoid crashing
into an iceberg.
● Analogy of Culture with a Computer Program:
○ People are like computers, and culture acts as the "software" that programs them.
○ When transitioning between cultures (like switching from a PC to a Mac), it’s easy to
feel confused due to differences in "programming."
○ The issue is not with others or oneself but rather a lack of skills and understanding to
adapt to differences.
○ Just as modern computers can now operate across multiple platforms through updates,
we can "upgrade" our thinking through education and learning.
Chapter 3: Intercultural Communication Competence
1. Definition of Intercultural Communication Competence
Intercultural communication refers to the process by which individuals from different cultural backgrounds
exchange messages, negotiate meanings, and create shared understanding.
2. Components of Intercultural Competence (đặc trưng)
A. Context
● Intercultural competence is inherently contextual. It depends on the specific relational and situational
contexts where communication occurs. For example, competence might vary depending on the
setting, like a formal business meeting versus an informal family gathering.
● Example: Speaking formally during a business meeting versus casually when socializing with
friends.
B. Appropriateness and Effectiveness: Effective intercultural communication involves behaviors that are
appropriate (culturally acceptable) and effective (achieving the intended goals)
● Appropriateness: Matching behaviors to cultural norms and expectations.
● Effectiveness: Fulfilling goals while maintaining respect for cultural norms.
● Example: A tourist in Thailand dresses modestly when visiting temples to align with cultural
expectations.
C. Knowledge, Motivation, and Actions
1. Knowledge:
● Culture-General Knowledge: Broad insights about intercultural dynamics, such as
understanding that cultures vary in their communication patterns and norms.
● Culture-Specific Knowledge: Detailed knowledge about a particular culture’s practices,
values, and rules of communication.
● Example: Knowing the importance of punctuality in German culture but understanding
flexibility in Brazilian culture.
2. Motivation:
● Refers to the willingness and desire to engage in intercultural communication. It includes
openness to learning and the capacity to overcome anxiety or discomfort.
● Example: A student learning Spanish joins a local cultural festival to practice language skills
and connect with the community.
3. Actions: refers to the actual performance of those behaviors that are regarded as appropriate and
effective.
• Example: Learning to bow in Japan instead of offering a handshake.

CÁC THUẬT NGỮ LIÊN QUAN ĐẾN GIAO TIẾP LIÊN VĂN HÓA
3. Basic Tools for Improving Intercultural Competence
3.1 Display of Respect: the ability to show respect and positive regard for another person.
Example: Learning and using a few words in the local language (e.g., “Thank you” or “Hello”)
shows respect to the host culture.
3.2 Orientation to Knowledge: the term people use to explain themselves and the world around them.
Example: Understanding that views on healthcare vary; Western medicine emphasizes science,
whereas some cultures value holistic healing methods.
3.3 Empathy: the capacity to behave as though you understand the world as others do.
Example: An expatriate manager shows empathy by accommodating an employee’s cultural
observance of Ramadan, understanding the importance of fasting.
3.4 Interaction Management: skill in regulating conversations.
Example: Allowing pauses during conversations with people from high-context cultures, where
silence may signal respect or thoughtfulness.
3.5 Task Role Behaviors: behaviors that involve the initiation of ideas related to group problem-solving
activities.
 Example: In a multicultural team, assigning roles based on strengths while ensuring cultural
considerations, such as avoiding conflict for collectivist members.
3.6 Relational Role Behaviors: behaviors associated with interpersonal harmony and mediation.
Example: Offering praise or words of encouragement to team members from cultures that value
group solidarity.
3.7 Tolerance for Ambiguity: the ability to react to new and ambiguous situations with little visible
discomfort.
Example: A traveler in a new country may not understand every custom but remains calm and open
to learning.
3.8 Interaction Posture: the ability to respond to others in descriptive, non-evaluative, and nonjudgmental
ways.
Example: Avoiding criticism when someone eats with their hands, understanding that it’s a norm in
many Middle Eastern and African cultures.

Chapter 4: Cultural Patterns and Communication: Foundations

1. Defining Cultural Patterns

Cultural patterns are frameworks through which people interpret verbal and nonverbal symbols. These
patterns are shaped by beliefs, values, norms, and social practices within a culture. They influence how
individuals perceive and respond to the world, creating shared understandings and expectations within a
cultural group.
● Cultural patterns refer to shared beliefs, values, norms, and social practices that are stable over time
and lead to similar behaviors across similar situations.
● They provide shared mental frameworks that help people interpret the world and make behavior
choices.
● Although cultural patterns influence behavior, they are primarily mental and are not directly
observable. Instead, they are reflected through actions and shared understandings within a culture.
● Cultural patterns serve as guidelines for behaviors and are unique to each individual within a culture.
● Some mental programs are universal (e.g., biological instincts), while others are unique or widely
shared by specific cultural groups.
● They are often learned unconsciously through day-to-day activities and reflect cultural values such as
courage, achievement, or harmony.

2. Components of Cultural Patterns

Cultural patterns consist of four key components:
➢ Beliefs
● Beliefs are ideas that people assume to be true about the world.
● They can be central (fundamental to identity) or peripheral (based on authority teachings or
preferences).
● Examples include assumptions about reality, nature, and relationships between people.
* Examples:
● Eastern Cultures: In Asian cultures (e.g., China, India), many people believe that the spirits of
ancestors play an important role in their lives. Therefore, in communication, they show respect to elders and
ancestors, such as bowing or maintaining silence during ceremonies.
● Western Cultures: Europeans or Americans may believe that freedom of speech is a fundamental
right. As a result, they tend to be open and direct when expressing their opinions, even in the face of
disagreement.
 → Analysis:
These beliefs lead to different communication styles:
+ Eastern cultures often emphasize respect and indirectness in conversations.
+ Western cultures encourage clarity and transparency in communication.

➢ Values
● Values are what a culture considers good, bad, right, or wrong.
● They serve as guiding principles for behaviors.
● The intensity and importance of values vary across cultures. For instance, respect for elders is valued
highly in Asian cultures but may have less intensity in the U.S.

* Examples:
● Collectivist Values (Eastern Cultures): In countries like Japan, South Korea, or Vietnam, community
values are prioritized. People often avoid conflict and prioritize group harmony. For instance, instead of
saying "No" directly, they may use softer phrases to save face, such as “I’ll think about it” or “Let’s discuss
it later.”
● Individualist Values (Western Cultures): In countries like the United States or Scandinavian nations,
personal values are emphasized. People value direct communication and assertiveness. For example, if
someone disagrees, they may simply and firmly say, “No, I don’t think that will work.”
→ Analysis:
These values influence communication styles:
+ Collectivist cultures encourage indirect and polite communication to maintain group harmony.
+ Individualist cultures promote direct and assertive communication that highlights individual
opinions.
➢ Norms
● Norms are socially shared expectations of appropriate behaviors.
● They can change over time but are often enduring and guide interpersonal interactions.
● Norms are linked to beliefs and values and are reflected in daily behaviors, such as greetings and
conversation rules.
* Examples:
● Greetings:
+ Eastern Cultures (Japan): People bow to show respect when greeting others, reflecting their cultural
emphasis on hierarchy and politeness.
+ Western Cultures (America): People shake hands as a common way to greet, which symbolizes
equality and mutual respect.
● Expressing Emotions:
+ Eastern Cultures (Japan, China): People often suppress emotions in public to maintain composure
and show respect.
+ Western Cultures (America, Latin America): People tend to express emotions openly, such as
hugging or giving compliments.
→ Analysis:
Cultural norms shape communication behaviors:
+ Eastern cultures value formal, restrained communication, particularly in public or hierarchical
contexts.
+ Western cultures prefer open and expressive communication, promoting closeness and authenticity.
➢ Social Practices
● Social practices are observable behavior patterns tied to cultural norms, beliefs, and values.
● They include informal activities (eating, sleeping, dressing) and formal rituals (weddings, funerals).
 ● Social practices often go unnoticed within a culture but are significant indicators of cultural
tendencies.

* Examples:
In Vietnamese culture, family meals play a very important role and follow specific etiquette. One
common social practice is inviting elders to eat first.
→ Manifestation in Communication:
During a meal, when food is served, younger individuals will invite grandparents or parents to eat
first, often accompanied by a polite phrase like, “Please enjoy the meal, Grandpa/Grandma.”
→ Analysis:
This social practice reflects respect for elders and emphasizes the value of family in Vietnamese
culture. Communication during meals is often formal and follows specific rules to demonstrate courtesy and
proper etiquette.
In contrast, in Western cultures such as the United States, dining tends to be more casual and equal.
Everyone can serve themselves and start eating at the same time without any elaborate rituals.
→ Comparison:
+Chinese Culture: Communication during meals reflects social order and respect.
+ Western Culture: Communication during meals reflects freedom and equality.

3. Cultural patterns and Intercultural Competence

* The Relationship Between Cultural Patterns and Intercultural Competence
Cultural competence relies on understanding the knowledge, motivation, and actions that occur
in specific contexts with messages interpreted as appropriate and effective.
● Knowledge: Understanding different cultural frameworks.
● Motivation: Willingness to engage and adapt to cultural differences.
● Actions: Implementing behaviors that align with appropriate communication and interaction
in diverse contexts.
3.1. Cultural patterns
➢ Example:
In Japanese culture, bowing is a cultural norm to show respect, whereas in American culture, a handshake is
considered appropriate for greetings.
3.2. Distinguishing Cultural Patterns
Cultural patterns can be distinguished by analyzing:
● Cultural symbols and interpretations: How verbal and nonverbal messages are understood differently
across cultures.
● Cultural preferences: Different priorities in values and norms, such as direct vs. indirect
communication or individualism vs. collectivism.

3.. Intercultural Competence (Năng lực liên văn hóa)

● Definnition: Intercultural competence refers to the ability to effectively and appropriately
communicate and interact with individuals from different cultural backgrounds.
Characteristics:
+ Self-Awareness: Recognizing one's own cultural influences, biases, and perspectives, and
understanding how these affect interactions with others.
+ Open-Mindedness: Being receptive to and respectful of cultural differences, and willing to consider
multiple perspectives without judgment.
+ Empathy: The capacity to understand and share the feelings of individuals from different cultural
backgrounds, fostering deeper connections.
 + Cultural Knowledge: Acquiring information about different cultural practices, values, and
communication styles to enhance understanding and reduce misunderstandings.
+ Adaptability: The ability to adjust one's behavior and communication style to align with diverse
cultural contexts, ensuring interactions are effective and appropriate.
+ Effective Communication: Developing skills to convey and interpret messages accurately across
cultural boundaries, including verbal and non-verbal communication.
➢ Example:
In a global business meeting, an American team may value direct and fast decision-making, while a
Japanese team may prioritize group consensus. An interculturally competent individual would adapt to both
styles to ensure effective collaboration.

4. Intercultural Communication Competence

Definition: is the ability to communicate effectively and appropriately in various cultural context

Chapter 5: Cultural patterns and communication: taxonomies

5.4 Các cách phân loại mô hình văn hóa (Taxonomies of cultural patterns)

5.4.1. HALL’S HIGH- AND LOW-CONTEXT CULTURAL TAXONOMY

1.1. Use of Covert and Overt Messages

● High-context cultures rely on nonverbal cues and shared understanding; messages are implicit and
assumed to be known by the group.
● Low-context cultures use explicit and clear messages, where details are directly communicated to
avoid misinterpretation.

Ex:

● High-Context Example:
In Japan, a simple nod or silence can convey agreement or understanding. The meaning is implied
based on shared cultural norms and prior context. For example, during a tea ceremony, every small
gesture has a deeper, unspoken meaning that participants understand.
● Low-Context Example:
In Germany, communication tends to be direct and explicit. If someone disagrees in a meeting, they
will verbally state their objections clearly, ensuring no ambiguity in their message.

1.2. Importance of Ingroups and Outgroups

● High-context cultures: Group identity and loyalty are strong, with strict boundaries between ingroups
and outgroups. Commitment to family and group takes priority over individual needs.
● Low-context cultures: Relationships are more fluid, and individual responsibility is emphasized over
group loyalty.

Ex:

● High-Context Example:
In China, family and close social groups (ingroups) play a central role. Loyalty and support are
given to group members, often at the expense of individual preferences. For instance, a person may
prioritize helping a family member over pursuing their personal career goals.
 ● Low-Context Example:
In the United States, people often form and dissolve group memberships based on individual goals
and interests. Friendships and work teams may be temporary, and individuals emphasize personal
achievements over group obligations.

1.3. Orientation to Time

● High-context cultures: Time is flexible, open, and responsive to immediate needs, prioritizing
relationships over schedules.
● Low-context cultures: Time is highly structured and organized, with strict adherence to schedules
and deadlines.

Ex:

● High-Context Example:
In Mexico, time is viewed as more flexible and less structured. Social events, like weddings or
family gatherings, often start later than scheduled. The focus is on relationships and meeting people's
needs rather than adhering strictly to a timeline.
● Low-Context Example:
In Switzerland, time is highly organized, and punctuality is critical. Meetings start and end exactly
as scheduled, and lateness is considered disrespectful or unprofessional

5.4.2. HOFSTEDE’S CULTURAL TAXONOMY

2.1. Power Distance

● Cultures with low power distance emphasize equality, questioning authority, and reducing hierarchy
(e.g., Austria, Denmark).
● Cultures with high power distance accept hierarchy, viewing power and inequality as natural and
beneficial (e.g., Arab countries, Malaysia).
● This dimension influences family dynamics, education, and organizational practices, where high
power distance emphasizes conformity and low power distance values autonomy.

Ex:

● Low Power Distance Example (Denmark):

In Denmark, employees often address their managers by their first names, and workplace decisions
involve open discussions and input from all team members. Hierarchy exists but is minimal.
● High Power Distance Example (Malaysia):
In Malaysia, managers are treated with great respect, and subordinates rarely question their
decisions. Instructions flow from top to bottom, and authority is strictly followed.

2.2. Uncertainty Avoidance

● Low uncertainty avoidance cultures (e.g., Denmark, Ireland) accept change, take risks, and tolerate
ambiguity. They are flexible and open to innovation.
● High uncertainty avoidance cultures (e.g., Greece, Portugal) prefer rules, order, and structure to
avoid uncertainty. They experience higher anxiety and resistance to change.
● This dimension affects behaviors, rituals, and acceptance of conflicts within societies.
Ex:

● Low Uncertainty Avoidance Example (Ireland):

In Ireland, people are comfortable with ambiguity and change. Entrepreneurs frequently take risks to
start new businesses without a strong need for rigid plans or rules.
● High Uncertainty Avoidance Example (Greece):
In Greece, businesses rely heavily on formal rules, policies, and traditions to minimize uncertainty.
Employees prefer clear instructions and structured processes to avoid mistakes.

2.3. Individualism versus Collectivism

● Individualistic cultures (e.g., U.S., Netherlands): Focus on autonomy, independence, and individual
achievements. Decisions are made for personal benefit.
● Collectivist cultures (e.g., Guatemala, Pakistan): Emphasize group loyalty, shared goals, and “we”
consciousness. The group’s needs outweigh individual interests.
● In collectivist societies, group membership and loyalty are essential, while individualistic cultures
value self-expression and independence.

Ex:

● Individualistic Culture Example (United States):

In the U.S., individuals are encouraged to pursue their own goals and ambitions. College students
often leave home to attend universities far away, prioritizing independence and self-reliance.
● Collectivist Culture Example (Japan):
In Japan, employees often prioritize group harmony over personal ambitions. Decisions are made in
a way that benefits the team, and loyalty to the company is highly valued.

2.4. Masculinity versus Femininity

● Masculine cultures (e.g., Japan, Mexico): Value ambition, competitiveness, and achievement.
Gender roles are distinct, with men expected to be assertive and women nurturing.
● Feminine cultures (e.g., Sweden, Thailand): Emphasize quality of life, equality, and social
harmony. Gender roles are more fluid, and cooperation is prioritized over competition.
● Educational systems in masculine cultures reward performance, while feminine cultures value
modesty, solidarity, and intrinsic interests.

Ex:

Masculine Culture Example (Japan):

In Japan, there is a strong focus on competition and achievement. Employees work long hours to
demonstrate their commitment and strive to outperform their peers to gain promotions.

Feminine Culture Example (Sweden):

In Sweden, work-life balance is emphasized, and cooperation is valued over competition. Men and women
share roles equally, and paternity leave is encouraged to support family well-being.

2.5. Long-Term versus Short-Term Time Orientation

● Long-term orientation focuses on persistence, thriftiness, and the value of delayed gratification.
Cultures such as China mark significant events over long time frames, e.g., the Year of the Dragon.
 ● Short-term orientation emphasizes quick results, immediate gratification, and short-term
achievements, seen in many European cultures, where time is broken into short, structured
intervals.

Ex:

● Long-Term Orientation Example (China):

In China, businesses plan strategies that span decades. For instance, a company may invest heavily in
infrastructure, understanding that profits may take many years to realize. Traditional values like
saving money and honoring ancestors reflect a long-term mindset.
● Short-Term Orientation Example (United States):
American companies often prioritize quarterly profits and immediate success. For example, retail
companies frequently focus on seasonal sales like Black Friday to maximize short-term gains.

2.6. Indulgence versus Restraint

● Indulgent cultures prioritize pleasure, enjoyment, and leisure activities. They embrace spending and
personal satisfaction (e.g., Mexico).
● Restrained cultures emphasize self-discipline, control of desires, and suppression of hedonistic
activities, discouraging leisure and pleasure (e.g., Russia).

Ex:

● Indulgent Culture Example (Brazil):

Brazil’s culture embraces festivals like Carnival, where people indulge in dancing, music, and
celebrations. Leisure and fun are seen as essential parts of life.
● Restrained Culture Example (Germany):
In Germany, people focus on hard work and discipline. Leisure activities are planned but often
secondary to fulfilling responsibilities and obligations at work.

2.7. Monumentalism versus Self-Effacement

● Monumentalist cultures value pride, stability, and unchanging ideals, similar to statues or
monuments. Individuals resist adapting and maintain rigid cultural identities.
● Self-effacing cultures encourage humility, adaptability, and comfort with life’s paradoxes. People
adjust easily to new situations and value flexibility (e.g., Nordic countries).

Ex:

● Monumentalist Culture Example (Saudi Arabia):

In Saudi Arabia, cultural traditions and values are deeply rooted and remain unchanged over time.
Pride in heritage and national identity is emphasized, and adapting to external influences can be seen
as compromising values.
● Self-Effacing Culture Example (Sweden):
In Sweden, humility and adaptability are valued. For example, Swedes are comfortable adjusting
their behaviors to fit diverse social settings, and they prioritize equality and openness to change.

2.8. Comparing Hofstede’s Dimensions

● Hofstede’s dimensions (e.g., power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism vs. collectivism)
provide a framework for analyzing how cultural values influence behavior and communication.
 ● Cultures in similar geographic regions may have shared patterns, but subtle differences still exist
(e.g., Latin America and Middle East).
● Dimensions like time orientation, indulgence vs. restraint, and self-effacement further clarify how
cultural expectations shape productivity, communication, and adaptation.

Ex:

● In Germany (low-context and structured), time orientation is highly organized, with strict
schedules and punctuality. Meetings start and end on time, and deadlines are taken seriously.
● In Italy, where time is viewed more flexibly (long-term orientation), social relationships often take
precedence over strict schedules. Business meetings may start late, and deadlines are more fluid.

5.4.3. THE GLOBE CULTURAL TAXONOMY

3.1. Power Distance

● Definition: Power distance refers to how cultures view inequalities in social and political power.
○ High Power-Distance Cultures: Found in countries like France, Argentina, and Nigeria. These
cultures accept and believe social class divisions are appropriate, with limited upward
mobility.
○ Low Power-Distance Cultures: Seen in Australia, Denmark, and Albania. These cultures
strive to minimize social class differences, and individuals are encouraged to challenge
authority.

Ex:

● High Power-Distance Example:

In Nigeria, employees in companies rarely question their managers or leaders. Decisions flow from
top to bottom, and respect for authority is seen as essential for maintaining order.
● Low Power-Distance Example:
In Denmark, employees are encouraged to provide feedback to their bosses. Managers often seek
input from team members before making major decisions, fostering equality in the workplace.

3.2. Uncertainty Avoidance

● Definition: Cultures differ in their ability to handle unpredictability and ambiguity in life.
○ High Uncertainty Avoidance Cultures: Examples include Sweden and Switzerland. They
prefer rules, structure, and predictability, often relying on strict social norms.
○ Low Uncertainty Avoidance Cultures: Found in countries like Russia, Bolivia, and South
Korea. These cultures are more comfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity, accepting life’s
unpredictability.

Ex:

● High Uncertainty Avoidance Example:

In Japan, people prefer structured work environments with clear rules, schedules, and procedures.
Risk-taking is minimized, and meticulous planning is valued to avoid failure.
● Low Uncertainty Avoidance Example:
In Bolivia, people are more open to unplanned changes or spontaneous decisions. Ambiguity is
accepted as part of life, and individuals are flexible in dealing with unexpected situations.
3.3. In-Group Collectivism

● Definition: Focuses on the degree of loyalty, pride, and group solidarity individuals express.
○ High In-Group Collectivism: Seen in Georgia, Morocco, and the Philippines. People's
identities are closely tied to their family or group.
○ Low In-Group Collectivism: Observed in New Zealand, Finland, and the Netherlands.
Individual independence and autonomy are emphasized.

Ex:

● High In-Group Collectivism Example:

In Morocco, family ties are very strong. Decisions are often made considering the needs of the
family or community first, and loyalty to the group is seen as a moral duty.
● Low In-Group Collectivism Example:
In New Zealand, individuals prioritize their personal goals and independence. A person might choose
a career path based on their own interests rather than family expectations.

3.4. Institutional Collectivism

● Definition: Refers to how cultures value group decisions over individual decisions.
○ High Institutional Collectivism: Found in countries like Qatar and Japan, where group goals
take precedence over individual goals.
○ Low Institutional Collectivism: Seen in cultures where individual success and decisions are
prioritized.

Ex:

● High Institutional Collectivism Example:

In Japan, companies emphasize teamwork and group success. Employees often work together toward
shared goals, and group achievements are rewarded over individual accomplishments.
● Low Institutional Collectivism Example:
In Italy, individual performance and personal success are highly valued. Employees compete to stand
out and gain recognition for their personal contributions.

3.5. Gender Egalitarianism

● Definition: The extent to which a culture minimizes gender differences and promotes equality.
○ High Gender Egalitarianism: Cultures like Hungary and Poland value gender equality and
treat men and women similarly.
○ Low Gender Egalitarianism: Cultures like Austria and Egypt maintain traditional gender
roles, often resulting in unequal treatment of men and women.

Ex:

● High Gender Egalitarianism Example:

In Sweden, men and women share equal roles in both the workplace and household. Gender-neutral
policies like paternity leave and equal pay reflect a commitment to gender equality.
● Low Gender Egalitarianism Example:
In Egypt, traditional gender roles are prominent, where men are often expected to be breadwinners,
and women focus more on domestic responsibilities.
3.6. Assertiveness

● Definition: Highlights a culture’s preference for forcefulness and dominance versus tenderness and
social support.
○ High Assertiveness: Found in Germany and Hong Kong. Cultures reward competitiveness,
initiative, and success.
○ Low Assertiveness: Seen in Kuwait and Thailand, where nurturing, modesty, and social
harmony are valued.

Ex:

● High Assertiveness Example:

In Germany, people value direct communication, competitiveness, and taking the initiative. Business
meetings often involve debates, and decisions are made based on merit.
● Low Assertiveness Example:
In Thailand, social harmony is prioritized over confrontation. People tend to avoid open
disagreement and value kindness, humility, and modesty in interactions.

3.7. Performance Orientation

● Definition: Measures how cultures reward and encourage individual achievements and performance.
○ High Performance Orientation: Countries like Canada and Singapore emphasize education,
initiative, and accomplishments.
○ Low Performance Orientation: Examples include Colombia and Guatemala, where status
often derives from family connections and seniority rather than personal achievements.

Ex:

● High Performance Orientation Example:

In Singapore, students are encouraged to excel academically from an early age. Success is often
measured by educational achievements and career progress.
● Low Performance Orientation Example:
In Guatemala, family relationships and loyalty may take precedence over personal ambition or career
success. Status is often determined by social connections rather than achievements.

3.8. Future Orientation

● Definition: Describes a culture’s preference for planning and long-term goals versus living in the
moment.
○ High Future Orientation: Cultures like Iran and Hong Kong prioritize long-term planning,
saving, and economic success.
○ Low Future Orientation: Seen in countries like Portugal and Venezuela, where people value
present enjoyment and spontaneity over planning.

Ex:

● High Future Orientation Example:

In Iran, long-term planning is essential. People save money for the future, invest in education, and
focus on building a stable, secure life for generations to come.
 ● Low Future Orientation Example:
In Venezuela, people focus more on enjoying life in the present. There is less emphasis on saving or
planning, and celebrations and social gatherings are prioritized.

3.9. Humane Orientation

● Definition: Reflects how cultures encourage benevolence, generosity, and social support.
○ High Humane Orientation: Examples include Zambia and Indonesia, where people admire
kindness, empathy, and helping others.
○ Low Humane Orientation: Found in Spain and South Africa, where self-interest and
individual gratification take precedence.

Ex:

● High Humane Orientation Example:

In Zambia, communities emphasize kindness and helping others. People regularly share resources,
support those in need, and prioritize compassion over self-interest.
● Low Humane Orientation Example:
In Spain, individuals tend to prioritize personal comfort and pleasure. Self-fulfillment and enjoying
life are often considered more important than helping others financially.

3.10. Comparing the GLOBE Dimensions

● GLOBE Research: Divides cultures into clusters and measures their values and practices across
dimensions.
○ Cultural Practices: Refer to observable cultural behaviors.
○ Cultural Values: Reflect ideals and what a culture aspires to achieve.
● Purpose: Helps identify cultural patterns and their differences, clarifying how cultures prioritize
group vs. individual needs or adopt varying levels of assertiveness and collectivism.

Ex:

● Example of Differences in Values vs. Practices:

In China, collective success (a value) is highly praised, but in practice, people may still compete
intensely within their groups to achieve individual recognition.
● Cultural Clusters Example:
The Nordic Cluster (Sweden, Norway, Finland) tends to score high on gender egalitarianism and low
on assertiveness, while the Middle Eastern Cluster (Egypt, Qatar) scores lower on gender equality
and higher on power distance.

5.5. Cultural Taxonomies and Intercultural Competence (Các cách phân loại văn hóa và năng lực liên
văn hóa)

● Main Point: Cultures systematically address basic human problems differently.

● Key Strategies:
1. Understand Cultural Patterns: Study the norms and practices of the culture to build
competence.
2. Self-Reflection: Evaluate your own cultural beliefs and compare them to others.
 3. Flexibility: Adapt and view differences as variations, not as incorrect or strange behaviors.

Example of Improving Intercultural Communication:

● A manager from Canada working in Japan might initially misunderstand why Japanese employees
avoid openly disagreeing. By learning about Japan's preference for harmony and low assertiveness,
the manager can adapt their communication style to fit local cultural norms.

Chapter 6: Cultural identity and Cultural biases

1. Cultural identity.

1.1. The nature of identity: involves how individuals perceive themselves and how they are perceived by
others within different cultural, social, and personal contexts.
- Cultural identity:
● Definition: refers to the sense of belonging to a particular culture, shaped by shared values,
traditions, history, language, and customs.
● Ý nghĩa: Cultural identity influences not just personal preferences, but also social behaviors,
communication styles, and the way individuals approach problems.
● Example: Mei, from China, strongly identifies with her cultural heritage. She celebrates Chinese
New Year with family traditions. Mei’s cultural identity influences from the way she greets others to
the food she eats.

- Social identity:
● Definition: Social identity is derived from the groups or categories to which a person belongs. This
could include categories based on gender, nationality, ethnicity, religion, profession, or other social
groupings.
● Ý nghĩa: Social identity provides a sense of belonging and shapes how individuals relate to others.
● Example: As a father, John’s identity is tied to his role in the family. He sees himself as a protector,
caregiver, and role model for his children. This role influences his decisions, actions, and values.

- Personal identity:
● Definition: Personal identity refers to the individual characteristics that make someone unique. It
includes personality traits, preferences, values, and life experiences that shape how a person views
themselves and how they interact with the world around them.
● Ý nghĩa: Personal identity is deeply tied to how individuals understand their own existence, their
place in society, and how they express themselves.
● Ví dụ: Sarah defines herself as a creative person who enjoys painting and writing. When Sarah
interacts with others, she shares her creative process and the meaning behind her art, which forms a
significant part of how she communicates with the world.

1.2. The formation of cultural identity (sự hình thành)

- Unexamined cultural identity:
● Definition: individuals take their cultural identity for granted and rarely question it. Cultural
characteristics are often not consciously explored. Children, for example, typically do not recognize
the differences between cultures. They may not even be aware of how their cultural identity
influences their worldview.
 ● Ví dụ: Minh is a child living in Vietnam. Minh follows his family and community's customs without
ever questioning his cultural background. For example, he eats rice and celebrates Tet, but he doesn’t
understand why these traditions are important to his family or community.

- Cultural identity search:

● Definition: This stage involves exploration and questioning. Individuals start to reflect on their
cultural identity and the implications of belonging to a particular culture. There is often an increased
desire to learn more about one's culture, and individuals may attend cultural events, read about their
heritage, or engage in conversations about their cultural background.
● Ví dụ: Lan is a teenager of Vietnamese descent living abroad. she notices that her classmates come
from different cultural backgrounds. This makes her start questioning her own cultural identity and
the significance of her family’s traditions like honoring ancestors during Tet. She attends community
events and begins to learn more about the meaning of her cultural practices.

- Cultural identity achievement:

● Definition: At this final stage, individuals have a clear and confident acceptance of their cultural
identity. They fully internalize their cultural values and are comfortable with their cultural
membership. People at this stage are also adept at handling stereotypes and discrimination without
letting these external factors alter their sense of self.
● Ví dụ: An individual who has embraced their African-American identity may feel a deep sense of
pride in their heritage, actively participating in community events and confidently addressing any
negative stereotypes about their culture.

1.3. Characteristics of cultural identity: (đặc điểm)

- Centrality:
● Cultural identity is central to an individual's sense of self. Like race or gender, cultural identity is a
core part of who a person is and influences many other aspects of their identity.
● Ví dụ: A Vietnamese student studying abroad might only fully realize the importance of their
cultural identity when celebrating Tet far from home, as it reminds them of their roots and traditions.
- Dynamism:
● Cultural identity is dynamic and changes over time. It evolves through experiences, interactions with
others, and adaptations to new environments or cultural influences.
● Ví dụ: A person who moves from Mexico to the United States may initially strongly identify as
Mexican. Over time, they might integrate aspects of American culture, such as Thanksgiving, into
their identity, creating a blended sense of self.

- Multifaceted Nature:
● Cultural identity includes multiple components, such as ethnicity, language, traditions, religion, and
values. These components interact to form a complex and unique identity for each person.
● Ví dụ: A Vietnamese-American woman speaks Vietnamese with her parents, cooks phở, and
celebrates Tet at home. However, in her professional life, she communicates primarily in English,
participates in American workplace culture, and celebrates holidays like Thanksgiving.
2. Cultural biases (thiên lệch văn hóa)

2.1. Social categorizing: is the natural cognitive process by which people organize their understanding of
others by grouping or categorizing information into patterns. This simplifies the complex social world but
can also lead to biases. Three key features:
- Pattern Recognition: People simplify complex information by categorizing stimuli into groupings or
patterns based on previous experiences.
Ex: When meeting new people, we may unconsciously assign them to categories like “friendly” or
“unfriendly” based on prior experiences.
- Assuming Similarity: People often believe others perceive and evaluate the world in the same way they do.
This assumption is tied to ethnocentrism, where one’s own cultural norms are seen as the standard.
Ex: A business professional from Germany, where punctuality is highly valued, might assume
everyone prioritizes time the same way. When working with someone from a culture where time is
flexible (e.g., many Latin American cultures), this assumption may lead to frustration or
misunderstanding.
- Stereotyping: occurs when people attribute specific characteristics to all members of a group, ignoring
individual differences. This can be based on ethnicity, gender, nationality, or other social categories.
Ex: A child bitten by several dogs might assume all dogs are aggressive, even though many dogs are
friendly.

2.2. Ethnocentrism: is the belief that one's own culture is superior to others. This belief emerges from the
tendency of cultures to teach their members what is "right" or "natural," causing them to view their own
ways of life as the standard. People from other cultures are often perceived as "wrong" or "inferior."
Ethnocentrism is a result of the natural inclination to prioritize the familiar and judge unfamiliar practices
negatively.
- Cultural Superiority: Cultures impart values and behaviors they consider "correct" or "natural," leading
people to believe their own practices are universal. This belief causes people to judge other cultures as
inferior.
Example: A person from the United States might believe that individualism is the best way of living,
while seeing collectivist cultures (like those in some Asian countries) as limiting personal freedom.
- Cultural Intolerance: Ethnocentrism often leads to an unwillingness to accept or appreciate cultural
differences. People with this mindset may feel discomfort or even hostility when encountering practices,
traditions, or beliefs that differ from their own.
Example: When an American first learns that some cultures do not use tissues and blow their noses
in public or onto the ground, they may feel repulsed, even though the act is more a reflection of local
customs rather than inherent "uncleanliness."
→ Ethnocentrism is a barrier to intercultural communication and competence.
Overcoming ethnocentrism requires understanding that there is no single “correct”
way to live and that each culture's practices make sense within its own context.

2.3. Stereotyping: is the process of making generalizations about a group of people, assuming all members
of the group share the same characteristics. This simplifies perception but ignores individual differences.
- How it works: People categorize others into groups (e.g., "bankers," "surfers," "New Yorkers") and apply
assumptions about those groups to individuals. This leads to exaggerated distinctions between groups and
negative judgments about outgroups.
- Accuracy and Inaccuracy: Stereotypes can be inaccurate in three ways:
 ● Homogeneity Effect: Overestimating the similarity within a group and ignoring differences among
individuals.
● Exaggeration: Stereotypes often exaggerate group characteristics, Ex: the perception that all
Germans are efficient and rigid.
● Positive/Negative Bias: Stereotypes can either emphasize positive or negative traits, leading to
misjudgments. For example, one may focus on the perceived efficiency of a culture but ignore its
rigidity, creating an inaccurate and biased view.
- Stereotyping’s Role in Communication: While stereotyping helps simplify the world and create quick
judgments, it can lead to errors in communication, causing people to misinterpret actions and behaviors
based on assumptions rather than reality.
Example: If a person from a culture is seen failing a test, they might be judged differently based on
their stereotype (e.g., laziness for Asians, low ability for Black individuals), despite the actual cause
of the failure being unrelated to the stereotype.

2.4. Prejudice: refers to negative attitudes toward a group based on inaccurate and rigid stereotypes. It
involves irrational dislike, biased beliefs, and a tendency to treat people unjustly.
- Connection with Stereotyping: Prejudiced thinking is closely linked to stereotypes. Prejudiced attitudes
often arise from stereotypes and are a common psychological phenomenon.
- Functions of Prejudice:
● Utilitarian or Adjustment Function: Prejudice allows individuals to receive rewards or avoid
punishments. Expressing prejudiced views may gain social approval from others.
● Ego-Defensive Function: Prejudice protects self-esteem by devaluing others who might threaten
one's self-image.
○ Example: A person who is unsuccessful in business may feel threatened by successful people
and develop prejudiced views toward them to protect their own self-worth.
● Value-Expressive Function: Prejudice is used to express one's values and beliefs. When people feel
their group has unique or superior qualities, they may develop prejudiced attitudes toward others to
express these beliefs.
● Knowledge Function: Prejudiced attitudes help people simplify the world by categorizing it into
clear, organized groups. This function allows for predictability and security, though it oversimplifies
complex human behaviors.

2.5. Discrimination
- Definition:
● Discrimination refers to actions that manifest prejudice (prejudice "in action").
● It occurs when individuals are treated unfairly simply because they belong to a particular group.
- Forms of Discrimination: It can range from racial segregation to unfair practices in housing, employment,
education, economic resources, personal safety, and legal protections.
- Teun van Dijk's Research: When people make prejudiced comments, or share negative stereotypes, they
are legitimizing their prejudices and laying the "communication groundwork" for discriminatory actions to
be acceptable.
- Causes of Discrimination:
● Discrimination is not always motivated by direct hostility but can arise from a strong preference for
and loyalty to one's own culture.
● The formation of one's cultural identity can sometimes lead to hostility, hate, and discrimination
against non-members of that culture.
- Ví dụ: A manager hires a less qualified candidate simply because they share the same background.
2.6. Racism: refers to discrimination and prejudice against people based on their race or ethnicity, and it
often leads to unequal treatment and oppression. It has significant emotional and social effects on both the
oppressed and those participating in racist behaviors.
- Levels of Racism:
● Individual Level: Personal beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors that involve discrimination against people
of different races.
○ Example: A person may think African Americans are inferior and treat them unfairly.
● Institutional Level: Racism embedded in social structures like government, schools, and workplaces,
leading to systemic inequality.
○ Example: Historically, African Americans and Jews were excluded from certain universities
or jobs due to institutional racism.
● Cultural Level: Racism that denies the value and existence of the culture of a particular group.
○ Example: Denying that African Americans have a unique culture and dismissing their cultural
values as inferior.
- Forms of Racism:
● Old-Fashioned Racism: Open and explicit bigotry, often involving dehumanizing views of other
races.
○ Example: African Americans being openly called inferior by people from other racial groups.
● Symbolic Racism: Indirect discrimination based on fears that other groups will threaten the values or
power of the dominant group.
○ Example: Fearing that Asian Americans will take away jobs due to their economic success.
● Tokenism: Giving minimal recognition to minorities to appear non-racist while still holding negative
attitudes.
○ Example: Hiring one minority employee to appear inclusive, but still holding prejudiced
views about the group.
● Aversive Racism: Subtle, unconscious racism where individuals who value fairness still harbor
negative feelings about certain races, often avoiding them.
○ Example: A person may be polite to a colleague from another culture but avoid socializing
with them outside of work.
● Genuine likes and dislikes: Negative attitudes toward cultural practices of other groups simply
because they differ from one's own practices.
○ Example: Someone who is vegetarian may feel uncomfortable with people who eat meat,
developing a negative view toward them.
● Racism from Unfamiliarity: Discomfort and negative attitudes due to lack of experience with other
groups.
○ Example: People may feel uneasy around individuals from a different culture because they
look, speak, or act differently.

3. Identity, biases, and intercultural competence

- Understanding Your Own Cultural Identity: be aware of your cultural background and how it influences
your values, beliefs, and perceptions of others.
- Self-awareness and Reflection: By evaluating your own ethnocentric attitudes and stereotypes, you can
recognize the biases you hold towards other cultural groups and shift your perspective.
- Overcoming Cultural Barriers: need to open your mind and accept differences without judgment.
- Challenges in Communication: learn how to identify and respond to prejudice and discrimination
appropriately.
- Intercultural Competence: A person with intercultural competence not only adapts to multicultural
environments but also maintains positive, respectful relationships and collaborates effectively with people
from different cultures.

CHAPTER 7: VERBAL INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION: Giao tiếp liên văn hóa ngôn từ

1. The power of language in intercultural communication

● Role of Language in Human Interaction: Language is central to human interaction, especially in

intercultural contexts. It allows individuals to express ideas, emotions, and intentions while shaping
perceptions and relationships.

● Examples of Intercultural Challenges:

- US Business Executive in Belgium: A businesswoman, fluent in French, faced challenges in

Belgium where Flemish was the preferred language in business settings. This demonstrates
the importance of recognizing linguistic and cultural diversity in multilingual societies.

-Vijay’s Experience in the US: Vijay, an Indian graduate student, experienced difficulty
understanding American slang and idiomatic expressions, such as “hang loose” and “go with
the flow.” This highlights how shared language proficiency does not guarantee effective
communication without cultural understanding.
● Language as a Cultural Tool: Language is often learned unconsciously during childhood and
becomes a natural part of life. However, when individuals face unfamiliar languages or verbal codes,
they become more aware of its significance in accomplishing tasks and connecting with others.

● Language and Intercultural Communication: Intercultural communication requires understanding

how language differences impact interactions. Even when individuals share a language (e.g.,
English), variations in dialects and cultural contexts can lead to misunderstandings.

1. Definition of verbal codes

● Verbal codes are sets of rules that guide the use of words in creating messages, encompassing both
spoken (oral) and written (non-oral) language
● Features of language
- Verbal code
- Symbols: An essential ingredient of both verbal and nonverbal codes. Symbols are words, actions, or
objects that stand for or represent a unit of meaning.
1. Rules systems in verbal code - HT quy tắc trong mã ngôn từ (phân biệt các mã ngôn từ)

Phonology: - Focuses on the sounds (phonemes) of a language and their

Âm vị học combinations.
- For example, in English, sounds like (k), (t), or (a) are
phonemes, and their rules determine pronunciation.

Morphology: - The smallest units of meaning in a language.

Hình thái - For instance, "comfort" is one morpheme, while "comforted"
has two ("comfort" + "-ed").
 Semantics: - This pertains to the meaning of words and how they represent
objects, ideas, or emotions
- Words have both denotative meanings (literal and objective,
e.g., "test" as an examination) and connotative meanings
(personal and emotional, e.g., "test" evoking anxiety).
- Misunderstandings often occur when connotative meanings
vary across cultures.

Pragmatics: - This includes understanding indirect expressions, cultural

nuances, and conversational norms.
- For example, in some cultures, refusing food multiple times is
customary before accepting.

Syntactic: - These rules dictate how words are arranged to form meaningful
sentences.
- For example, English requires a specific word order like "The
book is on the desk," whereas German syntax might differ.

2. Distinguishing Intercultural Competence

Intercultural The ability to communicate effectively and appropriately with people from
Competence different cultural and linguistic backgrounds. It involves understanding,
adapting, and respecting cultural differences.
Components:

- Knowledge: Awareness of how verbal codes differ and how they

connect to cultural values. For instance, studying a second language
teaches more than words—it reveals cultural insights and the complexity
of communication.
- Motivation: A positive attitude toward cultural diversity and a
willingness to engage with people from different backgrounds, even
when facing linguistic or cultural challenges.
- Actions: Behaviors like learning key phrases, using alternative
explanations, showing patience, and avoiding negative judgments of
nonstandard speech.

=> Emphasize the ability to navigate cultural and linguistic diversity, often
requiring knowledge of verbal codes but extending to attitudes and actions that
promote mutual understanding

Chapter 8: Nonverbal intercultural communication

1. Definition of “nonverbal codes”

Nonverbal codes: are a system of symbols and signs that convey meaning without the use of words. They
are often used in conjunction with verbal communication to enhance, contradict, or substitute for it.

● It's a multi-channeled process, often subconscious, involving gestures, posture, facial expressions,
etc.
● Nonverbal cues can be intentional or interpreted by others, forming part of the communication.
● They function as a "silent language" with subtle meanings.
 ● Processing them happens more subconsciously compared to verbal messages.
● They are continuous and natural, often blending together (e.g., waving goodbye).
● Unlike verbal communication, there are no set rules or dictionaries for nonverbal codes.
● Their meanings are less precise and vary across cultures (e.g., raised eyebrow).

Example: A smile conveys friendliness or happiness, while a frown may indicate disapproval.

* Relationship of Nonverbal to Verbal Communication:

● Nonverbal messages can:

○ Accent: Emphasize specific words or phrases in a verbal message.
○ Complement: Reinforce and clarify the verbal message (e.g., nodding while saying "yes").
○ Contradict: Convey the opposite of the verbal message (e.g., saying "yes" while shaking
head no).
○ Regulate: Maintain the flow of conversation (e.g., eye contact to signal turn-taking).
○ Substitute: Replace verbal messages when speaking is impossible or undesirable (e.g., using
gestures).

* Cultural Universals in Nonverbal Communication

Some nonverbal expressions are universal across cultures, such as facial expressions for emotions like
happiness, sadness, anger, or fear. These expressions are rooted in human biology and shared across
cultures.

Cultural Universals:

● Basic Emotions: Certain basic emotions like happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust
are expressed similarly across cultures.
● Body Language: Basic body language cues like smiling, frowning, and raising eyebrows are
universally understood.
● Territoriality: Humans from all cultures exhibit territorial behavior, marking and claiming spaces as
their own.

Example: Smiling to indicate happiness is recognized worldwide, whether in the United States, Vietnam, or
Brazil.

2. Cultural Variations in Nonverbal Communication

Cultural Variations:

● Display Rules: Cultures vary in the rules governing when and how to express emotions. For
example, some cultures value emotional expression, while others prefer to suppress it.
● Interpretation of Nonverbal Cues: The same nonverbal cue can have different meanings in
different cultures. For instance, a smile can convey happiness, politeness, or even embarrassment
depending on the cultural context.
● Specific Nonverbal Behaviors: The specific behaviors used to convey emotions or intentions can
vary widely across cultures. For example, gestures, eye contact, and body posture can have different
meanings in different cultural contexts.
 3. Cultural Similarities and Differences in Nonverbal Communication (tương đồng, khác biệt
trong giao tiếp phi ngôn từ)

Similarities:

● Basic Emotions: Facial expressions for basic emotions like happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise,
and disgust are largely universal.
● Eye Contact: Direct eye contact is generally associated with attentiveness and sincerity.
● Smiling: Smiling is a common sign of friendliness and positivity across cultures.
● Head Nodding and Shaking: These gestures are widely understood to indicate agreement and
disagreement, respectively.

Differences:

● Personal Space: Cultures vary in their preferences for personal space. Some cultures prefer closer
proximity, while others prefer more distance.
● Touch: The appropriateness of touch varies significantly across cultures. Some cultures are more
touch-oriented than others.
● Gestures: Gestures can have different meanings in different cultures. For example, the "OK" gesture
can be offensive in some cultures.
● Facial Expressions: While basic emotions are universal, the intensity and duration of facial
expressions can vary across cultures.

Understanding these cultural differences is crucial for effective intercultural communication. By being
aware of these variations, we can avoid misunderstandings and build stronger relationships with people from
different cultural backgrounds.

4. Nonverbal Messages in Intercultural Communication (Thông điệp phi ngôn từ trong giao tiếp liên
văn hóa)

* Nonverbal communication is a complex system of cues that we use to convey meaning without words.
These cues include body language, facial expressions, eye contact, posture, gestures, and vocal qualities.

* Types of Nonverbal Codes

1. Kinesics (body language/movements)

○ Emblems: Gestures with direct verbal equivalents (e.g., waving goodbye, thumbs up).
○ Illustrators: Gestures that accompany speech and enhance its meaning (e.g., pointing,
drawing shapes in the air).
○ Affect Displays: Facial expressions that convey emotions (e.g., smiling, frowning, raising
eyebrows).
○ Regulators: Gestures that control the flow of conversation (e.g., nodding, eye contact).
○ Adaptors: Unconscious gestures related to physical or psychological needs (e.g., fidgeting,
scratching).
2. Proxemics: The use of space to communicate.
3. Haptics: The use of touch to communicate.
4. Chronemics: The use of time to communicate.
5. Paralanguage: Vocal qualities such as tone, pitch, volume, and rate of speech.
* Cultural Differences in the Use of Space (Proxemics)

Proxemics is the study of how people use space to communicate. It's a fascinating aspect of nonverbal
communication that can vary significantly across different cultures.

Key Points:

● Personal Space: Each person has a personal space bubble, and the size of this bubble can vary
depending on cultural norms and individual preferences.
● Cultural Variations: Different cultures have different norms for personal space. For example,
people from some cultures, like Latin American cultures, prefer closer distances, while people from
other cultures, like Northern European cultures, prefer more distance.
● Edward T. Hall's Zones of Spatial Difference: Hall identified four zones of personal space:
intimate, personal, social, and public. Each zone has different levels of physical and emotional
closeness.
● Misinterpretations: Differences in personal space preferences can lead to misunderstandings. For
example, a person from a culture with a larger personal space bubble may perceive someone from a
culture with a smaller personal space bubble as being too close or aggressive.

* Cultural Differences in Touch and Territoriality

Touch

● Meanings of Touch: Touch can convey various meanings, including affection, power, control, and
social status.
● Cultural Variations: Cultures differ in their norms regarding touch. Some cultures, such as Latin
American cultures, are more touch-oriented, while others, such as Northern European cultures, are
less touch-oriented.
● Misinterpretations: Differences in cultural norms can lead to misunderstandings. For example, a
person from a contact culture may interpret a lack of touch as coldness or indifference, while a
person from a non-contact culture may feel uncomfortable with too much touch.
○ Affect: Expressing emotions (e.g., love, anger, sympathy)
○ Playfulness: Signaling that a behavior is not serious
○ Control: Influencing others' behavior
○ Ritual: Greeting or departing (e.g., handshake, hug)
○ Task-related: Touching involved in specific activities (e.g., a doctor's exam)
● Cultural Variations:
○ Contact cultures: Cultures where touch is more frequent and accepted (e.g., Latin America,
Europe countries).
○ Non-contact cultures: Cultures where touch is less frequent and more restricted (e.g., middle
east countries).
○ Gender and Social Status: Cultural norms also influence who can touch whom and under
what circumstances.

Territoriality

● Definition: The tendency to claim and defend spaces as one's own.

● Cultural Variations:
○ Degree of Territoriality: Some cultures are more territorial than others. For example,
Germans tend to be more territorial than French people.
 ○ Markers of Territory: People use various markers to claim territory, such as personal
belongings, body language, and vocal cues.
○ Reactions to Territorial Invasion: Cultures differ in how they respond to territorial
invasions. Some cultures may react aggressively, while others may withdraw or avoid
confrontation.
○ Misinterpretations: Misunderstandings can arise when people from different cultures have
different expectations about territoriality. For example, a person from a culture that values
personal space may feel uncomfortable if someone from a culture that values closeness
invades their personal space.

Example: A common example of cultural differences in the use of space is the way people greet each other.
In some cultures, it is common to greet people with a hug or kiss on the cheek, while in other cultures, a
handshake or a simple wave is more appropriate. These differences can lead to misunderstandings and
awkward situations if people from different cultures are not aware of each other's customs.

* Intercultural Communication Challenges:

● Misinterpretations: Differences in cultural norms can lead to misunderstandings. For example, a

person from a contact culture may interpret a lack of touch as coldness or indifference, while a
person from a non-contact culture may feel uncomfortable with too much touch.
● Communication Barriers: Misunderstandings can hinder effective communication and lead to
conflict.

* Overcoming Challenges:

● Cultural Awareness: Understanding cultural differences in touch and territoriality is crucial for
effective intercultural communication.
● Active Listening: Pay attention to both verbal and nonverbal cues.
● Empathy: Try to understand the other person's perspective.
● Open-Mindedness: Be willing to learn and adapt to different cultural norms.

Example: - Chinese culture: Chinese culture is generally considered a low-contact cultures. Touch is more
reserved and often limited to family and close friends.

- Western cultures: Western cultures, such as those in North America and Northern Europe, are
generally considered a high-contact culture, where touching is more common and accepted.
However, there are still cultural norms and expectations regarding who can touch whom and in what
situations. For example, it is generally not appropriate for strangers to touch each other, especially in
public.

* Cultural Differences in Time Orientation

Time Orientation refers to the value or importance a culture places on the passage of time. It influences
how people perceive, structure, and use time.

Cultural Variations in Time Orientation:

● Past-oriented cultures: These cultures value tradition and past experiences. They focus on
preserving the past and may be less concerned with future planning. Examples of past-oriented
cultures include some Asian and African cultures.
 ● Present-oriented cultures: These cultures focus on the present moment and immediate needs. They
may be less concerned with long-term planning and more focused on enjoying the present. Examples
of present-oriented cultures include some Latin American cultures.
● Future-oriented cultures: These cultures value planning and goal-setting for the future. They may
be less concerned with traditions and past experiences. Examples of future-oriented cultures include
many Western cultures, such as the United States and Germany.

Impact on Intercultural Communication:

● Time Perception: Different cultures have different perceptions of time. For example, some cultures
are more punctual than others.
● Pace of Communication: People from different cultures may have different expectations regarding
the pace of communication.
● Long-term Planning: Cultures with different time orientations may have different approaches to
long-term planning and goal-setting.

Understanding Cultural Differences in Time Orientation:

● Research: Learn about the time orientation of the culture you are interacting with.
● Active Listening: Pay attention to nonverbal cues, such as body language and tone of voice, to
understand the other person's perspective on time.
● Flexibility: Be willing to adapt to different time orientations.
● Patience: Be patient and understanding when communicating with people from cultures with
different time orientations.

* Cultural Differences in Vocal Communication:

Vocalics refers to the way we use our voice to communicate. It includes aspects like tone, pitch, volume,
and rate of speech.

Cultural Variations in Vocal Communication:

● Tone and Pitch: Different cultures have distinct patterns of tone and pitch. For example, many
Asian languages are tonal, meaning the same word can have different meanings depending on the
tone.
● Volume and Rate of Speech: Cultures vary in how loudly and quickly they speak. Some cultures
may perceive louder speech as more assertive, while others may see it as aggressive.
● Emotional Expression: Cultures differ in how they express emotions vocally. For example, some
cultures may be more expressive, while others may be more reserved.

Impact on Intercultural Communication:

● Misunderstandings: Differences in vocal cues can lead to misunderstandings. For example, a

person from a culture that uses a lot of vocal variation may be perceived as overly emotional or
aggressive by someone from a culture that uses a more subdued tone.
● Communication Barriers: Misinterpretations of vocal cues can hinder effective communication.

Understanding Cultural Differences in Vocal Communication:

● Research: Learn about the vocal communication norms of the culture you are interacting with.
● Active Listening: Pay attention to the speaker's tone, pitch, and volume.
 ● Empathy: Try to understand the other person's perspective.
● Flexibility: Be willing to adapt to different vocal styles.

6. Synchrony of Nonverbal Communication Codes (Sự đồng thời của các mã giao tiếp phi ngôn từ)

Synchrony refers to the coordinated and rhythmic nature of nonverbal communication. It involves the timing
and sequencing of various nonverbal behaviors, such as gestures, facial expressions, and vocal cues.

● Cultural Patterning: Cultures train their members to synchronize various nonverbal behaviors to
form a coherent and culturally appropriate response pattern.
● Timing and Rhythm: Subtle variations in timing and rhythm of nonverbal behaviors can be
culturally significant. For example, the way people gesture, maintain eye contact, and use vocal cues
can vary across cultures.
● Intercultural Challenges: Differences in cultural rhythms can lead to misunderstandings and
misinterpretations. For example, a person from a culture with a slower pace of communication may
be perceived as being uninterested or unresponsive by someone from a culture with a faster pace.

7. Nonverbal Communication and Intercultural Competence (Giao tiếp phi ngôn từ và năng lực liên
văn hóa)

Nonverbal communication plays a crucial role in intercultural communication. It involves a complex

interplay of subtle cues, including body language, facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, posture, and
vocal qualities.

Vấn đề 9: Outcomes of intercultural contact

1. Outcomes of Intercultural Contact
Intercultural contact can result in two primary outcomes:
● Culture Shock: The initial response to the challenges of adapting to a different culture, characterized
by feelings of confusion, discomfort, and disorientation.
● Adaptation: The gradual process of adjusting to and integrating into a new cultural environment,
leading to improved interactions and relationships with that culture.
2. Adaptation
* Definition: Adaptation refers to the process through which individuals or groups adjust their behaviors,
attitudes, and emotions to function effectively in a new cultural environment. It reflects a learning and
growth experience.

* Types of Adaptation:

● Integration: Individuals retain their original cultural identity while actively engaging and building
positive relationships with the new culture.
● Assimilation: Individuals abandon their original cultural identity to fully embrace the new culture.
● Separation: Individuals maintain their original culture while avoiding interaction with the new
culture.
● Marginalization: Individuals lose connection with both their original and the new culture, resulting in
a lack of belonging.
* Main Characteristics:
+ Learning to integrate: Individuals gradually adapt to new cultural cues, including social behaviors,
communication, customs, and lifestyle.
 + Developing life skills: People learn how to establish and maintain positive relationships within the
new cultural context.
+ Self-adjustment: They strike a balance between preserving their own cultural identity and blending
into the new culture
Ex: After spending some time in India, the traveler learns how to eat with their hands properly, understands
that it is a part of the culture, and feels comfortable doing it alongside locals.

3. Culture Shock vs. Adaptation

Culture Shock:
● Definition: Definition: Culture shock refers to the feelings of anxiety, confusion, and disorientation
when an individual is exposed to a new cultural environment that they are unfamiliar with.
● Main characteristic:
+ Anxiety from losing familiar cues: Culture shock occurs when familiar signs such as
language, gestures, behaviors, and values no longer apply.
+ Difficulty understanding new norms: Individuals experiencing culture shock do not know
how to behave appropriately or handle social situations.
+ Reduced emotional control: This may lead to feelings of anxiety, isolation, and being "lost."
+ Physical effects: Symptoms of culture shock can include fatigue, stress, and even illness due
to environmental changes.
Ex: A traveler visiting India might feel confused and uncomfortable upon seeing people eating with their
hands, feeling unfamiliar or hesitant to participate.

➔ The Difference:
+ Culture shock reflects the initial discomfort and disorientation.
+ Adaptation is the result of learning, adjusting, and accepting the new culture.