Additional

ANDERSON SERANGOON JUNIOR COLLEGE Notes

PHYSICS 9749

Name: ___________________________________ Class: 24 / ____

Topic 20: Nuclear Physics

Content:
A The nucleus, Isotopes Lect Concepts Qns Duration
B Mass defect and nuclear binding energy 1 A.1 – B.2 CYU 1–3, Ex 1 31 min
C Nuclear processes 2 B.3 – C.4 CYU 4, Ex 2 32 min
D Radioactive decay 3 C.5 – C.6 CYU 5, Ex 3–5 21 min
E Uses of radioactivity and biological effects of radiation 4 D.1 – D.4 Ex 6–7 32 min
5 D.5 – D.7 – 29 min
6 E.1 – E.2 Ex 8–10 28 min
Learning Outcomes:
Candidates should be able to:
(a) infer from the results of the Rutherford -particle scattering experiment the existence and
small size of the atomic nucleus
(b) distinguish between nucleon number (mass number) and proton number (atomic number)
(c) show an understanding that an element can exist in various isotopic forms each with a
different number of neutrons in the nucleus
(d) use the usual notation for the representation of nuclides and represent simple nuclear
14
reactions by nuclear equations of the form N + 42 He → 178 O + 11 H
7
(e) state and apply to problem solving the concept that nucleon number, charge and mass-
energy are all conserved in nuclear processes
(f) show an understanding of the concept of mass defect
(g) recall and apply the equivalence between energy and mass as represented by E = mc2 to
solve problems
(h) show an understanding of the concept of nuclear binding energy and its relation to mass
defect
(i) sketch the variation of binding energy per nucleon with nucleon number
(j) explain the relevance of binding energy per nucleon to nuclear fusion and to nuclear fission
(k) show an understanding of the spontaneous and random nature of nuclear decay
(l) infer the random nature of radioactive decay from the fluctuations in count rate
(m) show an understanding of the origin and significance of background radiation
(n) show an understanding of the nature of , β and γ radiations (knowledge of positron
emission is not required.)
(o) show an understanding of how the conservation laws for energy and momentum in β decay
were used to predict the existence of the neutrino (knowledge of antineutrino and
antiparticles is not required.)
(p) define the terms activity and decay constant and recall and solve problems using
A = λN
(q) infer and sketch the exponential nature of radioactive decay and solve problems using the
relationship x = xo exp(–λt) where x could represent activity, number of undecayed particles
or received count rate
(r) define and use half-life as the time taken for a quantity x to reduce to half its initial value
ln 2
(s) solve problems using the relation  = t1
2

(t) discuss qualitatively the effects, both direct and indirect, of ionising radiation on living
tissues and cells.

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History of the Atom

Discovery of Protons

• In 1919, using energetic -particles to bombard nitrogen atoms, Rutherford found that
protons were ejected after the collision. Protons were found to be positively charged
and carried a charge of +e.
• It is concluded that
➢ the positive charge in the nucleus is due to the presence of protons in the nucleus.
➢ the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom.
➢ the mass of a proton is approximately 1840 times the mass of an electron.

Discovery of Neutrons

• In 1932, James Chadwick discovered neutrons inside the nucleus. Using -particles
to bombard beryllium, Chadwick found that neutrons were ejected in the collision.
• It is also discovered that:
➢ neutrons carry no charge.
➢ the mass of a neutron is nearly equal to the mass of a proton.

Simple Model of an Atom

nucleus
nucleus
proton
proton
neutron

electron

Structure of Nucleus

An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus which makes up most of the atom’s
mass. The nucleus consists of protons which are positively charged and neutrons which
carry no charge. The mass of a proton is almost equal to the mass of a neutron.

Strong Nuclear Force

Inside the nucleus, the protons repel each other due to electrostatic repulsion of like
charges. For the nucleus to be stable, there must exist other forces between the nucleons.
These are called the strong nuclear forces which has a very short range. They provide a
net attractive force greater than any repulsive electric forces when the nucleons are very
close together.

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PHYSICS 9749

Electrons around the Nucleus

Electrons are considered to be orbiting in circular motion around the nucleus at relatively
large distances away. The electrostatic forces of attraction between opposite charges
(protons and electrons) provides the required centripetal force for the circular motion.

In the history of the atom, the concept of the atom was revisited and elaborated upon by
many scientists and philosophers.

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A The Nucleus, Isotopes

A.1 Alpha-particle Scattering Experiment

The ‘plum pudding’
model:
• In the “plum-pudding” model, first proposed by J. J. Thomson in 1904, the atom is
composed of electrons surrounded by a soup of positive charge to balance the
electrons' negative charges, like negatively charged “plums” surrounded by positively
charged “pudding”.
• In 1909, to test the “plum-pudding” model of the atom, Rutherford suggested the alpha-
scattering experiment. Two of his students, Geiger & Marsden, carried out the
experiment.
• Experimental Setup:

gold foil

Thin metal
foil
α particles

A narrow beam of -
particles is to ensure
there is little
divergence in the Alpha particle deflections
deflected beam to by the atoms in a gold foil
increase precision of
measurement.
➢ a narrow beam of positively charged alpha () particles (helium nuclei) were
A thin gold foil is used
directed from a radioactive source onto a thin gold foil (~ 1 μm thick) in vacuum.
so that the -particles
are scattered only ➢ a zinc sulphide screen (fluorescent material) is mounted such that it could be set
once. It also ensures at different angles to the gold foil.
that the -particles
are not absorbed by
the foil. ➢ a scintillation is observed on the zinc sulphide screen when an -particle strikes
the screen. It could be deduced that an −particle had been deflected from the
gold foil to hit the zinc sulphide screen at that angle.
Scintillation is the
process by which ➢ the entire apparatus was set up in a vacuum chamber to ensure that deflection of
ionisation produced
by charged particles -particles is entirely due to its interaction with gold atoms and not with the air
excites a material molecules in the chamber.
and light is emitted
by the de-excitation. • Results of alpha-scattering experiment:

➢ The number of scintillations (n) observed at each scattering angle () is

summarized in the following graph:
n

/o
0
−170 −90 90 170

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PHYSICS 9749

Observations Interpretation
(a) Majority of the scintillations were observed at a Much of the atom is made
scattering angle of around 0˚ to the direct path. up of empty space, hence
the nucleus has a very
Gold foil small volume compared to
the atom.

alpha beam

This indicated that a vast majority of the alpha

particles were able to pass through the gold foil with
little or no deflection.
(b) A small proportion of scintillations were observed at The centre (or nucleus) of Only alpha
an angle of more than about 10 ° to the direct path. an atom is charged. Alpha particles that
Gold foil particles, which are also pass very close
charged, passing close to to the nucleus,
almost striking it
the nucleus will experience
θ head-on, will
a repulsive force causing experience large
alpha beam them to deviate. enough
repulsive forces
to cause them to
Gold foil deviate through
angles greater
than 90 °.
θ
alpha beam

(c) An extremely small proportion of scintillations were The alpha particles must
observed at a scattering angle of more than 90˚. have collided with
Note that massive
Some of these particles were even detected to reflect comparatively massive in this case means
back on the path they came from (back scattered). particles to make an about- most of the mass
turn. The fact that so few is concentrated
particles did so confirms into a small region.
Gold foil
that the nucleus is very
small, and that most of the
atom is empty space.
alpha beam You are expected to
explain how the
Rutherford’s model
came about based
on the observations
From the results above, it can be concluded that of Alpha scattering
1. there is a very dense positively-charged centre core in the atom (nucleus). experiment.
2. the nucleus must be very small compared to the atom.

A.2 Rutherford’s Model of the Atom Typical values:

diameter of nucleus
≈ 10−15 m
• Every atom has a central core, called the nucleus, which carries all the positive charge
and almost all the mass of the atom. The electrons surround the nucleus. diameter of atom
≈ 10−10 m
• The atom is made up of mostly empty space; the nucleus occupies only a small fraction
of the atom’s total volume. diameter of electron
< 10−18 m

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• Further experiments show that the diameter of the atom is about 10−10 m whereas the
nucleus is about 10−15 m

Check Your Understanding 1 (N97/I/29)

In an experiment to investigate the nature of the atom, a very thin gold film was
bombarded with -particles. What pattern of deflection of the -particles was observed?

A. A few -particles were deflected through angles greater than a right angle.
B. All -particles were deflected from their original path.
C. Most -particles were deflected through angles greater than a right angle.
D. No -particles was deflected through an angle greater than a right angle. Ans: ____

Check Your Understanding 2 (N00/I/29)

Two alpha particles with equal energies are fired towards the nucleus of a gold atom.
Which diagram best represents their paths (in the plane of the paper)?

Ans: ____

A.3 Terms and Notations for Representation of Nuclides

• The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called the proton number or the
atomic number. It is denoted by the symbol Z.

• Nuclear particles, both protons and neutrons in a nucleus, are called nucleons.
Need to
differentiate • The number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus of an atom is called the
between
nuclide,
nucleon number or the mass number of the atom.
nucleus, It is denoted by the symbol A.
nuclei and
nucleons. • Nuclide is a particular species (type) of nucleus that is specified by its proton number
and neutron number.
In symbol form, a nuclide can be represented by
A: nucleon number or mass number
A
Z X Z: proton number or atomic number
X: element

➢ neutron can be written as: 10 n since it has A = 1 and zero charge

➢ proton can be written as: 11 p or 11 H since the nucleus of hydrogen has only 1
proton
➢ electron can be written as: −10 e since there are no nucleons and has a negative
charge

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PHYSICS 9749

Check Your Understanding 3

65
29 Cu
Which statement is correct?
A. It is a nucleus with 65 nuclides, 29 protons, 36 neutrons
B. It is a nucleus with 65 nucleons, 36 protons, 29 neutrons
C. It is a nuclide with 65 nucleons, 36 protons, 29 neutrons
D. It is a nuclide with 65 nucleons, 29 protons, 36 neutrons Ans: ____

A.4 Isotopes

• Isotopes are atoms of the same element, having the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. They have the same atomic number but
different mass number.

• Isotopes exhibit similar chemical properties as they have the same number of
electrons but exhibit different physical properties as their masses are different.

• Examples of isotopes:

37 35
➢ chlorine gas with 2 isotopes: 17 Cl and 17 Cl

1
➢ Hydrogen with 3 isotopes: 1 H with 1 proton
2
1 H (deuterium) with 1 proton and 1 neutron
3
1 H (tritium) with 1 proton and 2 neutrons

A.5 Atomic Mass Unit

• Masses at an atomic level are usually expressed in the unified atomic mass units, u.

• The unified atomic mass unit, u, is unit of mass, the size of which is equal to one-twelfth
of the mass of a carbon−12 atom.

1
1 u = 12 of the mass of a carbon−12 atom = 1.66 × 10 −27 kg

• The relative atomic mass, ur , of an atom is defined as the ratio of the mass of the atom
to the unified atomic mass unit.

mass of atom
ur = u

• Table 1 shows the mass and charge of proton, neutron and electron

Table 1: mass and charge of proton, neutron and electron

mass charge
proton 1.0073 u +e
neutron 1.0087 u 0
electron 0.00055 u −e (e = 1.60 x× 10−19
−19
C)

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B Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy

B.1 Einstein’s Mass-Energy Equivalence

This means that mass • Einstein’s mass−energy relation shows that mass and energy are interchangeable
can be converted to an or equivalent, given by E = mc2
equivalent amount of
energy and vice versa.
where E : energy (J)
m : mass (kg)
c : speed of light in vacuum (3 × 10 8 m s−1)

• A consequence of this mass−energy relation is that a small change in mass will bring
about a large change in energy (due to the factor of c2).

∆E = ∆mc2 where ∆E : energy absorbed / released (J)

∆m : mass difference (kg)

• Instead of conservation of energy, in nuclear processes, we have conservation of

mass−energy where the total amount of energy, including energy that is equivalent
to mass (E = mc2), remains constant.

• Sometimes when expressing the amount of energy converted, scientist would make
use of the units MeV instead of J.

1.0 MeV = 1.0 × 106 × 1.6 × 10−19

= 1.6 × 10−13 J

B.2 Mass Defect

• The total mass of a stable atom or nucleus is always less than the sum of the masses
of its constituent particles.

nucleus
(mass = M)
constituent particles
(mass = mp + mn + me)

Hence, the difference in mass between the mass of the constituent particles of an
atom and the (smaller) mass of the whole atom is known as mass defect.

Mass of electrons is
usually neglected mass defect, ∆m = mp + mn + me − M
because
me << mp and mn.

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PHYSICS 9749

Example 1
Helium atom 42 He has 2 protons, 2 neutrons and 2 electrons. The mass of a 42 He atom is If the question
gives information
found to be 4.00260 u. What is the mass defect of 42 He? on mass of
(refer to Table 1 on page 7 for the mass of a proton, a neutron and an electron) electrons, it is an
indication that the
electron mass
Solution: should be
considered in
computation.

B.3 Binding Energy

• The mass of the nucleus is slightly less than the total mass of its individual nucleons. The mass loss
when individual
By mass-energy relation, energy is released / produced when the nucleus is formed constituent
from its individual nucleons. nucleons
combine to form
• Similarly, by mass-energy relation, energy is required / supplied to split a nucleus into nucleus is
transformed into
its individual nucleons. Hence, other forms of
energy such as
The Nuclear Binding Energy is defined as the energy released when the nucleus KE or radiation.
is formed from its constituent particles (protons and neutrons). It is the energy
equivalent of the mass defect of a nucleus. OR
The Nuclear Binding Energy can be defined as the energy required to separate
the nucleus into individual protons and neutrons. It is the energy equivalent of the
mass defect of a nucleus.

• Binding energy can be calculated as follows:

Binding energy = ∆m × c2

• Binding energy is expressed in eV (electron−volt) where 1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J

Check Your Understanding 4 (N96/I/30)

A nucleus has a nucleon number A, a proton number Z, and a binding energy B. The
masses of the neutron and proton are mn and mP respectively, and c is the speed of light.
The mass of the nucleus is given by the expression

A (A – Z) mn + Zmp – B/c2
B (A + Z) mn + Zmp + B/c2
C Amn + Zmp – B/c2
D Amn + Zmp + B/c2 Ans: ____

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Example 2
What is the binding energy of the nuclide 42 He? (use mass-defect from Example 1 to solve)

Solution:

B.4 Binding Energy Per Nucleon Number

Nuclear Binding Energy per nucleon is the average energy released per nucleon when
a nucleus is formed from its constituent particles (protons and neutrons). It is obtained by
dividing the binding energy by the number of nucleons in the nucleus.
OR
Nuclear Binding Energy per nucleon is the average energy required per nucleon to
break down a nucleus into its constituent particles (protons and neutrons). It is obtained
by dividing the binding energy by the number of nucleons in the nucleus.

• The binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus is a measure of the nucleus stability. The
higher the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable is the nucleus.

Worked Example
What is the binding energy per nucleon of 42 He? (use your answer to example 2 to solve)

Solution:

28.479
The binding energy per nucleon of 42 He = = 7.12 MeV
4

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PHYSICS 9749

B.5 Binding Energy Curve

• The binding energy curve is a plot of binding energy per nucleon against mass number.

binding
energy
per
nucleon
/ MeV

mass number, A
• The most stable nuclides are those with the highest binding energy per nucleon which
occurs at approximately 8.8 MeV. Iron-56 56Fe is one of these stable nuclides. Nuclei
on either side of the maximum are less stable.

C Nuclear Processes
C.1 Introduction

• A nuclear process (nuclear reaction) is one which causes nuclei to undergo changes.

• Examples of nuclear processes include:

1. Nuclear fission: a heavy nucleus splits into two lighter nuclei of similar sizes. This
reaction does not occur in nature naturally, the process is usually man-made.

2. Nuclear fusion: light nuclei fuse to form a heavier nucleus with release of energy.
This reaction occurs at very high temperature e.g. in the sun.

3. Radioactive decay: a big unstable nucleus emits an alpha, beta or gamma photons
to form daughter nucleus which is more stable. This reaction occurs in nature.

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 Additional ANDERSON SERANGOON JUNIOR COLLEGE
Notes PHYSICS 9749

C.2 Equations to represent nuclear processes

‘Reactants’ refer
to terms on the
• A nuclear process can be represented by a nuclear equation as shown below:
235 1 139 94 1
left hand side. 92 U + 0 n → 57 La + 35 Br + 3 0 n

‘Products’ refer indicating clearly the nucleon number, proton number, chemical symbols, products,
to terms on the reactants and the number of each nuclide/particles involved in each process.
right hand side.
• Below are examples of nuclear equations to represent nuclear processes (reactions).
For more info on the
discovery of proton:
➢ Nuclear reaction leads to the discovery of proton
Bombardment of nitrogen with −particles
(first nuclear transformation to be observed in Rutherford’s Lab in 1919)
14 4 17 1
7 N + 2 He → 8 O + 1 H

For more info on the

discovery of neutron:
➢ Nuclear reaction leads to the discovery of neutron
Bombardment of beryllium with −particles
(carried out by Chadwick in 1932 which led to the discovery of neutrons)
9 4 12 1
4 Be + 2 He → 6 C + 0 n

C.3 Nuclear Fission and Fusion

Nuclear Fission is the splitting of a nucleus of high nucleon number into two smaller
nuclei of approximately equal mass with the release of energy and neutrons.

For example:
235 1 236
92 U + 0 n → 92 U

236 141 92
92 U → 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 10 n

235
92 U is induced by a neutron to form the highly unstable U−236 nucleus. Then it
92 141 92 141
undergoes nuclear fission to form 36 Kr and 56 Ba. Both 36 Kr and 56 Ba have higher
235
binding energy per nucleon than 92 U (as seen in the binding energy curve on pg 11).

• A particular nuclide may split into many different pairs of fission products.
For example, 235U can also undergo fission to form 140Xe and 94Sr
235 1 236
92 U + 0 n → 92 U
236 140 94
92 U → 54 Xe + 38 Sr + 2 10 n

Nuclear Fusion is the formation of a larger nucleus from two nuclei of low nucleon
number, with release of energy.
2
For example: 1 H + 31H → 42 He + 1
0 n
One 21 H and one 31 H can join together to form 42 He. 42 He has a higher binding energy
2 3
per nucleon than 1 H and 1 H.

• However, for a fusion process to occur, a large amount of energy is first required to
overcome the mutual electric repulsion of two nuclei in order to fuse them. Hence
fusion can only occur under extreme conditions, i.e. at very high temperature.

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PHYSICS 9749

C.4 Fusion and Fission on the Binding Energy Curve

• Since Fe-56 has one of the highest binding energy per nucleon, it is the element with
the one of the greatest nuclear stability. Nuclides of other elements can take part in
fission or fusion processes to form more stable nuclei which have higher binding
energy per nucleon.

• The rising part of the binding energy curve shows that elements with low mass
number can produce energy by fusion by forming nuclei with larger mass number and
higher binding energy per nucleon.

• In contrast, the falling part of the curve shows that very heavy elements with high
mass number such as uranium can produce energy by fission of their nuclei to lighter
nuclei with higher binding energy per nucleon.

• To understand how energy is released in fission and fusion, refer to the next section.

C.5 Method of Calculation of Energy Released

• Method 1: Using differences in binding energy

Energy released
= total binding energies of final nuclei – total binding energies of initial nuclei
The term “mass
• Method 2: Using differences in mass defect” applies
only to the
situation where
Energy released = (total initial mass – total final mass)  c2 constituent
nucleons forms
the nucleus.
In situations where
a nuclear reaction
results in a
Consider mR > mP R – reactants different nuclei,
P – products the term “mass
difference” is
used.
A protons + (Z − A) neutrons

If the calculated
energy released is
negative, it implies
BER = (∆m)R c2 that energy has to
Z
be supplied for the
A R BEP = (∆m)P c2 reaction to occur.

energy
Z
released A P

(mR) c2
(mP) c2

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Check Your Understanding 5 (J93/I/29)

Helium nuclei may result from the bombardment of Lithium nuclei with protons. The
reaction can be represented by the following nuclear equation:
7 4
3 Li + 11p → 2 2 He + energy
The speed of light is c, and the masses of the particles are lithium mL, helium mH, proton
mP.
What is the energy released during such a reaction?
(mL + mP ) − 2mH
A [2mH – (mL + mP)] c2 D c2

B [(mL + mP) – 2mH] c2

2mH − (mL + mP )
C (2mH + mL + mP) c2 E c2
Ans: ____
Example 3

Calculate the energy released when a uranium−235 nucleus undergoes fission according
to
235 1 141 92 1
92 U + 0n → 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n

Given: Binding energy per nucleon of U = 7.591 MeV, Ba = 8.326 MeV, Kr = 8.513 MeV

Solution:

Example 4

Calculate the energy released when a uranium−235 nucleus undergoes fission according
to
235 1 141 92 1
92 U + 0n → 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n

Given: masses of U = 235.0439 u, Ba = 140.9144 u, Kr = 91.9262 u

Solution:

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PHYSICS 9749

C.6 Conservation Laws in Nuclear Reactions

The nucleon number, charge, momentum and mass−energy are all conserved in
nuclear processes.

Quantity Conserved Example

1 Nucleon (mass) number 2

1H + 31H → 42 He + 01n

The sum of the mass numbers

nucleon number of reactants = 2 + 3 = 5
of nuclides before and after the nucleon number of products = 4 + 1 = 5
reaction is the same.

2 Charge 2
1H + 31H → 42 He + 01n

The sum of the atomic numbers

atomic number of reactants = 1 + 1 = 2
of nuclides before and after the atomic number of products = 2 + 0 = 2
reaction is the same.

3 Mass-energy In the nuclear process 21H + 31H → 42 He + 01n ,

Since mass and energy are mass of 2H and 3H = 2.014102 u + 3.016050 u

equivalent and can be converted = 5.030152 u
from one to the other (from the mass of He and n = 4.002603 u + 1.008665 u
relation E = mc2), the total
= 5.011268 u
amount of mass (convert to mc2)
and energy before the nuclear i.e. the reactants have more mass-energy than
reaction must be the same as the products. In order for mass-energy to be
that after the reaction.
conserved, energy must be released when
products are formed:

Energy released = mass difference × c2

= (5.03052 – 5.011268) u × c2
= 2.88 × 10−12 J

This energy appears as the kinetic energy of the

products and/or gamma radiation.

4 Linear momentum 2
1H + 31H → 42 He + 01n

If there is no resultant external 2 3

force acting on the system, the Total initial momentum of 1 H and 1 H
total momentum of the system = total final momentum of 42 He and neutron.
must remain constant.

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Example 5

The nuclear equation represents the bombardment of nitrogen with -particles

14 4 17 1
7 N + 2 He → 8 O + 1 H

Check whether the following conservation laws are applicable for this nuclear reaction.

Solution:

(i) atomic number

Total atomic number of the nuclides before reaction =
Total atomic number of the nuclides after reaction =

(ii) mass number

Total mass number of nuclides before reaction =
Total mass number of nuclides after reaction =

(iii) Conservation of mass-energy:

mass of N = 14.00307 u mass of O = 16.99913 u
mass of He = 4.00260 u mass of H = 1.00783 u
Total mass before = ________ u Total mass after = _______ u

(iv) Conservation of linear momentum:

Not enough information is given by the question to determine.

In general, nuclear reactions induced by −particles cause the emission of either

protons or neutrons depending on the energy of the −particles and the nucleus under
attack.

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Example 6
A stationary radium nucleus emits an −particle spontaneously. Find the energy released
and velocities of the −particle and the recoiled Radon (Rn) nucleus.
226 222 4
Ra
88 → Rn
86 + 2He
226.0254 u 222.0176 u 4.0026 u
Solution:

Mass−energy, as well as momentum, is conserved in nuclear reactions. We can use this

to determine whether a given reaction will occur or not.

If the total mass of the products is less than the total mass of the initial particles, then the
energy will be released by the reaction – it will appear as kinetic energy of the outgoing
particles.

But if the total mass of the products is greater than the total mass of the initial reactants,
the reaction requires energy. The reaction will then not occur unless the bombarding
particles have sufficient kinetic energy.

Example 7
Two deuterium ( 21 H ) nuclei fuse to produce one 32 He nucleus and a neutron.
(a) Write down the nuclear equation for this reaction.
(b) Calculate the total mass defects before and after the fusion.
(c) Find the energy released in MeV.

mass of 21 H = 2.0141 u mass of 32 He = 3.0160 u

mass of proton = 1.0073 u mass of neutron = 1.0087 u

Solution:

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Notes PHYSICS 9749

D Radioactive Decay
D.1 Introduction

• The positively charged and closely spaced protons

in a nucleus have huge electrical forces of repulsion
between them. At the same time, the neutrons and
protons within the nucleus are bounded to one
another by strong nuclear forces of attraction.

• One important aspect of the strong nuclear force is

Radioactive decay that it is a short-range force: acting over a very short
is not considered a
fission process distance. For electric forces, it can act over great
because the distances and are therefore long-range forces. A
products of the delicate balance between these two opposing
transformation forces keeps most nuclei stable.
does not require a
trigger such as a
third particle • If a nuclide contains too many or too few neutrons
(usually neutron) relative to the number of protons, the nucleus
to split up. becomes unstable as the binding between the
nucleons is reduced. As seen in the figure on the
right, stable nuclides (dots on the graph) are located
in an area known as the valley of stability and
unstable nuclides lie in the shaded regions.

• Stable nuclei tend to have same number of protons as neutrons, up to about Z  20.
Beyond this, stable nuclei contain more neutrons than protons as electrical repulsion
increases, so a greater number of neutrons (which exert only the attractive nuclear
force) are required to maintain stability. For Z above 82, there are no completely stable
nuclides as no number of neutrons can overcome the greatly increased electric
repulsion. A stable nucleus is one that stays together indefinitely and an unstable
nucleus is one that comes apart, resulting in radioactive decay.

• Radioactive decay or radioactivity is the spontaneous and random decay of a

nucleus with the emission of an alpha particle or a beta particle, and usually
accompanied by the emission of a gamma ray photon, to obtain a more stable nucleus.

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PHYSICS 9749

• Natural radioactivity is observed in unstable isotopes that exist in nature.

Artificial radioactivity can be acquired by isotopes as a result of nuclear reactions.

D.2 Spontaneous and random nature of radioactive decay

• Radioactive decay processes are spontaneous.

Spontaneous decay means the decay occurs on its own and is unaffected by
environmental or external factors such as temperature and pressure.

Other external factors include:

➢ physical parameters (e.g. electric or magnetic fields in the environment)
➢ chemical composition (e.g. decay rate of Uranium remains the same in any sample
containing Uranium like UCl3, UO2 or UF3)

• Radioactive decay is also a random process.

Random decay means the nucleus has constant probability of decay per unit time.
There is no way to predict when any individual nucleus will decay.

• Random decay means particles are not emitted at equal time interval, and it is also
impossible to know the direction of emission of particles.

• This irregularity of decay may be demonstrated by

the Geiger-Müller tube (GM tube). GM tube is used
to detect radioactive particles, making use of their
ionising property. When connected to a loud speaker,
you can hear a ‘click’ for each radioactive particle
entering the tube. The ‘clicks’ heard will be irregular.

Reference:
http://www.darvill.clara.net/nucrad/detect.htm

D.3 Background Radiation

• Not only does radiation come from elements in the form of radioactivity, some come
from our natural environment, others from human activities and devices. The various
sources include:

➢ cosmic rays entering the Earth’s atmosphere from outer space

➢ radioactivity emissions from contaminated apparatus, rocks, soil and buildings

Because of these, any radiation detector placed in a location with no radioactive

sources nearby will usually register a count of 20 to 50 per minute. This is known as
background radiation.

• In experiments determining count rates from a specific radioactive source, and the
emission from the radioactive source is high (e.g. 5000 counts per minute), the
background count can be neglected without much error BUT the rule in conducting a
radioactivity experiment is for the background count to be recorded first and its values
deducted from the count rates obtained in subsequent readings.

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Notes PHYSICS 9749

D.4 Nature of  particles, β particles and γ rays

• In radioactive decay, alpha particles, beta particles or gamma rays are emitted from
the nucleus of a radioactive isotope.

• Alpha particles
➢ Some radiation that is emitted by radioactive isotopes travels as particles. One
example is alpha particles, -particles, which are 42 He helium nuclei (2 protons
and 2 neutrons for each 42 He nucleus)

➢ −particles lose energy quickly. Because of their relatively large mass, charge and
relatively low velocity, they are very likely to interact with other atoms and lose their
energy, so they are effectively absorbed within a few centimeters of air. A hand,
thin piece of paper or a few cm of air stops it. Typical alpha particle energies are
in the range from 3 to 10 MeV.

• Beta particles
➢ β−particles are fast moving electrons emitted from the nucleus. It was discovered
experimentally that  particles are emitted from the same nucleus with a range of
energies. Typical beta particle energies range from a few thousand electron volts
to several MeV. They are absorbed by a few mm of aluminium; they can penetrate
skin of a few cm but not concrete.

• Gamma rays
➢ γ rays are electromagnetic radiation of very
short wavelength (510−13 m to 4010−10 m).

➢ Gamma rays are distinguished from x−rays

only by the fact that it comes from the
nucleus of the atom of a radioactive isotope.
Most gamma rays are somewhat higher in
energy than x−rays and therefore are very
penetrating.

➢ Gamma rays are the most penetrating of all

radiation. Typical range of energies is from an estimate of 20 000 eV to 10 MeV.
They are absorbed by several cm of lead or concrete.

• Comparing ionising properties of , β and γ (How is radiation absorbed):

➢ Ionisation means to ‘kick’ electrons out of a neutral atom/molecules to produce an

ion.

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➢ In travelling the same distance in a given material, a γ-ray produces 1 ionised

atom, a β-particle will on average produce about 1000 ionised atoms and an -
particle will produce 1,000,000 ionised atoms.

➢  and β particles are better ionising agents as they are more massive and possess
charge.

➢ A radiation’s ionising power affects its penetration. The stronger the ionising
power, the weaker the penetration since the radiation travels a shorter distance
before all of its energy gets absorbed.

Table 2: Properties of , β and γ

 particles β particles γ rays

Charge +2e −e No charge
(where e = 1.60 x 10−19 C)
1
Rest mass 4u u -
1840
Speed 0.06 c (approx.) up to 0.98 c c
Energy ≈ 6 MeV ≈ 1 MeV ≈ 0.1 MeV
Electric Field Yes - towards Yes - towards
No
Deflection negative plate positive plate
Magnetic Field
Yes Yes No
Deflection

Ionising Properties most least

Penetrative
least most
Properties
Range in air A few cm A few m A few hundred m
A few sheets of
Several cm of lead
paper, few cm of A few mm of Al
10 cm
air

Penetrating
Properties

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Additional ANDERSON SERANGOON JUNIOR COLLEGE
Notes PHYSICS 9749

D.5 Changes in the Nucleus during Radioactive Decay

• When radioactivity involves the emission of either an electron or a helium nucleus, the
unstable parent nucleus becomes a different element by either of these processes -
, β and γ emission. The new nucleus is called the daughter nucleus.

• –emission:
➢ An –emission results in a new
atom with a mass number 4 less
and an atomic number 2 less than
the original atom.

➢ Examples of radioactive isotopes that

emit  particles: polonium-210,
americium-241

• β−emission
➢ In a beta decay, the electron
emitted is not an orbital electron
of the atom. Instead it originates +
from the nucleus through a
nuclear transformation in which +
a neutron changes into a
proton: 01n → 11 p + −01e .

➢ Positive −emission (positron

decay) can also occur. This
5
6
I +
5
originates through a nuclear
transformation in which a 11 11
+
B
proton converts into a neutron: 6 5

1 1 0
1 p → 0 n + 1e
(beta particle
or positron)

➢ Examples of radioactive isotopes that emit β particles: Caesium-137, Sodium-22

➢ A β–emission results in a new nucleus with a mass number unchanged and an

atomic number 1 more or 1 less than the original nucleus. During the process of a
beta decay, a third particle called neutrino () is released.

➢ Existence of neutrino:

1. In a beta decay from a single type of nucleus, the total energy released in the
reaction is always a fixed value. If the daughter nucleus and beta are the only
products, by conservation of momentum and energy, the
daughter nucleus will gain very little kinetic
energy as its mass is very much bigger than
-particles. Hence beta particle should gain
almost all the energy released.

2. However, experimentally, it is found that

beta particles from a single type of nucleus
are emitted over a range of continuous
energies as opposed to alpha decay, in
which alpha particles are emitted with

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PHYSICS 9749

discrete energies. This suggests a violation of conservation of energy and

momentum.

3. It was thus hypothesized there should be a particle which has a very small
mass and no charge and acts almost like a photon, emitted during the decay.
Hence, the energy released must be split randomly between beta and the other
particle.

4. This other particle was included to account for conservation of linear as well
as angular momentum. It is called the neutrino.

Neutrino was detected experimentally in 1956 and concluded to have the following
properties:
• it has zero electric charge
• its mass is zero or very small (~ 10−36 kg or less)
• it interacts very weakly with matter and is therefore very hard to detect

• γ−emission:
➢ −emission often follows  or −emission
which usually leaves the daughter nucleus
in an excited nuclear state. The daughter
nuclide would then return to a lower
energy state by emitting high frequency
electromagnetic wave called -rays. This * The asterisk
sign indicates
process is called de-excitation. that the nucleus
is in an excited
➢ Since −emission is caused by the change in nuclear energy states in the daughter state
nuclide, therefore, if nuclear state transition takes place in a few steps, −rays of
several frequencies would be emitted.
24 24
12 Na → 13
Mg* + -10 e
24 24
13
Mg* → 13
Mg + γ

➢ A γ–emission results in both the atomic and mass number unchanged. This
process is also known as isomeric transition.

D.6 Decay Curve

• Like all statistical random processes, the rate of decay of a radioactive sample is
directly proportional to N, the number of radioactive atom present in the sample, i.e.
dN
∝ N.
dt
dN
• During decay, the number of undecayed nuclei will decrease, hence dt
is negative.
The rate of decay is also known as the activity.

• Activity, A, is defined as the number of nuclear disintegrations per unit time.

dN dN
• Thus 𝐴=− ∝N➔𝐴=− = λN
dt dt

where  is a constant, known as the decay constant, of the radioactive nuclide.

Different radioactive nuclides have different values of .

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 Additional ANDERSON SERANGOON JUNIOR COLLEGE
Notes PHYSICS 9749

dN dN
• From – dt
= A = N ➔ =– dt
/N

Decay constant is a property of a particular nuclide and is the probability of decay per
unit time of a nucleus.

• Activity can be measured in terms of Becquerel (1 Bq = 1 disintegration per second).

• Suppose N0 is the number of radioactive nuclei at time t = 0, then the Rutherford Law
of radioactive decay gives at any time t,

N = N0 e−λ t

where N is the number of undecayed radioactive nuclei at time t. (The derivation of

this equation is not required for the syllabus.) The decay curve therefore follows an
exponential equation, and the graph is as shown below.

No

No
No

No

No
No
0 t½ 2t½ 3t½ 4t½ time

• Since activity and mass of undecayed nuclei are directly proportional to N, they also
follow the same exponential decay curve and they can be represented by the following
equations:
A = Ao e – λ t
m = mo e – λ t
where Ao and mo are the activity and mass of undecayed nuclei at time t = 0
respectively.
For derivation of
decay equation: • Count rate is the number of emissions received by a detector per unit time from a
radioactive source, which may include background radiation.

• Background count is the number of counts recorded by a radiation detector from

background radiation in the absence of a radioactive source.

Since count rate C received by a radioactive detector (e.g. the Geiger-Müller tube) is
directly proportional to the activity, C also follows the same decay curve:
C = Co e – λ t

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ANDERSON SERANGOON JUNIOR COLLEGE Notes
PHYSICS 9749

• Hence the vertical axis of the decay curve above can also be activity, mass of
undecayed nuclei or count rate.

D.7 Half-life

• The half-life t1/2 is the average time taken for the activity of a particular radioactive Memorise
nuclide to fall to half of its initial value.

• Thus if No is the original amount of radioactive nuclide present in the sample, at a time
equals to half-life later, the number of radioactive nuclide is ½ No.
t1/2 t1/2 t1/2 1 t1/2 1 t1/2
No ½ No ¼ No /8 No /16 No and so on

N
o

No

No

No
1
16
No
0 t½ 2t½ 3t½ 4t½ time

• Relation between  and t1/2:

If at t = 0, N = N0, then N = N0 e – λ t
When t = t1/2, N = ½ N0

Hence, ½ N0 = N0 e – λ t½

ln 2
=t
1⁄
2

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 Additional ANDERSON SERANGOON JUNIOR COLLEGE
Notes PHYSICS 9749

• In summary, the decay law: x = x0 e – λ t

* If question gives where x can be: (i) activity (A)

the background (ii) count rate (C)*
radiation count rate, (iii) number of radioactive nuclei (N)
do remember to
remove it. (iv) mass (m)
(v) no. of mole (n)
x0 : the initial value of x at time t = 0
n need not be
an integer.
• From the decay law, it can also be derived:
n
 1 where n: number of half-life that has lapsed
x = x0  
2

Example 8
The half-life of radium is 1590 years. In how many years will one gram of the pure element
(a) lose one centigram
(b) to be reduced to one centigram
(1 centigram = 1 × 10−2 g = 0.01 g)

Solution:

Example 9
A radioactive source contains 10 −6 g of plutonium (mass no. 239). The source is estimated
to emit a total of 2300 -particle per second in all directions. Calculate the half-life of
plutonium in years. (NA = 6.02 × 1023 mol−1)

Solution:

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PHYSICS 9749

Example 10
10
A unit for radioactivity is the curie (Ci). One curie is the rate of decay of 3.7 × 10 nuclei
per second. The initial activity of a sample of thorium-234 which has a half-life of 24 days
is 10 µCi.
(a) What is the activity of the sample after 72 days?
(b) What is the time taken for the activity of the sample to become 2.5 µCi?

Solution:

E Uses of Radioactivity and Biological Effects of Radiation

E.1 Uses of Radioactivity

• Cobalt–60 emits emit penetrating rays which can be used to penetrate deep into
welding to reveal faults and to check for consistency of thickness of sheets of paper
or plastic.

• Radioactive nuclide can also be used as tracer. Nitrogen-15 is used as tracer in plants
and Technetium-99 is used to trace blood flow in the heart and lungs.

• Gamma radiation like Cobalt-60 can also be used to kill

cancerous cells by focusing a high dose of it at the defect cells.
Gamma Knife therapy uses doses of radiation to kill cancer
cells and shrink tumors, delivered precisely to avoid damaging
healthy brain tissue. Gamma Knife radiosurgery is able to
accurately focus many beams of gamma radiation to converge
on one or more tumors. Each individual beam is of relatively
low intensity, so the radiation has little effect on intervening
brain tissue and is concentrated only at the tumor itself. The
non-invasive nature of gamma knife makes it very suitable for
treating tumors in the brain region.

• Archaeological Dating with Carbon-14

Carbon dating is a variety of radioactive dating which is applicable only to matter which
was once living and presumed to be in equilibrium with the atmosphere, taking in
carbon dioxide from the air for photosynthesis. Presuming the rate of production of
carbon-14 to be constant, the activity of a sample can be directly compared to the
equilibrium activity of living matter and the age calculated.

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/cardat.html

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Additional ANDERSON SERANGOON JUNIOR COLLEGE
Notes PHYSICS 9749

E.2 Biological Effects of Radiation

• Immediate effects of over exposure to radiation includes nausea, vomiting, bloody

diarrhoea, loss of hair, coma and even death. Delayed effect includes leukemia,
weaken immune system and will even affect your offspring.

• Precautions against radiation hazards

➢ Radioactive sources should be kept in well protected, lead lined rooms and boxes.
➢ Signs should be put up to inform people of the present of radioactive source.
➢ No direct contact should be made when handling the radioactive sources
➢ Special protective clothing should be worn during experiment.
➢ No food and drinks should be taken when doing radioactive experiment.

• Effects of radiation on health

Radioactive materials that decay spontaneously produce ionizing radiation, which has
sufficient energy to strip away electrons from atoms (creating two charged ions) or to
break some chemical bonds. Any living tissue in the human body can be damaged by
ionizing radiation in a unique manner. The body attempts to repair the damage, but
sometimes the damage is of a nature that cannot be repaired or it is too severe or
widespread to be repaired. Also mistakes made in the natural repair process can lead
to cancerous cells.

➢ Alpha particles

As any heavy charged particle, alpha particles lose their energy within a very short
distance in dense media, causing significant damage to surrounding biomolecules.
The health effects of alpha particles depend heavily upon how exposure takes
place. Generally, external alpha irradiation (exposure) is not harmful because
alpha particles are completely absorbed by the thin layer of dead skin cells in the
outermost layer of the skin as well as by a few centimeters of air.

However, if alpha emitters have been inhaled, ingested (swallowed), or absorbed

into the blood stream, sensitive living tissue can be exposed to alpha radiation.
There is resulting biological damage to vital organs and increase in the risk of
cancer; in particular, alpha radiation is known to cause lung cancer in humans
when alpha emitters are inhaled.

The death of Marie Curie at age 66 from leukemia, was likely caused from radiation
exposure, such as alpha particles from radium, during her years of important
research on the subject.

The 2006 assassination of Russian dissident Alexander Litvinenko is thought to

have been caused by poisoning with polonium-210, an active alpha emitter.

➢ Beta particles

Direct exposure to beta particles is a hazard, because emissions from strong

sources can redden or even burn the skin. However, emissions from inhaled or
ingested beta particle emitters are the greatest concern. Beta particles released
directly to living tissue can cause damage at the molecular level, which can disrupt
cell function. Because they are much smaller and have less charge than alpha
particles, beta particles generally travel further into tissues. As a result, the cellular
damage is more dispersed.

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ANDERSON SERANGOON JUNIOR COLLEGE Notes
PHYSICS 9749

➢ Gamma rays

Both direct (external) and internal exposures to gamma rays or X-rays are of
concern. Gamma rays can travel much farther than alpha or beta particles and
have enough energy to pass entirely through the body, potentially exposing all
organs. A large portion of gamma radiation largely passes through the body
without interacting with tissue - the body is mostly empty space at the atomic level
and gamma rays are vanishingly small in size.

Gamma rays can ionize atoms in tissue directly or cause what are known as
"secondary ionizations." Ionizations are caused when energy is transferred from
gamma rays to atomic particles such as electrons (which are essentially the same
as beta particles). These energized particles then interact with tissue to form ions
through secondary ionizations. Because gamma rays are photons and thus
interact less frequently with matter than alpha and beta particles, they are more
penetrating and the damage they cause can occur much farther into tissue (that
is, farther from the source of radiation).

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