YAGA Series

SECTION ONE

THE ENVIRONMENT
Topic Page

1. Self-Identity 2
-7

2. Adolescent Reproductive Health 8 - 18

3. Cultural Practices in Ghana 19 - 31

4. National identity 32
- 38

5. The Institution of Marriage and Family 39 - 48

6. Education and Social change 49 - 55

7. Responsible Parenthood 56 – 62

8. Socialization and Our Social Environment 63 -

66

9. The Physical Environment and Environmental

Changes
67 – 77

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-CHAPTER 1-
YAGA Series

SELF IDENTITY
Self-Identify implies the how an individual sees, understand knows and feels about him or herself in
relation to other people in society.

THE CONCEPT OF SELF

SELF: The concept of self refers to the whole being of an individual taking into consideration his
psychological (physical, mental and emotional) nature as well as his/her abilities.
Self can also be defined as the sum total of the individual’s perception, beliefs, feelings, qualities and
abilities. It is thus, the totality of action and behaviours of the individual.

TYPES OF SELF
There are four main types of self, they are the Real Self, Other Self, Ideal Self and Real-Other Self.
 The Real Self: This is what a person actually is in real life. It is a person’s true character at a
present time.
 The Other Self: This is what or who a person will want to be. It is the mental picture that a
person creates about what he want to be in future.
 The Ideal Self: This is what a person ought to be. This is how society want a person to be, thus, a
pattern of behavior in conformity with standards set by society.
 The Real-Other Self: This is the perception that people have about an individual’s character or
behavioral pattern.

PERSONALITY
Personality refers to the assemblage of all the unique features or qualities of an individual that makes
him distinct or different from other individuals.
The unique features or qualities that makes an individual different or distinct are as follows.
 Name: This is the sound identification calling that identifies and distinguishes an individual from
other individuals. Example: Kofi, Ama, Robert, Aisha, Anthony, George, Francisca, etc.
 Physical Outlook: This is the physical appearance of an individual, thus how the individual looks
like outwardly. They include the individual’s height (tall or short), size (fat or slim), colour of skin
(dark or light skin), the shape of head, nose, lips, arms, legs, the colour of eyes, hair texture, etc.

 Social Relationship: This is how the individual relates with others in society. The individual
exhibit introvert, extrovert or ambivert relationships. An Introvert is an individual who does not
relate well with others. Such a person is shy, timid and feels inferior and wants to keep to
himself. An Extrovert is an individual who relates well with others. Such a person is lively, the
happy-go type and wants to be with others and will want his presence felt. An Ambivert is an
individual who has a balance of introvert and extrovert features in their personality.
 Character: This is the behavior of an individual which portray whether the individual has a good
or bad behavior.

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  Interest: This refers to the likes and dislikes of an individual in terms of social life, games, foods,
entertainment, etc.
 Intelligence: This is the ability of an individual to think, understand and analyze things quickly
and easily. It portrays whether the individual has high intelligence or dull.
 Capabilities: These are the abilities of an individual and portray what the individual can do best.
Examples include singing, football, drawing, etc.
 Self-Confidence: This is the trust that an individual has in himself that he is capable of doing or
achieving something.
 Self Esteem: This is how the individual sees himself as important among other people.

IMPORTANCE/SIGNIFICANCE OF SELF-IDENTITY (KNOWING ONESELF)

1. It Helps the Individual to Identify His Capabilities (Strength): Self-identity or knowing oneself
helps the individual to identify the positive and good qualities that he/her possesses. The
individual can then develop such capabilities to enable him/her realize his/her potential.
2. It Helps the Individual to Identify His Weaknesses: Self-identity or knowing oneself helps the
individual to identify his/her negatives and weaknesses. The individual can then make efforts to
correct such negatives, shortcomings or weakness, or the individual can dodge his weakness by
not doing things that will expose his weakness.
3. It Helps the Individual to Make Right Decisions: An individual who is aware of his capabilities
and weaknesses through self-identity is able to make right decisions at right time. This is
because the individual knowing himself, is aware of the things he can and cannot do or achieve.
4. It Helps the Individual to Understand and Accept Himself: Self-identity or knowing oneself
helps the individual to understand and accept himself for who he is. The individual knowing
himself will be aware that he is capable of doing things that others cannot do and this enhances
his self-confidence and esteem.
5. It Helps the Individual to Relate Well with Others: Self-identity or knowing oneself helps the
individual to develop healthy relationship with others in the society. Knowing oneself enable the
individual to understand that everybody has weaknesses and negatives, and the individual then
appreciate the views and perceptions of other people in society and accepts them for who they
are.

HOW THE INDIVIDUAL CAN DEVELOP HIS CAPABILITIES OR SELF CONFIDENCE

1. Self-Awareness and Knowledge of Capabilities: In order for the individual to develop his
capabilities or self-confidence, he must first be aware of him/herself so as to know the abilities
and qualities that he possesses. After the individual is aware of his capabilities, he then takes the
right decision to help him/her achieve his/her potential.
2. Self Determination: The individual can develop his capabilities if he develops self-motivation
and personal encouragement. An individual who has the ability to think and take decisions
independently will not wait for another individual to prompt him into action. Such a person is
able to develop his capabilities.
3. Guidance and Counselling: In order for the individual to develop his capabilities or self-
confidence, he must be advised and guided to take right decisions affecting the socio-economic

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 development of the individual. The individual must be guided in taking the right career choices
that best suits their capabilities.
4. Education and Training: An individual can develop his capabilities and self-confidence through
education and training. The government must establish schools and other training institutions to
acquire the individual with skills, knowledge and attitudes to help improve the quality of life of
the people.
5. Taking Leadership Roles: In order for the individual to develop his capabilities or self-
confidence, he must take up leadership roles in the community. These leadership builds high self
confidence in the individual and help improve the socio-economic development of the
individual.
6. Positive Role Models: In order for the individual to develop his capabilities or self-confidence,
he must appreciate the attitudes, views and suggestions of individuals in the society who have
similar capabilities and have successfully developed such capabilities and self-confidence.
7. Availability of an Enabling Environment: An individual can develop his capabilities or self-
confidence, when the state and other institutions provide an enabling environment. An enabling
environment involves all the resources that the individual will need in the development of his
capabilities so as to achieve his potential.
8. Provision of a Conducive Home Environment: Capabilities and self-confidence can be
developed when a conducive home environment is provided for the individual. The community
and the family of the individual must provide all the things that the individual may need to
develop. The individual will need love, affection and encouragement from the community and
the family.

FACTORS THAT HINDER THE DEVELOPMENT OF CAPABILITIES OR SELF

CONFIDENCE
1. Lack of Self Awareness and Knowledge of Capabilities: An individual who is unaware of his self
will not know and understand his capabilities. When the individual does not know and
understand his capability, he turn to make wrong decisions that hinder the development of his
capabilities and self-confidence.
2. Inferiority Complex: Inferiority complex is when an individual sees himself as inferior to other
people, such individual lacks self-confidence and esteem. The individual does not see himself as
capable of anything and does not see himself as a person of worth. This prevent the individual
from realizing his full potential.
3. Financial Problems/Poverty: Individuals who come from poor socio-economic background find
it difficult to develop their capabilities and self-confidence. Such individuals will lack an enabling
environment that provide them with all resources need to achieve their highest potential.
4. Health Problems: Health problems or complications also contribute to the inability of the
individual to develop his capabilities and self-confidence. An individual who is not healthy is
unable to work effectively and actively to achieve his highest potential.
5. Lack of Encouragement: The individual cannot develop his capabilities or self-confidence, when
the community, family, friend and teachers do not encourage and support the individual. When
there is no parental care and reward for good performance, the development of the individual’s
capabilities and self-confidence will be hindered.

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 6. Lack of Guidance and Counselling: Development of capabilities and self-confidence is affected,
if the individual is not guided and counseled to take courses or careers that his capabilities can
match, but influenced by friends to choose other courses or careers that will make him become
frustrated in life.
7. Lack of Education and Training: Lack of education and training hamper the ability of the
individual to develop his capabilities or self-confidence. When the right educational conditions
or institutions are inadequate or absent, the individual’s capabilities or self-confidence may not
be developed to the maximum.
8. Lack of Self Determination or Personal Initiative: An individual’s capabilities or self-confidence
may be hindered if he/she is unable to take personal initiative. Taking personal initiative entails
the ability to make decisions and solve problems without the need to consult anybody. Lack of
personal initiative may stifle the development of one’s capabilities and self-confidence.

FALSE IDENTITY
False Identity is the situation or condition where individuals pretend to be what or who they are not.
Such individual’s behavior express or create an impression which is false and meant to deceive other
people.

EXAMPLES OR ACTIONS OF FALSE IDENTITY

1. Some people want to show off that they come from well to do or rich families whilst it is not the
case.
2. Some people borrow or rent expensive items such as cars, watches, dresses, phones, etc. and
create the impression that they actually own such items.
3. Some people associate themselves with prestigious institutions such as high class SHS, tertiary
institutions, businesses, companies, etc. by creating the impression that they are members of
such institutions whiles they are not.
4. Some people make society believe that they have good moral characters, whiles they actually
have negative attitudes.

IMPLICATIONS/EFFECTS/PROBLEMS OF FALSE IDENTITY

 Lack of Self Awareness and Knowledge of Capabilities: People who pretend and give other
people the wrong impression about themselves are unaware of who they really are and the
capabilities that they possesses.
 Loss of Respect: False identity can lead to loss of respect. Individuals who pretend to be what or
who they are not lose respect that people have for them when they find out that they are living
under false pretenses.
 Lead to Imprisonment: People who pretend to be who or what they are not may lead to such
vices such as stealing, drug dealing, prostitution, etc. and also impersonation. All these can lead
to arrest, prosecution and imprisonment.
 Neglect by Society: Individuals who live under false pretenses may be neglected by their
community, friends and family member when they are found out.

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  Lead to Social Vices: People who pretend to be whom or what they are not may lead to such
vices such as stealing, drug dealing, prostitution and falsehood.

MASLOW’S THEORY OF NEEDS

Abraham Harold Maslow was an American sociologist who came out with a motivational theory in
psychology comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often arranged or depicted in hierarchical
levels within a pyramid in 1943.

The pyramid portrays that the most pressing needs, which are at the base of the pyramid are satisfied
first before the other needs. These five needs are as follows:

1. Physiological or Physical Needs: These are the basic needs that should be satisfied before other
needs. They include food, clothing and shelter. These needs are necessary to sustain human life.
2. Safety Needs: These needs involve physical, environmental and emotional safety and protection
from harm, threats and danger. They also involves job and financial security and health security.
3. Social Needs: These needs is met when physical and safety needs has been satisfied. They
include the need for love, affection, care, belongingness, friendship, companionship, recognition
and acceptance.

4. Self-Esteem Needs: These needs are self-enhancement need in which the individual raises his
prestige and wants to recognized and respected. Self-Esteem needs are of two types, thus,
Internal Self-Esteem Needs which involves self-respect, confidence, competence, achievement

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 and freedom. And External Self-Esteem Needs, which involves recognition, power, status,
attention and admiration.
5. Self-Actualization Needs: These needs are also termed as self-fulfillment needs, where the
individual reaches his highest potential. They include the desire for gaining more knowledge,
social-service, creativity and being aesthetic.

IMPLICATION OR RELEVANCE OF MASLOW’S THEORY OF NEEDS

1. As far as the physiological needs are concerned, managers should give employees appropriate
salaries to purchase or secure their basic needs of life such as food, clothing and shelter. The
family head should also provide all the basic of the family especially the child, to ensure the
survival and development of the family.
2. As far as the safety needs are concerned, managers should provide employees job security,
safety and hygienic work environment, and also retirement benefits so as guarantee their
financial security after retirement. The family head should make sure the family is safe and
secured from physical and emotional harm or danger.
3. As far as social needs are concerned, management should encourage teamwork and organize
social event. The family head must provide love, affection and care for the family to ensure a
happy and harmonious living.
4. As far as self-esteem needs are concerned, managers can appreciate and reward employees on
accomplishing and exceeding their targets. The management can give the deserved employee
higher job rank or position in the organization. This urges individuals to strive to achieve self-
esteem, that is, the need to feel important and recognized.
5. As far as self-actualization needs are concerned, managers can give employees the opportunity
to reach self-fulfillment by helping them achieve higher needs.

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-CHAPTER 2-
YAGA Series

ADOLESCENT REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

 Adolescence: This refers to the process or period during which an individual makes a gradual
transition from childhood to adulthood.
 Adolescent: This refers to the individual who is going through the period of gradual transition
from childhood to adulthood.
These period of development is between the ages of 10 and 19. The period of adolescence development
is grouped into two stages. They are: The Early Adolescent Stage (falls between 10 to 14 years) and
Latter Adolescent Stage (falls between 15 to 19 years).

 Adolescent Reproductive Right: This refers to the basic right of all couples and individuals to
decide freely and responsibly, the number, spacing and timing of their children and the means
to do so.
These right prevent an individual from forcing another individual to engage in sexual intercourse against
his/her will. They include the right to make decisions concerning reproduction free from discrimination
and violence. It is also the right to attain the highest standard of sexual and reproductive health.

ADOLESCENT REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH EDUCATION

 Adolescent Reproductive Health: This refers to a state of complete physical, mental and social
well-being in all matters relating to the reproduction system, its functions and processes.

 Family Life Education: This refers to the programmes designed to train and educate the
individual on issues of sex, family, child care and parenthood to prepare the individual to be a
responsible citizen in society.

THE NEED FOR REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH EDUCATION AMONG ADOLESCENTS

1. It Provide Sex Education: Reproductive Health Education helps to provide education that enable
the adolescent to know the reproductive system, its functions and produces. It provide
knowledge and understanding on all the sexual life of the individual.
2. It Help Prevent Teenage Pregnancy: Reproductive Health Education helps to prevent teenage
pregnancy and its attendant problems such as illegal abortion, adolescent parenthood, school
drop-out, etc. among adolescents. Since reproductive health education teaches the adolescent
to abstain from sex and the implications of failing to abstain, the girl child will be prevented
from getting pregnant because of such knowledge and the fear of having to deal with the effects
of implications of failing to abstain from sex.
3. It Helps the Individual Understand the Changes during Adolescence: Reproductive Health
Education helps the individual to understand the physical, emotional and social changes that he
will experience during the period of adolescence. The individual is educated on how to manage
and cope with these changes.

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 4. It Helps Prevent Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Reproductive Health Education helps to
prevent sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS, Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Genital Herpes,
etc. The individual is educated on the various sexually transmitted diseases, their symptoms,
causes, mode of spread and prevent/cure/control. These provide the individual with knowledge
that helps him/her prevent the contraction of such diseases.
5. It Provide Knowledge on Family Planning: Reproductive Health Education helps to provide the
individual knowledge on family planning. Adolescent health education provide sex education
which emphasize on family planning methods and issues of birth control. These knowledge
helps the individual bring forth the number of children that their resources can adequately cater
for when they get married.
6. It Provide Knowledge on Personal Hygiene: Reproductive Health Education helps to provide the
individual knowledge on personal hygiene. Girls are taught how to handle menstruation and the
need to keep the body clean, neat and healthy during adolescence where the bodies
experiences physical changes.

THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The reproductive system or genital system is a system of sex organs in organism which work together for
the purpose of sexual production.
 Human Reproduction: This refers to the means by which the integrated parts of the human
reproductive system work together to create offspring of same kind mainly through sexual
intercourse.
The offspring develops from the joining of the male and female gametes (reproductive cells). The male
gamete or reproductive cell is called the sperm or semen, while the female gamete or reproductive cell
is called ovum or eggs.

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The primary male reproductive organs are the testes (testis) which are held in a sac-like structure called
the scrotum.
 The testes are two glands that produce testosterone and sperm. The sperms are male
reproductive cells which fertilize the egg from the female to produce a baby. The sperm is

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 stored in the epididymis. The Vas Deferens and Seminal Vesicle links the epididymis to the
urethra.
 The Urethra is a narrow tube which opens into the penis which serve as a common exit duct for
both sperm and urine at different times. The Prostate and the Cowper’s glands also open into
the urethra.
 Penis is the organ that discharge or releases sperms/semen into the female vagina during sex.

FUNCTIONS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Production of Sperms/Semen: One of the primary functions of the male reproductive system is
to produce sperms. The semen is manufactured by the testes. The semen is medium which
facilitate the movement of sperms during sex.
 Storage of Sperms/Semen: After the sperms are manufactured by the testes, they are stored
and developed in the epididymis.
 Production of Hormones: The male reproductive system also produces chemicals called
hormones, which control sexual characteristics in the body. These male hormones are called
Testosterone.
 Transportation of Sperms/Semen: The male reproductive system transport sperms from the
testes to the epididymis through to the urethra and ejected into the vagina during sexual
intercourse.
 Reproduction: The male reproductive system work together to produce sperms that fertilize the
ovum in the female reproductive system to form a zygote during sexual intercourse to procreate
or give birth.
 Excretion of Waste Material: Apart from the core function of the male reproductive system to
produce sperm for procreation, the system also excrete or expel waste materials such as urine
from the body.

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female organs consist of the ovaries, fallopian tube, uterus (womb), vagina and the cervix.

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 Ovaries, the female has two ovaries that produce ova (eggs) every month. Each ovary produces
one ovum (egg). They also secrete hormones called estrogen that regulate female adolescence
characteristics especially menstruation.
 Fallopian Tube, this is a four-inch long tube through which ova (eggs) move from the ovary to
the uterus. The fusion of the ovum (egg) and the sperm/semen takes place in the fallopian tube.
 Uterus (womb) is an organ that supports a fertilized ovum during pregnancy. It is muscular and
stretches when a baby is developing or growing. It also provides protection for the development
of the foetus (fertilized eggs).
 Cervix is the lower part of the uterus that connect to the vagina. During childbirth the baby
passes through the cervix into the vagina.
 Vagina is a tube that connects the cervix to the uterus. The vagina is a passage through which
the penis release sperms/semen. The vagina stretches to allow a mother to give birth.

FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Production of Ova (Eggs): One of the primary function of the female reproductive system is to
produce ova (eggs). The ova (eggs) are produced and stored by the ovaries and at regular
intervals the ovaries release the ova (eggs) into the uterus through the fallopian tubes.
 Transportation of Ova (Eggs): The ova (eggs) that are produced by the ovaries are transported
into the uterus at regular intervals through the fallopian tubes, where the fusion of the sperm
and ovum takes place.
 Production of Hormones: The female reproductive system also produces chemicals called
hormones, which control sexual characteristics in the body. These female hormones are called
Estrogen and Progesterone. The Estrogen hormone stimulate the development of secondary sex
characteristics, while the Progesterone hormone regulates the processes necessary for
pregnancy.
 Reproduction and Birth: The female reproductive system work together to produce ova (eggs)
that are fertilized by a sperm in the male reproductive system to form a zygote during sexual
intercourse to procreate or give birth. The uterus (womb) supports a fertilized ovum during
pregnancy. It is muscular and stretches when a baby is developing or growing. It also provides
protection for the development of the foetus (fertilized eggs).
 Excretion of Waste Materials: Apart from the core function of the female reproductive system
to produce ova (eggs) for procreation, the system also excrete or expel waste materials such as
urine from the body.

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF ADOLESCENTS
The period of adolescence is often characterized by great and rapid physical, emotional and social
changes or development. These characteristics are caused by chemicals in the human reproductive
system called hormones. The hormones that cause changes in the male is called testosterone, while the
hormone that cause changes in the female is called estrogen.
PHYSICAL CHANGES IN THE ADOLESCENT
Physical changes are the physical developments that the adolescent experiences in his/her body as
he/she gradually moves from childhood to adulthood.

Physical Changes Common to both Males and Females

1. The adolescent begins to increase in weight and height
2. The adolescent begins to grow pubic hair (around the armpit and private part)
3. The adolescent’s reproductive organs begins to mature or enlarge.
4. The adolescent begins to develop acne and pimples.

Physical Changes Peculiar to only Males

1. The adolescent boy begins to develop facial and body hairs.
2. The adolescent boy’s larynx enlarge and the voice begin to deepen (Break of Voice).
3. The adolescent boy’s shoulder begin to broaden and the chest widen.
4. The adolescent boy begins to develop semen or sperm.
5. The adolescent boy begins to experience nocturnal emissions, thus, the adolescent can ejaculate
and soil himself during sleep.

Physical Changes Peculiar to only Females

1. The adolescent girl begins to develop breast.
2. The adolescent girl begins to experience enlargement of hips and buttocks.
3. The adolescent girl begins to experience the first menstruation called menarche.
4. The pelvic of the adolescent girl begins to widen.

EMOTIONAL CHANGES IN THE ADOLESCENT

During the period of adolescence, the individual experiences emotional changes which is characterized
by heightened feelings. The adolescent experiences the following emotional changes.
1. The adolescent begin to show a lot of energy and strength in his/her activities.
2. The adolescent begin express strong emotions such as love, hate, anger, fear, joy, happiness and
sorrow.
3. The adolescent begins to seek independence and freedom from adult control.
4. The adolescent begins to be sensitive, defensive and react strongly to events.
5. The adolescent begins to develop a strong sexual drive.

SOCIAL CHANGES IN THE ADOLESCENT

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During the period of adolescence, the individual experiences social changes which is characterized by
the adolescent being more conscious about his actions and how he/she relate to other people. The
adolescent experiences the following social changes.
1. The adolescent begins to distant themselves from their parent and associate themselves with
their peers instead.
2. The adolescent begin to develop a strong relation with the opposite sex.
3. The adolescent begins to demand for respect.
4. The adolescent begins to feel the need to be associated with a prestigious group

ADOLESCENT CHASTITY
Adolescent chastity refers to the total abstinence from all sexually related activities until marriage.

IMPORTANCE OR ADVANTAGES OF ADOLESCENT CHASTITY

1. Elimination of Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Adolescent chastity helps to eliminate
reproductive health risk such as sexually transmitted diseases including, HIV/AIDS, Gonorrhea,
Syphilis, Genital Herpes, etc. this is because the major means by which these infections are
transmitted is by unsafe sexual intercourse with an infected person. Since the chaste adolescent
has abstained from all sexually related activities, there is no way the adolescent can acquire
these sexually transmitted diseases.
2. Prevention of Teenage Pregnancy: Since the major means of becoming pregnant is through
sexual intercourse except through artificial insemination, the chaste adolescent girl will be
prevented from early and unwanted pregnancies. The prevention of the adolescent from early
and unwanted pregnancies safeguard the girl from unsafe abortion and its attendant health
risks, illness and death for both mother and child.
3. Realization of Educational Goals: When the adolescent girl remains chaste, she is able to realize
her educational goals without any interruptions. A chaste adolescent girl is safeguarded from
early and unwanted pregnancies which might force to girl child to drop out of school.
4. Confers Honour and Prestige: Chastity before marriage is still a highly cherished virtue in Ghana.
When the adolescent is able to remain chaste despite the constant bad influences and
pressures, it confers honour and prestige on the girl, her family and the community. The girl
gains societal respect for keeping her virginity intact and her family is given special place in
society, because they have been able to bring their daughter in a morally upright manner.
5. Trust in Marriage: A chaste adolescent girl enjoys trust and marital stability when she get
married. The husband trust and respect the wife because he married her as virgin and believes
such a wife has high moral standards incapable extra marital affair.

IRRESPONSIBLE ADOLESCENT BEHAVIOR

Irresponsible adolescent behavior refers to the attitudes exhibited by the adolescent which are regarded
as unacceptable and does not conform to societal rules and norms.
The following are examples of irresponsible adolescent behaviours.
 Pre-Marital Sex: During the period of adolescence, the individual develops a strong sexual drive.
The adolescent is guided and advised on how to control such desires in order to stay chaste.
However some adolescent who are unable to control the sexual drive and engage in sex before
marriage is unacceptable per societal rules and norms.

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  Prostitution: This is a situation where the adolescent girl engage in sexual activities for
monetary reward. This may results from lack of parental care and control, financial problems
and influences by peers and the mass media. Such behavior is however not acceptable in
society.
 Drug Abuse: The adolescent can be influenced and pressured by his/her peers and the mass
media to abuse drugs such as narcotics including marijuana (wee), cocaine and heroin.
Adolescent claim such drugs boost the nerves, thus, increasing brain sharpness, strength and
reduce shyness, nervousness and timidity.
 Homosexuality and Lesbianism: The adolescent can be influenced and pressured by his/her
peers and the mass media to engage in homosexuality. This is the practice where persons of the
same sex are attracted to each other and involve in anal and oral sex. This practice or behavior is
cultural, religiously and legally not acceptable.
 Abortion: This refers to the termination of a pregnancy because it is unplanned and unwanted.
Because the adolescent girl is young, immature and still in school, she may be compelled to
terminate a pregnancy in order to realize her educational goal or prevent her family and
community from finding out she is pregnant.
 Alcoholism: The adolescent can be influenced and pressured by his/her peers and the mass
media to consume alcohol. Alcohol consumption is restricted to adults above 18 years and since
most adolescent are below 18 years, its culturally, religiously and legally not acceptable for the
adolescent to consume alcohol.
 Theft and Armed Robbery: The adolescent can be influenced and pressured by his/her peers
and the mass media to crave for certain material things that they cannot afford. They may
engage in criminal activities such as theft, armed robbery and internet fraud to get money to
satisfy such materialistic desires. Such practices are culturally, religiously and legally not
acceptable in society.
 Examination Malpractices: These are instances when students engage in examination
malpractices such as sending foreign materials to examination room, copying and sitting in to
write exams for other people. This practice is unfair, wrong is irresponsible.
 Truancy: This are instances where students frequently absent themselves from school without
any tangible reasons. This practice is irresponsible and affects the academic performance of
such adolescent.

TEENAGE PREGNANCY
Teenage pregnancy refers to pregnancies which occur among girls who are 19 years and below. Mostly
such pregnancies are unplanned, unwanted and out of wedlock.

CAUSES OF TEENAGE PREGNANCY

1. Lack of Sex Education: The absence of sex education both at home and school is one of the
major causes of teenage pregnancy. The individual becomes ignorance on reproductive health
issues and lacks knowledge on implications of unsafe sex. Because of this, the adolescent may
engage in unprotected sex and may become pregnant.
2. Financial Problems/Poverty: As a result of poor financial conditions of the family, parent may
neglect some responsibilities to the child. The girl child may be compelled to fend for herself
exposing her to unscrupulous men, who may take advantage of her condition to exchange help
for sex.

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3. Lack of Parental Care and Control: Lack of effective parental care and control over the child due
to single parenting leading to teenage pregnancy. Most parent have heavy work schedules, they
leave home early and attend to their businesses and return home very late, rendering them
incapable of maintaining their families. While the parent are away, the children fend for
themselves and do what they like and thus, may go wayward.
4. Single Parenting: Single parenting resulting from divorce, separation and deaths of a parent also
leads to teenage pregnancy. This is because the single parent may not be able to provide all the
needs that both parents are to provide for the child. There girl child therefore, becomes easy
prey to boys and men who may offer help in return for sex. The exchange of sex for help can
lead to teenage pregnancy.
5. Peer Group Influence and Curiosity: Some adolescent girls have become pregnant due to the
influence of the peer group and desire to satisfy their curiosity. The adolescent girl may be
influenced by their friends to take boyfriends and may engage in unprotected sex resulting to
teenage pregnancy.
6. Exposure to Pornographic Materials: Many adolescent are exposed to pornographic materials
through the mass media including, the television, films, videos, magazines and the internet. This
may cause sexual arousal in the adolescent leading to the strong desire to engage in sex, if the
adolescent is unable to control such desire, they may engage in sexual intercourse leading to
teenage pregnancy.

EFFECTS/IMPLICATIONS OF TEENAGE PREGNANCY

1. Termination of Education: There is termination of educational opportunities of the adolescent
girl when she becomes pregnant. The adolescent becomes unemployment or may struggle in
acquisition of jobs since she has not attained any vocational skills or training.
2. Abortion: Teenage pregnancy may lead to abortion, as the adolescent girl may be compelled to
terminate the pregnancy so as to continue with her education, or because of the fear that the
family and community may find out. Abortion also has its attendant effects or complications
such as excessive bleeding, damage to the uterus (womb) and other infections. This can further
lead to barrenness or even death.
3. Exposure to Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Since the teenage girl has engage in unprotected
sex and is now pregnant, the girl may become infected with sexually transmitted diseases such
as HIV/AIDS, Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Genital Herpes, etc. if the person is infected. This infections
can be transmitted to the unborn child.
4. Loss of Respect: A teenage girl who becomes pregnant loses the trust and respect of her family,
friends and the community. She becomes a social outcast, as she feels shy to associate freely
with her peers. She becomes a laughing stock in the community and this her mentally.
5. Inexperience Early Parenthood: A teenage girl who gets pregnant lacks the experience and
training in the proper upbringing and nurturing of a child. Because such parent are unable to
provide proper care and nurturing for the child, the child may not be properly brought up
morally and develop negative behaviours such as drug abuse, alcoholism, prostitution, stealing,
etc. thus, becoming social misfits.

MEASURES TO CONTROL TEENAGE PREGNANCY

1. Effective Parental Care: Parents should show love, care and affection for their children. They
also provide a conducive home environment for children to develop their full potential. This will

15
 enable parent have full control over children to prevent them from going wayward leading to
teenage pregnancy.
2. Provision of Guidance and Counseling: The adolescent must be guided and advised in all
endeavors to make right decisions that will enable him/her achieve his/her full potential. This
helps the actions and behaviours of the adolescent to be guided and in line with societal norms.
This helps the adolescent girl to refrain from negative ways that may lead to teenage pregnancy.
3. Provision of Adolescence Health Education: To prevent teenage pregnancy, sex education must
be vigorously promoted both at home and school. Parents must feel free to discuss issues of sex
with their children. Teachers must also take students through lessons of sexual and reproductive
health. This gives the child adequate knowledge on sexual complications and prevent the child
from making certain mistakes that will lead to teenage pregnancy.
4. Providing Good Role Models in Society: Since children see their parents, teachers, elder siblings
and elder members in the community as role models, it is expected that, these people will leave
lives that morally upright and worth of emulation. This will help instill in the adolescent good
moral behavior that will help prevent teenage pregnancy.
5. Controlling the Influence of the Mass Media: The adolescent out of curiosity may practice the
negative things such as sexuality, portrayed in the mass media, thus on the televisions, movies,
music videos, internet, etc. To prevent teenage pregnancy the activities of the mass media must
be regulated to check explicit contents that may have negative influence on the adolescent. The
adolescent must also be restricted by parents from having access to such media that show
explicit contents.
6. Encouraging Adolescent Chastity: To prevent teenage pregnancy, chastity before marriage
should be encouraged among teenage girls. They should be made to know all the benefits that
they will derive from keeping their virginity intact.

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

Sexually Transmitted Diseases are infections that are transmitted form one person to another through
sexual activities. Sexually Transmitted Diseases are also known as Venereal Diseases.
The most common Sexually Transmitted Diseases are HIV/AIDS, Gonorrhea, Syphilis, Genital Herpes,
Chlamydia, etc.
ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME (AIDS)
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome abbreviated as AIDS is a disease that affects the immune
system, the body’s natural defence system against diseases. AIDS is caused by a virus called Human
Immuno-Deficiency Virus abbreviated as HIV. This virus attacks and damage the immune system,
preventing it from functioning effectively, thus rendering the immune system incapable of fighting
against diseases.

SYMPTOMS
1. Dementia Complex 5. Skin Rashes
2. Continuous and Intermittent Fever 6. Unexplained and Persistent Swollen Glands
3. Persistent Diarrhoea 7. Loss of Weight
4. Increasing Tiredness and Fatigue 8. Loss of Appetite

MODE OF SPREAD
1. Unprotected or Unsafe Sex with Infected persons. This is the main mode of transmitting the
virus, because the virus thrives well in seminal and vaginal secretions.

16
 2. Blood Transfusion with Infected Blood.
3. Maternal Foetal Contact. This is where during child birth the infected mother’s vaginal secretion
or blood comes into contact with the baby through the placenta. The virus can also be passed
onto the baby through breast feeding.
4. Use of unsterilized cutting or sharp objects, such as shaving sticks, scissors, needles and
syringes.
PREVENTION AND CONTROL
1. Public Education 4. Avoidance of Casual Sex
2. Promoting Chastity or Abstinence 5. Careful Blood Screening
3. Promoting Safe Sex 6. Sterilization of Cutting or Sharp Objects
GONORRHEA
Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted disease affecting both male and female. This disease is caused by a
bacteria (bacterium) called Neisseriae Gonorrhea.
The disease if not treated in its early stages, symptoms will disappear but the bacterium will move and
spread to other organs to cause more serious infections and complications.
Gonorrhea if not treated can lead the inflammation of the pelvic in women and inflammation of the
epididymis and prostate glands in men. These inflammations can lead to sterility.
Infected mothers can give birth to babies with eye infections that can lead to blindness if not detected
and treated early.
In its early stages, that is, if a person reports infections to a competent health institutions on time, it can
be treated with antibiotics.

SYMPTOMS
In the case of men, symptoms may appear as early as a day or two and as late as a month after
contracting the disease. In the case of women, symptoms are not easily detected and the infection may
proceed and spread to other organs of the body.
1. Frequent and Painful urination 3. Itching of the Urethra
2. Discharge of yellowish push-like urine. 4. Irritation of the Vagina

MODE OF SPREAD
1. Unprotected or Unsafe Sex with Infected persons. This is the main mode of transmitting the
bacteria, because the bacterium thrives well in seminal and vaginal secretions.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL

1. Public Education 3. Avoidance of Casual Sex
2. Promoting Chastity or Abstinence 4. Promoting Safe Sex

SYPHILIS
Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease caused by a bacterium called Treponema Pallidum. It is a very
dangerous sexually transmitted disease.

SYMPTOMS
1. Sores in the mouth and on the skin 4. Pain in the bones and joints

17
 2. Sores on the genitals 5. Fever
3. Loss of weight 6. Anaemia

MODE OF SPREAD
1. Unprotected or Unsafe Sex with Infected persons. This is the main mode of transmitting the
bacteria, because the bacterium thrives well in seminal and vaginal secretions.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL

1. Public Education 3. Avoidance of Casual Sex
2. Promoting Chastity or Abstinence 4. Promoting Safe Sex
GENITAL HERPES
Genital herpes is a sexually transmitted disease caused by the herpes simplex virus (HSV). Herpes
simplex virus causes genital herpes by entering the skin through microscopic breaks in the skin.
Diagnosis is usually done by recognizing the skin changes in the genital area. There is no cure for genital
herpes, but there are medications to manage the spread. Antiviral medications are used to reduce the
severity and frequency of genital herpes.
Genital herpes symptoms usually appear about four days after exposure to infected person.

SYMPTOMS
1. Painful red sores in the genital area 3. Body aches or pains
2. Fever 4. Swollen lymph nodes

MODE OF SPREAD
1. Genital herpes is transmitted by any form of sexual contact with the genital area.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL

1. Public Education 3. Avoidance of Casual Sex
2. Promoting Chastity or Abstinence 4. Promoting Safe Sex

CHLAMYDIA
Chlamydia is a common sexually transmitted disease caused by a bacteria called Chlamydia Trachomatis.
It can affect both men and women.
In case of men, the bacteria affects the urethra, rectum or throat. In the case of women, the bacteria
affects the cervix, rectum or throat.

SYMPTOMS
1. Painful urination 2. Abnormal discharge, which may have a strong smell

2. Itching around the opening of the penis 5. Fever

3. Pain and swelling in one or both testicles 6. Pain during intercourse (women)

MODE OF SPREAD

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 1. The bacteria can be transmitted to another person through oral, anal and vaginal sex with an
infected person.
2. An infected mother can pass the bacteria to her baby during childbirth.

PREVENTION AND CONTROL

1. Public Education 3. Avoidance of Casual Sex
2. Promoting Chastity or Abstinence 4. Promoting Safe Sex

-CHAPTER 3-
YAGA Series

CULTURAL PRACTICES IN GHANA

 CULTURE: This refers to the way of life of a given people or society.
 ELEMENTS OF CULTURE: This refers to the certain aspects or elements which gives a particular
group of people a unique identity. Elements of culture includes, language, beliefs, norms, values,
dress, food, system of governance and artifacts.

TYPES OF CULTURE
There are three types of culture, namely, material culture, non-material culture and culture universal.
 Material Culture: This refers to the tangible elements, aspects or materials of our culture that
can be felt or touched. They include artifacts such as drums, stools, linguist staffs, palanquins
and umbrellas. They also include food, clothing and buildings.
 Non-Material Culture: This refers to the intangible elements, aspects or materials of our culture
that cannot be felt or touched. They include customs, funerals, beliefs, festivals, language,
marriage, naming ceremony, etc.
 Culture Universal: This refers to the basic elements or practice that are found in almost every
culture. They include dressing, food, language, music and dance. All cultures practice these
elements, only that the mode or medium differs from one culture to another.

SOCIO-CULTURAL PRACTICES
Socio-cultural practices are the whole complex nature of the distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual
and emotional features that characterize a society.
Since societies or culture is dynamic, socio-cultural practices are set up at a given time to address the
challenges, problems and needs of the time.

SOCIO-CULTURAL PRACTICES PRACTICED BY THE VARIOUS ETHNIC GROUPS IN GHANA

1. System of Marriage: This is traditional or customary union between a man and woman after
going through all the necessary customary rite in the society. Most ethnic groups in Ghana
practices polygyny where men are allowed to marry more than one wife.

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 2. Making of Libation: This is the act of pouring a drink such as schnapps, local gin, palm wine and
water on the ground by a person, as a means of communicating with an object of worship.
Libation as a cultural right plays a major role in the political, socio-economic and religious life of
the Ghanaian.
3. Not Working on Certain Days: Most societies in Ghana hold certain days within the week or
month as sacred, and thus, do not engage in any economic activity on such days. In some
farming communities they do not go to farm on certain days, while fishing communities do not
go to sea on certain days.
4. Belief in the Potency of Witches and gods: Most societies in Ghana belief that witches and gods
exist. They belief witches are evil forces that possess some powers capable of causing spiritual
havoc which may later manifest physically. They also belief in a divine entity called god which
can protect and bless the people and the society.
5. Traditional Music and Dance: This is the expression of music and dance as part of the cultural
heritage of traditional societies devoid of foreign elements. Traditional music and dance is
prominent in the lives if Ghanaians projecting their cultural identities.
The prominent instruments used for traditional music includes, atumpan, fontomfrom (talking
drums), xylophones, flutes, gong-gong, etc.
Some popular traditional dances and the ethnic groups who perform these dances are as follows:
DANCE ETHNIC GROUP
Kete, Adowa Akans
Kpanlogo Gas
Agbadza, Borborbor Ewes
Owambir, Akosua Dontoba Efutus
Apatampa Fantes
Damba Dagomba
Bemma Builsa

6. Naming Ceremony/Birth Rite 11. Trokosi System

7. Puberty Rite 12. Tribal Marks
8. Funeral Ceremony/Death Rite 13. Festivals
9. Female Genital Mutilation: 14. Chieftaincy
10. Widowhood Rite: 15. Ancestral Worship

RITE OF PASSAGE
The rite of passage are transitional rites that usher the individual from one stage of life to another. They
include:
1. Naming Ceremony or Birth Rite 3. Funeral Ceremony or Death Rite
2. Puberty Rite

NAMING CEREMONY
The naming ceremony or birth rite refers to the activities performed to give identity to the newly-born
infant and usher the baby into the family and the larger society.

20
It is thus, a transitional rite that usher the baby from the spiritual world to the physical world.

NAMING CEREMONY AMONG THE AKANS

1. Naming ceremony among the Akans is called “abadinto”. It is performed on the eighth day after
birth in the father’s house.
2. The ceremony begins with the mother bringing the child out of confinement for the first time.
3. The ceremony is performed by an elderly man of high reputation, usually from the father’s
family.
4. The father gives a name for the child. The name is based on the day he/she was born, the
father’s name or a prominent person.
5. The elderly man put the child on his lap and mention the name given by the father three times.
He then, touches the tongue of the baby with drops of water three times and say, “if you say
water it must be water”. He also touches the tongue of the baby with drops of wine three times
and say, “If you say wine it must be wine”. The essence of these water and wine ritual is to instill
honesty and truthfulness in the child.
6. Libation is poured and prayers are said for the child to ask for protection and blessings from
God, the gods and ancestors.
7. The people present at the ceremony present gifts to the mother and the baby. They then make
merry, thus, eat, drink and dance to traditional music.

SIGNIFICANCE OR IMPORTANCE OF NAMING CEREMONY

1. It’s an Occasion of Giving the Baby an Identity: The naming ceremony serves as an occasion
when the newly born baby is officially given a name which serve as an identification mark. They
also officially accepts and recognize the newly born baby as a member of the family and society.
The name given to the baby thus, makes him/her unique.
2. It Marks a Separation and Transition of the Child: The ceremony serves as an occasion when
the newly-born baby is separated from the spiritual world, and makes a transition into the
physical world. He is then accepted by the living members of the family and the community.
3. It Humanizes and Socializes the Child: The naming ceremony is an occasion when the family and
the community begin to recognize the child as a human being. Before the performance of the
ceremony, the child is not regarded as a human being and therefore the ceremony confers a
human quality onto the child.
4. It Promote Family Reunion: The ceremony serves a period when family members come
together to make merry and enjoy themselves as they welcome the newly-born child to the
family the community.
5. It a Means for the Husband and Wife to exhibit their Fertility: In the traditional society,
childlessness is frowned upon. The ceremony therefore, serves as an avenue for the parents,
especially the mother to exhibit her pride of being able to conceive and give birth which is an
indication of her fertility.
6. It serves as a means of Imparting Moral Values in the Child: The ceremony serves a means
through which moral values such as honesty, truthfulness, hard work and dedication are
inculcated into the child.

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 PUBERTY RITE
Puberty rite are activities or ceremonies that are performed to usher he adolescent from childhood into
adulthood.
Puberty rite is performed for both boys and girls, but it is more popular with adolescent girl. The rite
performed for girls is known differently by different ethnic groups. The Akans call it “bragoro” and the
Krobos call it “dipo”.
Puberty rite is performed for girls who have been able to lead a chaste life. Girls who become pregnant
before the rite are said to have committed an offence known by Akans as “kyiribra”. The punishment for
this offense in the olden days was banishment. The girl and the boy responsible for the pregnancy were
banished from the village.
The introduction of formal education and Christianity has resulted to puberty rite losing it prestige and
significance, but the “dipo” of the krobos is still popular and given much publicity.

PUBERTY RITE AMONG THE KROBO

1. Puberty rite among the Krobos is called “dipo”. This is an initiation rite performed for Krobos
girls to initiate them into womanhood. The dipo rite begins in the month of February.
2. The ceremony begins with an announ254878787cement made on behalf of the Earth goddess,
Nene Kloweki. After the announcement parent present their daughters to their clan priest and
libations are made to ask for blessings for the girls.
3. The first rituals begin on Thursday, which is regarded as the sacred day for the earth goddess
(Nene Kloweki). On this day, an old woman removes the beads of the girl and replaces them
with strings around their waists. The lower part of the girls head is shaved and after that, a raffia
fibre is tied around the girl’s neck.
4. A ceremonial bath takes place on Saturday at the riverside. In the evening part of the girl’s head
is shaved again and libation made with schnapps and millet beer. Later a goat presented by each
girl’s parent is slaughtered.
5. Sunday marks the sacred stone ritual. The girls are led to the ceremony grounds carrying items
such as millet beer, flour and dried fish. When they get to the ceremony grounds, they are
bathed with some medicine. After that, they are decorated with clay markings and they march
to the compound of their clan’s priest, where they sit on the sacred stone three times. It is
believed that a pregnant girl who sits on the stone brings curse to herself and her family.
6. The girls are sent home after the sacred stone ritual with fanfare. The remaining hair is removed
and they are confined for a week. Some incisions are made on their wrists and thumbs to signify
that they have taken part in the initiative ceremony.
7. After this, they girls make a procession through the principal streets of the town.

SIGNIFICANCE OR IMPORTANCE OF PUBERTY RITE

1. It Promotes Adolescent Chastity: Puberty rite discourage pre-marital sex among girls and thus,
helps girls to keep their virginity intact. Since the puberty initiating rite confers honour and
respect to the girl and her family, the girl is encouraged to remain chaste so as to participate in
the initiation to gain societal respect and recognition.
2. It Confers Honour to the Girl and her Family: Participating in puberty rite indicates that the girl
has been able to lead a chaste life. Because of this, the members of the community will honour
and respect the girl for being able to lead a chaste life and the family for bringing up the girl-
child in a morally upright manner.

22
 3. It Prepare the Girl for Marriage: Puberty rite serves as a notice to the public that the adolescent
girl is now of age and ready for marriage. Suitors then approach the girl’s parent for marriage
proposals.
4. It serves as a Period of Family Reunion: The puberty rite initiation brings family members
together to renew family bonds. They are also periods of merry making and enjoyment by
engaging in traditional music and dance.
5. It Provide the Girl with Family Life Education: The performance of the rites indicates that the
girl is now an adult and ready for marriage. The elderly women of the community therefore,
provide the girl with family life education by teaching the girl home management such as
personal hygiene, cooking, maintaining a husband, child upbringing and others.

FUNERAL CEREMONY
Funeral ceremony or death rites refers to all the activities which are customary performed to bid
farewell to the dead. They are, thus, transitional rites that usher the dead from the physical world into
the spiritual world.

SIGNIFICANCE OR IMPORTANCE OF FUNERAL CEREMONY

1. It serves a Period of Family Re-union: Funeral are occasions when members of a family and
community come together to pay their last respect to the departed. Family members see this as
a home coming opportunity to address all family issues to ensure the progress of the family.
2. It Facilitate a Smooth Transition from the Physical World to the Spiritual World: There is a
belief that death is a journey made by the dead to the spiritual world. To ensure that the dead
have a smooth and peaceful journey to the spiritual world, funerals are organized to provide the
departed all he needs to make such a journey.
3. It is a means of Sympathizing with the Bereaved Family: Since death is a painful and bitter
experience for the deceased family, funerals provide an opportunity for friends, family and
loved ones to console and offer their condolence to the bereaved family.
4. It is a means of Honouring the Dead: Funeral serves as an occasion on which the dead is given a
befitting burial in acknowledgement of his status and contribution to his family and society.
Mostly a tribute is read at the funeral to acknowledge his good deeds.
5. It helps to Preserve Our Culture: Funeral rites reveal the culture of a people, thus, their
practices and belief are demonstrated. Its serves as a means of preserving culture.
6. It is a means of Raising Funds: Funeral serves as an avenue through which members of the
deceased family are provided with money and other monetary support to help organize the
funeral and support the family after the funeral.

MEASURES TO REDUCE FUNERAL COST

 Public Education: Public education is one of the major means of cutting down the cost of
funerals in the country. Intensive public education should be carried out to convince families of
the need to reduce expenditure on funerals. This will help prevent unnecessary spending in
other to save enough to support the deceased family.
 Discouraging Wake-keeping: To reduce the high cost of funerals in the country, wake-keeping
should be avoided. This is because wake-keeping is not part of the traditional way of funeral
ceremony and it also increase the cost of funerals as canopies, chairs and sound systems are

23
 hired for such event, also food and drinks are served. These are all unnecessary spending that
increases funeral cost.
 Discouraging the Long Period of Preserving the Corpse: The deceased family will save cost, if
the corpse is not preserved for long periods in the morgue. To avoid this, arrangements should
be made quickly, so that, the corpse is buried within the shortest possible time to save cost.
 Avoiding the Use of Expensive Items for Burial: The deceased family should avoid burying
expensive coffins and buying valuable items like cloths and ornaments for the burial. These
practices should be avoided to reduce funeral cost.
 Government Policy: The government, Traditional Councils and Religious bodies must be
involved in reducing the cost of funerals. The government can enact laws to regulate the cost of
funerals. The law must be strictly enforced and those who break it must be made to pay heavy
fines.

OUTMODED SOCIO-CULTURAL PRACTICES

They are practices that and harmful and have adverse or negative effects on the individual and society,
and thus, needs to abolished or modified. They include:
1. Widowhood Rite 3. Trokosi System
2. Female Genital Mutilation 4. Tribal Marks

FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or female circumcision, is a genital operation performed on females
before they reach adolescent age. This involves the cutting off or removal of the clitoris of the female
genitalia. This socio-cultural practice is particularly common among the ethnic groups in northern
Ghana.

RATIONALE FOR FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION

1. It makes the female lose urge for sexual intercourse, thus, will promote adolescent chastity.
2. It makes the female clean as the clitoris is regarded as unclean.

WHY FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION SHOULD BE ABOLISHED

Female Genital Mutilation is considered outmoded because it has adverse effects on the individual and
the society and need to be abolished for the following reasons:
 It Violates the Human Right of the Girl Child: The practice is a violation of the girl’s right since
her consent is not sought and it is done without her knowledge. It is also performed in the
public and thus, humiliates and infringe upon her right to human dignity. FGM has however
been condemned by the Convention on the Right of the Child.
 Loss of Sexual Sensitivity: Since the most sensitive organ of the female genital is her clitoris, it
removal will deny the woman of sexual pleasure. This may affect her later in marriage, as she is
now sexually insensitive and cannot give sexual satisfaction to the husband.
 It is a Health Hazard: One of the reasons why FGM is considered outmoded and should be
abolished is that it exposes the girl to a lot of health hazards. The use of unsterilized instruments
such as blade and hook may lead to contraction of HIV/AIDS and tetanus. Also, since those who
perform the operation are not trained medical experts, the practice can result to uncontrolled
bleeding which can lead to death.

24
  Difficulty in Childbirth: Since the scars left by the operation reduce the elasticity of the female
genital organ, the woman finds it difficult giving birth. She may experience long periods of
labour leading to other complications. Sometimes doctors are left with no option than to
perform an operation called caesarean or episiotomy which is often dangerous.
 It a very Painful Experience for the Child: Since the operation is performed without giving the
victim any form of anesthesia, she goes through excruciating and agonizing pain. This may affect
her physically and emotionally as she becomes traumatized.

WIDOWHOOD RITES
Widowhood rites are customary practices that a woman or man goes through following the death of a
spouse. They are performed in many Ghanaian societies but in different forms. Women, mostly fall
victims to such practices.
RATIONALE FOR WIDOWHOOD RITES
1. To ensure that the ghost (spirit) of the dead spouse does not haunt the living spouse.
2. To give strength to the living spouse to stand firm during the period of grief or mourning.
3. To make the living spouse to realize the difficulties that lie ahead as the breadwinner is no more.

WHY WIDOWHOOD RITES SHOULD BE ABOLISHED

 The Practice Dehumanize and Humiliate the Widow: The experiences ant treatments that the
widow goes through including, the shaving of the hair, swallowing the saliva of the corpse, being
denied food, sleeping with the corpse, using stone as a pillow, etc. dehumanize and humiliate
the widow leading to the loss of self-esteem and pride.
 It is a Health Hazard: The rite should be abolished because it exposes the widow to a lot of
health hazards. As the widow is denied food for some time, she may develop stomach ulcer and
being made to swallow the saliva of the corpse may result in coughs or tuberculosis. Sometimes
pepper is poured into the eyes of the widow which may lead to health problems such as
blindness.
 The Widow goes Through Mental and Emotional Stress: The demeaning experiences that the
widow goes through including shaving of the hair, using of stone as a pillow, being denied food
for some days, sleeping with the corpse, being held in confinement and swallowing the saliva of
the corpse affect the widow psychologically. She becomes traumatized and feel humiliated, as
begins to live in fear and feel embarrassed.
 It Discriminate against the Widow: Widowhood rite is discriminatory, because men do not
usually go through the same treatments and experiences that women go through when one loss
a spouse. Most at times, the women are victimized for being responsible for their husband’s
death, hence being subjected to such cruel and demeaning rituals.
 Loss of Job: The rite must be abolished because the living spouse may lose her job, as a result of
spending a very long time at home, as required by customs. The traditional custom requires that
widow must not engage in any economic activities during the whole period of mourning and
also the widow is confined to a room for some period of time. Because of such practices, the
widow mat lose her job if she is employed by the government or private organization. She will
also lose income if she has her own business.

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 TRIBAL MARKS
Tribal marks are distinctive scars or marks indented in the body of an individual to differentiate one
ethnic group from another. These marks or scars range from a single scratch to several marks found on
the checks, face, chest, abdomen, back, arms and legs.

RATIONALE FOR TRIBAL MARKS

1. They help one to identify one’s kinsmen or tribesmen.
2. They make a person beautiful

WHY TRIBAL MARKS SHOULD BE ABOLISHED

 It Violates the Right of the Child: The practice is a violation of the child’s right since his/her
consent is not sought and it is done without her knowledge. It is also infringe on the child’s right
that allow no one to inflict pain on him/her.
 It is a very Painful Experience: Since the operation is performed without giving the victim any
form of anesthesia, he/she goes through excruciating and agonizing pain.
 It is a Health Hazard: One of the reasons why tribal marks is considered outmoded and should
be abolished is that it exposes the girl to a lot of health hazards. The use of unsterilized
instruments such as blade and knife may lead to contraction of HIV/AIDS and tetanus, which can
lead to death.
 It Creates Mental Stress and Embarrassment: Some tribal marks are very extreme causing facial
deformity and destroy the natural beauty of the person. The person, thus, becomes
embarrassed and traumatized.

TROKOSI SYSTEM
The trokosi system is a socio-cultural practice in which virgin girls are sent to shrines, to atone for the
sins committed or as a repayment of debts owed by their relatives. It is practiced in some parts of the
Volta Region in Ghana.
WHY TROKOSI SYSTEM SHOULD BE ABOLISHED
 It Violates the Right of the Child: The trokosi system constitute an infringement on the right of
the innocent girl. This is because, the girl becomes a captive, a slave, a victim of sexual abuse
and does not go to school. As a result, her rights to liberty, human dignity and education have
been infringed upon.
 The Child is denied her Educational Potentials: Since the girl spends her entire time at the
shrine, she is unable to go to school and thus does not realize her educational goals. Because of
this, she is unable to develop her capabilities and self-confidence to enable her improve on her
socio-economic living.
 It Demeans Womanhood: The fact that only girls becomes victims, thus, being captives, slaves
and victims of sexual abuses is a humiliation to womanhood.
 It is Against the Principal of Natural Justice: The practice is unfair and goes against the principle
of natural justice that say that “He that calls the piper, must dance to the tune”. This principle
suggest that, since the girl has not committed any offence, she should not be made to go

26
 through such practice, but rather, the offender should be responsible for atoning for his/her
own sins or offences.

WAYS OF ABOLISHING OR REFORMING OUTMODED SOCIO-CULTURAL PRACTICES

1. Formal Education: The introduction of formal or western education has enlighten people on the
negative effects of outmoded cultural practices and the need to abolish or modify such practices
to safeguard the interest of the people especially women and to promote socio-economic
development.
2. Legislation: The government, traditional authorities and other stake holders must come
together to formulate regulations that will be used to stop the practice of such outmoded
practices that have adverse effects on the individual and the society.
3. Sanctions: After the government, traditional authorities and other stake holders have
successfully formulated regulation to stop the practices of such outmoded rites. There must
appropriate sanctions to offenders who will still practices such rites, to serve as a deterrent to
others.
4. Modification of Certain Practices: Certain cultural practices that are not cruel and hold essential
cultural elements and heritage cannot be entirely abolished, but rather some modifications of
changes can be made in it practice to meet modern standards while still maintaining the core
cultural elements.
FESTIVALS
Festivals are occasions on which members of a community come together annually to remember,
honour and express their gratitude to God, the gods and ancestors for helping and protecting them.
They also mark the end of a harvest season and the beginning of an agricultural year.

SOME FESTIVALS AND THE ETHNIC GROUPS WHO CELEBRATE THEM

NAME OF FESTIVAL ETHNIC GROUP
Aboakyir Effutu
Fetu Oguaa
Bakatue Edina
Damba Dagomba, Gonja and Wala
Hogbotsotso Anlo and Anloga
Homowo Gas
Kundum Nzema and Ahanta
Odwira and Ohum Akyem and Akuapem
Adaekese and Akwasidae Asante, Akyem and Kwahu
Akwambo Gomua, Agona, Ajumako and Enyan
Apoo Wenchi and Techiman
Asafotufiam Ada

THE ABOAKYIR FESTIVAL

1. The Aboakyir festival is one of the most popular festival in Ghana, celebrated annually by the
Effutus of Simpa (Winneba).
2. It is celebrated in honour of their god, Penkye Out, in the first week in the month of May every
year, with the climax on Saturday.

27
3. On Thursday, the people in the community accompanied by the fetish priest go on procession
through the principal streets of Winneba amidst music and dance. They then proceed to the
seashore (beach) to have a ceremonial bath.
4. The two Asafo Companies, Tuafo (Number 1) and Dentsifo (Number 2) go the shrine of the god,
Penkye Otu to ask blessing and protection from any harm or danger in their expedition in hunt
for the deer.
5. On Saturday dawn, the two Asafo Companies will set off to the forest to hunt the deer. While
the Asafo Companies go on the expedition, the paramount chief and the people will waiting for
them at the durbar grounds.
6. The group (Asafo Company) that makes the first catch sends it to the durbar grounds for the
paramount chief to place his right foot on it three times, the foot moving from west to east.
7. They then wait patiently for the other group (Asafo Company) to arrive with their catch. Then
the people including the paramount chief, sub-chiefs and the two Asafo Companies make a
procession through the principal streets amidst music and dancing to the sacred shrine of
Penkye Out.
8. The antelope is sacrificed on the following Sunday in fulfillment of ancestral rites.

SIGNIFICANCE OR IMPORTANCE OF FESTIVALS

1. They Portray the Culture of the People: Through the celebration of festivals, the traditions,
customs, taboos and practices of the people is demonstrated. During festivals, people wear their
traditional dress, prepare tradition foods and entertain themselves with traditional music and
dance.
2. They Promote Social Cohesion and Unity: Festivals are periods for socialization where people
get to meet new people and interact. This promote unity and togetherness as the young and the
old work together to make the festival a success.
3. They Promote Tourism: Festivals portray the rich indigenous cultural heritage of the people.
This rich cultural heritage attract tourist both local and foreign. This attract tourist contribute to
the country’s foreign exchange and income for the locals, as these tourists purchase certain
goods and services.
4. They are Periods for Settling Disputes: Festivals serve as an occasion when family and
community members come together to settle their differences. During festivals members of the
family and community travel to their villages and towns to take part in the celebration. The
people take these as an opportunity to settle all dispute at chieftaincy, family and personal
levels.
5. They serve as Periods for Planning Development Projects: Festivals serves as periods in which
the government of the day explain its policies and programmes to people. During festivals,
representatives of the government such as Regional Ministers, District Chief Executives or
Members of Parliament are invited as dignitaries to grace the occasion. The community leaders
take this opportunity to voice out their problems or needs to the government representatives.
The government representatives also explain the policies and programmes that the government
intend to undertake in the community to ensure the socio-economic development of the
people.
6. They are Periods of Communing with the gods: Festivals are celebrated to renew the spiritual
bond between the people, the ancestors, the gods and God. During festivals the people give

28
 thanks, honour and express gratitude to their ancestors, gods and God for blessing and
protecting them.

HOW TRADITIONAL FESTIVALS PORTRAY THE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF THE

PEOPLE (GHANAIANS)
1. They Portray the History of the People: Some festivals celebrated in Ghana demonstrate the
history of that ethnic group. Festivals such as Hogbetsotso of the Anlo’s and Aboakyir of the
Effutu’s demonstrate some cultural plays and rituals indicating how their ancestors migrated
from their origin to their present location.
2. They Portray the Tradition, Customs, Beliefs and Practices of the People: Festivals portray the
tradition, custom, beliefs and practices of the people. During festivals, people wear their
traditional dress, prepare tradition foods and entertain themselves with traditional music and
dance. The artifacts of the society including umbrellas, palanquins, linguist staff, drums, etc. is
show-cased and thus portrays the way of life of the people.
3. They Portray Traditional Music and Dance of the People: Festivals portray the cultural heritage
of Ghanaians by highlighting drumming and dancing. The various societies in Ghana have their
own distinctive musical instruments and dances that they demonstrate during traditional
occasions such as festivals.
4. They Demonstrate the Institution of Chieftaincy: Another way by which traditional festivals
portray the cultural heritage of Ghanaians is that it demonstrates the institution of chieftaincy.
The chiefs of the communities take charge of their social, political and spiritual leadership role
during festivals.
5. They Mark the Beginning and End of the Traditional Year: Traditionally, festivals are celebrated
to portray the traditional calendar of the ethnic group. Some festivals mark the beginning of
harvest which indicate the beginning of the agricultural year.

CHIEFTAINCY
 Chieftaincy: This refers to a traditional system of government in which a community is governed
or administered by a traditional ruler or a chief.
Chieftaincy is practiced by all the ethnic groups in Ghana and as a tradition, it has been recognized by
the constitution of Ghana since independence.
 Chief: This refers to a person from a royal family, who has been nominated and enstooled in
accordance with customary procedures and he is however recognized and accepted by his
people and government as a chief.
The Chieftaincy Act 370, Section 48, stipulate the powers and institutions of chieftaincy.

ROLE/IMPORTANCE/FUNCTIONS OF CHIEFS OR TRADITIONAL RULERS

1. They Act as Arbitrators: Traditional rulers or chiefs act as judges in their communities. They
settle all disputes arising out of misunderstanding among their people. They bring disputing
parties together and reconcile them to live peacefully in the community.
2. They Participate in Local Government: Chiefs or traditional rulers play a significant role in local
government administration by acting as a link between the central government and their
communities. Chiefs ensure the implementation of government policies and programmes in

29
 their communities and also send feedback to the government on the progress of such projects
or policies.
3. They Preserve Culture: The traditional rules or chiefs promote the cultural heritage of the
people by ensuring that all traditional rites and customs are performed. They thus, preserve the
culture of their people.
4. They are the Custodians of Ancestral Lands and Stools: The chiefs or traditional rulers of the
various communities are custodians of traditional lands and stools. The chiefs hold these lands
in trust for the living and the dead members of their communities. This is the reason why, chiefs
cannot use community lands for personal gain, but to release them for projects that will
contribute to the development of the community.
5. They are the Social, Religious and Political Leaders of their Communities: The chief or
traditional ruler is the social, religious and political leader of his community. He carries out the
administration of the traditional area, together with their council of elders. He also initiate and
leads his people to undertake projects that will ensure the socio-economic improvement of his
community. He also leads the people in religious or spiritual occasions.

ANCESTRAL WORSHIP
 Ancestral Worship: is a system of worship in which clans or families show reverence to their
ancestors. It is the oldest form of religion in Ghana, thus, it was practiced before the
introduction of Christianity and Islam.
 An Ancestor: is a person who once lived in the physical world but is now dead and lives in the
spiritual world. The spirit of such a person is believed to continue to exist among the living
guiding and protecting them.
CONDITIONS TO BECOME AN ANCESTOR
 Good Life: A person can become an ancestor when he/she had led a good life worth of
emulation.
 Old Age: Another condition of becoming an ancestor is old. The person should be well advanced
in years before dying.
 Having Children: One can become an ancestor when he/her had children. A childless person is
regarded as irresponsible and useless and thus, cannot become an ancestor.
 Death: Death is the major condition for a person to become an ancestor. One cannot become an
ancestor expect the person dies. This implies, there is no living ancestor. However the person
must die through natural causes, thus, through old age, war, etc. and not through unnatural
causes such as accidents, attack by unclean diseases such as leprosy, madness, epilepsy and
dropsy.

ROLE/IMPORTANCE/FUNCTIONS OF ANCESTORS
1. They are Custodians of Customs and Taboos: It is believed that the customs and taboos in the
traditional societies were established by the ancestors to regulate the behavior of people. Living
members of the society who break such customs and taboos are punished, while members who
observe these customs and taboos are rewarded by the ancestors.
2. They are Custodians of Family Lands: The ancestors are regarded as original owners of family
lands. Anyone who holds any of these lands by virtue of being a chief or family head, hold these
land on behalf of the ancestors. This is the reason why, chiefs or family heads cannot use the
land for personal purposes.

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3. They Act as Guardians or Protectors: Ancestors are believed to act as guardians by protecting
members of their families from misfortune, evil spirits, witches and demons to ensure that they
live in peace and harmony. They also protect family members from physical attacks from their
enemies in times of war.
4. They Take Part in Social Life of the People: The ancestors are believed to participate in the
social life of the people. During occasions such as naming ceremony, puberty rite, marriage
ceremony, funerals, festivals, etc. the people make libation to call on and invite the ancestors to
partake in the festivities and ensure that the ceremonies is a success.

ELEMENTS OF THE GHANAIAN CULTURE THAT BINDS THE PEOPLE TOGETHER

1. Funeral Ceremony: Funerals involve rites and ceremonies performed to usher the dead from
the physical world to the spiritual world. With such ceremonies friends, family and loved ones of
the deceased come together to mourn and pay their last respect. This promote social unity, thus
bind the people together.
2. Naming Ceremony: Naming ceremony is performed to usher a newly-born child from the
spiritual world to the physical by means of giving the child a name to identify the child. With
such occasion friend, family and loved ones of the parent come together to welcome and
recognize the child as part of the family and the community.
3. Festivals: Festivals are occasions on which members of a community come together annually to
remember, honour and express their gratitude to God, the gods and ancestors for helping and
protecting them. With such occasion locals and foreigners travel to the community to witness
such rich cultural heritage that portray the indigenous way of life of the people.
4. Marriage Ceremony: Marriage ceremony involves rites performed to unite a man and a woman
as husband and wife. In the traditional society, marriage units the families of the husband and
wife to become one family. Also the ceremony brings friends, family and love ones together to
witness the union. This ceremony promote social unity, thus bind the people together.
5. Puberty Rite: Puberty rite is performed to usher the adolescent from childhood to adulthood.
During this ceremony friend and family members of adolescent and the community come
together to help usher him/her into adulthood by part taking in the festivities of the ceremony.
6. Story Telling: The practice of traditional story telling bring people together in the community.
People come together especially in the night, to listen to traditional folktales to educate and
entertain the listeners. Such stories are usually told by the elderly in society.

WAYS OF PRESERVING THE CULTURE OF THE PEOPLE/SOCIETY

1. Appreciation the Value of our Culture: The cultural heritage of the people can be preserved, if
Ghanaians acknowledge, appreciate and respect the value of their own culture. Ghanaians
should still associate pride and honour to the various socio-cultural practices despite the
introduction of formal education and Christianity.
2. Promoting and Organizing Cultural Events: The cultural heritage of the people can be
preserved. If the society promotes and organizes cultural events such as festivals, puberty rite,
traditional story-telling, customary marriage, traditional birth and death rites, etc. The

31
 organization of such events will demonstrate and portray the rich cultural heritage of the people
and will enable the youth know and experience their culture.
3. Cultural Education: The cultural heritage of the people can be preserved, if cultural studies are
inculcated in the Ghanaian education system at all levels thus, from basic, JHS, SHS to Tertiary.
The lessons that the students will have in cultural studies will enable him/her know and
appreciate the rich cultural heritage of the various ethnic groups in Ghana.
4. Promoting Cultural Tourism: The cultural heritage of the people can be preserved, if the youth
are encouraged to go on excursions to places of historical and cultural interests. This will enable
them to know and appreciate the rich cultural heritage of the various ethnic groups in Ghana.
5. Establishment of Cultural Centres: The cultural heritage of the people can be preserved, if the
government establish Centres for National Culture in all the regional capitals of the country.
These centres should be equipped with cultural artifacts to promote cultural values of the
various ethnic groups and they should also host cultural events.

-CHAPTER 4-
YAGA Series

NATIONAL IDENTITY
 National identity: This refers to the pattern of behavior, traits and ideas that are commonly
shared by a people of a nation.
It can also be explained as, the situation whereby an individual sees him/herself as part of a nation and
relates with the symbols, traits, mental feelings and beliefs connected with the nation.

 Ethnicity: This refers to a group of people with a common distinctive ancestry, language and
culture that differentiate them from other people in the same country.
 Ethnic Pluralism: This refers to the situation where there is the existence of many ethnic groups
in the same country.
 Ethnocentrism: This refers to the situation whereby an individual or ethnic group consider their
culture or group to be superior to other cultures or groups.

THE MAJOR ETHNIC GROUPS IN GHANA

 The Akans: The Akans form the largest ethnic group in Ghana. They consist of numerous sub-
ethnic groups including, the Asante, the Akyem, the Fante, the Kwahu, the Akwapem, the
Denkira, the Assin, the Bono, the Wassa, the Sefwi, the Adansi, the Ahanta, the Nzema, etc.
They are geographically located in the Middle and Western parts of Ghana.
 The Ewes: The Ewes consist of the Anlo, Kpando, Peki, Adaklo, Avenor, Ho, etc. They are
geographically located in the Volta region of Ghana.
 The Ga-Adangbe: The Ga-Adangbe ethnic group consist of two main groups namely the Ga and
the Dangbe. The Gas are located in Tema, Nungua, Teshie, Labadi, Osu, Accra (Ga-Mashie). The
Dangbes are located at Ada, Ningo, Prampram, Dodowa, Kroboland.
 The Guans: The Guans who speak Guan can be found in almost all the regions in Ghana. They
most located in Gonjaland, the Akwapim hilss and coastal areas around Winneba.

32
  The Gurs: The Gurs are mostly found in the northern part of Ghana. They consist of the Grusi
and Mole-Dagbani which is the largest group. The Grusis are made up of the Sisala, Mo, Kasena,
Tempolenge. The Mole-Dagbanis are also made up of the Dagomba, Nanumba, Wala, Mamprusi,
Frafra, Talesi and Kusasi.

ADVANTAGES OF ETHNIC PLURALISM (ETHNICITY)

1. Diverse Elements of Cultures Enrich the National Culture: The existence of many and diverse
ethnic groups offer the people the opportunity to have the feel of other cultural values. This
diversity does not encourage cultural monopoly but rather integrate or fuse the various cultures
so as to promote national integration as all cultures will see themselves recognized and part of
the nation.
2. Similarities in the Diverse Cultures serve as a Unifying Factor in National Integration: Although
cultural elements are distinctive, there are some elements that are universal or similar in all the
cultures in Ghana. Such universal cultural elements such as festivals, customary marriage, music
and dance, chieftaincy, birth and death rites, etc. serves as a unifying force among the ethnic
groups.
3. Diverse Cultures Provides Understanding and Respect for Each Other: The diverse cultures in
Ghana enables the various ethnic groups understand and appreciate one another. This is
because, the diverse cultures allows the various ethnic groups to know and understand the rich
cultural heritage of other groups through cultural studies, excursions, inter-ethnic marriage, etc.
4. Diverse Cultures Allows for Inter-Ethnic Interaction and Sharing of Ideas: The existence of
different ethnic groups makes it possible for the various ethnic groups to interact, socialize and
share ideas. This helps the various ethnic groups to appreciate the strengths and weaknesses of
each group and thus, eliminates ethnocentrism or tribalism.
5. Diverse Cultures Helps to Mobilize Resources for National Development: The existence of
diverse ethnic groups helps the country to mobilize diverse resources for national development.
The various ethnics possess different natural resources which the government can efficiently
exploit and utilize for national development. The various ethnic groups also provide diverse
forms of human resource needed by the government for national development.

FACTORS THAT HINDER THE DEVELOPMENT OF NATIONAL IDENTITY IN GHANA

1. Ethnocentrism: One of the major factors that hinder the development of national identity in
Ghana, is the belief that one’s ethnic group or practices is superior to others. This results in
discrimination and tribalism leading to inter-ethnic conflicts.
2. The Presence of Different Languages: The presence of different languages in the country also
hinder the development of national identity in Ghana. People who speak the same language
tend to share a common feeling and behavioral traits. The existence of the different languages
makes it difficult for Ghana to adopt one local language as an official language.
3. Unequal Distribution of Development and Resources: Ghana does not have equal level of
development and resources. This is because some ethnic groups are endowed with more or
valuable natural resources than others and also, development may not be evenly or fairly
distributed among the various ethnic groups. This does not bring about uniformity in
development and some ethnic groups may feel neglected or discriminated against and thus, be
reluctant to integrate as one nation.

33
4. Formal Education: Western education has led to the adoption of western cultures and practices
to the neglect of the indigenous way of life of the Ghanaian. Because of formal education,
Ghanaians no longer value and appreciate their own culture and way of life, they associate
themselves with foreign food, dress, names, sports, etc. which it difficult to promote a national
identity that is distinctive the Ghanaian.
5. Existence of Different Religious Beliefs: The development of national identity is hindered by the
existence of different religious beliefs which are often intolerant to other religious beliefs. The
three main religions in Ghana, thus, Christianity, Islam and Traditionalist view their beliefs
and deities as superior to the others and therefore cannot identify themselves as one people
with the same beliefs and behavioural traits. This makes it difficult to promote national identity.

NATIONAL INTEGRATION
 National Integration: This refers to the process of bringing together all individuals and various
ethnic groups into a common society with a common sense of togetherness.
 Allegiance: This refer to the feeling that bind an individual to a higher entity. Example is the
allegiance of the Ghanaian to the state. Thus, the obligations and duties the individual ought to
perform to the state, as the state provides certain essential services for him/her and guarantees
the protection of his/her rights.

WAYS OF PROMOTING NATIONAL INTEGRATION/UNITY/IDENTITY

1. Public Education: Education both formal and informal can help the ethnic groups of the country
to come together. This is because education enables people to know, understand and
appreciate other ethnic groups and thus discourages ethnocentrism and tribal discrimination.
This will help promote national integration or unity.
2. Promoting Inter-Ethnic Marriages: People should be encouraged to marry from different
ethnics groups in order to appreciate the cultures and practices of other people. This will make
the different ethnic groups see themselves as one integrated family and thus, promote national
unity.
3. National Service Scheme: The National Service Scheme gives opportunity for the people to
serve the country for one year after he/she completes a higher institution of learning. They are
often posted to different districts or regions to offer their services to the State. This helps the
people to learn and appreciate the cultures and practices of that area and thus, help promote
national integration or unity.
4. Celebrating National Festivals: Ghanaians can forge national unity and integration through the
celebration of national cultural festivals. The national cultural festivals should inculcate some
concepts of the various ethnic groups to ensure all-inclusiveness. The revenue should be
rotational to ensure that all groups or regions host the festival. The celebration of the National
Festival of Arts and Culture, National Trade Faire, etc. are examples of national festivals aimed at
promoting national integration.
5. Encouraging the Boarding School System: The boarding school system must be encouraged to
promote national unity and integration. As boys and girls of different backgrounds travel from
various parts of the country to attend the same school, staying in the same dormitory, they

34
 learn to accommodate and tolerate each other irrespective of one’s ethnic background. This
helps to promote national unity and integration.
6. Equity in the Distribution of Development and Resources: The equity in the distribution of
development and resources in the various regions will help promote national unity and
integration. The various government should ensure there is equal distribution of developmental
projects and programmes across the regions in the Ghana. The appointment of people to fill
government positions should also be all-inclusive, giving opportunity to all the various ethnic
groups to actively participate in political activities.

NATIONAL SYMBOLS OF GHANA

National symbols refers to the distinctive artifacts, objects or items that the people of a nation identify
themselves with. The major national symbols of Ghana are: The National Flag, The Coat of Arms, The
National Currency, The National Anthem and The National Pledge.
THE NATIONAL FLAG
The Ghana National Flag was designed by Mrs. Theodosia Salome, a Ghanaian. The National Flag consist
of four colours. They are Red, Yellow/Gold and Green, with a Black in the middle of the Yellow.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE COLOURS IN THE NATIONAL FLAG

 Red: This represent the blood and toil of the Ghanaians who fought for Ghana to attain
independence.
 Yellow/Gold: This represent the rich mineral resources of the country. These include gold,
diamond, bauxite, manganese, oil, etc.
 Green: This represent the agricultural wealth of the country. These include forests, cocoa,
timber, food crops, coffee, oil palm, etc.
 Black Star: This represent the hope and aspirations of all Africans.

THE COAT OF ARMS

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The Coat of Arms was designed by Mr. Amon Kotei, a Ghanaian. The Coat of Arms is the official emblem
or badge of Ghana.
The Coat of Arms is divided into four quarters or sections. In the top left is a crossed staff and a linguist
staff. In the top right is a castle on a sea. At the bottom left section is a cocoa tree. At the bottom right
section is a mine shaft. At the centre of Coat of Arms is a lion. At the top of the Coat of Arms is a black
star. At the both sides of the Coat of Arms are the two eagles. Under the Coat of Arms is the inscription
“freedom and justice”.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE FEATURES IN THE COAT OF ARMS

 The Sword and Staff: This represent the power and authority of the two levels of government in
the country. The sword represent the power and authority of the central government and the
staff represent the power and authority of chiefs or traditional rulers.
 The Castle: This represent the national or central government, which was first set up by the
British government in the country.
 The Cocoa Tree: This represent the agricultural wealth of the country. These include forests,
cocoa, timber, food crops, coffee, oil palm, etc.
 The Mining Shaft: This represent the rich mineral resources of the country. These include gold,
diamond, bauxite, manganese, oil, etc.
 The Lion: This signifies the strong ties between Ghana and the British government. It depicts
Ghana’s membership of the Commonwealth of Nations, which is an association of Britain’s
former colonies.
 The Two Eagles: The two eagles supporting the shield signifies that Ghana’s independence,
people and resources are in safe hands and well protected.
 The Black Star: This represent the hope and aspirations of all Africans. It is the hope for the
unity of all Africans.
 “Freedom and Justice”: This indicates that Ghanaians are free from all forms of colonialism,
dictatorship and oppressive rule.

THE NATIONAL CURRENCY

The national currency of Ghana is the Ghana Cedis and Pesewa (GH₵ and Gp). It is the only legal tender
in the country.

36
 THE NATIONAL ANTHEM
The National Anthem was composed by Dr. Philip Gbeho, a Ghanaian. The National Anthem is song at all
State functions and when individuals or groups represent the country at a competition. The National
Pledge was also written by Dr. Philip Gbeho but was replaced by the current one which was composed
by Dr. Michael Kwame Gbordzoe.
“God bless our homeland Ghana
And make our nation great and strong
Bold to defend forever
The cause of Freedom and of Right:
Fill our hearts with true humility
Make us cherish, fearless, honesty
And help us to resist oppressor’s rule
With all our will and might forever more”

THE NATIONAL PLEDGE

I promise on my honour
To be faithful and loyal to Ghana my Mother land
I pledge myself to the service of Ghana
With all my strength and with all my heart
I promise to hold in high esteem
Our heritage, won for us through the blood and toil of our fathers:
And, I pledge myself in all things
To uphold and defend the good name of Ghana
So help me God.

TRADITIONAL SYMBOLS OF GHANA

37
Traditional symbols refers to the distinctive artifacts, objects or items that the people of a particular
ethnicity identify themselves with. The major traditional symbols of the various ethnic groups in Ghana
are: The Sankofa and Gye Nyame Symbols.

SANKOFA
The Sankofa symbol is a traditional Akan symbol, which refers to the practice of turning to the country’s
past, to pick those ideas, beliefs and traits that are relevant and valuable to solving societal and national
problems to ensure national development.
The significance of the Sankofa symbol is to remind Ghanaians not to allow western cultures to replace
our rich cultural practices. It also reminds Ghanaians to correct their past mistakes and explore past
experiences for the development of the country.

GYE NYAME
The Gye Nyame symbol which literally means “except God” or “only God” is the most popular Adinkra
symbol in Ghana. The expression “Gye Nyame” signifies the omnipotence, omniscience and
omnipresence of God and the belief that God has power over everything, thus, being supreme.

THE IMPORTANCE OF NATIONAL SYMBOLS

38
 1. Identification: The national symbols such as National Flag, Coat of Arms and National Anthem
helps to identify Ghana as a nation. Anywhere the National Flag is hoisted and Anthem sung or
played signifies the representation of Ghana as a nation.
2. Symbol of Unity: The national symbols such as National Flag, Coat of Arms and National Anthem
serve to bring the various ethnic groups together with a common sense of togetherness as they
share this same symbols. The use of a common National Currency that is the Cedis and Pesewas,
enables all Ghanaians to see themselves as one people.
3. Symbol of Authority: The national symbols also serve as the source or symbol of authority and
power of state. The President, State Ministers, Members of Parliament, Judges, etc. all derive
their power form national symbols. For instance, in Ghana, the State Sword is used to swear the
President of the nation into office.
4. Instill a Sense of Patriotism: The national symbols especially National Flag serves to instill a
sense of patriotism in Ghanaians. Anywhere the National Flag is hoisted, Ghanaians show their
sense of patriotism as they salute to exhibit respect and love for the nation.
5. Symbol of Sovereignty: The national symbols of Ghana portray the sovereign status of the
nation, which enables Ghana to manage its own affairs without any foreign influence. This
however symbolizes statehood.

-CHAPTER 5-
YAGA Series

THE INSTITUTION OF MARRIAGE

Marriage is a union between a man and a woman who have agreed to become husband and wife, after
going through all the customary rites in the society for the purpose of procreation, mutual assistance
and companionship.

IMPORTANCE/FUNCTION/BENEFITS/PURPOSES OF MARRIAGE
1. For Procreation: Marriage provides the avenue for procreation, as one of the main purposes of
marriage is to bring forth children, who will ensure the continued existence of the, cultural
practices, legacies and names of their parents
2. It Provides Companionship: Marriage provides an avenue for people to fill the void of
loneliness. This is because, marriage enables the married couple to keep each other in company
and share their ideas, thought and lives together.
3. It Provides Mutual Assistance: Marriage provides the grounds for the couple to offer support
for each other. It is a means through which the married couple put their resources together for
social security to enable the socio-economic improvement in the living conditions of the family.

39
 4. It Promotes Social Unity and Cohesion: Marriage is one the cultural practices that bring the
people together and promote social unity and cohesion. Friend, family and loved ones of the
couple come together to witness and enjoy the union. The marriage rite also unites the two
different families of the couple making them one family united by marriage.
5. It Provides a Legitimate Avenue to Have Sex: Marriage provides the legitimate grounds for a
man and a woman to have sexual intimacy since pre-marital sex is not acceptable per societal
norms.
6. Confers Honour and Prestige on the Couple and Their Family: Marriage confers honour and
prestige on the married couple and their families. They thus, provides an avenue for individuals
to enhance their social prestige that is to gain respect and recognition from society. In the
Ghanaian society, adults who are not married are regarded as irresponsible, marriage therefore,
saves people from societal ridicule.

PROCESS OR PREPARATIONS INVOLVED IN GETTING MARRIED

1. Making a Formal Request: This is where the potential husband makes a request for the hand of
the girl or woman he intend to marry. The father of the potential husband goes to the girl or
woman’s parent to ask for the hand of the girl or woman in marriage.
2. Family Investigations: After making the formal request, the families of the potential husband
and the girl or woman start to investigate the grounds of each family. This investigation is to
ascertain if there are any hereditary diseases or behaviours that may affect the other partner
and children.
3. Period of Courtship: After the family investigation and both sides are satisfied with the
backgrounds of each family, the would-be couple enter a period of courtship. This is the period
in which the would-be couple study themselves and get to know each other very well, their
character, interest, etc. In the traditional society the period of courtship is devoid of any sexual
intercourse.
4. Knocking Ceremony: After the period of courtship when the couple feel they are compatible
and can live together as husband and wife, the woman’s family accepts the proposal and asks
the man’s family to present some prescribed list of items. This involves the presentation of
drinks, the payment of an amount of money, and other items depending upon the ethnic group.
5. Payment of Bride Price/Wealth: This is the presentation of the bride price or wealth to the
bride’s family. This is done after the knocking ceremony on the condition that the families of the
woman agree to give their daughters hand in marriage.
6. Registration of the Marriage: This a recent practice that is now considered the last stage of the
customary process of marriage. This is where the married couple after going through the
customary rite of marriage, register their marriage at the Church or Registry to give it an official
seal.

COURTSHIP
Courtship is the period during which, the would-be couple study each other to enable them decide
whether they are compatible and possesses the qualities that one desires in a partner, to ensure that
they live together peacefully as husband and wife.

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 IMPORTANCE OF COURTSHIP
1. It Enable the would-be Couple to Study Each Other: Courtship provides the avenue for the
would-be couple to study each other so that, they can decide whether each possesses the
qualities which they desire in a partner and if they are compatible. This enable the couple to live
together peacefully.
2. It Enable the would-be Couple to Study Each Other’s Family Background: Courtship also
provides the avenue for the families of both sides to investigate the background of each other’s
family. This investigation is to ascertain if there are any hereditary diseases or behaviours that
may affect the other partner and children.
3. It Enable the would-be Couple to Receive Marital Guidance and Counselling: Courtship
provides the avenue for the would-be couple to receive the needed advice and guidance on
marriage. The would-be couple are educated on marital challenges and how to deal with such
challenges.
4. It Enable the would-be Couple to Make Adequate Preparations for the Marriage: Courtship
provides the opportunity for the would-be couple to make adequate financial and material
preparations for the marriage.
5. It Promote Stability in Marriage: Since courtship provides the avenue for the would-be couple
to study each other so that, they can decide whether each possesses the qualities which they
desire in a partner and if they are compatible, and allows both sides of the family to investigate
themselves, it leads to stability of marriage, because the couple becomes aware of everything
about his/her partner.

TYPES OF MARRIAGE IN GHANA

Marriage can be grouped or classified in Ghana based on three criteria. These criteria are:
1. Based on Process of Getting Married
2. Based on the Residence of the Couple
3. Based on the Number of Spouse Married to.
CLASSIFICATION OF MARRIAGE BASED ON PROCESS OF GETTING MARRIED
The classification of marriage based on process involved in getting married is grouped into three main
types. These are, Customary Marriage, Religious (Christian and Islamic) Marriage and Marriage under
the Ordinance.

CUSTOMARY MARRIAGE
Customary marriage is the traditional union between a man and a woman who have agreed to become
husband and wife, after going through all customary rites for such a function.
Customary marriage forms the basis of all marriages in Ghana, thus before religious marriage and
marriage under the ordinance is performed customary ought to be under taken first.

ADVANTAGES/BENEFITS/IMPORTANCE OF CUSTOMARY MARRIAGE

1. It Ensures Cultural Preservation: The customary marriage ensures the preservation of the
Ghanaian culture. The introduction of western education and foreign religious beliefs have
altered the performing of some cultural practices. The performance of the customary marriage,
which the Ghanaian traditional way of marriage helps to preserve our culture.
2. It Permits Investigation of Family Background: The pre-conditions or preparations that ought to
be made before the customary such as family investigation, enables both families of the man

41
 and woman acquire information on the family background of each other. This investigation is to
ascertain if there are any hereditary diseases or behaviours that may affect the other partner
and children.
3. It Confers Authority on the Husband over the Wife: The bride price that the man and his family
pay to the bride and her family during customary marriage rites, confers on the husband
authority over his wife in all matters relating to the immediate family and relationship with kins
and neigbours.
4. It Indicates Parental Approval of the Union: The payment of the bride price by the man and his
family and the acceptance of the bride price by the woman and her family which is an important
rite during customary marriage, attests to the fact that both families have given their formal
approval and blessing to the marriage.
5. It Promote the Extended Family System: Customary marriage as a traditional way of marriage
promote the extended family system, by enhancing patrilineal and matrilineal inheritance,
ensuring that children and the elderly are taken care of and heads of both families help settle
marital disputes.

IMPORTANCE OF THE BRIDE PRICE/WEALTH

1. It Indicates Parental Approval of the Union: The payment of the bride price by the man and his
family and the acceptance of the bride price by the woman and her family, attests to the fact
that both families have given their formal approval and blessing to the marriage.
2. It Confers on the Husband Authority over the Wife: The bride price that the man and his family
pay to the bride and her family during customary marriage rites, confers on the husband
authority over his wife in all matters relating to the immediate family and relationship with kins
and neigbours.
3. It a Token of Appreciation to the Bride’s Family: The bride price/wealth serves as an expression
of appreciation and gratitude by the man and his family to the bride’s family for taking proper
care of her and bringing her up in a morally upright manner. It also serves as a form of
compensation to the bride’s family for the loss of services that she renders for the family.
4. It Confers Honour and Prestige on the Bride and her Family: A woman or girl whose family
receives and accepts a payment of bride price from a man and his family, enhances her societal
reputation, she thus, gains societal respect and recognition. Her family also receives respect and
praise for ensuring the proper upbringing of their daughter to be married.
5. It Guarantees the Survival of the Union: The payment of bride price/wealth discourages
divorce. This is because in the event of a divorce caused by the husband, he will lose everything
that he gave to the wife and her family. On the other hand, if the divorce is caused by the wife,
she and her family will pay back everything they received from the husband. To prevent such
unfortunate incident, the husband and the wife try as much as possible to ensure the stability of
the marriage.

RELIGIOUS MARRIAGE
Religious marriage refers to the consecration of a union between a man and a woman by a recognized
Priest/Pastor or Imam based on the religion of the couple.
There are two types of religious marriage in Ghana, they are: Christian Marriage and Islamic Marriage.

CHRISTIAN MARRIAGE

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The Christian marriage involves the consecration of a union between a man and a woman who have
agreed to become husband and wife by a recognized Reverend Minister, Priest or Pastor. They takes
usually takes place in church or a decent venue where a Pastor is invited to preside over the ceremony.
Before the Christian marriage is performed, customary marriage rite must be under taken first to ensure
the couple go through the recognized traditional processes in a means of honouring our culture.
Christian marriage involves the following processes.
 Notice of Wedding: This is to notify the congregation of the church of the intention of the
couple to get married. This is known as the publication of the banns. The notice or
announcement is also to enable people who have anything against the union to raise their
objection.
 Guidance and Counselling: This is the period where an experienced married counsellor, advise
and guide the would-be couple on marital challenges and how to deal with such challenges. This
role is usually taken by the Pastor of the church.
 Engagement: This is the customary marriage rite that ought to be under taken before the
Christian marriage. The main feature is the payment of the bride price/wealth including the
presentation of an engagement ring and bible.
 Wedding Ceremony: This is the final stage of the Christian marriage, where the union is
consecrated by a qualified and recognized Reverend Minister, Pastor or Priest. The main
features at this stage is the exchange of marriage vows and rings and signing of the marriage
register by the couple and their representatives.

ISLAMIC MARRIAGE
The Islamic marriage involves the consecration of a union between a man and a woman who have
agreed to become husband and wife by a qualified and recognized Imam. The Islamic marriage bear
close characteristics with the customary marriage.
The Islamic marriage also practice the payment of bride price/wealth which is known as “Sadaki”.
According to Islamic traditions, the “Sadaki” must be reasonable and it solely belongs to the wife and
thus, have the right to claim everything.
The Islamic marriage also permit polygamous marriage, where a man is permitted to marry more than
one wives provided his resources can carter for them.

MARRIAGE UNDER THE ORDINANCE

Marriage under the ordinance denotes one that has been recognized and contracted by law. In marriage
under the ordinance, the union is registered at the Registrar General’s Department, the office of the
District assemblies and the court of law.
Marriage under the ordinance involves the following procedures:
 Notice of Marriage: This is where the couple go to the Registrar General’s Department to notify
the officer in charge of marriages of their intension to get married under the ordinance. The
officer then asks them to supply the following information. (Their names, their status, whether
they are a bachelor/spinster or widow/widower, their ages, their place of residence and the
name of a guarantor.)
 Marriage Notice Book: After receiving the information about the couple, the marriage officer
enters them into the marriage notice book. He displays a copy of this information on the
department notice board to enable people who have anything against the union to raise their
objection.

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  Signing of the Marriage Registry: This is the final stage and involves the signing of the marriage
register by the couple and their four representatives, two on each side, in the presence of the
marriage officer.

ADVANTAGES/BENEFITS/IMPORTANCE OF MARRIAGE UNDER THE ORDINANCE

1. It Provides Documentary Evidence for the Marriage: The marriage certificate signed and issued
by the marriage officer of the Registrar General’s Department serves as proof of their marriage.
It proves to the general public that the couple is actually married.
2. It Ensures Monogamous Marriage: Marriage under the ordinance permit only monogamous
marriage thus, one man marrying one wife and one woman marrying one husband. Any one of
the parties, who breaks this, commits an offence of bigamy which is punishable under the law.
3. It Discourages Divorce: Marriage under the ordinance helps ensure stability of the marriage and
discourages divorce. This is because the process of granting divorce involves a long and stressful
procedures. Sometimes, the court will make efforts to reconcile the couple.
4. Protection and Security for the Woman: Marriage under the ordinance provides protection and
security for the woman. This ensures that the man does not marry another woman and that the
woman is sufficiently compensated when there is a divorce.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CUSTOMARY MARRIAGE AND MARRIAGE UNDER THE ORDINANCE

1. Customary marriage form the basis of all marriages, thus, it is performed first before the other
types of marriage. Whiles, marriage under the ordinance is performed after the customary rites
has been under taken.
2. Customary marriage takes place in the bride’s family house. Whiles, marriage under the
ordinance takes place at the Registrar General’s Department, the office of the District
assemblies and the court of law.
3. Customary marriage permit polygamous marriage, thus, one man marring one wife and one
woman marrying one husband. Whiles, marriage under the ordinance permit monogamous
marriage, thus, one man marrying more than one wives and one woman marrying more than
one husbands.
4. Customary marriage has no stipulated age limit. Whiles, marriage under the ordinance has a
stipulated age limit of 16 years.
5. Customary marriage requires the consent of both families, thus the man and woman’s families
must approve the union. Whiles, marriage under the ordinance requires two persons from both
families as witness.

CLASSIFICATION OF MARRIAGE BASED ON THE RESIDENCE OF THE COUPLE

The classification of marriage based on the residence of the couple is grouped into four main types.
These are, Patrilocal Residence, Matrilocal Residence, Duolocal Residence and Neolocal Residence.

PATRILOCAL RESIDENCE
This is a type of marriage where the couple lives with the family of the husband. This pattern of
residence is associated with patrilineal societies. The father of the husband usually provides the couple

44
with a room or flat in his house. Avunculocal Residence is a type of Patrilocal Residence associated with
matrilineal societies, where the couple lives in a residence provided by the husband’s uncle. The uncle
provides the accommodation because his nephew will inherit him.

MATRILOCAL RESIDENCE
This is a type of marriage where the couple lives with the family of the wife. This pattern of residence is
associated with matrilineal societies.

DUOLOCAL RESIDENCE
This is a type of marriage where the couple lives separating from each other. It is typical of the people of
Ga, where the wife prepares food and sends it to the husband’s house and spends the night there, she
then goes away in the morning.
NEOLOCAL RESIDENCE
This is a type of marriage where the couple live in a rented room or flat or house built from their own
resources. There are two types of neolocal residence, they are:
Virilocal Residence: This is a neolocal type of residence where the couple lives in an accommodation
provided by the husband. It can be a room, flat or a house built from his own resources.
Uxorilocal Residence: This is a neolocal type of residence where the couple lives in an accommodation
provided by the wife. It can be a room, flat or a house built from her own resources.

CLASSIFICATION OF MARRIAGE BASED ON THE NUMBER OF SPOUSE

The classification of marriage based on the number of spouse is grouped into two main types. These are,
monogamous Marriage and Polygamous Marriage.
MONOGAMY
This is a form of marriage in which a man takes only one woman as his wife or when a woman takes only
one man as her husband. It is practiced and associated with Christian Marriage and Marriage under the
Ordinance.

POLYGAMY
This is a form of marriage in which a man marries two or more wives at the same time or when a woman
marries two or more husbands at the same time. There are two types of polygamy, they are:
 Polygyny: This is form of polygamous marriage whereby a man marries two or more wives at a
time.
 Polyandry: This is a form of polygamous marriage whereby a woman marries two or more
husbands at a time.

OTHER FORMS OF MARRIAGE

 Levirate: This is a form of marriage in which a man marries his deceased brother’s wife.
 Sororate: This is a form of marriage in which a man marries his deceased wife’s sister.

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 RESPONSIBILITIES IN MARRIAGE
The husband and wife are both expected to perform certain duties or responsibilities to each other and
the family to ensure the survival of the union and the socio-economic improvement in their living
conditions.

DUTIES/ROLE/RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE HUSBAND TO THE WIFE/FAMILY

1. Provision of Physical Needs: The husband as the head of the family is expected to provide the
physical needs of his wife and family, which includes food, shelter and clothing. This needs will
ensure the proper growth and survival of his wife and family.
2. Protection of the Family: It is the responsibility of the husband to protect the family from both
physical and spiritual dangers. He protects the wife and family from things that may threaten
the security of his family. He also protects and intercede for the family in spiritual matters by
initiating the family to their object of worship.
3. Satisfying the Wife’s Sexual Desires: The husband is expected to satisfy the sexual desires if the
wife. He is also required to show other emotional needs such as love, affection and romance to
the wife. Sexual satisfaction is one of the vital ingredients that promotes a healthy marriage.
4. Provision or Moral Training: The husband is obliged to provide moral training by ensuring
discipline among the children. The husband ensures that the children abide by the rules and
regulations in the home designed to mould their behavior to enable them fit very well in the
society. In ensuring this, the husband ought to live a responsible life worthy of emulation as he
becomes a role model to the children.
5. Ensuring Financial Security of the Family: The husband is also obliged to fulfil all financial
commitments such as payment of rent, utility bills, medical bills, school fees and have adequate
saving to social security and unforeseen circumstances.

DUTIES/ROLE/RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE WIFE TO THE HUSBAND/FAMILY

1. Providing Domestic Services: The wife is obliged to perform all domestic activities of the family.
She is expected to be a good house keeper by preparing the family meals, washing the clothes of
the husband and children, cleaning the house, etc.
2. Nurturing of Children: The wife is obliged to bring forth children and ensure the proper
nurturing of the children by breast feeding them and providing them with the nutrients they
require for proper growth.
3. Satisfying the Husbands Sexual Desires: The wife is also expected to satisfy the sexual desires if
the husband. She is required to show other emotional needs such as love, affection and
romance to the husband. Sexual satisfaction is one of the vital ingredients that promotes a
healthy marriage.
4. Supporting the Husband Economically: The wife is expected to help and support the husband
economically to relieve the husband off some financial stress. The wife is thus, expected to
engage in some economic activities to earn income to support the husband in maintaining the
family.
5. Submitting to the Husband: The wife is expected with accordance to customary practices and
religious beliefs, to submit herself to her husband. The wife does this by showing respect and
humility towards the husband.

46
 PROBLEMS/CHALLENGES IN MARRIAGE
1. Poverty/Financial Problems: The inability of the husband to provide financial support to his
family due to unemployment, loss of jobs or ailment may create marital problems, as the
husband will struggle in the provision the needs of the wife and children.
2. Infertility: The inability to have children can create serious marital problems, especially pressure
from the extended family to bear children. Childlessness and barrenness is frowned against in
the Ghanaian society, as this phenomena is seen as a cursed.
3. Infidelity: This is when a partner engages in practices that brings the marital consecration into
disrepute, thus engaging in extra-marital affairs and practices that is not befitting a married
person. This leads to loss of trust, respect and confidence in the other partner.
4. Lack of Sexual Satisfaction: One of the major ingredients that makes a marriage healthy is
sexual satisfaction, and so when a partner is not able to satisfy the other sexually it create
problems. This also results when the man maybe impotent or the woman may be frigid.
5. Domestic Violence: One major problem or challenge that is often silence is domestic violence.
The husband may verbally or and physically abuse his wife which cause physical harm, mental
and emotional trauma. The wife may also verbally abuse the husband due to lack of respect the
wife has for the husband, in some instances the wife may also physically abuse the husband.
6. Lack of Effective Communication: The absence of effective communication between the
husband and wife can create problems or challenges in the marriage. This is because it can lead
to misunderstanding and misconception which may degenerate into quarrels and conflicts.
7. Interference by In-laws: When the extended family interfere in the private lives of married
couples it may create problems as one couple complain and be labelled as unreasonable and
unaccommodating. The extended family may also put financial burden on married couple
creating challenges for them.

DIVORCE
Divorce, also known as dissolution of marriage, is the termination of a marriage or marital union. It is
thus, dissolving the bonds of matrimony between a married couple under the rule of law of that
particular country or society.
PROBLEMS/EFFECTS OF DIVORCE
1. Single Parenting: Single parenting resulting from divorce is of broken homes, which affects the
upbringing of children. Single parenting leads to the neglect some parental duties as one parent
will find it difficult to provide all the needs that both parents are to provide. There is also lack of
parental care which may result to children development negative attitudes such as smoking,
alcoholism, stealing and other social vices.
2. Teenage Pregnancy: Teenage girls from broken homes are exposed to bad influences from their
peers as the parent do not take proper care of them and, thus associate themselves more with
their peers. They may engage in negative practices learnt from peers which may result to
teenage pregnancy.
3. Parental Irresponsibility: This is one of the major effects or problems of a broken home. Parents
become irresponsible when a marriage breaks down. The man out of anger, may refuse to carter
for the needs of the children. The woman may not be able to perform her responsibilities
because of financial constraints.

47
 4. Financial Problems: Divorce or broken homes results to financial problems especially for the
women, who are uneducated and do not have any business or form of trade. The will thus, find
it difficult to provide the needs of the children leading to parental irresponsible.
5. Depression: Divorce or broken homes leads to depression on the man or woman, when the
divorce affects him/her emotionally or and mentally. Depression is however a serious condition
that affect the health of the man or woman and can even to death.

PROBLEMS/CHALLENGES OF THE EXTENDED FAMILY ON THE MARRIED COUPLE

1. Lack of Privacy: The married faces the challenge of the interference by members of the
extended family. The in-laws sometimes pay long visits to married couples and thus intrude into
their privacy, as the relative sees whatever goes on in their home.
2. Stakes in Property: The extended family poses a challenge because members of the extended
family who might have helped the couple in one way or the other, think that they have a stake
in the property of the couple. It for this reason that when people die, family members fight with
the children and wife of the deceased over the property.
3. Pressure on Childbirth: Another major challenge posed by the extended family members,
especially the in-laws of both sides is the pressure they put on the couple to produce children.
They also sometimes issue threats of dissolution of the marriage if the couple is childless.
4. Financial Dependency: Another challenge posed by members of the extended family is addition
of financial burden to the couple’s financial plans. The couple is expected to support members
of the family especially younger siblings and parents.

WAYS OF ENSURING A HEALTHY AND LONG-LASTING MARRIAGE

1. Adequate Preparations: Marriage has been instituted as a life-long experience, therefore the
couple must adequately prepare before getting married. Thus, they must properly court enable
to get to know themselves better, their families must do proper family investigations of each
other’s background, they must receive proper guidance and counselling, and the couple must be
financially prepared enable to be able to carter the needs of the family.
2. Faithfulness: To ensure a long-lasting marriage, the couple should be faithful to themselves and
refrain from extra-marital affairs that will put their union under threat. Engaging in extra-marital
affairs and practices that is not befitting a married person, leads to loss of trust, respect and
confidence in the other partner.
3. Effective Communication: To ensure a long-lasting marriage, the couple be maintain effective
communication among themselves. Effective communication enables the sharing of ideas,
thought and plans leading peaceful co-existence and mutual understanding.
4. Peaceful Resolution of Marital Disputes: To ensure a long-lasting marriage, the couple should
resolve their marital disputes peacefully and amicably. Peaceful resolution of marital disputes
helps to contain marital problems so that they do not degenerate in serious issues that may lead
to divorce.
5. Expression of Love and Affection: To ensure a long-lasting marriage, the couple must expression
undying love and affection to each other. Love and affection draws couple closer to each other
and enhance intimacy between them, this makes their bond strong and thus, ensure the
marriage last long.
6. Procreation: To ensure a long-lasting marriage, the couple must bring forth children. When
there is childlessness in a marriage, the extended family may give the pressure that will frustrate

48
 the marriage leading to divorce. Also the presence of children in marriage tighten the bond
between the couple, as they try by all means to stay together for the sake of their children.
7. Sexual Satisfaction: To ensure a long-lasting marriage, the couple must make sure they satisfy
the sexual desires of each other. When a partner is unable to satisfy another partner’s sexual
desire, it may lead to pre-marital affair as the unsatisfied partner may seek satisfaction outside
the marriage and this can break up the union.

A WELL TIMED OR PLANNED MARRIAGE

A well timed or planned marriage is one which the couple had adequate time to prepare and court
before getting married.

BENEFITS OF A WELL-TIMED OR PLANNED MARRIAGE

1. It Enable to Couple to have time to Study Themselves: A well-timed or planned marriage
ensures that the would-be couple have ample time to study themselves as they court for some
period of time. This enables the couple to know and understand themselves better and
acknowledge their com0patibility.
2. The Families of both Couple have time to Investigates each other’s Background: A well-timed
or planned marriage also provides the avenue for the families of both sides to investigate the
background of each other’s family. This investigation is to ascertain if there are any hereditary
diseases or behaviours that may affect the other partner and children.
3. It Ensures the Couple are financially and Socially Prepared: A well-timed or planned marriage
ensures that the couple especially the husband is financially and socially prepared to carter for
the wife’s needs and the family. This enables the couple to earn income to acquire all the items
they may need for the marriage and sustain the survival of the union.
4. It Provides the Couple time to Receive Guidance and Counselling: A well-timed or planned
provides ample time for the would-be couple to receive the needed advice and guidance on
marriage. The would-be couple are educated on marital challenges and how to deal with such
challenges.

-CHAPTER 6-
YAGA Series

EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

Education refers to the total process of human learning whereby knowledge is imparted, faculties
trained and skills developed for the betterment of the individual and society.

TYPES OF EDUCATION
There are three types of education in Ghana. They are:
1. Formal Education OR Western Education
2. Informal Education OR Indigenous Education
3. Non-Formal Education OR Semi-Formal Education

FORMAL EDUCATION

49
Formal education refers to the systematic and structured process of learning and training that are
carried out in institutions.
These institutions are schools, colleges and universities, where teaching and learning takes place in class
rooms, lecture rooms, laboratories and theatres. Formal education helps to develop the abilities and
attitudes of the individual through the acquisition of skills, attitudes, knowledge and professional
competence necessary to gain employment.

INFORMAL EDUCATION
Informal education refers to the unsystematic and unstructured process of learning and training carried
out outside institutions.
It is the unconscious way of acquiring skills, knowledge and attitudes through his interactions with
parents, siblings, friends, mass media and leaders in society. This time of education takes place at any
time and any place.

NON-FORMAL EDUCATION
Non-Formal education refers to the systematic and structured process of learning and training carried
out outside institutions.
It is midway between formal and informal education, and it is given to individuals who have not had the
opportunity of going through formal education, and individuals who drop out of school. Examples of
such type of education includes, adult education and apprenticeship education.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FORMAL AND INFORMAL EDUCATION

CHARACTERISTICS OF FORMAL AND INFORMAL EDUCATION
1. Formal education takes place in established institutions such as schools, colleges and
universities, thus teaching and learning takes place in classrooms, lecture halls, laboratories and
workshops.
Whiles
Informal education does not take place in established institutions. The whole social and physical
environments serve as a place for learning, and knowledge, skills and attitudes are acquired
through interacting with parents, siblings, friends and community leaders.

2. Formal education is structured by means of syllabuses and timetables. Various subjects are
taught with specific periods allocated for the teaching of each subject.
Whiles
Informal education is not structured by means of syllabuses and timetables. Most teaching and
learning takes place unconsciously.

3. Formal education involves evaluation, whereby learning is measured by means of tests, quizzes,
projects, assignments and examinations. This is to ascertain whether lessons taught was
understood, then Promotions, Certificates, Diplomas and Degrees are awarded.
Whiles
Informal education does not involve evaluation, thus, learning is not measured by means of
tests, quizzes, assignments and examinations and because of this promotions and certificates
are not awarded.

50
 4. Formal education involves supervision. The teaching and learning processes is supervised by the
Ghana Education Service, under the Ministry of Education.
Whiles
Informal education does not involve supervision. There is no supervision by an external body as
there are no professional teachers involved.

5. Formal education is systematic, thus it involves a step by step progression in the acquisition of
knowledge, skills and attitudes. With the formal education, there is systematic progression from
the Nursery, to the basic level, to the JHS level, to the SHS level, and to the Tertiary level.
Whiles
Informal education is not systematic, thus it does not involve a step by step progression in the
acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes. There are no progressive levels that the individual
can advanced in the acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes.

6. Formal education involves the use of professional teachers who are specially trained in Teacher
Training Institutions to impart knowledge.
Whiles
Informal education does not involve the use of professionally trained teachers. With the
informal education, any responsible individual can impart knowledge.

AGENCIES OF EDUCATION
The agencies of education are the various institutions which impart knowledge, skills and attitudes on an
individual. These various agencies of education are:
1. The Home: The home is the most significant agency of education of the individual. The home is
the individual’s first contact with the world. The individual begins to learn the norms and values
of society from the home, thus, the individual learns how to speak, walk, respect and behave
towards other individuals in the home. The home therefore lays the foundation of the
development of the individual.
2. The School: The school is the second agency responsible for the education of the individual. The
school inculcates into the individual knowledge, skills and attitudes that enable the individual
develop an acceptable behavioural pattern and professional skills.
3. Religious Institutions: The various religious institutions such as the church and the mosque
provides moral training to the individual. The church and the mosque provides this moral
training to help shape the behavioural pattern on the individual through guidance and
counselling and sermons by religious leaders.
4. Mass Media: The mass media both electric and print inculcate knowledge, skills and attitudes in
the individual, as they provide the individual with a lot of information that moulds his character.
5. Peer Group: The individual also receives a lot of information from his peers that influence
his/her behavioural pattern. The individual may learn good or bad things, depending upon the
type of peer group that he/she associates himself with.
6. Associations/Organizations: There are various associations or organizations in the community
that the individual may join. The individual may learn some knowledge, skills and attitudes from
such associations that may mould the personality of the individual.

THE ROLE/FUNCTIONS/IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION

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1. Transmission of Culture: Education enable a society to transmit it culture to it members, to
enable them know and understand the norms and values of society. With formal education,
culture is transmitted through lessons in Cultural Subjects such as Social Studies, Cultural Studies
and Religious and Moral Education. While in the informal education, culture is transmitted orally
through story-telling and the practice of socio-cultural practices such as festivals, naming
ceremony, puberty rite, funeral ceremony, music and dance, chieftaincy, etc.
2. Agent of Social Change: Education, especially formal education is responsible for social change
in Ghana. Education has led to changes in attitudes and acquisition of diverse professional skills
that has resulted in the shift from the traditional way of life of Ghanaians, to the adoption of
foreign attitudes and practices.
3. Personal Development: Education provides knowledge and professional skills that contribute to
the personal, social and intellectual development of the individual and the society as a whole.
This helps the individual to have skills and abilities to solve basic problems.
4. Provision of Moral Training: Education provides the individual with moral training that enable
them to live a morally upright live. Formal education provides moral and attitudinal training by
instilling positives ethics and discipline in the individual and through the teaching of Social
Studies and Religious and Moral Education. While the informal education impart moral and
attitudinal training through the norms, values and practices that the individual ought to adhere
to.
5. Social Integration: Education especially formal education promotes social integration. The use
of a common language, English, has made it possible for the various ethnic groups with their
distinctive languages to communicate and interact.

ADVANTAGES OF FORMAL EDUCATION OVER INFORMAL EDUCATION

1. Development of Literacy and Numeracy: Formal education has enabled people to read, write
and count. Through formal education, people can now communicate using common adopted
official language, which is English. Literacy and numeracy has enabled businessmen, traders and
organizations to record their business transactions.
2. Mental Liberation: Formal education has brought about modernization which has partially
liberated the Ghanaian from superstitious beliefs which were hindrances to national
development.
3. Abolition of Outmoded Cultural Practices: Through formal education, certain outmoded
practices such as human sacrifices, trokosi system, female genital mutilation and widowhood
rites have been abolished. Such practices had adverse consequence on the individual and the
society and thus was a hindrance to socio-economic growth and development.
4. Provision of Diverse Job Opportunities: Formal education provides the individual with diverse
knowledge and professional skills that enable him/her to be qualified for job opportunities that
he/she has been trained for. This helps to development the capabilities of the individual and
thus, improve on his/her living conditions.
5. Documentation of Events: Formal education has developed the proper documentation of
events that has helped in the preservation of the nation’s cultural heritage and history to
maintain nation identity. Documentation has also promoted socio-economic development as
business transactions are properly documented and social events such as marriage, festivals,
chieftaincy, naming ceremony, funeral ceremony, etc. are also documented.

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 6. Adoption of an Official Language: Formal education has made it possible for the country to
adopt English as the official language. English as the official language enable Ghanaians from all
worth of life to interact and communicate with each other thus breaking all communication
barriers that used to hinder national identity, integration and development.

FACTORS THAT HINDER THE FULL REALIZATION OF THE EDUCATIONAL RIGHTS

OF THE GHANAIAN CHILD
1. Poverty/Financial Problems: One of the reasons that hinder the realization of the educational
rights of the Ghanaian child is poverty or financial problems. Because of the economic hardship
in the country, most Ghana parents struggle to finance the education of their children, as a
result some children are forced to drop-out of school to work and assist the family.
2. The High Cost of Education: One of the reasons that hinder the realization of the educational
rights of the Ghanaian child is the high cost of education in the country. Because of the high cost
of living with low income levels, parents cannot afford high school fees and other educational
materials such as text books, exercise books and uniforms. Thus, the child may be denied
his/her educational rights.
3. Inaccessibility to Schools: One of the reasons that hinder the realization of the educational
rights of the Ghanaian child is the inaccessibility to schools. There is uneven distribution of
schools across the country. Some regions or areas lacks or have inadequate educational facilities
and thus, makes it difficult for children to access education. Because of this, they may be denied
their educational rights.
4. Cultural Practices: One of the reasons that hinder the realization of the educational rights of the
Ghanaian child is the existences of certain cultural practices. Some cultural practices hinder the
development of the girl-child and thus, does not encourage girl-child education. Cultural
practices such as early marriage and trokosi system deny the girl-child access to education,
hence, hinder the full realization of her educational rights.
5. High Admission Requirements: One of the reasons that hinder the realization of the educational
rights of the Ghanaian child is high admission requirements. The selection and admission
requirements into the Senior High Schools and Tertiary Institutions are very high. As a result,
individuals who are willing and ready to further their education are denied access because they
do not meet such very requirements. This however prevents them from enjoying their full
educational rights.
6. Illiteracy of Parents: One of the reasons that hinder the realization of the educational rights of
the Ghanaian child is ignorance of parents on the value of education. Most parents who are
uneducated, by virtue of being ignorant, do not see the need to send their children to school.
They think that once they have survived without education, the child can also survive.
7. Inadequate Qualified Teachers: One of the reasons that hinder the realization of the
educational rights of the Ghanaian child is inadequate qualified teachers. There are not enough
qualified teachers for all the schools in the country, as a result some schools lack qualified
teachers who have the required skills of imparting knowledge, skills and attitude in the child.
Some qualified teachers are also reluctant to engage their service in rural areas because of the
lack of amenities there.

WHY GOVERNMENT SHOULD ALLOCATE MORE RESOURCES TO EDUCATION

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1. To Reflect the Important Role of Education in Development of Ghana: The government must
allocate more resources to education because, education is the key to national development.
Education develops the capabilities and attitudes of the individual through the acquisition of
knowledge, skills and attitudes. This helps the individual to improve on his/her living conditions,
and thus, contributing to the growth of the economy.
2. To Provide Teaching and Learning Materials: The government must allocate more resources to
education in order to provide educational materials to enable effective teaching and learning.
This resources will enable the schools acquire educational materials such as textbooks, exercise
books, vocational training equipment, science and technological laboratory equipment,
computers, etc.
3. To Provide Adequate Incentives Remuneration for Teachers: The government must allocate
more resources to education to enable the Ghana Educational Service to provide teachers and
other workers in the educational sectors with better salaries and incentives. These better
salaries and incentives will boost the morale and commitment of teachers and other workers,
urging them to work effectively and efficiently.
4. To Promote Science and Technology Education: The government must allocate more resources
to education in order to promote science and technology education. This resources will enable
the various educational institutions to be equipped with science resource centres, computers
and other science textbooks. Promoting science and technology will enhance the socio-
economic, as science and technology increases worker’s efficiency.
5. To Improve on Accessibility to Education: The government must allocate more resources to
education to improve on accessibility to education. This resources will enable the Education
Ministry to provide schools for deprived areas to enable children in such areas have access to
education.

PROBLEMS FACING THE EDUCATIONAL SECTOR IN GHANA

1. Inadequate Qualified Teachers: There is a problem of inadequate qualified teachers to teach
the various subjects in schools. The country is unable to train the needed number of teachers to
fill the vacancies. There are not enough qualified teachers for all the schools in the country, as a
result some schools lack qualified teachers who have the required skills of imparting knowledge,
skills and attitude in the child. Some qualified teachers are also reluctant to engage their service
in rural areas because of the lack of amenities there.
2. Inadequate Educational Facilities: The educational system in Ghana faces the problem of
inadequate educational facilities such as decent school structure, place of convenience, staff
common room, library, science and computer laboratory, electricity, water, etc. to enable
effective teaching and learning.
3. Inadequate Teaching and Learning Materials: The educational sector in Ghana faces the
problem of inadequate teaching and learning materials such as textbooks, exercise books,
vocational training equipment, science and technological laboratory equipment, computers, etc.
to enable effective teaching and learning.
4. Cultural Practices: The existences of certain cultural practices pose serious problems for the
educational system in Ghana. Some cultural practices hinder the development of the girl-child
and thus, does not encourage girl-child education. Cultural practices such as early marriage and
trokosi system deny the girl-child access to education, hence, hinder the full realization of her
educational rights.

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 5. Lack of Support from the Community: Many of the community-based schools are not given the
needed financial and material support from the localities and District Assemblies. Such schools
lack facilities needed for effective teaching and learning.
6. Low Salary and Incentives for Teachers: The educational system in Ghana faces the problem of
financial constraints as teachers and other educational workers receives low salaries and given
poor incentives. The low salaries and poor incentives will dampen the morale and commitment
of teachers and other workers, affecting their work ouput.

SOCIAL CHANGE
Social change refers to the alteration in society’s social institutions, organizations and behavioural
patterns to meet new challenges as they emerge.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR SOCIAL CHANGE IN GHANA/AGENTS OF SOCIAL CHANGE

There are two main factors or agent’s responsible social change in Ghana.
1. Formal or Western Education.
2. The introduction of Christianity and Islam.

POSITIVE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL CHANGE

1. Adoption of Official Language: Formal education has made it possible for the country to adopt
English as the official language. English as the official language enable Ghanaians from all worth
of life to interact and communicate with each other thus breaking all communication barriers
that used to hinder national identity, integration and development.
2. Mental Liberation: Formal education has brought about modernization which has partially
liberated the Ghanaian from superstitious beliefs which were hindrances to national
development. Through formal education, scientific research has established the causes of
diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis and measles, which were in former times said to been
caused by the gods. Today, drugs and vaccines have been developed for the treatment and
prevention of these diseases.
3. Abolition of Outmoded Cultural Practices: Through formal education, certain outmoded
practices such as human sacrifices, trokosi system, widowhood rites and female genital
mutilation have been abolished. Such practices had adverse consequence on the individual and
the society and thus was a hindrance to socio-economic growth and development.
4. Documentation of Events: Formal education has developed the proper documentation of
events that has helped in the preservation of the nation’s cultural heritage and history to
maintain nation identity. Documentation has also promoted socio-economic development as
business transactions are properly documented and social events such as marriage, festivals,
chieftaincy, naming ceremony, funeral ceremony, etc. are also documented.
5. Diversification of Job Opportunities: Formal education provides the individual with diverse
knowledge and professional skills that enable him/her to be qualified for job opportunities that
he/she has been trained for. This helps to development the capabilities of the individual and
thus, improve on his/her living conditions.
6. Adoption of Family Planning Methods: Formal education has enlighten the Ghanaian on the
need to have a smaller family size. Most Ghanaians have now adopted family planning methods,
to help them manage their family size in relation to their financial and social status.

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 NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
1. Neglect of the Ghanaian Culture: Through formal education, western ways of life have
infiltrated into the Ghanaian society to such an extent that Ghanaians have now neglected their
culture. Ghanaians have now adopted foreign names, foods, music and dance, dress and other
practices which are alien to our traditions and culture.
2. Neglect of the Extended Family: Formal education has led to the neglect of the extended family
system which play a very important role in the socialization the Ghanaian child. The extended
family system which is the traditional family setting is now under threat as most Ghanaians
wants to be associated to their immediate family and have nothing or little to do with the
extended family.
3. High Rate of Unemployment: Formal education has contributed to the high rate of
unemployment in the country. This is because, formal education trains people to prefer limited
white-collar jobs, as more emphasis is laid on academic knowledge to the neglect of technical
and vocational training.
4. Technological Evils: Formal education has brought about technological advancement with it
attendant effects. The internet and other modern gadgets such as phones have exposed the
youth to, many technological evils such as cyber fraud, access to explicit materials, etc.
5. Emergence of Class Society: Formal education has created a class society in Ghana. People are
now grouped into classes, high class, middle class and low class. The high class comprises highly
rated professionals such as medical doctors, engineers, lawyers, administrators and lecturers.
The middle class consists of teachers, nurses, office clerks, designers, etc. The low class is made
up of artisans, messengers, cleaners, security men, etc.

-CHAPTER 7-
YAGA Series

RESPONSIBLE PARENTING
 Parenting: This refers to the activity of bringing up and nurturing children to be useful citizens to
the society.
 Parenthood: This refers to the state of being a parent. Parenthood begins when pregnancy is
confirmed and ends when a person dies (either a parent or the child). Parenthood does not end
when one marries or leave home.

PARENTING STYLES
Parenting styles refers to the methods which parents adopt to mould or shape the character of their
children. There are three major parenting styles, they are: authoritarian or autocratic style, democratic
or participatory style and laisser-faire or permissive style.

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 AUTHORITARIAN OR AUTOCRATIC STYLE
With this type of parenting style, parents are dictators who establish rigid rules and expect children to
obey these rules without any excuses. Children are not allowed to express their views or opinions on
issues affecting their lives. The decisions of such parents are however final.
Effects: 1. The child becomes unhappy and hostile.
2. The child lacks self-reliance, confidence and a sense of direction.
3. The child becomes a low achiever.

DEMOCRATIC OR PARTICIPATORY STYLE

With this type of parenting style, parents allow the children to take part in decisions affecting them.
Children are allowed to express their views and opinions on issues affecting their lives. However parents
take the final decisions after discussion with children and explain their actions to the children.
Effects: 1. The child becomes self-reliance and confidence.
2. The child becomes content.
3. The child becomes friendly and co-operative.
4. The child becomes a high achiever.

LAISSER-FAIRE OR PERMISSIVE STYLE

With this type of parenting style, parents allow children to assume more active and influential roles.
Parents allow children to take decisions concerning their own lives. According to such parents, children
should be responsible for their own actions.
Effects: 1. They become creative and imaginative.
2. They become easily influenced by peers.
3. The children lack a sense of direction.

RESPONSIBILITIES IN PARENTING
This refer to the duties and obligation that parents are expected to perform to ensure the proper
upbringing and nurturing of the child. The following are the various responsibilities expected from
parents.
1. Provision of Physical Needs: Parent are obliged to provide physical needs such as food, clothing
and shelter to their children. The provision of physical needs will ensure the survival and proper
growth of the child.
2. Provision of Health Needs: Parents are obliged to provide the health needs of their children to
ensure that they are always healthy. Parents can achieve this by ensuring that the children
observe personal hygiene and take the children to the hospital when they fall sick.
3. Provision of Social Needs: Parents are obliged to provide social needs for their children. Parents
can achieve this through the socialization of the child. Parent must train and teach children good
manners and respect for authority. Social needs also includes parents sending their children to
school.
4. Provision of Emotional Needs: Parents are obliged to provide emotional needs such as love and
affection to the children. Parents must also provide conducive home environment to make the
child happy and comfortable.

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 5. Provision of Spiritual Needs: It is the responsibility of parents to intercede for their children in
spiritual matters. Parent should introduce their children to their objects of worship, to teach the
children the principles of God and how to protect the family from evil forces.
6. Proper Nurturing: Parents are also obliged to ensure that their children are properly nurtured.
Parents should provide all the needs and moral training for the child to ensure the proper
upbringing of the child.

IRRESPONSIBLE BEHAVIOR OF PARENTS

Irresponsible behavior of parents are instances when parents neglect their parenting duties or
responsibilities to the child. The various forms of irresponsible behavior of parents are as follows:
1. Child Neglect: This is a form of parental irresponsibility in which parents neglects their children
due to economic and other reasons. Parents maybe too involved in their businesses that they do
not have enough time and attention for their children.
2. Lack of Affection for Children: Another form of parental irresponsibility is when parents fail to
show love and affection to their children. This results to children being unhappy and unable to
draw close to their parents.
3. Excessive Blaming of Children: Parents become irresponsible when they excessively and
continuously blame their children for their action and inactions. This over criticism and
intolerance on the part of parent will lead to low self-confidence in children.
4. Lack of Respect for Children: Parent who do not respect their children for the mere fact that
they are older than them or gave birth to them is irresponsible. Parent should recognize the
worth of their children and regard them as important members of the family.
5. Maltreatment of Children: Parents exhibit irresponsible behavior when they mistreat their
children. This maltreatment includes severe beating of the child, starving and over burdening
the child with household chores. These unfair treatments affects the physical, mental and
emotional development of the child.
6. Immoral Lifestyle of Parents: Certain negative lifestyle that parents exhibit are irresponsible.
This lifestyle includes alcoholism, smoking, extra marital affair, etc. These immoral practices will
affect the moral development of the child, as the child sees the parent as a role model and
might copy such immoral lifestyles from the parent.

CAUSES OF PARENTAL IRRESPONSIBILITY

Irresponsible parental behavior can be as a result of the following reasons or factors.
1. Financial Problems/Poverty: Poverty is one of the major factors that lead to parental
irresponsibility. Parents may be willing to provide all the needs of the child, but their poor
financial standing may prevent them from doing so.
2. Divorce/Broken Homes/Single Parenting: Single parenting resulting from divorce, separation or
death can lead to parental irresponsibility. This is because, it is difficult for a single parent to
assume the role of both parents, and hence some of needs to be provided for the child may be
neglected.
3. Large Family Size/High Dependency Burden: Parents with large family size find it difficult to
provide needs and show love and affection to children due to the high dependency burden on
such parents. The available resource of such parents cannot match the large size or number of

58
 children to be carted for, and hence some of the parental responsibility may be neglected.

4. Negative Attitudes of Children: Parents can become irresponsible because of the negative
attitude of their children. Negatives attitudes such as disobedience, disrespect, ungratefulness
and truancy can make parents ignore their responsibilities. Such behavior do no encourage
parents to carter for the needs of such child.
5. Immoral Life Style of Parents: Certain life style of parents may cause them to neglect their
responsibility to their children. Immoral life style such as smoking, alcoholism and extra marital
affair results to parental irresponsible as the parent may spend all the resources that is to carter
for a child on such immoral things.

EFFECTS/CONSEQUENCES OF PARENTAL IRRESPONSIBILITY

1. Child Neglect: Irresponsible parental behavior can lead to child neglect. The inability of parents
to provide children with the needs, love and affection amounts to child neglect. As children are
denied their basic and other needs, they feel neglected and this can result to parent-child
conflicts.
2. Child Labour: Children whose parents do not cater for their needs might try to fend for
themselves. They may engage in menial jobs such chop bar attendants, street hawking and
mates of commercial vehicles. These activities expose the child to hazard and retard his/her
educational goals.
3. Child Abuse: When parents become irresponsible, they can subject the child to physical, mental
and emotional abuses. Over burdening the child with domestic chaos, excessive beating and
starving of a child amount to child abuse, which pose severe effect on the physical, mental and
emotional development of the child.
4. Moral Degeneration/Negative Attitude: The inability of parent to perform their responsibilities
for a child may compel the child to develop deviant behaviours such as stealing, drug addiction,
smoking, prostitution and the like.
5. Retard Child’s Educational Goals: When parents become irresponsible and do not provide the
needs of the child, it affects the educational goal of the child as the child may not be able to
finance his/her cost of education. The child may be forced to engage in an economic activity to
assist his education, this act however amount to child labour.

HOW CHILDREN MAKE PARENT IRRESPONSIBLE

Children can make their parents irresponsible through their actions and behaviors they exhibit towards
parents. The following are some of the ways by which children can cause their parents to become
irresponsible.
1. Disobedience to Parents: When a child deliberately disobey the parent, the parent may choose
to ignore certain responsibilities to the child as a means of punishing the child.
2. Ingratitude/Ungratefulness: Ingratitude and ungratefulness on the part of a child may lead to
parental irresponsibility. Parents become hurt when a child do not express appreciation and
content with the thing they struggle to provide for them.

59
 3. Association with Bad Peers: Children who associate themselves with bad peers after persistent
warning from parents may lead to parental irresponsibility. Such a child loses the trust of the
parent as they may be influenced by the bad peers to engage in immoral practices.
4. Poor Academic Performance: Parents may become irresponsible as a result of poor academic
performance of a child in school. The parent may feel that spending huge sums of money on a
child’s education, who then, performs very badly academically is a waste of resource and the
parent may then neglect such responsibilities.

CHILD-PARENT CONFLICT
Child-Parent Conflict refers to the misunderstanding, disagreement and tensions between a parent and
a child. The following are the causes of child-parent conflicts:

CAUSES OF CHILD-PARENT CONFLICTS

1. Lack of Love and Affection from Parents: When parents do not show love and affection to a
child it affects or breaks the bond that is supposed to bind parents and a child close to each
other. This can result to disagreement and misunderstanding between a parent and a child.
2. Disobedience of children: The disobedience of children to parents can lead to child-parent
conflict. Parents become disappointed and hurt, when children deliberating disobey their orders
or disrespect them. This may result to heighten tension between a parent and a child.
3. Lack of Communication: When parents do not effectively communicate with their children it
creates a barrier between them. This can lead to mistrust, misjudgment and misunderstanding
between a parent and a child.
4. Excessive Blaming of Criticism of Children: When parents become intolerance to the attitude of
their children and over criticize their actions, it may result to misunderstanding and mistrust
between them.
5. Neglect of Children’s Needs: When parents do not provide the needs of a child, the child
becomes rebellious, as the child may try to fend for him/herself. This may also lead to
disobedience of a child to a parent.

FACTORS THAT PROMOTE GOOD CHILD-PARENT RELATIONSHIP

1. Effect Communication: Effect communication between a child and a parent will promote good
relationship between them. Effective communication ensures free flow of information between
a child and a parent enabling them to understand each other better and live together
harmoniously.
2. Obedience of children: When a child constantly obeys the parents, the parent in return ensures
to the provision of all the needs of the child. This will promote a good child-parent relationship.
3. Provision of Child’s Needs: Parent must be concerned with the general welfare of the child. As
parents meet all the needs of the child, the child becomes happy and content and will in return
show appreciation and respect to the parent. This will promote good child-parent relationship.
4. Parents must be Fair and Firm: To promote good child-parent relationship, parents must be
observant of their children, and should be firm and fair in their handling of the child. Parents are
firm when they ensure that children comply with the rules and regulations. Parents will be fair
when they relax rules and apply the rule equally to all the children.

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 5. Showing of Love and Affection from Parents: To promote good child-parent relationship,
parents must show love and affection to the child. Love and affection from a parent to a child
create a deep bond them the child and the parent which then promotes a good child-parent
relationship.

CHILD ABUSE
Child abuse refers to the maltreatment of a child by parent or other adult that cause physical, emotional
and mental effect on the child.
CAUSES OF CHILD ABUSE
1. Financial Problems/Poverty: Poverty or financial problems can compel parents to engage their
children in an economic activity to support the family budget. Child labour is however a form of
child abuse. Poverty can also lead to the maltreatment of a child such as starvation and over
burdening of the child with household chaos.
2. Single Parenting/divorce: Single parenting that result from divorce or death can lead to child
abuse by parents. It is difficult for a single parent to assume the role of both parents, and hence
some of needs to be provided for the child may be neglected. These can result to child labour,
starvation and severe beating, especially from step parents or foster parents.
3. Early Parenting: Early parenting resulting from teenage pregnancies can lead to child abuse.
Teenage parents are immature and inexperienced in the nurturing and upbringing of a child. The
teenager can become frustrated and abuse the child.
4. Disobedience of Children: When a child deliberately disobey the parents, the parents can
subject the child to mistreatment and abuses such as severe beating, starvation and over
burdening the child with household chaos. The parents see these form of punishment as a
means of correcting the child.
5. Irresponsible Life Style of Parent: Some behaviours that parents exhibits can result to child
abuse. Immoral behaviours such as smoking, alcoholism and drug addiction make parent lose
their sense of respect, reasoning and consciousness, resulting to parental abuse on the child.

EFFECTS OF CHILD ABUSE

1. Psychological Effect: Child abuse affects the physical, mental and emotional development of the
child. The abused child become traumatized and this may affect them later in life.
2. Health Problems: Child abuse can lead to health problems which may result to death of the
child. Abuses such as starvation can lead to health implications such as stomach ocher, and
severe beating can physically hurt the child, causing wounds and other injuries.
3. Teenage Pregnancy: Teenage girls who are subjected to sexual abuse such as rape of defilement
can become pregnant, when the girl child becomes pregnant, they drop out of school, losing all
the educational opportunities that can provide them with good jobs in future.
4. Social Vices: Children who face abuse in the home may seek solace in the street or with peers.
This expose them to social vices such as stealing, drug abuse, prostitution and the like.
5. Child Labour: Children who face abuse in the home might try to escape or run away from home
to fend for themselves. They may engage in menial jobs such chop bar attendants, street
hawking and mates of commercial vehicles. These activities expose the child to hazard and
retard his/her educational goals.

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 MEASURES TO CONTROL CHILD ABUSE
1. Public Education: Child abuse can be prevented or controlled through public education, because
most people maltreat children because of ignorance or lack of education. People who
deliberately subject children to abuses should be educated on the need to refrain from such
abuses. The mass media, religious organizations and other institutions must promote children
welfare programmes to educate the people on the effects of child abuse.
2. Social Welfare: The state should establish institutions such The Department of Social Welfare, to
help protect the interest of children. These social welfare institutions must be given the power
to sanction people who abuse children.
3. Legislation and Enforcement: The state should establish laws to protect the child from abuse.
The government should also make sure that these laws are effectively enforced or implemented.
Stiff of strict sanctions should be meted out to people who abuse children to serve as a
deterrent to others.

CHILD LABOUR
Child labour refers to the situation where by a child engage in any economic activity to earn an income.

CAUSES OF CHILD LABOUR

1. Financial Problems/Poverty: Poverty or financial problems can compel parents to engage their
children in an economic activity to support the family budget. The child may engage in activities
such as street hawking, mates of commercial vehicles, house helps, chop bar attendant, etc.
2. Singling Parenting/Divorce: Single parenting that result from divorce or death can lead to child
labour. It is difficult for a single parent to assume the role of both parents, and hence some of
needs to be provided for the child may be neglected. These can result to child labour, as the
child may be forced to engage in an economic activity to support the family.
3. Illiteracy: Lack of education on the part of parent lead to child labour, as such parent do not
know the effect of engaging their children in economic activity such as street hawking to support
the family.
4. Cultural Practices: Some cultural practices in Ghana encourage child labour. The child is
expected to help the parent at the farm, for fishing, street hawking, etc. to help increase income
to carter for the family.
EFFECTS OF CHILD LABOUR
1. School Dropout: Children who engage in an economic activity to support the family may drop
out from school, because it becomes difficult and hectic to combine their academic work and
economic activities.
2. Academic Performance: Children who engage in economic activity to support the family may
perform poor academically, because it becomes difficult and hectic to combine their academic
work and economic activities.
3. Health Problems: Children who engage in economic activity to support the family are exposed
to a lot of health hazards. Children who are engaged as mates of commercial vehicles and street
hawkers, stand the risk of being run-over or knocked down by moving vehicles.

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 4. Teenage Pregnancy: Children, especially girls, who engage in economic activities to support the
family may be exposed to unscrupulous men, who may deceive and impregnate the girl child.
5. Disobedience of the Child: Children who engage in economic activities to support the family,
may begin to disobey and disrespect the parents. This is because the child feels he/she is able to
fend or carter for him/herself.

MEASURES TO CONTROL CHILD LABOUR

1. Public Education: Child labour can be prevented or controlled through public education,
because most people engage their children in economic activities because of ignorance or lack
of education. The mass media, religious organizations and other institutions must promote
children welfare programmes to educate the people on the effects of child labour.
2. Legislation and Enforcement: The state should establish laws to protect the child from engaging
in economic activities. The government should also make sure that these laws are effectively
enforced or implemented. Stiff of strict sanctions should be meted out to people who engage
their children in economic activities, to serve as a deterrent to others.
3. Social Welfare: The state should establish institutions such The Department of Social Welfare, to
help protect the interest of children. These social welfare institutions must be given the power
to sanction people who engage their children in economic activities.
4. International Labour Policy: The International Labour Organization policy, that stipulate the age
limit that people should work, must be strictly applied. This will help prevent or control child
labour, when countries who do not adhere to the policy are sanctioned.

-CHAPTER 8-
YAGA Series

SOCIALIZATION AND OUR SOCIAL

ENVIRONMENT

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  Socialization: This refers to the conscious effort by the older generation to transmit the culture
of society to the younger generation to enable the younger members of society act as
responsible and acceptable members of society.

TYPES OF SOCIALIZATION
There are several types of socialization. The various types of socialization are described as follows:
 Primary Socialization: This is the initial training that the individual receives during childhood. It
begins in the home, where the child interacts with his parents and siblings. It is a process of
social interaction through which a child in his early years of life acquires his or her personality
and learns the ways of his society. It is mostly given by the parents and older siblings, and
involves feeding, bathing, politeness, language, etc.
 Secondary Socialization: This is the further training that the individual receives in the school,
community, church and others, after his or her initial training in the home.
 Re-socialization: This is the process by which a new set of norms, values and behavioural
pattern are inculcated into the individual. An example is students in a boarding house.
 Anticipatory Socialization: This is the process by which individuals prepare themselves for roles
which they aspire but which they do not yet occupy. An individual who wants to become a
singer may rehearse the songs of a mentor artiste and also imitate his or her behavior on stage.
 Occupational Socialization: This is the process by which the individual learns the values, beliefs
and the norms of a new occupation or organization.

AGENCIES AND AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

Agencies of socialization are the organizations or institutions that train and educate the individual on
norms and values of society, while agents of socialization are the individuals who perform the function
of training and educating the individual on the norms and value of society on behalf the agencies
(institutions).
 The Home: The home is the child’s first contact with the world. It is in the home that
parents and older siblings transmit the language, culture and values of the society to the
child to enable him or her become a responsible and acceptable member of the society.
Parents and siblings are the agents who perform the function of socialization in the
home. The following are the role of the family in the socialization of a child.
 Provision of Physical Needs of the Child.
 Provision of Moral and Character Training.
 Provision of Protection and a Sense of Security.
 Provision of Love, Care, Support and Affection.
 Provision of Cultural Transmission.
 The School: The school is an institution that has been formally established by the society to
transmit its culture to the people and enable them acquire skills, values and attitudes, that will
make them knowledgeable and skillful to enable them contribute to the socio-economic
development of the society. Subjects and lessons from Social Studies, Cultural Studies and
Religious and Moral Education help the child mould his character and acquire the right
knowledge, attitudes, values and skills. Teachers are the agents who perform the function of
socialization in the school. The following are the role of the school in the socialization of a child.
 Transmission of Culture.
 Provision of Academic Knowledge.

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  Provision of Character and Moral Training.
 Provision of Professional or Vocational Training.
 Inculcating Positive Working Attitude.

 The Mass Media: The mass media, both electronic and print, constitute a major agency that
helps in the socialization process of the child. As the child watches television, listens to radio and
reads newspapers and magazines, he or she receives a lot of information that changes his
attitude and perceptions and also moulds his or her personality. Journalists and media
personnel are the agents who perform the function of socialization in the media. The following
are the role of the media in the socialization of a child.
 Provision of Information.
 Provision of Education.
 Provision of Entertainment.
 Bringing Social Cohesion.
 Provision of Skill Training.

 Religious Institutions: The influence of religious institutions such as the church and the mosque
is very crucial in the moulding the character and personality of the individual. The church and
the mosque do this through the sermons pastors preach at church and Imams preach at the
mosque. Pastors and Imams are the agents who perform the function of socialization in the
religious institutions. The following are the role of the religious institutions in the socialization of
a child.
 Provision of Moral and Character Training.
 Provision of Protection and Sense of Security.
 Provision of Love, Care, Support and Affection.

 Peer Group: The peer group is an association of individuals who are equal or of the same age. It
is one of the most significant agencies in the socialization process of the child, because the child
spends most of his time with his peers. He or she wants to attach him or herself to peers more
than his or her parents and because of this; the child receives a lot of influence from his or her
peers. He or she learns the values and norms of the group and these mould the personality of
the child. Peers or friends are the agents who perform the function of socialization with the peer
group. The following are the role of the peer group in the socialization of a child.
 Provision of Love, Care, Support and Affection.
 Provision of Team Work and Co-operation Skills.
 Provision of Security and Sense of Belonging.
 Provision of Social Interaction and Relationship
 The Community: The community also performs major responsibilities in the socialization
process of the child. They teach the child the norms and values of the society, so that, he can be
integrated into the society. Elders and opinion leaders are the agents who perform the function
of socialization in the community. The following are the role of the community in the
socialization of a child.
 Transmission of Culture.
 Provision of Character and Moral Training.
 Provision of a Sense of Security and Belonging.
 Provision of Love, Support and Affection.

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  Provision of Social Interaction and Relationships.

 Organizations: Organizations such as the Red Cross, Boy’s scouts, Girl’s guide and others also
mould the personality of the individual. These organizations have established codes of conducts
and disciplinary acts to regulate the behavior of their members, and as the individual conforms
to these disciplinary measures, he develops the habit of leading an exemplary life. The individual
becomes responsible and well-integrated in the society.

IMPORTANCE OF SOCIALIZATION
 Transmitting Cultural Norms and Values:
 Culture Preservation:
 Provide Sense of Identity:
 Enable the Individual to Fit and Relate Well in Society:
 Helps in the Development of One’s Capabilities and Self Confidence.

SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
The social environment refers to the social bond and inter-personal relationships that exist in a given
community or developed by a group of people over time guided by certain principles, norms and values.

HOW TO PROMOTE OR MAINTAIN GROUP OR SOCIETY’S INTEREST IN THE

COMMUNITY
 Educating the People:
 Establishing Social Institutions:
 Respect the Rights of Individuals:
 Fair and Equitable Distribution of Resources or Wealth:
 Honouring Deserving Citizens:

FACTORS THAT HINDER THE PROMOTION OF GROUP OR SOCIETY’S INTEREST IN

THE COMMUNITY
 Lack of Social Institutions:
 Lack of Respect for Rights of Individuals:
 Unfair and Inequitable Distribution of Resources or Wealth:
 Greed:
 Selfishness:
 Suspicion:
 Envy:

DEVIANT BEHAVIOUR
Deviant behavior refers to repulsive or unpleasant behavior of an individual that is not acceptable in
society, because they have adverse effects on the individual and the society. Individuals who exhibit
such behaviours are called social deviants. Examples of deviant behavior includes the following:

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  Drug Abuse, Drug Addiction and Drug Trafficking:
 Alcoholism:
 Theft and Armed Robbery:
 Homosexuality:
 Pre-marital Sex
 Adultery:
 Prostitution:
 Disrespect for Authority:
 Indiscipline:
 Bribery and Corruption:

CAUSES OF DEVIANT BEHAVIOUR

 The Breakdown of Traditional Family Life:
 Exposure to Foreign Culture:
 Influence of Mass Media:
 Peer Group Influence:
 Influence of Illicit Drugs:
 Irresponsible Parental Behaviour:

EFFECTS OF DEVIANT BEHAVIOUR

 It Leads to Societal Neglect:
 It Leads to Breach of Law:
 Individuals Becomes Negative Role Models:
 Hinder the Development of One’s Capabilities and Self Confidence:
 Hinder the Realization of Educational Goals:

MEASURES TO CONTROL DEVIANT BEHAVIOUR

 Provision of Guidance and Counselling:
 Efficient Law Enforcement Systems:
 Provision of Positive Role Models:
 Control of the Mass Media:
 Good Parental Care and Control:

-CHAPTER 9-
YAGA Series

THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND

ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES
The physical environment refers to the surrounding within which man, animal and plants live. They
includes rocks, soils, land, vegetation/forest, water bodies, animals, the atmosphere/air, sunshine,
rainfall, buildings, roads, machines, etc.

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 COMPONENTS OF THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
The physical environment consists of two main components. They are:
1. Natural Resources 2. Man-Made/Artificial Resources

NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural Resources refers to all the materials provided by nature which can be used in the production of
goods and services to satisfy human needs. Examples of natural resources include, mineral deposit (such
as gold, diamond, natural gas, and crude oil), water bodies (such as rivers, lakes, oceans and lagoons),
soil, vegetation (such as forest, trees and plants), rainfall, sunlight, air, etc.
Natural Resources are thus free gift of nature and they can grouped into three types. They are:

TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES

 RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES: These are natural resources that can be replaced or
regenerated after use. Examples include: Vegetation, Soil, Animals, etc.
 NON-RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES: These are natural resources that cannot be replaced
or regenerated after use. Examples includes: Mineral deposit such as gold, diamond, bauxite,
manganese, coal, natural gas, crude oil, etc.
 INEXHAUSTIBLE NATURAL RESOURCES: These are resources that can be used over and over
again without them getting depleted or finished. Examples include: Air, Sunlight, Ocean, etc.

MAN-MADE/ARTIFICIAL RESOURCES
Man-made/Artificial Resources refers to all materials made by man that are used in the production of
goods and services to satisfy human needs. They include dams, tools, equipment, machinery, money,
raw materials, etc.

HOW THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT CONTROLS MAN IN GHANA

HOW MAN IS BEING INFLUENCED BY THE ENVIRONMENT IN GHANA
In Ghana, the physical environment controls Ghanaians rather than Ghanaians controlling the physical
environment. This phenomenon is known as environmental determinism. Ghana has not been able to
tap their natural resources to the maximum for socio-economic development.
The following are some of the ways the physical environment determines the activities of man.
1. Ghanaians depend on rainfall for agriculture. This has limited agricultural activities to the rainy
season where there is abundant rainfall. This indicates that during the dry season, people are
unable to farm due to lack of rains.
2. Ghanaians depend solely on hydro-electric power for electricity. This has placed great pressure
on the Akosombo Dam. Ghanaians have not been able to tap solar energy to produce electricity
and supplement hydro-electric power produced form Akosombo Dam.
3. Rain water often floods towns and villages destroying properties, livestock and loss of lives.
Ghanaians have not been able to channel the periodic floods that hit most parts of the country
to irrigate the farm.

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 4. Ghanaians have not been able to utilize all agricultural lands to increase crop production.
Ghanaians have not been able to turn unfertile lands into fertile lands because of the failure to
apply both organic and inorganic fertilizers.

HOW MAN CAN ADAPT THE ENVIRONMENT TO HIS NEEDS

Man can overcome the various limitations of the environment and utilize the resources in the physical
environment through the following means.
1. Construction of Irrigation Projects: A major way by which Ghanaians can adapt the environment
to their needs is to construct irrigation projects. These irrigation schemes will supply water for
Ghanaian farmers throughout the year to cultivate their crops. This will prevent the situation
where farming activities is dictated by the inconsistence rainfall pattern, which restrict farmers
to cultivate crops only during rainy reasons.
2. Utilization of Solar Energy and Wind Mills: Ghanaians can also adapt the environment to their
needs by tapping sunshine for solar energy and also construct windmills to produce power for
domestic and industrial use. With the decreasing levels of water of the Akosombo Dam which
generate hydroelectric power, Ghanaians have to develop solar panels and windmills to
generate electricity as the alternate source of power.
3. Adopting Proper Farming Practices: Ghanaians may adapt the environment to their needs by
adopting farming practices that do not degrade the environment and is increase productivity.
Ghanaians should do away with farming practices such as slash burn and continuous cropping.
They should adopt such farming practices as agro-forestry and ecological farming that is
environmental friendly and increase productivity.
4. Utilization of Space: Ghanaians can also adapt the environment to their needs by utilizing space
efficiently. Ghanaians can prevent the excessive clearing of the forest and use of large land area
to put up structures such as buildings for offices, industrial and residential accommodation by
constructing tall buildings or skyscrapers. This ensures the efficient utilization of land and the
environment.
5. The use of Liquefied Petroleum Gas: Ghanaians may further adapt the environment to their
needs through the use of Liquefied Petroleum Gas. Ghanaians can prevent the cutting down of
trees for firewood/fuel-wood and charcoal by adopting the use of L.P.G in domestic and
industrial activities.

IMPORTANCE OF THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

The physical environment plays a major role in the survival of man as man derives a lot of benefits from
the environment. The importance of the physical environment to man are as follows:
1. Source of Constructional Material: Some aspects of the environment provide constructional
materials for the building of structures such as houses, roads, dams, bridges, etc. The aspects of
the environment that provide constructional materials include, mountains, rocks, soil, water and
forest.
2. Provide Employment: The physical environment provide employment in various ways, including
stone quarrying and mining from mountains and rocks, fishing from water bodies, farming and
lumbering form vegetation and forest, etc.
3. Provision of Food: Some aspect of the physical environment provide food for human beings and
animals. The vegetation provides food such as fruits, vegetables, cereals, tubers, etc. Wildlife
provides game or meat and water bodies also provide fish.

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 4. Source of Raw Materials: The physical environment provides raw materials that are turned into
finished goods by the various manufacturing industries.
5. Source of Water: Some aspects of the physical environment provide water for domestic and
industrial purposes. Rainfall and water bodies such as the sea, lakes, rivers, lagoons, etc. provide
water for human beings, animals and plants.
6. Source of Foreign Exchange: Some aspects of the physical environment have economic value.
These resources are exploited and exported to generate foreign exchange. They include
minerals, forest/vegetation, etc.
7. Source of Energy: Some aspects the physical environment energy. Water bodies are tapped to
generate hydroelectric power, sunshine is tapped to generate solar energy, coal and natural gas
are tapped to generate thermal energy and the wind is also tapped through the construction of
windmills to generate electricity.
8. Facilitate Transportation: Some aspects of the physical environment facilitate the movement of
people and goods from one place to another. Land facilitate the construction of transportation
routes such as roads, railway, airport and footpath. Water bodies such as the sea, rivers and
lakes facilitate the movement of people and goods usually over long distances using water
vessels such as ships or boats. The atmosphere facilitate air transport through the use of
aircrafts.
9. Tourist Attraction: Some aspects of the physical environment have unique features that attract
tourist. Mountains/Rocks, wildlife, forest/vegetation attracts tourists because of their beautiful
scenery, historic or cultural relevance or for academic reasons.
10. Provide Habitat for Plants and Animals: The physical environment provide habitat for plants
and animals. The forest/vegetation serves as a home for plants and animals, water bodies also
serves as a home for fishes and other aquatic animals such as frogs and crocodiles.
11. Source of Medicine. 13. Formation of Rain.

12. Source of Mineral Deposit. 14. Watershed/Sources of Rivers.

ECOLOGY
 Ecology: This refers to the study of the relationship between living things and their environment
that supports them. Ecology studies how living things such as human beings, animals and plants
impact or influence the environment and also how the environment impact or influence the
activities of man.
 Ecosystem: This refers to a community of living organisms and non-living organisms, and the
relationship that exist between them. The ecosystem is made up of two components. They are:
Aquatic and Biome Ecosystems.

COMPONENTS OF THE ECOSYSTEM

Aquatic Ecosystem: This refers to the community of living and non-living organisms in water bodies such
as the sea, lakes, rivers, swamps, etc.
Biome Ecosystem: This refers to the community of living and non-living organisms on land such as
forest, grassland, desert, etc.

ECOLOGICAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT THAT AFFECT LIVING ORGANISMS IN THEIR HABITANT

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A number of ecological factors affect living organisms in their habitat. These factors can be grouped into
physical and biological factors. The physical factors are called Abiotic and the biological factors are called
Biotic.
 Abiotic Factors: This refers to the non-living part of the habitat that impact and influence the
activities of living organisms. They include climate, nature of soil, rainfall, nature of terrain, etc.
 Biotic Factors: This refers to the living organisms in a habitat and how they impact and influence
the activities of other living organisms.

HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT UPSET THE ECOLOGICAL BALANCE (ENVIRONMENT)

The survival of the physical environment is under threat due to the activities of human beings (man) that
upset the ecological balance and leads to the deterioration in the state and quality of the environment.
The following are the various human activities that upset the ecological balance.
1. Deforestation: This refers to the indiscriminate cutting down of the vegetation including trees
and plants without replacing them. The clearing indiscriminate cutting of trees and plants for
timber, firewood, charcoal and construction upset the ecological balance leading to soil erosion
and it also affects rainfall pattern leading to drought.
2. Bush Burning: This refers to the indiscriminate setting of fire to the vegetation or forests of the
land, leading to its destruction. The vegetation cover that holds the soil together is destroyed
and thus, reduces the soil fertility and increase the rate of erosion.
3. Mining: This refers to the extraction or exploitation of mineral resources from the earth for
economic purposes. Mining activities destroys the trees, the soil and also pollutes water bodies.
This renders the soil unsuitable for agricultural activities and water bodies unsafe for human
consumption.
4. Over-Grazing: This refers to the excessive grazing of pasture or grass by livestock such as cattle
and sheep leading to the loss of vegetation cover that protects the soil from erosion during rainy
season.
5. Sand Winning: This refers to the removal of soil for constructional purposes. This leads the
destruction of the top soil which support the cultivation of crops and also leads to soil erosion as
the compact top soil is removed.
6. Use of Chemical Substances for Agriculture: This refers to the application of fertilizers and
pesticides for the cultivation of crops which has negative impact on the social. The use of DDT
and mercury for fishing also render water bodies unsafe for human consumption.

ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES IN GHANA

 Environmental Challenge: This refers to the conditions that hinders or threatens the use of the
environmental resources for human survival.
 Environmental Degradation: This refers to the gradual process by which the natural state and
quality of the environment deteriorates or get destroyed through the activities of man, animals
and natural means, and renders the environment inadequate and unsafe to support human
activities.
FORMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

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 1. Land Degradation 4. Noise Pollution
2. Water Pollution 5. Global Warming
3. Air Pollution 6. Ozone Layer Depletion

LAND DEGRADATION
This refers to the gradual process by which the natural state and quality of the land deteriorates or get
destroyed through the activities of man, animals and natural means, and renders the land inadequate
and unsafe to support living organisms.

CAUSES OF LAND DEGRADATION

1. Improper Disposal of Solid Waste: One of the major causes of land degradation is the improper
and indiscriminate disposal of solid waste. Business organizations and households degrade the
land through the dumping of solid waste such as plastics, cans, glasses and metallic objects onto
a dumping site.
2. Over-Grazing: This refers to the excessive grazing of pasture or grass by livestock such as cattle
and sheep leading to the loss of vegetation cover that protects the soil from erosion during rainy
season.
3. Mining Activities: This refers to the extraction or exploitation of mineral resources from the
earth for economic purposes. Mining activities destroys the trees and the top soil. This renders
the land unsuitable for agricultural activities.
4. Sand Winning: This refers to the removal of soil for constructional purposes. This leads the
destruction of the top soil which support the cultivation of crops and also leads to soil erosion as
the compact top soil is removed.
5. Deforestation: This refers to the indiscriminate cutting down of the vegetation including trees
and plants without replacing them. The clearing indiscriminate cutting of trees and plants for
timber, firewood, charcoal and construction upset the ecological balance leading to soil erosion
and it also affects rainfall pattern leading to drought.
6. Excessive Application of Chemicals for Agriculture: This refers to the application of fertilizers
and pesticides for the cultivation of crops which has negative impact on the social. The use of
DDT and mercury for fishing also render water bodies unsafe for human consumption.
7. Bush Burning: This refers to the indiscriminate setting of fire to the vegetation or forests of the
land, leading to its destruction. The vegetation cover that holds the soil together is destroyed
and thus, reduces the soil fertility and increase the rate of erosion.
8. Continuous Cropping: Another cause of land degradation is continuous cropping, which is the
continuous use of land for the cultivation of crops. The land loses its biological potential if it is
over cultivated. The reason being that, every cultivation will remove some amounts of nutrients
from the soil.
9. Earth Quakes: This is a natural means by which the land is degraded. Earth quakes causes
vibrations in the earth crust that result in the destruct of land, as the land may be fractured and
flooding may occur washing away the top soil.
10. Flooding: This refers to the overflow of water in areas that are not normally submerged, is when
water with a definite channel breaks it banks and covers land that is usually dry. They results in
massive landslide and the washing away of the top soil.
11. Drought: This is the long period of dry weather due to lack or inadequate rainfall. Drought can
cause bush fires and lack of rain water leading to desertification.

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 12. Extreme Temperature: Extreme temperatures evaporates water in the soil and may set ablaze
dry leaves causing bush fires.

EFFECTS OF LAND DEGRADATION

1. Destruction of the Vegetation: Land degradation resulting from mining activities, sand wining,
bush burning and others, destroy the land. These activities deprive the land of its vegetation,
making it bare and exposed to harsh climatic conditions.
2. Soil Erosion: As the land is deprived of its vegetative cover through activities such as bush
burning, sand wining and mining activities, it becomes prone to soil erosion. The excessive
rainfall or wind may wash or blow away the top soil, which contains most nutrients and the
process renders the land or soil unproductive.
3. Loss of Soil Fertility: Another major effect of land degradation is the loss of soil fertility. This
results from erosion in which the top soil which contains most of the nutrients is washed away
and practices such as excessive application of agro-chemicals and continuous cultivation of the
land.
4. Decrease Crop Production: Another effects of land degradation is decrease in crop yield. As the
land or soil losses it fertility they become unfit to support the cultivation of crops, hence the
production of agricultural output will be reduced causing food shortages or scarcity.
5. Desertification: This is the degradation of land causing desert or dry conditions in regions as
result of natural climatic conditions as well as human activities. When there is long periods of
drought they can cause desertification. Overgrazing also destroys the vegetation rendering the
land bear and prone erosion leading to desertification. Bush burning which is the uncontrolled
setting of fire on lands also cause desertification. Desertification affects soil fertility, nutrients in
the soil can be removed easily through erosion. They also leads to lack of vegetative cover, thus
the dry conditions in this areas do not support vegetative growth.
6. Extinction of Animals Species: The removal of the vegetation on the land resulting from
activities such as bush burning, sand wining, deforestation and mining leads to the loss of lives
of wild animals such as lions, tigers, antelopes, chimpanzees, leopards, etc.

WATER POLLUTION
This refers to the gradual process by which the natural state and quality of water bodies deteriorates or
get contaminated through the activities of man, animals and natural means, and renders these water
bodies inadequate and unsafe to support living organisms.
CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION
1. Improper Disposal of Liquid and Solid Waste: One of the major causes of water pollution is the
improper disposal of solid and liquid waste. The dumping of solid wastes such as plastics, wood,
glasses, etc. from households and industries pollutes water bodies. Also the discharge of liquid
waste such as chemicals, human excreta, etc. from households and industries also pollutes
water bodies.
2. Excessive Application of Agro-Chemicals: The excessive application of agro-chemicals is also a
major cause of water pollution. When agro-chemicals such as pesticides, insecticides and
weedicides are excessively applied by farmers and when rainwater washes these chemicals from

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 the farm into water bodies, it pollutes the water rendering the water body unsafe for living
organisms.
3. Oil Spillage: Water pollution can also be caused by oil spillage. The source of these oil spills are
faulty oil tankers, outboard motors, ships and off-shore wells. Drivers who wash their vehicles
near water bodies release dirty oil into them.
4. Bad Fishing Methods: The practice of bad fishing methods such as the use of chemicals and
dynamite pollutes water bodies. These chemicals such as DDT contaminate water bodies
rendering them unsafe for living organisms.
5. Mining Activities: The discharge of chemical waste such as mercury into water bodies and the
practice of dredging and panning method of mining pollutes water bodies. Dredging and
panning method of mining involves the extraction of minerals from the bed of water bodies.

EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION

1. Contamination and Destruction of Water Bodies: The discharge of harmful substances into
water bodies contaminates the water rendering it unsafe for human consumption. The water
bodies may become choked and infested with insects making it unfit for human use.
2. Destruction of Aquatic Life: Water pollution may also lead to the destruction of aquatic
organisms such as fish, crabs, lobsters, etc. Contamination resulting from the use of chemicals
and dynamite for fishing and oil spillage may kill these water organisms.
3. Scarcity of Water: Water pollution may lead to scarcity of water. The improper disposal of solid
and liquid waste or the use of chemicals in fishing contaminate water bodies to such an extent
that the water fro, these sources becomes unfit or unsafe for domestic and industrial purposes.
4. Health Hazards: Contaminated water exposes people to a lot of health hazards as it leads to the
outbreak of diseases such as cholera, guinea worm, typhoid fever, hepatitis and other
waterborne diseases.
5. Flooding: The improper disposal of solid waste in water bodies choke the flow of the water. As a
result, water breaks in banks and flood surrounding areas.

AIR POLLUTION
This refers to the gradual process by which the natural state and quality of the atmosphere or air
deteriorates or get contaminated through the activities of man, animals and natural means, and renders
the atmospheric air inadequate and unsafe to support living organisms.

CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION

1. Emission of Smokes from Automobiles: A major cause of atmospheric pollution is the release of
fumes or smokes from automobiles such as vehicles and motor bicycles. The smoke or fumes
from these automobiles contain gases such a carbon dioxide and monoxide and hydrocarbons
that affect the natural state and quality of the environment.
2. Emission of Smokes and Gases form Industries: The emission of smoke and gases from
industries also contribute to air pollution. Heavy industries such as Aluminum smelters, mining
firms and oil refineries produce gases such as sulpur dioxide and fluorides.
3. Bush Burning: Bush fires resulting from the slash and burn method of farming, hunting, palm-
wine tapping, cooking on the farm and natural causes, lead to air pollution. The smoke released
from these bush fires contain toxic substances, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.

74
 4. Destruction of Vegetation: The destruction of vegetation through the clearing of the forest for
agricultural activities, mining, lumbering and settlement leads to air pollution. These activities
deprive the environment of trees, whose leaves absorbs carbon dioxide emitted into the
atmosphere and give out oxygen required by living organisms for respiration. The clearing of the
forest therefore makes the atmosphere impure.
5. Dust from Construction Site: The release of dust into the atmosphere at construction site and
industries pollutes the air. Dust released into the atmosphere hinders visibility and leads to
difficulty in breathing.
6. Emission of Chlorofluorocarbons from Cooling Appliances: The emission of chlorofluorocarbons
from cooling appliance such as fridges and air-conditions leads to air pollution. These
chlorofluorocarbons affects the ozone layer leading to breaching of ultra-violet rays to the earth
surface posing health hazards.

EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

1. Health Hazards: Polluted air exposes people to a lot of health hazards. The release of harmful
substances into the atmosphere leads to respiratory diseases such as asthma, lung cancer, skin
cancer, eye problems, etc.
2. Acid Rain: Air pollution leads to acids rains which affect agricultural activities. The release of
gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide combine
with water vapour leading the formation of acid rain, which falls onto the soil and makes the soil
more acidic. The increased acidity of the soil will lead to low agricultural production.
3. Global Warming: These is the condition in which the average temperature of the earth rises
beyond normal temperature of 150 C . It results from the situation where carbon dioxide
prevents the heat of the sun from going back into pace and this increase the temperature of the
earth.
4. Depletion of the Ozone Layer: Air pollution can also lead to the depletion of the ozone layer, a
concentration of oxygen molecules which protects the earth from the sun’s ultra-violet rays.
Gases such as Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) emitted into the atmosphere from cooling appliances
react with the oxygen molecules and puncture holes in the ozone layer.
5. Poor Visibility: The smoke and dust released from human activities such as bush burning,
industrial activities and dust from construction sites result in poor visibility which may lead to
road or industrial accidents.

NOISE POLLUTION
Noise pollution refers to excessive amount of sound which is unpleasant to an individual. Noise pollution
is also known as environmental noise.
CAUSES OF NOISE POLLUTION
1. Industrialization: Most industries use big machines which are capable of producing large
amount of noise. They also use various equipment such as generator, compressors, etc. that also
produces noise. Such noise distract people’s attention and concentration and thus becomes
irritating.
2. Social Events: Another source of noise pollution is loud sound from social events. Loud music
and speech from social events such as parties, marriage ceremonies, funeral ceremonies,
festivals, rallies, etc. distract people’s attention and concentration and thus becomes irritating.

75
 3. Transportation: Large number of vehicles on roads, aeroplanes flying over houses and moving
trains produce heavy noise which distract people’s attention and concentration and thus
becomes irritating.
4. Construction Activities: Construction site including sites for building houses, bridges, dams and
construction of roads produces heavy noise which distract people’s attention and concentration
and thus becomes irritating.

EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION

1. Hearing Problems: Any unwanted sound that the ears have not been built to filter can cause
damage to the ears. Constant exposure to loud sounds can result in damage to the ear drums
and loss of hearing.
2. Sleeping Disorders: Unwanted and loud sounds can hamper sleeping pattern and may lead to
irritation and uncomfortable situations. Without a good night sleep, it may lead to problems
such as fatigue and low work rate. It can also cause severe headache and disturb emotional
balance.
3. Communication Problems: Loud sound may hinder communication as it becomes difficult for
people to hear each other due to the loudness of the sound.
4. Effect on Wildlife: Animals have better sense of hearing and most animal’s survival depend on
their hearing senses. Loud sounds confuse animals and thus make them aggressive and even
drive them away from such areas.

GLOBAL WARMING
Global warming is the condition in which the average temperature of the surface of the earth rises up
beyond the normal temperature of150 C . Global warming is also referred to as Green House Effect.

CAUSES OF GLOBAL WARMING

1. Emission of Smoke from Automobiles: A major cause of global warming is the release of fumes
or smokes from automobiles such as vehicles and motor bicycles. The smoke or fumes contain
heat trapping gases such a carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and methane, which trap the heat
of the sun that hits the earth and is to be radiated back into space.
2. Emission of Smoke from Industries: The emission of smoke and gases from industries also
contribute to global warming. Heavy industries such as Aluminum smelters, mining firms and oil
refineries produce gases such as sulpur dioxide and fluorides which trap the heat of the sun that
hits the earth and is to be radiated back into space.
3. Bush Burning: Bush fires resulting from the slash and burn method of farming, hunting, palm-
wine tapping, cooking on the farm and natural causes, lead to global warming. The smoke
released from these bush fires contain toxic substances, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide
which trap the heat of the sun that hits the earth and is to be radiated back into space.

EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING

1. Health Hazards: Global warming leads to many diseases due to the exposure of high
temperature. There is incidence of diseases such as cerebro-spinal meningitis (CSM), because it
causal agent thrives best in areas that have high temperatures.

76
 2. Climatic Change: Global warming leads to the alterations in the natural patterns of rainfall. This
causes the climate of the earth to be warmer leading to increased evapo-transpiration and thus
affects rainfall distribution.
3. Low Agricultural Production: High temperatures resulting from global warming lead to the
reduction of atmospheric humidity and the moisture in the soil. The result is that crops do not
grow well under such conditions and this negatively affects agricultural production.
4. Incidence of Bush Fires: High temperatures resulting from global warming lead to drying of
vegetation and the dried vegetation can be set ablaze through the excessive heat. These leads to
the destruction of the vegetation and the loss of wildlife animals.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

The ozone layer is the protective shield found in the stratosphere and made up of oxygen molecules
which prevents the sun’s ultra violet rays from reaching the earth surface.
Ozone layer depletion refers to the gradual process where the state and quality of the ozone layer
deteriorate due to the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) into the atmosphere.

CAUSES OF OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

 Release of Chlorofluorocarbons from Cooling Appliances: The major cause of the depletion of
the ozone layer is the release of a gas called chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), which is used in the
production refrigerators and other cooling appliance into the atmosphere. The
chlorofluorocarbons reacts with the oxygen molecules and punctures holes into the ozone layer,
thereby causing damage to the ozone layer. The damaged layer therefore, allows the sun’s ultra-
violet rays to pass through the holes and fall directly on the earth surface.

EFFECTS OF OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

1. Health Hazards: The depletion of the ozone layer cause health problems such as skin cancer and
eye problems due to the exposure to ultra-violet rays.
2. Climatic Changes: The depletion of the ozone layer can also lead to changes in the climatic
conditions. The sun’s ultra-violet rays can result to high temperatures causing the melting of ice
and cause flooding. It also cause dry conditions and affects the pattern of rainfall.
3. Reduction in Crop Yield: The ultra-violet rays of the sun that fall directly on the surface of the
earth heats the land and deprives it of some nutrients. This results in low crop yield, thus
affecting agricultural production.
4. Global Warming: As the damaged ozone layer allows the sun’s ultra-violet ray to fall directly on
the earth’ surface, the average temperature of the earth rises above the normal temperature of
0
15 C .

MEASURES TO CONTROL ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

1. Public Education:
2. Proper Disposal of Liquid and Solid Waste:
3. Proper Application of Chemicals or Fertilizers for Agriculture:
4. Regulating Mining Activities:
5. Afforestation:
6. Proper Planning of Towns and Cities:

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 7. Effective Sanitation System:
8. Adopting Appropriate Farming Methods:
9. Banning the use of Old Vehicles that produces a lot of Fumes:
10. Encouraging the use of Liquefied Petroleum Gas:

ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION
Environmental conservation refers to the process of protecting and preserving the state, quality and
quantity of the natural environmental resources to provide sustainable benefits to the present
generation as well as maintain their useful potential for the future generation.

MEASURES TO PROTECT OR CONSERVE THE ENVIRONMENT

1. Public Education: To protect and conserve the environment, there is the need for public
education. The general public including institutions and organizations should be made aware of
the harmful effects of their activities on the environment. This public education can be done
through the mass media, schools, religious organizations, public lectures and rallies.
2. Afforestation: To protect and conserve the environment, there should be intensive afforestation
programmes by the government and other organizations to plant trees to compensate for the
vast number of trees that has been cleared. The government should also provide the Forestry
Department with the needed resources to ensure the protection of the quality and state of the
forest.
3. Creation of Forest Reserves: To protect and conserve the environment, the government must
create more forest reserves that will render the reserved zone of forest restricted and
protected. The creation of these reserves will prevent people from clearing the forest for
agriculture, settlement, lumbering and mining. These forest reserves also protects the wildlife
living the forest.
4. Establishment of Environmental Protection Agencies: To protect and conserve the
environment, the government must establish organization or institutions that will ensure the
protection and conservation of the environment. The government of Ghana has however
established the Environmental Protection Agency which is mandated to ensure the protection of
the environment and implement government policies on the environment. This agency, thus
protects and conserves the environment.
5. Enforcement of Laws: To protect and conserve the environment, the government and other
state institutions should strictly enforce the laws that have been established to protect and
conserve the environment. Stiffer punishment should be meted out to individuals who flout
environmental laws to prevent the repetition of such actions and serve as a deterrent to others.
6. Promoting the use of Liquefied Petroleum Gas: To protect and conserve the environment, the
use of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) must be encouraged. This will reduce the clearing of tress
for fuel-wood and charcoal as it leads to the destruction of the forest.

YAGA Series

78
 SECTION TWO

GOVERNANCE, POLITICS AND

STABILITY
Topic
Page

1. National Independence and Self Reliance 79 - 83

2. Peace Building and Conflict Resolution 84 -

86

3. Rights and Responsibilities 87 -

92

4. Leadership and Followership 93 -

98

5. Our Constitution, Democracy and Nation Building

99 - 107

6. Ghana and The International Community 108 -

113

-CHAPTER 10-
YAGA Series

79
 NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE AND SELF-
RELIANCE
 Political Independence: This refers to a situation where a country gains self-rule from a colonial
master, thereby, entitling the country to govern itself. Example is when, Ghana gained
independence from the British in 1957.
 Self-Reliance: This refers to the ability of a country to depend mainly on her own resources for
survival. A country that is self-reliant is capable of producing most of her needs and also, that
country is not being controlled by any external forces.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRULY INDEPENDENCE COUNTRY

1. Ability to Control Economic Affairs: A country that is truly independence must be able to
control all her economic affairs. The economic activities or factors of production must be owned
by the citizens of the country.
2. The Right to Choose a Political System: A country that is truly independence has the right to
choose a political system that suit her social and economic setting. The political system can be
either the parliamentary system of the cabinet system of government. The citizens also have the
right to choose their political leaders.
3. Ability to Manage Her Security Matters: A country that is truly independence must be able to
provide the citizens of the country with security ensuring peace and harmonious living in the
country. The various security agencies must defend the country against any form of internal and
external aggression. The police ensures internal peace and the military defend the country
against external aggressors.
4. Enjoyment of Good Quality Life by Citizens: A truly independence country must ensure that her
citizens enjoy good quality life. The government of the country must provide the people with
adequate infrastructure and social amenities such as roads, schools, electricity, portable
drinking water, etc. The government must also provide the people with employment
opportunities.
5. Enactment and Implementation of Laws: A truly independence country has a strong law making
body called the legislature that pass laws, and such laws are effectively implemented by the
executive. These laws are to regulate the behavior of citizens and non-citizens in the country,
and help to promote peace in the country.

REASONS WHY GHANAIANS MISCONSTRUED THE IMPLICATIONS OF

INDEPENDENCE
The leaders and people wanted independence from their colonial masters but failed to appreciate and
understand the challengers involved in building a new nation after independence.
1. Laissez-Fair Attitude to Work: The independence of Ghana created laissez fair attitude towards
in the people. After independence, rules and regulations were relaxed. Workers developed

80
 negative attitude to work such as lateness, loitering, absenteeism, etc. This negatively affected
productivity, resulting to slow growth of the economy.
2. Leaders were Power Conscious: The leaders were power conscious and their main focus was to
hook on to power. This power consciousness made the leader independence challengers and
implications elude them. All the leaders were concern about was how to stay in power and
neglected the things that will improve the living conditions of the people.
3. Time to Amass Wealth: Most of the leaders, who struggled before the country attained
independence, thought that it was time for them to enjoy the state wealth. They therefore
amassed the country’s wealth, by stealing state money and refusing to honour their tax
obligations. Some state institutions were over-staffed with political affiliate.
4. Seeing Independence as an End in Itself: Ghanaian leaders and the people thought
independence was an end in itself and that it was connected with automatic affluence, progress
or development. They failed to realize that, there would be various challengers after
independence and nation building required hard work and commitment.

MISTAKES THAT GHANAIANS MADE AFTER INDEPENDENCE

1. Education Continued to be Knowledge Based: One of the major mistakes that Ghanaians have
made after independence, is that education continued to be knowledge based rather than skill-
oriented. The education system that the British introduced in Ghana laid emphasis on academic
knowledge to the neglect of technical and vocational training. This has resulted to high rate of
unemployment in the country as the knowledge based education system train people for
inadequate white-collar jobs.
2. Over Dependence on Primary Production: Ghana after independence have depended heavily on
primary production for socio-economic development. Ghana depend on the exportation of
primary products such as gold, cocoa and timber in their raw state to foreign countries. These
exported primary product have low market price since their prices are determined by these
foreign countries. Ghana on the other hand, pays more for manufactured goods that she
imports from these foreign countries. This result in the balance of payment deficits, which
retarding the development of the country.
3. Over Dependence on Foreign Capital and Investment: Ghana after independence have
depended heavily on foreign capital and investment for socio-economic development. Most of
the major projects implemented in the country including, roads, schools, hospitals, bridges, etc.
are financed or assisted by foreign capital and investment such as grants and aid. Most
industries in Ghana are also owned by foreign investors.
4. Inordinate Taste for Foreign Goods and Services: Ghanaians after independence have
developed an unnecessary taste for foreign goods and services at the expense of locally
produced goods and services. This notion or idea of inferiority of local products and superiority
of foreign goods was indoctrinated in the Ghanaian by the colonial masters. The desire for
foreign goods and services has serious implications on the economy, since local industries will
be kicked out of business.
5. Pursuance of Unpopular Policies: The various governments, after independence, have pursued
policies that have not been in the interest of Ghanaians. One of these policies, is the trade
liberalization policy, which allows foreign countries to dump their goods on the Ghanaian
markets. As the prices of these goods are cheaper than the locally produced ones, Ghanaians

81
 also with the taste for foreign goods will patronize the foreign commodities at the expense of
the local products. Such policies resulted to the collapse of many local industries.
6. Appointment on the Basis of Political Affiliation: After independence, the various governments
of the country have appointed people to fill public offices on the basis of political and ethnic
affiliations. Political appointments was not based on merits and qualifications, and this resulted
in inefficiency and poor administration of the country.

HOW GHANAIANS CAN OVERCOME THE CHALLENGES OF POLITICAL

INDEPENDENCE
1. Development of Human Resources: Ghana can meet the challengers of her independence by
developing her human resources. The human resources of Ghana can be developed through
education and training, retraining and in-service training. Education and training helps the
individual acquire skills and knowledge needed in the work field, in-service training in the form
of workshops and seminars will enable workers learn and adopt new or modern methods and
technics. This helps to improve the living standard of the individual and also help promote socio-
economic development of the country.
2. Development of Natural Resources: The development of natural resources can also help a
country meet the challenges of her independence. The efficient exploitation and utilization of
Ghana’s resources will help her improve the socio-economic conditions of the people and the
country as a whole.
3. Development of Positive Attitude to Work: For Ghana to overcome the challenges of political
independence, the leaders and citizens must do away with negative attitudes to work and adopt
positive attitudes such as good planning, dedication, hard work, commitment, etc. These
positives attitudes will help sustain businesses and the economy.
4. Improving Education and Training: The challenges of political independence can be dealt with if
Ghana improves her education and training of citizens. The educational system introduced by
the British in Ghana was knowledge based and trained people for white-collar jobs. These has
resulted to increased unemployment rate in the country. There is therefore, the need for the
government of Ghana to adopt a new educational system that will place more emphasis on
technical and vocational training to help equip the people with skills for jobs.
5. Possession of the Will-Power: To meet the challenges of political independence in Ghana, the
citizens of the country should have the will-power to struggle and achieve the best for
themselves and the country.
6. Development of Good International Relations: Ghana can meet the challenges of her political
independence by developing good international relations. Ghana must be at peace and make
friends with all countries in the world. The government of Ghana should pursue effective foreign
policy that will focus on economic diplomacy and attraction of foreign investment. This will
assist the country to provide more basic amenities for the people in order to improve the quality
of life of the people.

82
 WHY GHANA FINDS IT DIFFICULT TO BECOME SELF-RELIANT
1. The Inordinate Taste for Foreign Goods and Services: Ghana finds it difficult to become self-
reliant because, Ghanaians have developed an inordinate taste for foreign goods and services.
Ghanaians have developed a mentality that, foreign goods and services are better than ones
produced locally and they therefore patronize foreign goods and services at the expense of
locally produced goods and services. This affects the local entrepreneur causing businesses to
collapse and result to dumping of foreign goods and services in the markets and the control of
the economy by foreigners.
2. Lack of Skilled Personnel: Another major reason why Ghana has not been able to become self-
reliant is that, she lacks the skilled human resource in the form of scientist, researchers,
engineers, geologist and technicians, who will efficiently exploit and utilize the natural resources
for the socio-economic development of the country. This is due to the nature of the educational
system that place more emphasis on academic knowledge to the neglect of technical and
vocational training. With this lack of skilled personnel, the country is left with no option than to
employ foreign expert with the requisite skills to exploit our natural resources.
3. Lack of Capital: Ghana has not been able to become self-reliant because of the incapability to
formulate or generate capital for development. The country lack capital resources such as fund
and machines that will enable the people to efficiently exploit the natural resources to improve
the socio-economic conditions of her citizens. This has compelled the country to rely heavily on
foreign countries and organizations for funds and machinery to exploit the resources in order to
better the lives of her citizens.
4. Low Level of Technology: Ghana has not been able to become self-reliant because of low level
of technology resulting to low productivity levels. The various sectors of the economy apply sub-
standard or low technology in the production processes, for instance, the agriculture sector still
apply outmoded methods and practices that result to low productivity in the agricultural sector.
This has compelled the government to import certain products such as food items to
supplement what is produced locally.
5. The Unjust World Economic Order: Ghana has again not been able to become self-reliant
because of the unjust world economic order that has made developing countries including
Ghana to depend much on primary production, while advanced countries continue to produce
manufactured goods. The prices of the primary goods are determined by these advanced
countries, resulting to lower prices of primary products and higher prices for manufactured or
finished goods. The result has been balance of payment deficits and the country will always have
to rely on foreign assistance to clear these deficits.
6. Inadequate Industries: Ghana has not been able to become self-reliant because, she does not
have enough manufacturing industries, which will process her primary products of gold, timber
and cocoa into finished goods to attract higher prices on the world market. This has compelled
the country to import manufactured or finished goods services.

MEASURES THAT CAN HELP GHANA TO BECOME SELF-RELIANT

1. Change in Mentality: Ghana can become self-reliant, if Ghanaians change the mentality that
makes them prefer foreign goods and services to the locally produced goods and services. They
should be encouraged to patronized made in Ghana goods, so that, local entrepreneur and
businesses can generate adequate revenue to expand operations and increase productivity.

83
2. Re-orientation of the Educational System: Ghana can become self-reliant, if the country’s
education system is given a new orientation, so that the school curriculum is based on technical
and vocational training rather than academic knowledge. The government should establish
more vocational and technical institutions to equip individuals with skills that will enable them
effectively exploit and utilize the country’s resources for socio-economic development of the
country.
3. Adoption of Modern Technology: Ghana can become self-reliant, when the country adopt
modern technology. Modern technologies such as mechanized farming, irrigation schemes and
equipment such as combined harvesters, planters, ploughs, etc. will increase agricultural
production such as raw materials and food crops. The industrial and service sectors should also
adopt modern technologies to improve efficiency and productivity.
4. Industrialization: Ghana can become self-reliant, if the country shift form the dependence on
primary production to the establishment of more manufacturing industries. These
manufacturing industries will attract higher prices on the world market and will improve the
country’s balance of payment deficit as more foreign exchange will be earned.
5. Capital Formation: Ghana can become self-reliant, if the country is able to generate adequate
capital, by adopting policies that will enable her generate adequate capital for development.
These can be achieved by efficient taxation mechanisms and the prosecution of tax offenders.
State institutions must also adopt positive work attitudes and modern technologies to increase
efficiency and productivity.

84
-CHAPTER 11-
YAGA Series

PEACE BUILDING AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION

 Conflict: Conflict refers to disagreement or misunderstanding between two or more parties,
when their interest is perceived to be under threat.
 Conflict resolution: Conflict resolution refers to the measures put in place to resolve or settle
conflict amicably between two or more parties.
 Peace building: Peace building refers to the conscious effort made to create an atmosphere of
harmonious living in a society.

CAUSE OF CONFLICTS
Conflicts may arise when interest or concerns come under threat leading to misunderstandings and
disagreement between individuals, groups, regions and nations. Some of the factors that can result to
conflicts are as follows:
 Greed: There will be conflicts, if certain individuals decide to have more of everything in the
society than they need. Such people do not think of the interest of others and their behaviours
exhibit selfishness. Such attitude may degenerate into conflicts.
 Power Struggle: The power struggle between individual, ethnic groups and nations results to
conflict. Individuals, ethnic groups and nations who are more powerful may impose their
dominance on less powerful entities. This can lead to conflicts when the less powerful entity try
to retaliate or defend his/her integrity.
 Discrimination: The unfair treatment meted out to an individual or group may result to conflict.
The unequal distribution of resources among individuals and groups may create discontent and
tension among such people leading to conflict.
 Injustice: When an individual or a group is denied what is due them and their rights not
protected, it may result to conflicts. There are instances when people are treated unfairly, and
in their attempt to seek justice they may react in ways that may result into conflict.
 Land Dispute: When individuals, families, ethnic groups and countries disagree over the
possession of land it may lead to conflict. These disagreements and misunderstandings over
land dispute can degenerates into serious conflicts.

EFFECTS OF CONFLICTS
When conflict arise they must be resolved amicably. But when conflicts are unable to be settled or
resolved amicably, they can degenerate into fighting or wars. This fighting or wars results to serious
effects or problems. The problems or effects are discussed below:
1. Loose of Life and Destruction of Property: When conflict is not managed amicably and they
degenerate into fighting or wars, people lose their lives and properties are destroyed. Conflict
that lead to the 1st and 2nd world wars claimed millions of lives and properties unquantified were
destroyed. During wars there is indiscriminate killing and mass murdering, and also no regard
for the human rights.

85
 2. Displacement of People: When conflict is not managed amicably and they degenerate into
fighting or wars, it results to displacement of people. Conflicts degenerating into wars may
compel people to flee their war torn countries or towns to areas where they is peace and
political stability to seek refuge.
3. Poverty and Famine: When conflict is not managed amicably and they degenerate into fighting
or wars, it results to poverty and famine. The destruction of property in the form of farms and
business centers leads to poverty. These leads to shortage of food and water resulting to
famine.
4. Outbreak of Diseases: When conflict is not managed amicably and they degenerate into fighting
or wars, it results to outbreak of diseases. Conflicts degenerating into wars leave in their trail
dead bodies, famine and environmental pollution. People especially, women and children
become exposed to various disease, notably, cholera. And the children also suffer from
malnutrition.
5. Halt to Economic Development: When conflict is not managed amicably and they degenerate
into fighting or wars, it results to the halt to socio-economic development. Conflicting
degenerating into wars may retard the development of the country, because development
projects will be suspended and people will be unable to go about their economic activity or
businesses. State resources are also channeled to the acquisition weapons to depend the
country instead of channeling the resources for socio-economic development.
6. Brain Drain/Loss of Man Power: When conflict is not managed amicably and they degenerate
into fighting or wars, it results to brain drain or loss of man power. People who are skilled may
flee the war-torn country to country where there is peace and stability, to engage their services
there.
7. Diversion of Resources: When conflict is not managed amicably and they degenerate into
fighting or wars, it results to diversion of resources. The break-out of war compels governments
of countries to divert funds meant for productive investment in the agriculture and industrial
sector to deal with the conflict.
8. Hatred: When conflict is not managed amicably and they degenerate into fighting or wars, it
results to hatred. Because conflict breeds hatred among factions who are in dispute and feel
that the damage inflicted can be reconciled.

HOW TO ACHIEVE PEACE BUILDING/CONDITIONS FOR PEACE BUILDING

Some requirement ought to be achieved to ensure peace and harmonious co-existence in a community.
The requirement are discussed below:
1. Tolerance: Peace can be attained through tolerance. There will be peace if individuals accept the
beliefs, views, and way of life of other people without criticizing them, even if they disagree with
them. Tolerance is thus, a major requirement that can bring peace and calmness in the
community.
2. Efficient Law Enforcement System: Peace building can be achieved through efficient law
enforcement system. The various security agencies such as police, should be given the necessary
logistics such as patrol vans, communication gadgets and arms, to enable them maintain law
and order effectively to promote peace in the society

86
 3. Justice and Fairness: There should not be any form of discrimination in the distribution of
resources or wealth among individuals or groups. The equitable distribution of resources among
individuals or groups will promote peaceful co-existence in the society.
4. Good Governance: Good governance is one of the major requirement necessary for peace
building. The executive arm of government should not use arbitrary action to cripple or trample
on the fundamental human rights of the people.
5. Avoidance of Ethnocentrism: The display of ethnic superiority in the country by individuals or
groups should be discouraged. To promote peace and harmony in the country, all the various
ethnic groups should see themselves as equals with a common national identity.

THE PROCESS OF PEACE BUILDING (CONFLICT RESOLUTION)

When conflict is not managed or resolved amicably, they may degenerate into wars or fighting. The
following are the processes or the measures involved in building peace or resolving conflict in country
trapped in conflict.
1. Negotiation: This involves dialogue between the disputed factions or groups aimed at ending
the conflict. In negotiation, the group discuss issues and agree on a strategy to restore peace.
2. Mediation: Mediation involves the appointment of prominent personalities, to talk to disputed
factions involved in conflicts in an attempt to help them reach a peaceful agreement or
settlement.
3. Right Conduct: The disputed factions are advised to exhibit right conduct, which involves the
avoidance of abusive or offensive remarks and other attitude towards the other faction. They
should be civil and courteous in their utterances and activities in order not to offend the other
party.
4. Justice and Fairness: In the process of peace building, the leaders or personalities helping to
resolve the dispute must be fair and just, to all the factions. Thus, favouritism and discrimination
must be avoided.
5. Respect for Human Rights: In the process of peace building, the disputed parties must respect
and recognize the right of each other without discrimination in order to avoid unnecessary
tension in the society.
6. Compromise: This helps the disputed parties to find some mutually accepted solution which
satisfy both parties. In this case the, the disputed parties must give up their entrenched
positions to ensure that there is peace and harmony in the society.

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-CHAPTER 12-
YAGA Series

RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

 Rights: This refers to privileges conferred by law and nature on an individual for being a member
of a community or an organization. They are the conditions whose enjoyment are necessary for
the full development of the human personality and dignity.

TYPES OF RIGHTS
1. Fundamental Human Rights or Natural Rights 4. Social Rights
2. Political Rights 5. Economic Rights
3. Legal Rights 6. Civic Rights

FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN RIGHTS OR NATURAL RIGHTS

Fundamental human rights also known as natural right refers to the inalienable rights than an individual
cannot be deprived of without any justification. They enable the individual to enjoy better conditions of
life. They include:
1. The Right to Life: This is the most fundamental rights which states that no one has the right to
take the life of another person.
2. The Right to Personal Liberty: This rights states that the individual is not to be subjected to
arrest or imprisonment without any justification.
3. The Right to Human Dignity: This provides that every individual has the right to be respected
and that no one should bring his/her reputation into disrepute.
4. The Right to Privacy: The right to privacy states that no one should interfere in the private
affairs of another person
5. The Right to Own Property: The right to own property gives individuals the right to acquire
property and that no one should prevent the legal acquisition of property or seize the property
of another individual.
6. Freedom of Movement: Freedom of movement states that every individual has the right to
move freely to any part of the country and that no one should restrict him/her.
7. Freedom of Speech and Expression: Freedom of speech and expression states that every
individual has the right to say or publish whatever he/she wants, if what he/she says or
publishes is true and lawful.
8. Freedom of Assembly and Association: Freedom of assembly and association states that every
individual has the right to join any association of his/her choice and attend any legal public
gathering.

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 9. Freedom of Thought, Conscience and Religion/Worship: This is the right of the individual to
think the way he/she wants and profess any religion of his/her choice.

POLITICAL RIGHTS
Political rights are the rights that enable the individual to take part in political activities of the country.
That is to participate in the political decision making in the country. They include:
1. The Right to Vote and be voted for: This right states that every individual has the right to vote
in elections to elect their representatives. The individual can also stand for elections to be voted
for to hold any political office of their choice.
2. The Freedom to Form or Join any Political Association: This right states that every individual
has the right to form a political party or join a political party of his/her choice.
3. Right to Constructively Criticize the Government: This right states that every individual has the
right to criticize the government, but however, his/her criticism must be constructive.
4. Right to Periodic Elections: This right states that there should be periodic elections for
individuals to renew their mandate for or reject a government.

LEGAL RIGHTS
Legal rights are rights established and defined by law, which enable individuals to seek protection from
the law court when their rights are infringed upon. They include:
1. The Right to Fair Hearing by the Court: The right to fair hearing by the court states that
individuals suspected of breaching the law should be given a fair trial.
2. The Right to Sue and to be Sued: The right to sue states that that individuals whose rights have
been infringed upon have the right to sue, thus take the person to court. Same way, the
individual can also be sued for infringing on another person’s right.
3. The Right to Free Choice of Counsel: Individuals who have cases in the court of law have the
right to choose any layer of their choice to defend them.
4. The Right to Legal Aid: Individuals who have cases pending in the court and cannot afford the
services of a lawyer, can apply to the legal aid board for assistance.

SOCIAL RIGHTS
Social right are the rights that enable individuals to enjoy the facilities provided by the state. They
enable the individual to enjoy amenities and infrastructure provided by the state. They include:
1. The Right to Education: The right to education states that every individual have the right to
access education up to the basic level.
2. The Right to Enjoy Health Facilities: Individuals have the right to enjoy the health facilities
provided by the state and they can access any public health care facility of their choice.
3. The Right to use Public Amenities: The right to use public amenities states that individuals have
the right to use public amenities such as libraries, recreational centres, roads, electricity,
portable drinking water, etc.

ECONOMIC RIGHTS

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Economic right are the rights that enable individuals to embark on any economic activity of their choice
to earn a living. They also enable an individual to seek for job security and better working conditions.

CIVIC RIGHTS
Civic right are the rights enjoyed by only individuals who are citizens of a country. An example is, only
Ghanaians can apply for a Ghanaian passport and voter’s identification card.

WAYS OF ENSURING THE PROTECTION OR ENJOYMENT OF RIGHT OF CITIZEN

1. Public Education: To protect the right of citizens there should be public education to educate
individuals on their rights. This will enable individuals to know all the rights that they ought to
enjoy under the constitution and the institutions where they will seek redress, if their rights are
infringed upon by other individuals.
2. Constitutional Guarantee: To protect the right of citizens, their rights must be clearly stated and
entrenched in the constitution. This clarity will create certainty and clear doubts about the basic
rights that the individual must enjoy. The entrenchment will ensure that the government and its
agencies do not change them to promote arbitrary rule.
3. Independent Judiciary: For the effective protection of fundamental human rights, the judiciary
must be independent and thus, free from interferences by the executive and the legislature. The
absence of government influence will enable judges effectively interpret and apply the laws of
the land to ensure justice and fairness.
4. Freedom of the Mass Media: To ensure the enjoyment of right by citizen, the press or mass
media should be free and independent. The mass media both electronic and print should be free
from government interferences to ensure constructive government criticism and true reportage.
5. Provision of Legal Aid: To ensure the protection or enjoyment of fundamental human rights, the
government should establish a legal aid board. This legal aid board will ensure that individuals
who have cases pending at the law court and cannot afford the services of a lawyer, are
provided with free legal aid.
6. Efficient Law Enforcement System: An efficient law enforcement system will ensure the
protection or enjoyment of fundamental human rights. The various law protection agencies such
as the police and CID, should be equipped with modern logistics and ammunitions to enable
them discharge the duties of protecting citizens effectively and efficiently. The operations of the
security agencies should also be proactive and effective free from interferences and favouritism.
7. Individuals should Fight for and Defend their Rights: Individuals will enjoy their fundamental
human right if they make deliberate efforts to fight for and defend their rights, by going to the
appropriate institutions to sue individuals who infringed upon their.

CONDITIONS THAT LIMIT THE ENJOYMENT OF RIGHTS

The rights of the individual are not absolute, and thus, can be curtailed or violated due to certain
conditions. The conditions that curtail the enjoyment of human right includes the following:
 State of Emergency: One of the major conditions that limit the enjoyment of right is the
declaration of a state of emergency. A state of emergency is declared when the security of the
nation is threatened through insurrections, civil strife, etc. and when there is a natural disaster.

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 Under such conditions, the individual’s right to freedom of movement can be curtailed through
curfews and other restrictions.
 Breach of Law: This is another condition that limits the enjoyment of rights by individuals. Laws
are established to regulate the behavior of individuals and promote peace and order. Any
breaches of the law therefore, mean that the culprit is a threat to society and should be arrested
and detained.
 Illegal Acquisition of Property: Individuals will have their properties seized to deny them the
right to own property, if there is enough evidence to suggest that these individuals acquired
their properties through illegal means.
 Libelous Statement: Individuals can be arrested and detained if they say or publish statement
that are unlawful or false destroying the reputation of an individual or that put the security of
the nation under threat.
 Attack by a Contagious or Dreadful Disease: Individuals who have infected by contagious
diseases such as leprosy, tuberculosis, cholera, etc. will have their movements restricted. They
are not allowed to mingle freely with healthy individuals. They are, thus, confined to prevent the
spread of the infection among healthy individuals.
 Restricted Areas: Individuals right to freedom of movement can be curtailed due to some areas
being restricted to the general public. There are certain areas that have been marked as security
zone or private property and individuals or the general public are not allowed free access or
movement in these places.

RESPONSIBILITIES
Responsibilities refer to the duties or services that an individual is obliged to perform for the
community, organization or the state. The following are the responsibilities or duties that the individual
performs as his/her obligation to the state or nation.
1. Payment of Tax: This is one of the major responsibilities or duties of an individual. The individual
is expected to honour his/her tax obligations to enable the government generate adequate
revenue to facilitate socio-economic development.
2. Defending the State: The individual is obliged to defend the state from internal and external
aggressors. The individual ought to enroll into the military or join forces with the army to
strengthen the military might of the country enable to defend the nation from internal and
external aggression.
3. Obedience to the Laws of the State: The individual is expected to obey the laws that have been
established by the state. This is because it is these laws that regulate the behavior of the people
to ensure the protection of peace and stability in the nation.
4. Maintenance and Protection of State Property: Since the government will divert public funds to
repair or replace worn out or damaged state properties, the individual is expected to take
proper care of these properties. The individual should also try as much as possible to cultivate
the culture of maintenance. This will enable the government to use funds for the purpose
intended.
5. Participating in Communal Labour: The individual is also expected as a duty to take part in all
communal labour. These communal activities are undertaken by communities to improve the
socio-economic conditions of their citizens.

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 6. Respect for National Symbols: It is the duty of every citizen to show respect for the national
symbols such as the national flag, anthem, pledge, currency, etc. This shows ultimate respect
and loyalty to the state.
7. Honouring National Service: Individuals who have completed their courses at the various
tertiary institutions should make themselves available for the service of the nation. Such
individuals should be prepared to accept postings to serve in any part of the country.

REASONS FOR CITIZENS TO HONOUR THEIR TAX OBLIGATIONS TO THE STATE

The individual is expected to honour his tax obligations to the nation for the following reasons.
1. Provision of State Revenue: The individual is expected to honour his/her tax obligations to the
nation, so as to enable the state generate adequate revenue to facilitate socio-economic
development.
2. Provision of Social Amenities: The individual is expected to honour his/her obligation to the
nation, so as to enable the state generate revenue to establish social amenities such as
electricity, drinking water, internet service, etc.
3. Provision of Infrastructure: The individual is expected to honour his/her obligation to the
nation, so as to enable the state generate revenue to provide infrastructural development such
as schools, roads, hospitals, irrigation projects, bridges, etc.
4. Payment of Government Employees Salaries: The individual is expected to honour his/her
obligation to the nation, so as to enable the state generate revenue to pay the wages and
salaries of her employees.
5. Serving External and Internal Debts: The individual is expected to honour his/her obligation to
the nation, so as to enable the state generate revenue to pay of her internal and external debts.
And also to pay dues to international organizations such as the AU and UNO.
6. Investment in the Economy to Create Jobs: The individual is expected to honour his/her
obligation to the nation, so as to enable the state generate revenue to invest in agriculture and
industrialization to develop these sectors as a means of creating more jobs for the people.

CITIZENSHIP
 Citizenship: This refers to the status of being recognized under the customs and laws of a state
as a legal member of that state or nation.
 Citizen: This refers to a person who is a member of a nation and by virtue of his membership
enjoys certain privileges provided by the nation and also performs certain obligations to the
nation.

WAYS OF ACQUIRING GHANAIAN CITIZENSHIP

1. Birth or Decent: This is the commonest way of becoming a citizen of Ghana. An individual born
to Ghanaian parents or whose grandparents are Ghanaians become an automatic member of
the country. The 1992 constitution of Ghana provides that a child of the age seven years and
below, found in Ghana and whose parents are not known, becomes a citizen of the nation.
2. Registration: An individual who is not a Ghanaian can attain Ghanaian citizenship through
marriage, thus, getting married to a Ghanaian by applying to be registered.

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 3. Naturalization: An individual who is not a Ghanaian can attain Ghanaian citizenship after staying
in the country for a very long time and has good moral reputation by applying to be registered.
4. Adoption: A child of not more than sixteen years of age, shall become a citizen of Ghana upon
adoption by Ghanaian parents.
5. Honorary Conferment: This is where an individual who is not a Ghanaian attain Ghanaian
citizenship, because he has contributed to the development of the country. An example is when,
Dr. Nkrumah conferred Ghanaian citizenship on W.E.B. DuBois.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

The enjoyment of rights goes hand in hand with the performing of responsibilities. The constitution of
Ghana guarantees the fundamental rights of her citizens and also stipulates the various duties and
responsibilities that the citizen is obliged to perform.
The following are some of the relationship between rights and responsibilities:
1. An individual’s right to life, places on him/her an equal responsibility not to take the life of
others.
2. An individual’s right to own property, places on him/her an equal responsibility to acquire
property through legal or lawful means.
3. An individual’s right to freedom of speech and expression, places on him/her an equal
responsibility not to libel others.
4. An individual’s right to enjoy social amenities and infrastructural facilities, place on him/her an
equal responsibility to hour his/her tax obligations.

THE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR CIVIC EDUCATION (NCCE)

The National Commission for Civic Education (NCCE) was established by Article 231 of the 1992
constitution of Ghana to educate people on their constitutional rights and how to defend them against
all forms of abuse and violation at any point in time. Also the appropriate institutions to seek redress
when their fundamental human rights are infringed upon.

FUNCTIONS OF THE NATIONAL COMMISSION FOR CIVIC EDUCATION (NCCE)

1. The NCCE is charged with the responsibility to create and sustain the awareness of the principles
and objectives of the 1992 constitution as the fundamental law of the people of Ghana.
2. The NCCE is also charged with the responsibility to educate and encourage the people of Ghana
to defend the constitution at all times, against all forms of abuse and violations.
3. The NCCE has the responsibility to formulate, implement and oversee programmes intended to
inculcate in the citizens of Ghana awareness of their civic responsibilities and appreciation of
their rights and responsibilities as free people.
4. The NCCE functions to inculcate values, norms and orientations in the minds of the individuals
so that, they develop their trust in the political system and thereby keep themselves like well-
functioning citizens in the state.

THE COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS AND ADMINISTRATIVE JUSTICE (CHRAJ)

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The Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice was established by Article 216 of the 1992
constitution of Ghana as an independence body to handle or redress complaints on matters of human
right abuses and administrative injustice.

-CHAPTER 13-
YAGA Series

LEADERSHIP AND FOLLOWERSHIP

 Leadership: Leadership is the act or process of guiding and influencing people to work together
towards the achievement of the goals and aspirations of a group.
 A Leader is therefore defined as, a person who has the authority and power to guide and
influence others towards the achievement of the goals and aspirations of a group. Examples of a
leader includes; The President of a country, Ministers of State, Regional Ministers, Chiefs, Family
Heads, School Presidents or Prefects, etc.

 Followership: Followership is the act of being a member of a group and willingly accepting the
guidance from a leader to help achieve the goals and aspirations of a group.
 A Follower is therefore defined as, a person who is a member of a group who willingly accepts
to be guided and influenced by a leader to help achieve the goals and aspirations of a group.

LEVELS OF LEADERSHIP
Leadership can be exhibited at various levels of society. Leadership starts from the family with the
father or abusuapanin being the leader, the school with the principal or headmaster being the leader,
the community with the chief being the leader, the workplace with the managing director being the
leader, the districts with the District Chief Executives being the leader, the regions with the Regional
Minister being the leader and the nation with the President being the leader.

TYPES OR STYLES OF LEADERSHIP

Leadership style refers to the methods that a leader adopt in the process of exhibiting his/her power
and authority geared towards achieving the aims and objectives of a group.
There are four main leadership styles; they are, Authoritarian or Autocratic Leadership Style, Democratic
or Participatory Leadership Style, Paternalistic Leadership Style, Laissez-Faire Leadership Style and
Paternalistic Leadership Style.

Autocratic or Authoritarian Leadership Style

Features

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 1. Power is vested and concentrated in the leader alone. Thus, the leader has absolute power over
his followers and uses threats and instill fear in his followers.
2. The leader does not involve his followers or subordinates in decision making. The leader does
not value the contributions of his followers and feels they have nothing good to offer.
3. There is no effective flow of communication between the leader and the follower. The
interaction between the leader and follower is characterized by order giving on the part of the
leader and implementing order on the part of the follower.
4. The leader hardly recognize and appreciate the efforts and contributions of followers. The
leader is not easily pleased and does not reward hard working followers.

Advantages
1. Decision Making is Quick and Easy: with the autocratic or authoritarian leadership style, the
leader is able to take decisions quickly and easily. This is because, the leader does not have
consult anybody nor accept the views and suggestions of his followers when taking decisions.
2. There is Effective Supervision: with the autocratic or authoritarian leadership style, the leader
effectively monitor the activities of his followers and makes sure everybody is efficient and up to
task.
3. The Leader Accepts Blame for his Action/Decision: since the autocratic leader does not consult
anybody and takes all decisions by himself, he does not apportion blame when his decisions fail.

Disadvantages
1. There is Lack of Initiative: There is lack of initiative on the part of followers because the leader
does not involve them in decision making and rejects their views and opinions.
2. There is no Co-operation and Team Work within the Group: Since the leader does not make the
followers part of decision making, the followers do not give the leader their full co-operation.
The followers do not also co-operate well among themselves and so there is no team work that
will enable the group achieve its goals.
3. Apathy or Lack of Commitment: The reaction of the followers on the leader’s refusal to make
them part of the decision making process is the exhibition of apathetic attitudes or lack of
commitment towards work. Work is not properly done and the result is low productivity.
4. High Turn-Over of Workers: As nobody will want to work with an autocratic leader who do not
appreciate the worth of his followers, the more experienced and highly skilled workers will leave
to search for new jobs.

Democratic or Participatory Leadership Style

Features
1. Power is not vested and concentrated in the leader alone. The leader delegates some powers to
his followers.
2. The leader actively involves his followers or subordinate in decision making. The leader respects
the views, opinions and suggestions of his followers and tries to reason with them.
3. There is effective flow of communication between the leader and the follower. The interaction
between the leader and follower is characterized by discussions and deliberation on matters
concerning the group.
4. The leader recognize and appreciate the efforts and contributions of followers. The leader is
easily pleased and reward or praise hard working followers.

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Advantages
1. There is Team Work and Co-operation: Since the leader make the follower’s part of decision
making, the followers give the leader their full co-operation. The followers also co-operate well
among themselves and so there is team work that will enable the group achieve its goals.
2. There is Initiative on the Part of the Followers: There is initiative on the part of followers
because the leader involve them in decision making and accepts their views and opinions.
3. There is Commitment and High Motivation on the part of the Followers: The reaction of the
followers on the leader’s willingness to make them part of the decision making process is the
exhibition of commitment and high motivation towards work. Work is efficiently done and the
result is high productivity.

Disadvantages
1. There is Delay in Decision Making: Since a democratic leader makes a lot of consultations when
taking decisions, the leader is not able to make decisions quickly and easily and this delays the
implementation of the policies of the group.
2. There is Ineffective Supervision: A democratic leader delegates power to some followers or
subordinates and hence may not effectively supervise the activities of such people.
3. Leaders do not Accepts Blame: since the democratic leader makes a lot of consultation when
taking decisions, he may apportion blame to other people when his decisions fail.

Laissez-Fair or Permissive Leadership Style

Features
1. The leader allows his followers or subordinates to take decisions without any directions from
the leader. There is excessive freedom for the group to take decisions.
2. The leader does not criticize or correct and make suggestions to his followers.
3. The followers or subordinates determine the tasks and directions of the group without the
leader.

Advantages
1. There is Initiative on the Part of Followers: One great advantage of this leadership style is that
it develops in the follower a high sense of initiative. The followers think independently and take
decision that help achieve the goals of the group without the help of the leader.
2. There is High Motivation: Motivation is high under this leadership style, because the followers
perform their duties without any pressure from the leader. They work in a tension-free
environment, as the leader allows them to take their own decisions.

Disadvantages
1. There is Indiscipline: The attitude of the this type of leader to remain passive (inactive) results
in indiscipline on the part of followers, as the followers are given freedom to do things their own
way.
2. Lack of Supervision: The attitude of this type of leader to remain passive (inactive) results in lack
of supervision as the followers are given freedom to do things their own way. The leader does
not monitor the activities of his followers.

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 3. Poor Quality of Work: The attitude of this type of leader to remain passive (inactive) results in
poor quality of work as the activities of the group is not being supervised by the leader. Poor
quality of work results in low productivity or production of low quality products.

Paternalistic Leadership Style

Features
1. The leader is on the average older than his followers or subordinates. The leader is often seen or
regarded as a father figure.
2. The followers are allowed to give their views and suggestions but the final decision rest with the
leader.
3. The leader impose his authority and feels he alone has answers to all problems by virtue of his
age. He therefore makes sure that his views and suggestions prevail upon the group.

Advantages
1. Decision making is quick: with the paternalistic leadership style, the leader is able to take
decisions quickly and easily. This is because, the leader makes his views and suggestions
paramount to the follower’s views when taking decisions.
2. He accepts blames: since such a leader does not respect the views and suggestions of his
followers and takes all decisions based on his views and suggestions, he does not apportion
blame when his decisions fail.
3. There is effective supervision: with the paternalistic leadership style, the leader effectively
monitor the activities of his followers and makes sure everybody is efficient and up to task.

Disadvantages
1. Lack of initiative on the part of followers: There is lack of initiative on the part of followers
because the leader does not respect the views and suggestions of his followers in decision
making.
2. Lack of motivation on the part of followers: The desire of the paternalistic leader to allow only
his decisions to prevail does not motivate his followers or subordinates to work very hard
towards the achievement of the objectives of the group.

HOW LEADERS ARE CHOSEN/HOW PEOPLE BECOME LEADERS

1. Elections: An individual can become a leader through direct or indirect election. This way of
becoming a leader is characterized with democratic societies. This is where people vote to elect
their leader and thus, give the elected leader legitimate mandate or power to guide and
influence his people towards the achievement of a common goal.
2. Appointment: An individual can become a leader through appointment. A person can be
appointed as a leader on the basis of some proven qualities or abilities. Appointment to
leadership positions can be determined by qualifications, past experiences and charisma.
3. Hereditary: An individual can become a leader through hereditary or blood line. This way of
becoming a leader is characterized with monarchical regimes and traditional societies. The
individual becomes a leader, because he is related by blood to occupant of a position or throne.

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4. Situational or Interim Appointment: An individual can become a leader in times of crisis. Such
leaders do not become but are however appointed to manage and solve the crisis, the moment
the crisis is over they cease to be leaders.
5. Imposition: An individual can become a leader by imposing himself on group. This way of
becoming a leader is characterized with military regimes, where a person becomes a leader
through unapproved means.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE/GOOD LEADERSHIP

1. Creativity and Innovation: In effective leadership, the leader must encourage and motivate his
followers or subordinates to be creative and innovative, by allowing the followers to express
their views and suggestions and participate in decision making.
2. Effective Supervision: Effective leadership is characterized by effective supervision, that is, the
leader effectively monitor the activities of his followers by making sure they do not exhibit
negative attitudes such as absenteeism, lateness, laziness and loitering at the work place.
Effective supervision indulge in the follower positive work ethics such hard work, punctuality,
loyalty and commitment to ensure higher productivity.
3. Effective Planning and Implementation of Policies: Effective leadership is characterized by
effective planning and implementation of policies. The leader is able to outline his policies,
programmes or projects and Implement them effectively with the help of his followers, to
ensure the socio-economic development of the group.
4. Effective Communication between Leadership and Followership: Effective leadership is
characterized by effective communication between the leader and the follower. There cordial
relationship between the leader and the follower to promote understanding, trust and co-
operation in the group.
5. Involvement of the Subordinates in Decision Making: Effective leadership is characterized by
involvement of the subordinates in decision making. This encourages followers to willing work
hard to ensure high productivity.

QUALITIES OF A GOOD LEADER

1. Vision and Foresight: A good leader must be a person of vision and foresight. He must be able
to make future projections and plans and implement strategies and policies that will still be
relevance in the future.
2. Good Health: A good leader must always be of good health. He must always be physically fit to
perform his duties effectively.
3. Tolerance: A good leader must be tolerant. He must tolerate the views, opinions, way of life and
religion of his followers, only if such exhibitions are legal.
4. Positive Working Attitude: A good leader must be a person with position working attitude such
as hard work, honesty and commitment. This will help the leader achieve his goals and the
followers will have trust and confidence in such a leader.

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5. Initiative and Drive: A good leader must be a person who is able to initiate policies, ideas and
projects to help the group develop. He must be able to take independent decisions, and must be
bold to ensure that the decisions are effectively implemented.

THE ROLE OF A LEADER IN NATION BUILDING

1. A Leader Initiate Policies or Projects: A leader is responsible for the formulation of policies,
preogrammes or projects, which outline the strategies or plans to be undertaken, to ensure the
socio-economic improvement of the people.
2. A Leader Implements Policies or Projects: After formulating the policies or programmes, the
leader ensures the implementation of his plans and strategies. He makes sure that these policies
and programmes are carried out in the best interest of the people.
3. A Leader Organizes His People for Development: A leader is responsible for organizing his
people for development, by setting and assigning tasks and duties to be performed by his
followers or subordinates to ensure the achievement of the objectives of the group.
4. A Leader Effectively Supervises His Followers: After setting and assigning followers with task,
the leader coordinates and monitors the activities that are performed by his subordinates. The
leader ensures all subordinates performed their duties efficiently to promote the development
of the group.
5. A Leader Maintains Peace and Order Among His Followers: A leader acts as an arbitrator and
settles all disputes that may arise out of misunderstanding or disagreement among followers.
This helps to maintain law and order in the community or group.

QUALITIES OF A FOLLOWER
1. Loyalty: A follower must be loyal and dedicated to success of the group. Followers must be
willing and ready to support the leader at all times to achieve the goals and objectives of the
group.
2. Dedication: A follower must be dedicated and committed in the discharge of his duties set and
assigned to him/her by a leader. This will help and ensure that the group achieve its set goals
and objectives.
3. Positive Attitude to Work: A follower must be a person with position working attitude such as
hard work, honesty and commitment. This will help the follower to undertake his duties
efficiently and the leader will have trust and confidence in such a follower.
4. Humility: A follower must show humility in the exercise of the duties or task assigned to him/her
by a leader. The follow must allow himself or subject himself to be guided by a leader, for the
set goals of the group to be achieved.
5. Co-operation: A follower have a sense of team work and co-operation. A follower must be able
to work with people of different background and must also be able to co-operate with
leadership to achieve the goals and objectives of the group.

THE ROLE OF A FOLLOWER IN NATION BUILDING

1. Co-operate with Authority: Followers must support and co-operate with the leader in order to
achieve the goals of society, and also to promote peace and stable environment resulting to
high productivity.

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 2. Hard Working: In order to ensure nation building, the follower must work hard to increase
productivity. This will help the nation to develop and lead to improvement in the quality of
individual’s life.
3. To be Honest and Loyal: Every follower is required to be honest and loyal, by avoiding
selfishness and corruption. The follower should ensure that resources are always utilized
judiciously for the group’s course and not for private or personal purposes.
4. Bold and Articulate: A follower must be bold and articulate in order to be able to express his
views and suggestions in decision making to help the group achieve its goals.

-CHAPTER 14-
YAGA Series

OUR CONSTITUTION, DEMOCRACY AND

NATION BUILDING

THE CONSTITUTION
 Constitution: This refers to a set of rules and regulations used for the administration and
management of a country, and are regarded as the fundamental law of the land to which all
other laws must conform.
 Constitutional Rule: This refers to a system of governance in which the procedures connected
with the management and administration of a country are based on a set of rules and
regulations regarded as the fundamental laws of the land.
 Convention: This refers to the unwritten or undocumented customary or accepted way of doing
things. They may be backed by law.

CLASSIFICATION OF CONSTITUTIONS
Constitutions can be classified into four categories, they are:
 Written and Unwritten Constitution: This is the classification of constitution on the basis of
whether the laws have been documented or not.
 Rigid and Flexible Constitution: This is the classification of constitution on the basis of the
amendment procedures, thus, whether the laws can easily be amended or not.
 Federal and Unitary Constitution: This is the classification of constitution on the basis of power
sharing, thus, whether power belongs to the federal units or the central government.
 Monarchical and Republican Constitution: This is the classification of constitution on the basis
of location of power, thus, whether power resides in one person based on hereditary as
pertained in chieftaincy or in the hands of the people or representative government.

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 WRITTEN CONSTITUTION
A written constitution is a constitution in which the legal set of rules and regulations for the
administration and management of a country have been written or clearly stated in a single document.
Countries that have written constitutions include U.S.A, Ghana and Nigeria.

ADVANTAGES
1. It Clears Doubts and Ensures Certainty.
2. It Serves a National Symbol.
3. It Establishes and Determines the Organs, Institutions and Processes of Government.
4. It Ensures Periodic and Peaceful Change of Government.
5. It Guarantees the Protection of Fundamental Human Rights.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Difficult Amendment Procedures. 3. High Bureaucracy.
2. Strict Interpretation. 4. It cannot stand the Test of Time.

UNWRITTEN CONSTITUTION
An unwritten constitution is a constitution in which the legal set of rule and regulations for the
administration and management of a country have not been written or coded into a single document.
Countries that have unwritten constitution include Britain, Israel, Libya and Saudi Arabia.

ADVANTAGES
1. It is flexible, and the flexibility makes it adaptable to changing trends.
2. It can stand the test of time, due to its flexibility.
3. It tolerates diverse interests and political views.
4. It is resilient, thus, are able to recover from shocks that may have destroyed it if its provisions
were written.
DISADVANTAGES
1. The rights and liberties of the individual are infringed upon.
2. It promotes dictatorship, thus, the ruler can manipulate it to suit his interest.
3. It does not ensure certainty and thus, creates confusion as individuals give different
interpretation to its provisions.

SOURCES OF CONSTITUTION
1. Statutory Sources/Parliamentary Acts: This is one of the major sources of a country’s
constitution. They are formal laws made by parliament, which can become accepted as the
fundamental law of a country.
2. Customary Sources: This is where the constitution is based on practices, customs, precepts and
conventions, which are accepted as the fundamental law of a country.
3. Previous Constitutions: Another important source of a constitution is where reference is made
to previous constitutions when drafting a new constitution.

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4. Judicial Precedents, Reviews and Case Laws: This source is when, decisions of the courts and
decided cases by the courts are inculcated as part the provisions in a constitution.
5. Works of Renowned Scholars: The academic works of renowned authors can also form part of a
constitution. These are textbooks, treatise, articles, thesis, etc. written by scholars such as A.V
Dicey, John Austin and Montesquieu.

IMPORTANCE OR BENEFITS OF CONSTITUTION IN NATION BUILDING

1. Legitimacy of Government.
2. Protection of Human Rights.
3. Peaceful Change of Power/Government.
4. Ensures Checks and Balances.
5. Indicates the Political System and Ideology of the State.

WAYS OF PROTECTING THE CONSTITUTION OF GHANA

1. Public Education: This is a major means of ensuring that the constitution of the country is
protected. Though public education, individuals will come to know the importance of a
constitution and it provisions.
2. Independence Judiciary: Judicial independence will also safeguard the country’s constitution.
The absence of executive and legislature influences on the judiciary will enable judges who are
the interpreters of the law to dispense justice without fear or favour.
3. Independence Mass Media/Press: The constitution of the country will be safeguarded, if there
is press freedom, which is the absence of state influence over the mass media. This will enable
the press to constructively criticize the government to put it on its toes.
4. Sensitization of the Military: The military should be sensitized to remind them of their main role
of protecting the country and constitution from internal and external aggression, but not to
meddle in state politics, as in the case of the cease of power through the over-throw of
government.
5. Free and Fair Elections: The constitution of the country can be safeguarded through free and
fair elections supervised by an independent electoral body, which ensures level political playing
field.
6. Political Tolerance: Tolerating diverse and opposing political views is another way of
safeguarding the constitution of the country. Since democracy thrives on multi-party system,
there is bound to be different shades of opinions and these views can all be accommodated
through the principle of tolerance.
7. Good Governance: Good governance ensures the protection of the constitution of the country.
When the ruler governs the country by applying the principle of the rule of law and not
promoting arbitrary rule, the constitution of the country will be safeguarded.

DEMOCRACY
 Democracy: This refer to a system of government that takes its authority from the expressed
public opinion and the will of the people. Abraham Lincoln defined democracy as “government
of the people, by the people and for the people”.

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 Democratic Governance: This refers to a system of governing a state through elected
representatives, expressed public opinion, rule of law and respect for fundamental human
rights.
 Rule of Law: This refers to principle that all persons must be subjected to the laws of the land
without any fear or favour. The term “Rule of Law” was formulated by A.V. Dicey. The following
are features of rule of law.
1. Supremacy of the Law 3. The Protection and Enjoyment of Fundamental Human
Rights
2. Equality before the Law 4. Social and Economic Well-being

 Balance of Power: This refers to a democratic political arrangement in which each of the organs
of government have equal power and do not impose on other organs of government.
 Separation of Powers: This refers to a democratic political arrangement in which the three
organs of government, thus, the legislature, executive and judiciary are made independent of
one another, in terms of powers, functions and personnel.
 Checks and Balances: This refers to a democratic political arrangement that express the need
for each of the three organs of government to exercise some degree of checks on the powers
and activities of the others.

TYPES OF DEMOCRACY
 Direct/Classical/Athenian Type: This is a type of democracy or form of government in which all
the people participate in decision making directly. This type of democracy started in Greece,
hence, the name classical or Athenian.
 Indirect/Representative Type: This is a type of democracy or form of government in which
certain people are elected and mandated to govern on behalf of the whole population.

FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS OF DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE OR

CONSTITUTIONAL RULE
1. There is a representative parliament composed of members who are elected by a group to
represent their interest.
2. There are periodic elections for the electorate to either renew their mandate for the ruling
government or change it.
3. There is the existence of political opposition, which will constructively criticize the government
to put it on its toes.
4. There is the existence of multi-party system, where the views of the minorities are also
considered in decision making by the government.
5. The fundamental human rights of the individuals are recognized and protected.
6. There is the existence of the principle of separation of powers and checks and balances. This
ensures that all the three arms of government are independent to prevent undue interferences
from other organs of government.
7. There is the existence of rule of law, thus the ruler administer the country by applying the
fundamental laws of the country without fear and favour.

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 IMPORTANCE OR BENEFITS OF DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE OR
CONSTITUTIONAL RULE IN NATION BUILDING
1. Prevents Dictatorship
2. Ensures the Protection of Fundamental Human Rights:
3. Ensures Peaceful Change of Power:
4. Promotes Accountability and Transparency:
5. Ensures All-inclusiveness in Decision Making:
6. International Credibility:

DEMOCRATIC VALUES IN THE TRADITIONAL SYSTEM OF GOVERNANCE IN

GHANA
There are certain values or aspects in the traditional system of government which are considered useful
and can be applied to the modern system of government.
1. Ascension to the Throne
2. Traditional Cabinet
3. Swearing an Oath of Allegiance and Accountability
4. Open Representative Forum
5. Dethronement or Impeachment

CHALLENGES OR PROBLEMS OF DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE OR

CONSTITUTIONAL RULE
1. Conflicts between the Executive and Legislature
2. Conflicts between the Government and Opposition
3. Illiteracy
4. Undue Influences of the Mass Media
5. Military Interventions

DICTATORSHIP
 Dictatorship: This refers to a system of government where the procedures connected with the
management and administration of a state lies in the concept and thought of one person, who
takes power by force.
 Dictator: This refers to a person who uses force to take and keep power, who manages and
administer the fairs of the state based on his will and thoughts.

FEATURES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF DICTATORSHIP

1. The ruler is not accountable to any institution or the people.
2. The ruler uses force and decree to govern.
3. The ruler does not have a fixed term of office.
4. Fundamental human rights are restricted.

DISADVANTAGES OF DICTATORSHIP

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1. Suppression and Oppression of Opposing Views: Since a dictator wields absolute power and his
is will and decisions are final, it suppress and oppress opposing views. Nobody is allowed to
express his views or opinions on the decisions or policies of a dictator.
2. Infringement of Human Rights: The suppressive and oppressive nature of dictatorship does not
ensure the protection of fundamental human rights. The system infringes and encroaches upon
the rights and interest of individuals with impunity. Individuals do not therefore have the
freedom to exercise their rights to secure for themselves the fullest development of their
personality and the enjoyment of life.
3. Discrimination: This system does not promote all-inclusiveness, because certain individuals may
be excluded from national activities on the basis of their educational background, ethnic
affiliation, ideological affiliation, etc.
4. Lack of Accountability and Transparency: The dictatorship system does not ensure
accountability and transparency on the part the leader to his people. The dictator mismanages
and arbitrarily rule in his own interest and the interest of elite few.
5. Discourage Foreign Investment and Assistance: Dictatorship discourages foreign investment
and assistance. This is because investors would not like to invest their capital in a country that is
governed by a dictator who does whatever he likes. Moreover, donor countries will hesitate in
giving assistance in the form of loans and grants to countries under dictatorship regimes,
because the ruler may misapply and not give proper account of assistance given.
6. Lack of Interest in National Affairs: The absence of the expression of views, opinions and free
criticism of the ruling government under dictatorship regimes does not encourage the citizens of
the country to take much interest in national affairs and participate in government.

ELECTIONS
 Elections: This refers to the process by which individuals vote to choose their representatives,
who will form the governing body of an organization or state.
 Electoral System: This refers to an arrangement whereby members of organization or state,
elect representatives either directly through voting or indirectly through Electoral College to
represent their interest.
 Electoral Commission: This is an independent body established by law to be in charge of the
conduct and supervision of public elections and referenda. It consists of a chairman, two
deputies and four members.

TYPES OF ELECTIONS
 Direct Elections: Direct election refers to, where all those who are qualified to vote ,are allowed
to vote for candidates of their choice .In this ,the voters goes to polling station to cast his vote
and the candidates who gets the highest number of votes is declared.
 Indirect Elections: Indirect election where the electorate elects delegates, who in turn vote to
elect candidates to fill political positions .The most popular is the Electoral College system.
 General Elections: A general election refers to all elections that is held throughout a country for
the electorate to elect the president or prime minister or their representatives to parliament or
local councils. It is held periodically in democratic countries. In Ghana, it is held every four year,
for the people to elect the president and parliamentarians.

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 Bye-Elections: A bye–election refers to an election held for a person to fill vacant seat in
parliament or district assembly in the event of the resignation, withdrawal or death of a
member. The elected member serves for the remaining term of the member whose seat is
vacant.

IMPORTANCE OF ELECTIONS
1. It Ensures Accountability and Responsibility: Elections offers the people the opportunity to hold
their representatives; that is ,the head of government and parliamentarians accountable and
responsible for their actions .It is for this reason that the ruling government stands the risk of
losing the next elections if it fails to administer the country according to the aspiration of the
citizen.
2. It Ensures Peaceful Change of Government: Elections ensures smooth change of government
without violence. They are conducted to enable the people to renew their mandate for the
ruling government or reject it. Elections therefore, bring about peaceful transition in the
government of a country.
3. It Enables the People to Participate in Political Activities: Elections provide the citizenry with
the opportunity to participate in the political activities of the country. In elections, individuals
have the right to vote to choose their representatives or be voted for to hold any political office
of their choice.
4. It Establishes Legitimacy of Government: Elections enable the people to give their mandate to
the rulers to administer the country are given to them by the electorate .The rulers of the
country therefore, exercise legitimate power because they administer the country with the
consent of the people.
5. It Helps Provide Political Education: Education help to educate the people on political
issues .Individuals become aware of the socio –political and economic issues of the country
through campaigns ,lectures ,symposia ,rallies ,press conference and debates that are organized
by the various political parties .Party manifestoes also provide the people with a lot of
information.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ELECTORAL COMMISSION

1. They Organize General Elections: A major responsibility of the electoral commission is to
organize, undertake, conduct and supervise all public and general elections for the electorate to
vote for their choice or president and representatives and in referenda.
2. They Educate the Public on Elections: The electoral commission is responsible for mounting
educational campaigns to educate the general public in the electoral process for the people to
see the need to register and vote during elections and the procedures for voting.
3. They Register Political Parties: The electoral commission is responsible for vetting and
registering candidates contesting general election at national or constituency level. They also
function to approve the registration of political parties which want to contest political power
and issue certificate to that effect.
4. They Register Eligible Voters: The electoral commission is responsible for the compilation of the
voter’s register. They register eligible voters and revise the register periodically for the conduct
of every election held in the country.
5. They Demarcates Electoral Constituencies: The electoral commission functions to demarcate
electoral constituencies, districts and wards for the election of representatives to parliament
and to the local and districts assemblies.

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 HOW TO ENSURE FREE AND FAIR ELECTIONS
1. A clean and Revised Voters: One of the major means of ensuring free and fair elections is for
the Electoral Commission to put in place a clean and up-to-date voters register that has
registered all people who are eligible to vote and has removed the names of aliens and those
who are dead.
2. Independent Electoral Body: An independent Electoral Commission will also ensure free and fair
elections. An impartial Electoral Commission will not give in to the pressure and influences of
the competing political parties. It will therefore, conduct the elections in accordance with the
provisions of the constitution.
3. Public Voting: To ensure free and fair elections, the voting process should not be shrouded in
secrecy but the electorate should be allowed to cast their vote in the open, although they
indicate their choice of candidate in an enclosed booth.
4. Use of Transparent Ballot Boxes: To ensure free and fair elections, the Electoral Commission
should provide transparent ballot boxes. Electoral officers at the various polling stations should
open the boxes and show the inside to the people, before they place them on the tables for
people to cast their votes.
5. Public Counting of Votes: Another way of ensuring free and fair elections is that, votes should
be counted in the full glare of voters and representatives of competing political parties. After the
counting, the representatives of the parties should be made to sign to attest to agreement to
the number of counts. Public counting of votes clears doubts about the results collated at the
various polling stations.
6. The Use of Photo Identification Cards: A free and fair election will be ensured by the use of
photo identification cards. The Electoral Commission should provide every voter with a photo
identity card and should insist that voters are allowed to vote upon the provision of their
identity card to check impersonation.

NATION BUILDING
Nation building is the process by which members of society make sustained efforts to maintain unity and
harmonious living with the aim of improving upon their quality of life or standard of living.

FACTORS THAT HINDER NATION BUILDING

1. Ethnocentrism: The country nation building has been affected by the tendency of some ethnic
groups to see their cultural values as superior to the cultural values of other ethnic
groups .These ethnic groups place ethnic interest above national interest and give preference to
their members over members of other ethnic groups .This breeds nepotism as jobs and
contracts are given to individuals on basis of their ethnic affiliations and not on the basis of
competence and qualification.
2. Corruption: Corruption has been the major social canker that has affected nation building .There
is corruption at every facet of the country`s national life .There is even corruption on the part of
people in positions over power .In Ghana ,public officials accept bribes in exchange for awarding
contracts, giving jobs or doing something for people.

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3. Mismanagement of Resources: The efforts of nation building are thwarted in Ghana because
public officials mismanage the resources of the country .They try to amass illegal wealth by
embezzling and misappropriating huge amounts of public funds .This ill-gotten wealth is used to
build mansions, buy flashy cars and engage in other flamboyant lifestyles.
4. Adoption of Western Culture: The efforts to promote nation building in Ghana is hindered by
the adoption of foreign cultures and way of life. This has led to the neglect of our Ghanaian rich
cultural heritage that would identify the Ghanaian and promote nation building.
5. Lack of Long-Term Development Plans: Nation building is hindered in Ghana because
governments of the country do not draw elaborate or long-term development plans that will
ensure the sustained improvement in the quality of life of people .It is even noted that
succeeding governments do not continue some of projects started by previous
governments .They abandon the project because they see the continuation of the projects as
giving political marks to the previous government.

THE ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN NATION BUILDING

1. Fulfilment of Civic Duties: This is one of the major roles expected of an individual in nation
building .The individual must obey all laws that have been established to regulate the behaviour
of individuals to ensure good inter –personal relations .The individual must also fulfill his tax
obligations because it is the revenue which is gained from taxes that is used to provide social
amenities.
2. Avoiding Acts of Ethnocentrism: The individual will be performing a major role in nation
building if he does away with all forms of ethnicity, ethnocentrism and nepotism .This is because
by eschewing these negative tendencies, positions to individuals will be made on the basis of
competence and qualification and not on the basis of ethnicity, political and religious affiliation.
3. Adopting Positive Attitude: The individual will also be performing a major role in nation building
by eschewing all passive, negative and apathetic attitudes such as laziness, absenteeism,
laziness, malingering, pilfering, working lotto and sleeping at work .The individual should rather
adopt positive, tendencies such as dedication, hard work and high sense of duty as these
promote national development.
4. Protection of State Property: The role of the individual towards nation building will be
enhanced if the individual develops the cultural of maintenance by handling the properties or
assets of the nation such as buildings, machines, roads and vehicles responsively with care.
5. Participating in Decision Making Processes: The individual will be performing a major role in
nation building by participating in decision making at the community and national levels. He is
expected to contribute his ideas when fora are organized to deliberate on community and
national issues. Moreover, the individual is expected to take part in communal activities such as
communal labour.

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-CHAPTER 15-
YAGA Series

GHANA AND THE INTERNATIONAL

COMMUNITY

 International Community: This refers to a community of nations of the world.

 Globalization: This refers to the increasingly worldwide connectivity, integration and
interdependence in the economic, social, political, and cultural spheres through technology
and communication.

EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION
 Creation of a Global Village:
 Easy Access to Information:
 Innovation of Culture:
 Promotion of Tourism:
 Promote Peace and Global Stability:
 Erosion of Cultural Values:
 Erosional of National Identity:
 Trade Liberalization:
 Inordinate Taste for Foreign Goods and Services:

CO-OPERATION AMONG NATIONS

Co-operation among nations refers to the act of coming together of nations to work towards
achieving a common purpose. There are two major forms of co-operation, they are:

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  Bilateral Co-operation: This refers to the agreement and co-operation between two countries to
work together towards a common purpose. Example is the Ghana-Togo joint commission on
security.
 Multilateral co-operation: This refers to the agreement and co-operation between several
countries to work together towards a common purpose. Examples are, Economic Community of
West African States (ECOWAS), African Union (AU), United Nations Organization (UNO), The
Commonwealth of Nations, The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), etc.

ECOWAS
The Economic Community of West African States is an economic union created with the ultimate goal
of establishing a West African Economic Union.
The union was established on 28th May, 1975 in Lagos, Nigeria; with the signing of the Treaty of Lagos,
with its stated mission to promote economic integration across the region.
The ECOWAS is administered through a secretariat based in Lagos, Nigeria.

MEMBERSHIP
 As of February 2017, ECOWAS has 15 member states.
 All current members joined the union as founding members in 1975, except Cape Verde which
joined in 1977. Mauritania which is a former founding member withdrew from the union in
December 2000 and recently signed a new associate-membership agreement in August 2017.
Morocco officially requested to join ECOWAS in February 2017, the application was endorsed at
the summit of Heads of States in June 2017.
 ECOWAS membership involves eight Francophone countries (French Speaking Countries)
1. Togo 5. Benin
2. Burkina Faso 6. Niger
3. Cote d’Ivoire 7. Mali
4. Senegal 8. Guinea
 ECOWAS membership involves five Anglophone countries (English Speaking Countries)
1. Ghana 4. Sierra Leone
2. Nigeria 5. Gambia
3. Liberia
 ECOWAS membership involves two Lusophone countries (Portuguese Speaking Countries)
1. Cape Verde 2. Guinea Bissau

THE PRINCIPAL ORGANS OF THE ECOWAS

There are six organs of the ECOWAS; they are.

1. The Summit of Heads of States and Government

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The Summit of Heads of States and Government is the highest organ of the ECOWAS and comprise all
Heads of States and government of member states. The duties of the Summit of the Heads of States and
Government include;
 The Summit takes final decision in all matters affecting ECOWAS.
 The Summit is responsible for the appointment in the organization.
 The Summit approves the budget of the ECOWAS.
 The Summit meets once a year for sessions.

2. The Council of Ministers

The Council of Ministers is the second organ of the ECOWAS and comprises two ministers from each
member state. Namely, the Financial and Economic Planning Ministers. The duties of the Council of
Ministers include;
 The Council supervises the activities of the ECOWAS.
 The Council prepares the agenda for Head of States meetings.
 The Council ensures that members comply with the aims and objectives of the ECOWAS.

3. The Executive Secretariat

The Executive Secretariat is the administrative organ of the ECOWAS. The head of the Secretariat is the
President of the Commission, who is assisted by two deputies. The Executive Secretariat is based in
Lagos, Nigeria. The duties of the Executive Secretariat include;
 The Secretariat carries out research into various aspects of the ECOWAS.
 The Secretariat makes proposals and reports to the Council of Ministers.
 The Secretariat implements policies of the ECOWAS.

4. The Tribunal
The Tribunal is the judiciary organ of the ECOWAS and is an equivalent of the Court of Justice of the AU.
The duties of the Tribunal include;
 The Tribunal interprets and implements the terms of the ECOWAS treaty.
 The Tribunal adjudicates disputes among members of the ECOWAS.
 The Tribunal adjudicates matters such as human rights abuses and non-compliance to
the rules and directives of the ECOWAS.

5. The Defence Council

The Defence Council comprises Ministers of Defence and Foreign Affairs of the member states of the
ECOWAS. The duties of the Defence Council include;
 The Council prepares the agenda for defence meetings.
 The Council advices the other organs and makes referrals of disputes to the Tribunal for
adjudication.

6. The Technical and Specialized Commissions

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There are five specialized commissions of the ECOWAS, each of which performs specific duties. The main
technical and specialized commissions are;
 The commission for industry, agriculture and natural resources.
 The defence commission.
 The commission for social and cultural affairs.
 The commission for trade, customs, immigration and monetary payments.
 The commission on transport, telecommunications and energy.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE ECOWAS

1. Ensure Free Movement of People and Goods: The Economic Community of West African States
aim to promote free movement of people and goods in the sub-region without the need for
visas and transport restrictions.
2. Ensure Economic Integration and Sustainable Development: The Economic Community of West
African States aim to promote an accelerated economic integration and sustainable
development by creating a large common market and contract foreign capital for development.
3. Promote Peace and Unity: The Economic Community of West African States aim to foster unity
and peace among member states in the West African sub-region.
4. Take a United Common Grounds on World Issues: The Economic Community of West African
States aim to take a common stand on world issues such as violation of human rights and
discrimination based on race.
5. The Economic Community of West African States aim to protect the sovereignty of member
states and defend their territorial integrity.
6. The Economic Community of West African States aim to promote cultural cooperation, in areas
such as education, arts, sports, etc.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE ECOWAS

1. Trade Liberalization: The formation of the ECOWAS union has promoted the free inter-state
trade among member countries in the West African sub-region. Manufactured goods from
Ghana such as cocoa powder, canned fish, smock, etc. enter the territories of Togo, Benin,
Nigeria and other West African countries without any restrictions.
2. Free Movement of People: The formation of the ECOWAS union has abolished the restrictions
on the movement of people across borders of West African countries. People travelling across
the borders of West African countries and are member states do not require visas, but only
needs a valid passport and a transport fare. The Free Movement Protocol also gives them a right
of residence in member countries.
3. Economic Cooperation: The formation of the ECOWAS union has provided commerce and
financial support to member states. Also the adoption of the ECO; a single monetary currency
will boost trade further and eliminate the barriers created by diverse monetary conversion
difficulties.
4. Promotion of Peace and Unity: The formation of the ECOWAS union has helped curb inter and
intra-state violence and tensions within the West African sub-region. The ECOWAS regularly
deploys thousands of military troops for peace keeping missions. ECOWAS also promote

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 military cooperation by providing military assistance to distressed member states during
conflicts, assists restructuring the governance system in such countries and protect their border
integrity.
5. Educational Cooperation: The formation of the ECOWAS union has promoted the educational
cooperation among member states. Students from member nations can study in another
member country provided they conform to regulations relating to the relevant educational
bodies.
6. Cultural Integration: The formation of the ECOWAS union has led to the sharing of cultural
elements such as language, arts, sports, etc. across member states. This has promoted
understanding and cultural integration, hence fostering peace and unity among member states.

BENEFITS GHANA DERIVES FROM HER MEMBERSHIP WITH THE ECOWAS

1. Free Movement of People: The participation of Ghana in the ECOWAS has fosters the free
movement of people in Ghana to other member countries without the need for visas and other
border restrictions. And also Ghana benefits from the migrated labour from other member West
Africa states.
2. Wider Market: The participation of Ghana in the ECOWAS has provided the access to the
markets of other West African member states. Manufacturing industries in member states are
thus, able to produce on a large scale since they have access to a wider market across West
Africa.
3. Economic Support: The participation of Ghana in the ECOWAS provides commerce and financial
support to the economy. Also the adoption of the ECO; a single monetary currency will boost
trade further and eliminate the barriers created by diverse monetary conversion difficulties. This
will enhance trade with her neighbouring West African member countries.
4. Military Support: The participation of Ghana in the ECOWAS provides Ghana with military
assistance when the need be. The ECOWAS regularly deploys thousands of military troops for
peace keeping missions. ECOWAS also promote military cooperation by providing military
assistance to distressed member states during conflicts, assists restructuring the governance
system in such countries and protect their border integrity. This will provide military security
and integrity of sovereignty protected.
5. Good International Relations: The participation of Ghana in the ECOWAS has fostered good
international relationships with her neighbouring West African member states, leading to unity
and peaceful coexistence. Ghana now enjoys peaceful and harmonious living with her
neighbouring states.

PROBLEMS OR FAILURES OF THE ECOWAS

1. Attachment to Colonial Ties: The scramble for colonies let to the partitioning of Africa into
Francophone, Anglophone and Lusophone countries. Nations that resulted from these colonies
still maintain strong ties with their colonial masters and allege to their colonial ideologies. This
has created divergent political and economic views and ideologies, which consequently affects
consensus building at ECOWAS summits.
2. Language Barrier: The difference in language across West African member states, such as
English language, French language and Portuguese language restrict effective communication

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 among member states. This problem of language barrier hampers trade activities among West
African member states.
3. Different Currencies: The different monetary currencies used in West African member states
affects trade and business transactions. The different monetary currencies create conversion
difficulties and thus restrict effective trade and commerce among West African member states.
4. Similarity of Trade Commodities: The industrial goods and commodities traded on the markets
of West African member states are similar in type and quality. This has limited the volume of
trade among West African member states, and thus seriously restricting effective trade and
commerce.
5. Strict Border Controls: Despite the measures by ECOWAS to ensure free movement of people
and goods, some member countries still maintain strict and rigid border control protocols with
other member countries. This negatively affects the effective trading activities among member
states.
6. Political Instability: The frequent occurrence of coups, civil strife, inter-state tensions and social
upheavals has hampered the development process of ECOWAS. The problem of political
instability negatively affects trade and free movement of people beyond national boundaries in
the sub-region.

MEASURES OR SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS OF ECOWAS

1. Need to Detach from Colonial Ties: ECOWAS member states should make efforts to detach the
strong ties with their colonial masters, and rather pledge their unwavering support and
allegiance for the organization.
2. Adoption of a Common Language: The ECOWAS member states can adopt a common language
as an official language to be spoken and use for official duties across member states. Also the
introduction and teaching of modern languages such as English and French languages as a
second language in countries where they are not spoken r use for official duties would help
break down the language barrier to ensure effective communication among member states.
3. Adoption of a Common Currency: The adoption and use of the ECO by all member states of the
ECOWAS will promote trade by eliminating restrictions imposed by currency differentials and
conversion difficulties.
4. Diversification of Trade Commodities: Efforts should be made to diversify products offered on
the ECOWAS market by trading states to enhance the volume of inter-state trade. West African
member states may specialize in the production of specific products to ensure diversification of
trade items, so as to enhance effect trade and commerce activities in the sub-region.
5. Removal of Border Restrictions: Efforts should be made to remove border restrictions and
enhance trade liberalization beyond the current situation to encourage intense trade and
economic integration in the sub-region.
6. Improvements in Transport: Providing and rehabilitating of existing transport networks will
enhance the free movement of goods and people within the sub-region. Efforts are being made
to construct a road network along the West African corridor.

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YAGA Series

SECTION THREE

SOCIO-ECONOMIC
DEVELOPMENT
Topic
Page

1. Science and Technology 115 -

119

2. Resource Development and Utilization in Ghana 120 -

125

115
 3. The Youth and National Development 126 -
128

4. Population Growth and Development 129 -

135

5. Work, Productivity and Entrepreneurship 136 -

137

6. Community Development 138 -

140

7. Promoting National Socio-Economic Development 141 -

145

8. Sustainable Development 146 -

147

-CHAPTER 16-
YAGA Series

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

 Science: This refers to a body of knowledge about the physical world acquired through
systematic enquiry and considerable mental effort.
 Technology: This refers to the process whereby, through human ingenuity and creativity,
scientific knowledge is utilized to satisfy human needs. They involve the various ways by which
science is applied to satisfy human need. Examples include the invention of machine and
development of technics.

EFFORTS BEING MADE TO PROMOTE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN GHANA

116
The government of Ghana must ensure the following measures to promote science and technology in
the country.
1. Public Education: Public education has been used to promote science and technology in Ghana.
Through public lectures, workshops, symposia and for a, Ghanaians have come to see the need
for science and technology and now many parents are encouraging their children to pursue
science education.
2. Establishing Science and Technological Institutions: Another effort made by the government of
Ghana to promote science and techno logy, is the
establishment of educational institutions that offer science. These institutions includes, the
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, College of Medical Science, George
Grant University of Mines and Technology, etc.
3. Establishment of Science Resource Centres: The government has established Science Resource
Centres in many Secondary Schools across the country and has provided them with laboratory
equipment and computers. This is to help in the effective impartation of science and
technological knowledge and skills.
4. Making Science a Compulsory Subject: The government realizing the importance of science and
technology to national development, has made science a compulsory subjects. The government
has made science a core subject up to the senior high school level, to help inculcate science and
technological knowledge into the youth so as develop the interest. In addition to this, the
government has made science an admission requirement of the various tertiary institutions in
the country.
5. Organization of Science Fairs: The government in collaboration with other international
agencies such as UNESCO has instituted science and technological fairs, to enable science
students and industries make their inventions known to the Ghanaian public and the
international community. These fairs have encouraged people to come out technological
inventions

EFFECTS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Science and technology have both positive and negative effects on mankind.

ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Genetic Improvement in Animal and Plant Species: Through science and technology, there has
been cross breeding and genetic improvement of animals and plant species. The result of cross-
breeding is the production of pest and disease resistant animals and crops, to enhance
agricultural development. For example, in cattle production, the hunched-back can be crossed
with the short-horn and the new breed that results will be able to withstand pets and disease.
2. Improvement in Soil Quality and Management: Science and technology have led to the
improvement in the management and quality of soil. Farmers are now taught to discard farming
practices that deplete the soil of its nutrients and adopt practices that conserve soil nutrients
and how to use both organic and inorganic fertilizers to improve the quality of the soil.
3. Development and Application of Fertilizers: The introduction of fertilizers as a result of science
and technology, has helped in the improvement of crop performance. The application of
fertilizers such as NPK to crops by farmers, has led to high yields resulting in increase in output.

117
4. Introduction of Agricultural Machinery: The application of science and technology, has led to
the introduction of agricultural machinery to increase production and reduce the tedious work
associated with the use of simple farm tools. Agricultural machines such as combined
harvesters, tractors, planters, etc. have contributed greatly to large scale production. For
example, the combined harvester can do the work of a hundred farm labourers within few
hours.
5. Development of Irrigation Schemes and Water Management: The introduction of science and
technology, has led to the construction of dams and irrigation schemes to conserve and supply
water constantly to crops and livestock throughout the year. This has prevented the situation,
where farmers depended solely on rainfall for crop cultivation.
6. Development of Methods of Processing and Preservation of Agricultural Products: Through
science and technology, there have been improved and more efficient methods of crop
processing and preservation to reduce post-harvest losses. The construction of large storage
facilities such as silos has helped to preserve large quantities of food crops such as maize.
Industrial equipment has also been developed to process fruits and vegetable into pastes and
juices, that are able to be preserved for a very long time.
7. Control of Pests and Diseases: Through science and technology, diseases and pests that attack
plants and animals have been controlled by agro-chemicals. Agro-chemicals such as pesticides,
insecticides and fungicides destroy pests that attack crops and animals. Weedicides or
herbicides have been developed to control the growth of weeds on the farm.
8. Improved Fishing Techniques: The introduction of science and technology has led to the
development of efficient fishing techniques such as the use of out-board motors and fishing
trawlers. The use of refrigerators in fishing vessels has enabled fishermen to fish for long hours
and spend more time at sea, without their catch getting rotten.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY TO HEALTH CARE

1. Artificial Insemination: Science and technology have made it possible for men with fertility
problems such as low sperm count or weak sperms to have their own children, through artificial
insemination. Fertility drugs can also help men with low sperm count to activate their sperms.
2. In-Vitro Fertilization: Through science and technology, woman who cannot achieve conception
due to problems with the fallopian tube, can have babies through in-vitro fertilization. This is
where, the foetus is developed outside the womb, and introduced into the womb to be
nurtured by the woman.
3. Invention of Machines: Science and technology, has led to the invention of life-saving machines.
Machines such as the X-ray equipment, ultra-sound equipment, dialysis machine, cardio-
vascular equipment, etc. will enable medical personnel detect diseases that have affected any
part of the body, including the lungs, kidney, heart, liver, brain, bones, uterus, etc. This will help
health personnel to prescribe appropriate drugs for the patient.
4. Manufacture of Drugs and Vaccines: Science and technology have led to the manufacture of
drugs and vaccines to cure and prevent diseases, such as measles, tuberculosis, tetanus,
diabetes, hypertension, etc. It is noted that, through science and technology, the incidence of
the six killer diseases of children including whooping cough and poliomyelitis has been reduced.

ROLE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT

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1. Introduction of Heavy Machines: Through science and technology, heavy and powerful
machines have been produced for the industrial sector to process raw materials into finished
goods. They also reduce the tedious work associated with the use of simple industrial tools and
labour. The use of industrial machines increases productivity.
2. Improved Processing and Packaging Methods: Manufacturing industries, such as the breweries,
food processing plants and textile industries use scientific basis for the processing and packaging
of their products. This gives more value to industrial products, as their longevity is increased and
packaging is attractive.
3. Supply of Power: Through science and technology, industrial firms have benefited from power
provided by electricity. Most industries in Ghana rely on power generated and provided by the
Akosombo Hydroelectric plant for manufacturing their products.
4. Development of Transport System: Through science and technology, there have been drastic
improvement in the transportation system. This has enabled industrials to transport raw
materials to the industry and finished goods to the markets with efficiency and minimal cost.

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OR DISADVANTAGES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

1. Production of Weapons of Mass Destruction: Science and technology have led to the
manufacture of nuclear weapons that can destroy settlements, maim and kill people. For
example, the atomic bomb released by the Americans on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan,
during the Second World War destroyed entirely the twin-city, leaving many people dead,
maimed and displaced.
2. Environmental Pollution: Science and technology have contributed to environmental pollution,
through the emission of gasses such as carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons,
etc. into the atmosphere from factories and automobiles. This has led to global warming and the
depletion of the ozone layer resulting climatic changes and health hazards. Chemicals such as
fertilizers and mercury use in agriculture and industrial activities also pollutes water bodies and
the land.
3. Accidents: Science and technology have led to the occurrence of many accidents with the
introduction of vehicles, trains, ships and aeroplanes. The world has witnessed an alarming rate
of accidents on roads, rails, sea and in the air that have destroyed the lives and maimed many
people.
4. Displacements of Labour: Science and technology have contributed to the high rate of
unemployment in the world. This is because, with the introduction of scientific equipment, such
as computers, heavy industrial machines and combined harvesters, many people have been
displaced from their jobs. These equipment which have been employed, work faster and are
more efficient than human labour.
5. Technological Disasters: Science and technology have led to technological disasters, in the form
of explosions from technological devices such as chemical plants, this pollute the environment
and kill many people.

FACTORS INHIBITING THE PROMOTION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN

GHANA

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1. High Level of Illiteracy: One of the factors that hampers the promotion of science and
technology in Ghana is high rate of illiteracy. This is because, illiteracy breeds ignorance and
since illiterates are in the majority in the country, it becomes difficult for the country to progress
in science and technology, as many people do not understand the importance of science and
technology.
2. Inadequate Funds: This is a major factor that has hampered the development of science and
technology in Ghana. Science and technology requires huge financial investments, but the
government and other institutions do not have enough funds to undertake scientific activities.
3. Inadequate Science Resort and Research Centres: The research institutions which are to
undertake scientific and technological researches are woefully inadequate. The few existing
ones do not have qualified researchers to undertake effective research and also lack the
required equipment and funding to carry out their operations. Science equipment that may be
needed to promote science and technological education in the country are in short supply.
Scientific books, chemicals, laboratory equipment, etc. supplied to the Senior High Schools and
Tertiary institutions in the country, are not enough and this have contributed to the downward
trend of science and technology in the country.
4. The Nature of the Educational System: The nature of the country’s educational system has also
undermined the promotion of science and technology in Ghana. Ghana’s educational system has
laid more emphasis on humanities to the neglect of science education.
5. Cultural Beliefs and Practices: Science and technology have not been promoted in the country,
because of some cultural beliefs of the people. Researchers are not allowed entry into places
considered as sacred. The result is that, researchers do not get access to these place to carry out
the needed research.
6. Perception of Science being a Difficult Discipline: Since science is often considered as a difficult
subject, many student who would have done better in reading science subjects, shy away from
them. The country therefore, loses a great number of people who would have helped promote
science and technology in Ghana.

WHY GOVERNMENT IS PLACING EMPHASIS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
1. Creates Job Opportunities: One of the major reasons why the government of Ghana now places
emphasis on the study and development of I.C.T. is that it creates employment for many people
who will be employed as technicians, software engineers, system analysts, computer engineers
and others.
2. Enhance Efficiency at the Work Place: Another reason why the government of Ghana is placing
emphasis on I.C.T. studies is that it speeds up work which is achieved through the easy flow of
information and storing and retrieval of data, made possible by the use of computers, internet
access and others.
3. Promotes Quality Health Care: Information and Communication Technology (ICT) also enhances
the efficiency of the health delivery system. The computerization of the records of patients will
ensure the easy retrieval of information on the patients. This will enable patients receive
prompt medical attention and spend less time at the hospital.

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 4. Promotes the Delivery of Quality Education: Emphasis is again placed on the study and
development of Information and Communication Technology, because of its promotion of
quality education. The computerization of students and teachers records by the educational
institutions will ensure easy access and retrieval of information on students and teachers.
Libraries will also benefit from the use of computers and internet systems, as they provide easy
access to information. I.CT. also promote distance learning education.
5. Promotes Research: information and Communication Technology promotes research, as
researchers can have access to a lot of information on the internet. Moreover, the
computerization of scientific research findings will ensure easy access and retrieval of
information.
6. Promotes Commerce and Banking: The commerce and banking sectors of the economy benefit
from the use of I.C.T. in the form of electronic mail, online shopping, internet banking, electronic
deposits, electronic bill paying, credit cards, automated machines, etc. These facilitates business
transactions.

-CHAPTER 17-
YAGA Series

RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND UTILIZATION

IN GHANA
 Resources: They refer to any form of materials available in the society which can be used in the
production of goods and services to satisfy human needs.
 Development: This refer to the process of growth that lead to both quantitative and qualitative
improvement in resources in the society, reflecting in the standard of living of the people.
 Utilization: This refers to the efficient exploitation (use) of the available resources in the society
to satisfy human needs.

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  Resource Development and Utilization in Ghana: This refers to the quantitative and qualitative
improvement in a country’s resources and the efficient exploitation of these resources to
produce goods and services to satisfy human needs.

TYPES OF RESOURCES
There are three major types of resources, namely:
1. Natural Resources 2. Human Resources 3. Capital Resources.

NATURAL RESOURCES
Natural Resources refers to all the materials provided by nature which can be used in the production of
goods and services to satisfy human needs. Examples of natural resources include, mineral deposit (such
as gold, diamond, natural gas, and crude oil), water bodies (such as rivers, lakes, oceans and lagoons),
soil, vegetation (such as forest, trees and plants), rainfall, sunlight, air, etc.
Natural Resources are thus free gift of nature and they can grouped into three types. They are:

TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES

 RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES: These are natural resources that can be replaced or
regenerated after use. Examples include: Vegetation, Soil, Animals, etc.
 NON-RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES: These are natural resources that cannot be replaced
or regenerated after use. Examples includes: Mineral deposit such as gold, diamond, bauxite,
manganese, coal, natural gas, crude oil, etc.
 INEXHAUSTIBLE NATURAL RESOURCES: These are resources that can be used over and over
again without them getting depleted or finished. Examples include: Air, Sunlight, Ocean, etc.

IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL RESOURCES

1. Provision of Employment: Natural resources provide employment for a large number of
Ghanaians, as most of people engage in agricultural activities. The vegetation provide
employment in the form of farming and lumbering, water bodies in form of fishing, animals in
the form of livestock rearing and mineral deposit in the form of mining.
2. Source of Raw Materials: Natural resources provide raw materials for the various industries in
Ghana and abroad. Raw materials such as cocoa beans, timber, palm fruit, food crops, etc. are
obtained from the vegetation. Such raw materials are required by industries in the production
processes to produce finished goods.
3. Generation of Power: Some natural resource provide energy which can be hanerce7 to
generate power. Sun light can be tapped as solar energy to provide electricity, water bodies
such as rivers and lakes can also be can also be tapped to provide hydroelectric power. The
energy from strong winds is tapped to generate power. Coal and natural gas can also be tapped
to generate thermal energy.
4. Tourist Attraction: Natural resources with beautiful scenery and academic relevance serve as
tourist attraction. The numerous natural resource in Ghana which attract tourist include, the
Boti and Wli water falls, Kakum and Mole National parks, the various landforms at the beaches,
etc.

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 5. Provision of Food and Water: Natural resources provide most of the food and water consumed
by man. The vegetation provide food crops and fruits, water bodies and rainfall also provide
water for both domestic and industrial purposes. Animals can be tamed or hunted to provide
food as well.
6. Source of State Revenue and Income: Natural resources provide the government revenue and
individuals with income. The government receives substantial sums of money through taxation
on exported materials generated from the natural resources such as cocoa, gold and timber.
Individuals who engage in the sales of products derived from natural resources such as food
crops, fruits, vegetables, etc. earn an income.

WHY NATURAL RESOURCES HAVE NOT BEEN SUFFICIENTLY EXPLOITED

AND UTILIZED IN GHANA
Ghana’s natural resources have not been sufficiently exploited to help improve the standard of living of
the people. The following factors are however responsible for the under-utilization of natural resources
in Ghana.
1. LACK OF SKILLED LABOUR: Ghana has not been able to develop her natural resources due to the
lack of adequate skilled personnel such as scientists, geologists, engineers and researchers who
have the requisite technical know-how to efficiently exploit and utilize the country’s natural
resources. This inadequate skilled labour is due to the educational system which is knowledge
based rather than technical and vocational education.
2. INADEQUATE CAPITAL: The difficulty in accessing capital in Ghana has contributed to the
inability to exploit and utilize her natural resources. Ghana lacks capital in the form of money
and equipment to enable her exploit her natural resources. The inadequate capital is due to the
low income levels of Ghanaians and balance of payment deficits, this does not allow the state to
generate enough foreign exchange to import machines and equipment to develop her natural
resources.
3. LOW LEVEL OF TECHNOLOGY: Ghana lacks advance technology and techniques that will enable
her to efficiently exploit and utilize her natural resources. Low or no technology is still applied in
the agricultural sector resulting to the low productivity. The mining sector is also dominated by
small scale mining which apply simple tools and equipment in the extraction of minerals.
4. POOR ATTITUDE TO WORK: Many workers in Ghana exhibit negative attitude to work such as
lateness to work, absenteeism and loitering. All these delay work and affect the productivity and
utilization of natural resources of the nation.
5. BRAIN DRAIN OF SKILLED LABOUR: The few skilled personnel who turn out of the educational
system in Ghana, leave the country to foreign countries where they hope to find better working
conditions and incentives. This deprive the country with the adequate skilled labour to help
exploit and utilize her natural resources efficiently. The country then relies on foreign expert
who are paid huge salaries and allowances with the scarce foreign exchange.
6. POLITICAL INSTABILITY: Ghana has not been able to exploit and utilize her natural resources
because of the political instability resulting from frequent military coups in the 1960’s and 70’s.
The unstable political climate and insecurity prevented both local and foreign investors from
investing in the exploitation and utilization of natural resources in the country.

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 HUMAN RESOURCES
Human resources refers to the size and capabilities of a country’s population to produce goods and
services and satisfy human needs.
This includes the skills, abilities, knowledge and physical strength of the people in a country. The human
resource of a country can be grouped into three. They are:

TYPES OF HUMAN RESOURCES

1. SKILLED LABOUR: This refers to the application of more mental effort and abilities rather than
sheer physical strength to produce goods and services to satisfy human needs. They are the
highly rated professionals such as doctors, accountants, engineers, lawyers, teachers and
administrators.
2. UNSKILLED LABOUR: This refers to the application of more physical strength and capabilities
rather than mental efforts to produce goods and services to satisfy human needs. They include
blue colour jobs such as messengers, truck pushers, labourers, cleaners, watchmen, etc.
3. SEMI-SKILLED LABOUR: This refers to the application of combined little mental efforts and more
physical abilities to produce goods and services to satisfy human needs. They include artisans
such as carpenters, hairdressers, masons, auto-mechanics, seamstress, etc.

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

Human resource development refers to the effort being made to enhance the capabilities of the
individual so as to improve on his/her standard of living. The human resource of the nation can be
developed through the following means:
 EDUCATION: The human resource in Ghana can be developed through education, which will
enable the individual acquire knowledge and skills. This knowledge and skills gained will help
improve the standard of living of the individual and promote national development.
 TRAINING PEOPLE FOR JOBS: The human resource in Ghana can be developed training for jobs.
This help the individual to acquire specific skills, knowledge and attitude on the profession or
trade he/she engages in.
 IN-SERVICE TRAINING: The human resource in Ghana can be developed through in-service
training, where training programmes and courses in the form of workshops and seminars are
organized for workers. This seminars and workshops enable the worker to acquire new methods
and technology which would enhance worker efficiency and productivity.
 CAREER COUNSELLING: The human resource in Ghana can be developed through career
counselling, where the individual is guided and counseled to choose careers and professions
that best suit the individual’s capabilities and attitude.
 RE-TRAINING OF DISPLACED WORKERS: The human resource in Ghana can be developed
through re-training of displaced workers, where workers who have lost their work due to
redundancy are re-trained to acquire new skills, knowledge and attitude on different trade or
profession. This gives them the opportunity of re-employment.

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WHY HUMAN RESOURCES HAS NOT BEEN PROPERLY DEVELOPED EFFICIENTLY
UTILIZED IN GHANA
1. INADEQUATE JOB OPPORTUNITIES: The human resource in Ghana has not been efficiently
utilized because of inadequate job opportunities for individuals to utilize the skills, knowledge
and attitude that they acquired from their training courses and programmes. This has resulted
to unemployment and discourage individuals from acquiring education and training, as they
know they will be unemployed even after acquiring the skills, knowledge and attitude.
2. POOR WORK ATTITUDE: The human resource in Ghana has not been efficiently utilized because
of workers negatives attitudes such as lateness, laziness, loitering and absenteeism to work.
These negative attitude reduces workers efficiency and productivity as more productive hours
are lost due to lateness, absenteeism, loitering and laziness at the work place.
3. LACK OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING: The human resource in Ghana has not been efficiently
utilized because of lack of education and training. Lack of education and training deprive the
individual with the requisite skills and know-how to help develop himself and the nation. This
contribute to the greater portion of unskilled and semi-skilled labour in the country.
4. LACK OF INCENTIVES AND REMUNERATION: The human resources in Ghana has not been
efficiently utilized because of the poor salaries and incentives offered by both private and
government organizations to workers. The absence of better salaries and incentives does not
motivate workers to work very hard to improve worker efficiency and productivity.
5. LACK OF INITIATION AND CREATIVITY: The human resource in Ghana has not been efficiently
utilized because most Ghanaians especially the youth lacks initiation and creativity. The inability
of most Ghanaian workers to think and take decisions independently affect worker efficiency.
Ghanaians also lacks the ability to create new ideas and strategies to solve confronting needs.

MEASURES TO ENSURE THE EFFICIENT USE OF THE HUMAN RESOURCES IN

GHANA
1. CREATION OF JOB OPPORTUNITIES: The creation of jobs by government and private
organizations will result in employment in various forms. People who are employed can put the
skills and knowledge acquired to efficient use. This will help improve the standard of living of the
individual, the nation will benefit and the problem of unemployment will be minimized.
2. POSITIVE ATTITUDES TO WORK: People should exhibit positive attitude towards work such as
dedication, loyalty, hard work, punctuality, reliability and honesty. These positive attitudes will
enable workers discharge their duties very efficiently to increase productivity.
3. PROVISION OF ADEQUATE EDUCATION AND TRAINING: The provision of education and training
will help the individual acquire the necessary skills, knowledge and attitude needed at the work
place to increase productivity.
4. PROVISION OF ADEQUATE INCENTIVES AND REMUNERATION: The provision of adequate
salaries and incentives such as free housing, bonuses and canteen meals by both government
and private organizations will lead to the efficient use of human resources. This is because these
better salaries and incentives will boost the morale of workers to work very hard so as to
increase productivity.
5. INSTILLING INITIATIVE AND CREATIVITY: There is the need to instill initiative and creativity in
the Ghanaian worker. A person with initiative can take decisions independently and a person
showing creativity is able to use his/her skills to produces new things and solve problems.

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 CAPITAL RESOURCES
Capital Resources refers to all materials made by man that are used in the production of goods and
services to satisfy human needs. They include dams, tools, equipment, machinery, money, raw
materials, etc.
Capital resources can be grouped into four major categories of capital. They are:

TYPES OF CAPITAL RESOURCES

 FIXED CAPITAL: They refer to the physical structures that have long life-span and do not change
their form in the production of goods and services. Examples include, factory buildings,
machines, tools, equipment, etc. They are also known as Real Capital.
 CIRCULATING CAPITAL: They refer to items which change their forms in the production of goods
and services. Examples include, Physical cash, raw materials and stocks. They are also known as
Working Capital.
 SOCIAL CAPITAL: They refer to facilities owned by society and provide vital services to improve
the living conditions of the people. Examples include public schools, hospitals, roads, railways,
harbours, bridges, etc. They are established for non-profit motives.
 LIQUID CAPITAL: They refer to the money or cash in an individual’s possession which he intends
to start a business or procure other equipment with.

SOURCES OF CAPITAL RESOURCES

1. Personal Savings: This is the capital an individual obtain from his\her personal savings, thus, the
monies accumulated over a period of time for future and unforeseen reasons. The individual can
use this accumulated capital to set up a business or undertake a project.
2. Loans: This is the capital an individual obtain through borrowing from financial institutions,
relatives and friends. The capital acquired from these source usually attract interest. The
individual can use this borrowed capital to set up a business or undertake a project.
3. Donations/Gifts/Grants: This is the capital an individual obtain through capital received from
grants, gifts and donations from institutions and individual. The individual can use this donated
capital to set up a business or undertake a project.
4. Floating Shares: This is the capital an individual obtain by registering with the stock exchange in
order to float shares to the public so as to acquire cash or money to commence or expand their
operations.

IMPORTANCE OF CAPITAL RESOURCES

1. Facilitation of Production: Capital facilitates the production of goods and services, because fixed
capital such as machines and equipment are used in the production process to produce goods
and services.
2. Promote Qualitative Work: Capital increases the quality and volume of work needed in the
production of goods and services. Fixed capital such as machines have more efficiency and
reliability than human labour hence help promote the quality of work.

126
 3. Increase Foreign Exchange: Capital helps to increase productivity levels in the work place. These
enables the government to export more products thereby earning more foreign exchange.
4. Financing of Production: Capital is used to finance all production activities at the work place.
Liquid capital (cash) is used to acquire raw materials, hire human labour and acquire machines
and equipment to produce goods and services.

RELATIONSHIP AMONG THE THREE TYPES OF RESOURCES

All the three types of resources, namely, natural, human and capital resources are combined in the
production process to produce goods and services to satisfy human needs.
The natural resources such as raw materials, land and sources of power are exploited by the human
resources such as management plans and workers, through the utilization of capital resources such
equipment, machines and monies to produce goods and services to satisfy human needs.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND THE

UTILIZATION OF NATURAL AND CAPITAL RESOURCES
Research findings have proven that human resource development has positive impact on the utilization
of the other resources.
The study indicated that a nation with developed human resource is able to efficiently exploit and utilize
her natural and capital resources to improve the standard of living of the people and the development
of the nation. While a nation with poor or under-developed human resource is unable to efficiently
exploit and utilized her natural and capital resources. This retard the development of the nation and
improvement in standard of living of the people.
In other words, a nation with abundant skilled personal is able to transform other resource (natural and
capital) into refined goods for human use.

-CHAPTER 18-
YAGA Series

THE YOUTH AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

 The Youth: This refers to young individuals who are within the ages fifteen and thirty years.
 National Development: This refers to the progress made by a nation to overcome her socio-
economic problems or challenges so as to improve the standard and quality of life of individuals
living in the country.

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 HOW THE YOUTH CAN CONTRIBUTE TO NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
1. Payment of Taxes: The youth can contribute to national development by securing jobs in order
to earn an income. This will enable the youth to contribute to state revenue generation through
the payment of tax. The government use this revenue to provide infrastructure, amenities,
payment of government worker’s salaries, etc. This contribute to national development.
2. Adopting and Exhibiting Positive Working Attitudes: The youth can contribute to national
development by adopting and exhibiting positive working attitudes. The youth ought to adopt
and exhibit positive attitudes such as hard work, dedication, commitment, punctuality, etc. that
will lead to high productivity and ensure national development.
3. Taking Leadership Roles: The youth can contribute to national development by taking
leadership roles, thus, acquiring skills, knowledge and attitudes to manage leadership positions
in the society. The youth can contribute their innovative ideas to national development as they
take charge of leadership positions.
4. Active Participation in Communal Labour: The youth can contribute to national development by
offering their labour to ensure community development. The youth can engage in communal
activities geared towards the development of the community, so as to facilitate the
implementation of such programmes.
5. Honouring National Service: The youth can contribute to national development by honouring
national service. The youth should make themselves available to the service of the nation in all
spheres of national activities.
6. Maintaining a Healthy Lifestyle: The youth can contribute to national development by
maintaining a healthy lifestyle. The youth should engage in regular exercise to keep fit and also
refrain from activities that will pose hazards to his/her health.

WHY THE YOUTH HAVE NOT MADE SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTION TO NATIONAL

DEVELOPMENT
1. Inadequate Job Opportunities: The youth have not made significant contributions to national
development because of inadequate job opportunities. Since the government has not been able
to create enough employment opportunities, the youth who graduate from the various colleges,
universities and training centres are not able to utilize the skills, knowledge and attitudes
acquired to productive use to promote national development.
2. Lack of Positive Working Attitudes: The youth have not been able to contribute to national
development because they lack positive attitudes to work. The youth exhibit negative attitudes
such as lateness to work, absenteeism, laziness at the work place, loitering and chatting
unnecessarily, instead of exhibiting positive attitudes such as punctuality, commitment to work
and high sense of duty.
3. Unhealthy Lifestyles: The youth have not been able to contribute to national development
because of their unhealthy lifestyles. The youth must be physically strong and fit to be able to
work and contribute to national development, thus, if they engage in activities that will be
hazardous to their health, they may not be able to contribute to national development.
4. Inadequate Provision of Technical and Vocational Training: The youth have not been able to
contribute to national development because of inadequate technical and vocational education.
The educational system in Ghana placed more emphasis on knowledge based to the neglect of
technical and vocational education. This results in increased unemployment as the youths will
lack the technical and vocational skills needed for effective performance of jobs.

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5. Lack of Initiative: The youth have not been able to contribute to national development because
of lack of initiative. The youth are not able to think and solve confronting challenges
independently, they lack entrepreneur ideas and thus depend on the government for
employment opportunities.

HOW THE YOUTH CAN GET EMPLOYMENT

1. Acquisition of Knowledge and Skills: The youth can get employment by first, acquiring
knowledge, skills and attitudes that are needed at the work place. This will make the youth
qualified for job opportunities.
2. Mass Media Advertisement: The youth can get employment getting access to mass media
advertisement, where job opportunities are published. The mass media including, newspapers,
radio, television, bill boards and internet publish various job opportunities, which the youth can
apply for.
3. Personal Contacts: The youth can also get employment through personal contacts. The youth
can visit institutions where they hope to find jobs with their C. V’s and application letter.
4. Labour Office: The labour office has been a major avenue for the youth to find jobs. The labour
office is in direct contact with institutions which have job vacancies and individuals seeking jobs
can upon application to the labour office secure a job.
5. Self-Employment: The youth can also secure jobs through self-employment. The acquisition of
skills through technical and vocational training enables the youths to establish their own
business.

WHY PEOPLE NEED TO PLAN FOR THE FUTURE

1. To Improve Standard of Living: People need to plan for the future so as to ensure improvement
in their standard of living. An individual who plans for the future is able to save and make
investments that will generate capital earnings to help them enhance their living conditions.
2. For Social and Financial Security: Since life is full of unforeseen circumstances, there is the need
for the individual to plan for the future, so that he/she will be socially and financially secured to
overcome such unforeseen circumstances. The individual can be socially and financially secured
through making adequate savings and investments.
3. To Initiate Development Projects: People need to plan for the future so as to initiate
development projects that will enhance their standard of living. Planning for the future will
enable individuals to undertake projects such as build of houses, setting up business and other
personal projects that will improve the socio-economic conditions of the individual.
4. To Enjoy Retirement: Another reason why individuals should plan is to enjoy their retirement.
Planning for the future will enable the individual to make adequate saving and investments that
will ripe him/her benefits during retirement.

WHY IT IS DIFFICULT FOR THE YOUTH TO GET EMPLOYMENT IN GHANA

1. Nature of the Educational System:
2. Inadequate Employment Opportunities:
3. Negative Work Attitudes:
4. Job Discrimination by the Youth:
5. Corruption and Nepotism:

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-CHAPTER 19-
YAGA Series

POPULATION GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

 Population Distribution: This is the spread of people across a given geographical area at a
particular time.
 Population Explosion: This is the sudden and rapid increase in the number of people living in a
given geographical area at a particular time.

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  Population Census: This is the official count of all persons living in a particular geographical area
over a period of time.
 Population: This is the total number of people living in a given geographical area at a particular
time.
 Over Population: This is situation where the total number of people living in a given
geographical area exceeds the available resources and technology.
 Under Population: This is a situation where the total number of people living in a given
geographical area is insufficient relative to the available resources and technology.
 Optimum Population: This is a situation where the total number of people living in a given
geographical area is sufficient to effectively utilize the available resources and technology.
 Population Density: This is the total number of people per square kilometer in a given
Total Population
geographical area. Population Density =
Land Area
 Population Growth: This is the increase and decrease in a country’s population annually (in a
year).
 Population Growth Rate: This is the rate at which a country’s population increases or decreases
annually (in a year).
 Birth Rate: This is the total number of live birth in a year per 1,000 persons. This also called
Crude Birth Rate.
 Fertility Rate: This is the average number of live birth women in a given geographical area are
willing and able to give birth to in a year.
 Death Rate: This is the total number of deaths in a year per 1,000 persons. This is also known as
Mortality Rate or Crude Death Rate.
 Life Expectancy: This is the measure of the average number of years a new born infant can be
expected to live.
 Dependency Ratio: This is the number of non-working dependent in a given geographical area
per 100 workers.
 Morbidity Rate: Morbidity is the condition of being sick or diseased. Morbidity Rate is the ratio
of diseased persons in a given geographical area at a particular time.
 Sex Ratio: This refers to total number of males per 1,000 females in the population of a region.
 Demography: This refers to the study of human population characteristics in a given period of
time.

THE STRUCTURE OF GHANA’S POPULATION

The population structure of portrays the age and sex groupings of the population in a given period of
time.
 The population pyramid of Ghana can be described as having a broader base and a narrower
apex or summit.
 This is an indication that there are more young people in the population, and can thus, be
described as a youthful population.
 The population pyramid also portrays that the female population exceeds that of the male.

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 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STRUCTURE OF GHANA’S POPULATION
(HOW THE STRUCTURE OF GHANA’S POPULATION AFFECTS GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT)
 High Fertility Rate:
 High Dependency Burden:
 High Rate of Unemployment:
 Pressure on social Amenities:

FACTORS THAT AFFECTS POPULATION GROWTH RATE

 Birth Rate: The rate of live birth in a year affects a country’s population because when birth rate
increases while death rate remains the same, it implies an increase in population growth. On the
other hand, when birth rate decreases while death rate remains the same, it implies a decrease
in population growth.
 Death Rate: The rate of death in a year affects a country’s population because when birth rate
increases while birth rate remains the same, it implies a decrease in population growth. On the
other hand, when death rate decreases while birth rate remains the same, it implies an increase
in population growth.
 Migration: This is the movement of people from geographical area to another. When people
move to other regions the population in the source region decreases while the population in the
destination region increases. When people move into a particular geographical area it is term
immigration. Whiles the movement of people outside a particular geographical area is termed
emigration.
 Life Expectancy: When people in given area have high life expectancy rate it implies that death
rate will be reduced, hence increased population growth. On the other hand, low life expectancy
rate implies high death hence decrease in population growth.
 Health Standard: Advanced health standard results to low death rate and high life expectancy
rate because of improved medicines, treatments and machines that save and prolong life. On
the other hand, low health standard results to high death rate and low life expectancy because
of outmoded medicine, treatments and machines.
 Level of Literacy: High literacy result to high acceptability to birth control measures, highly
educated women also marry late in life and tend to have small family size, this results to low
population growth. On the other hand, low literacy results to low acceptability to birth control
measures, uneducated women also marry early in life and tend to have large family size. This
results to high population growth.

ADVANTAGES OF HIGH/RAPID POPULATION GROWTH

1. Large Labour Source: Rapid or high population growth results to the increase of labour force
both skilled and unskilled in such regions. This provides cheap and ready supply of labour for the
various industrial and commercial activities associated with regions of high population.
2. Large Market Size: Rapid or high population growth results to increased population in a given
geographical area. This increased number of people provides large and ready markets to
consume the goods and services from the various industrial and commercial activities.

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3. High Production Output: Rapid or high population growth results to increased population in a
given geographical area. This increased number of people provides large, cheap and ready
labour force to effectively combine with other factors of production to ensure efficient
productivity.
4. High National Investment: The rapid or high population growth necessitates increased
manufacturing activities to meet the demands of the growing population. These increased
manufacturing activities provide revenue to the state through taxation and also serve as a
source of employment. The government also provides social amenities to relieve the pressure of
the increased population on existing amenities.

EFFECTS/PROBLEMS/DISADVANTAGES OF RAPID/HIGH POPULATION GROWTH

1. Pressure on Social Amenities: Social amenities and infrastructures such as hospitals,
educational institutes, transportation networks and recreational centers are often over-used in
highly populated areas leading to the rapid deterioration of such structures.
2. Pressure on Natural Resources: High population put pressure on available natural resources
such as land, minerals, vegetation and fresh water. Many people compete for the utilization of
these resources.
3. Accommodation Problems: Areas with high population often battle with accommodation
problems resulting to the development of shanty towns and slums. This new development also
leads to sanitation problems which often causes outbreak of diseases.
4. Congestion and Over-Crowding: High population growth may create over-crowding and
congestion as many people who face accommodation problems will create shanty towns and
slums. Also the increased number of vehicle creates vehicular traffic.
5. Sanitation Problems: Poor housing layout and pressure on the natural environment
(resources) create sanitation problems such as choked and filthy drains caused by the
improper disposal of solid and liquid waste.
6. Unemployment: Since the people are over and above the available resources, pressure
and exerted on the limited available job opportunities. This situation results to the
problem of unemployment as some people are unable secure a job.

MEASURES TO SOLVE THE PROBLEMS OF RAPID/HIGH POPULATION GROWTH

1. Birth Control: Family planning methods must be adopted and patronized in order to control or
manage population growth in a given geographical area. Some of the birth control methods
include condoms, pills and vasectomy.
2. Restrictions on Immigration: Measures must be put in place to tighten border control to
prevent illegal migrant. Illegal migrants are often faced with accommodation problems and job
insecurity thereby contribute to the problems of pressure on social amenities, sanitation
problems and social vices.
3. Education: People should be educated on the need to have a small family size. People should
also be educated on birth control measures/methods. The number of female enrollments in the
education institutes must be increased because women who are educated turn to have small
family size.

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 4. Government Policies: Government must play a role in controlling population growth. The
government must draft and pass policies that restrict people from having large family size. China
for instance, passed a policy on population that has helped managed it population growth.

IMPORTANCE OF POPULATION CENSUS

 Provide Accurate Population Statistics:
 Help to Assess Population Growth Rate:
 Provide Data for Developmental Planning:
 Helps the Government in Efficient Taxation:
 Helps to Account for the Number of Foreigners in the Country:
 Provide Demographic Data for Foreign Aid and Investment:

PROBLEMS OF POPULATION CENSUS

 Inadequate Capital:
 Lack of Accessibility:
 Illiteracy:
 Lack of Proper Training for Census Personnel:
 Inaccurate Cartographic Maps:
 The Problem of Double or Under Counting:
 Traditional Beliefs:

RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION
Rural-Urban Migration: This is the movement of people from rural areas such as a village to urban areas
such as a town or city. This is the most common type of migration in Ghana and Africa.

FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE (CAUSE) RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION

The factors that influence migration are grouped into two factors, thus push and pull factors. These
factors however cause Rural-Urban Migration.
PUSH FACTORS
These factors force people in rural areas to migrate into urban areas.
 Absence of Social Amenities: The absence of social amenities such as electricity, potable
drinking water, and entertainment centers force many people to migrate to cities and towns.
 Absence of Job Opportunities: The absence of jobs except farming has worsened property
levels in many rural areas. This has forced many people to migrate to search for greener
pastures in cities and towns.
 Unfavourable Environmental and Social Conditions: The occurrence of droughts, food
shortages, outbreak of diseases and harsh weather conditions forces people to migrate to places
where the conditions are favourable.
 Strict Traditions and Customs: The strict practice of traditional laws, customs, taboos and
superstitious beliefs force people to migrate to places where they will be free from such
practices.
PULL FACTORS
These factors attract people to migrate to urban areas from rural areas. These factors are

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  Presence of Social Amenities: The presence of social amenities such as electricity, pipe-borne
water, entertainment centers and other social services in the urban areas attract people to
these cities and towns.
 Presence of Job Opportunities: The availability of jobs in urban centers due to the presence of
industries and commercial centers attract many people to migrate to cities and towns.
 Freedom from Strict Traditions and Customs: The strict practice of traditional laws, customs,
taboos and superstitious beliefs are absent in the urban centers. This attracts people to migrate
there.
 Presence of Educational Facilities: The presence of educational facilities in such as Senior High
Schools and Tertiary Institutions in urban areas provide people with the opportunities to
improve their living standard through the acquisition of knowledge and skills.
 Presence of Medical Facilities: The presence of medical facilities such as hospitals and clinics in
urban areas provide live saving health care services through efficient diagnosis of diseases and
application of proper treatment.

EFFECTS OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION

The effects of rural-urban migration may be positive (advantages) or negative (disadvantages).
The effects affect both the sending area/rural (source region) and the receiving area/urban (destination
region).

POSITIVE EFFECT OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ON SOURCE REGIONS (RURAL AREAS)

 Less Pressure on Resources: When people migrate from rural areas to urban areas the
population in the rural area decline which implies there will be less people competing for the
available resources such as farmlands, water and vegetation.
 Less Social Vices: When people migrate from rural areas to urban areas, it is the male youth
who usually migrate. The male youth are the group in society that usually engages in social vices
hence migration of this male youth implies that social vices will be reduced in the rural areas.
 Remittances: People who have migrated to other regions may send capital to their home region.
This helps to improve the standard of living of the people back home.
 Acquisition of Skills and Attitudes: People who have migrated to other regions may return back
to their home region with acquired skills and attitudes that would help in the development of
the source region.
NEGATIVE EFFECT OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ON SOURCE REGIONS (RURAL AREAS)
 Decline in Labour Force: When people migrate from rural areas to urban areas, it is the male
youth who usually migrate. The male youth are the economically active group in society hence
migration of this male youth implies that labour force will be reduced in the rural areas.
 Result in Sex and Age Imbalance: When people migrate from rural areas to urban areas, it is the
male youth who usually migrate. This results in sex imbalance as more males migrate leaving the
population in rural areas with more females than males. It also results in age imbalance as more
youth migrate leaving the population in rural areas with more aged and children than youths.
 Decrease Revenue: The state and the various district assemblies generate revenue through
taxation. Rural-Urban migration results to decline of population in the source region which
implies low revenue generation as less people will be taxed.

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  Decrease Productivity: Migration of the economically active people in the rural areas results in
decline in labour force who are supposed to effectively combine with other factors of
production to ensure efficient productivity.

POSITIVE EFFECT OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ON DESTINATION REGIONS (URBAN AREAS)

 Increase labour Force: Rural-Urban migration results to the over flow of labour force both
skilled and unskilled in the destination region in search of job opportunities. This provides cheap
and ready supply of labour for the various industrial and commercial activities.
 Increase revenue: The state and the various district assemblies generate revenue through
taxation. Rural-Urban migration results to increase population in the destination region which
implies high revenue generation as more people will be taxed.
 Increase market size: Rural-Urban migration results to increased population in the destination
region. This provides large and ready markets to consume the goods and services from the
various industrial and commercial activities.
 Increase productivity: Rural-Urban migration results to increased population in the destination
region. This provides large, cheap and ready labour force to effectively combine with other
factors of production to ensure efficient productivity.

NEGATIVE EFFECT OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ON DESTINATION REGIONS (URBAN AREAS)

 Pressure on Social Amenities: Rural-Urban migration results to increased population in the
destination region. This increased population increases pressure on social amenities such as
electricity, water supply, schools, hospitals, transport facilities, etc. leading to the gradual
deterioration of such amenities and structures.
 Increase Social Vices: Majority of people who migrate to urban areas are male youths
who have the tendency of criminal activities, they however migrate to the urban areas
with such vices. The problem of unemployment also leads to social vices as the
employed engage in such practices to survive.
 Accommodation Problems: Rural-Urban migration results to increased population in the
destination region. The available housing facilities are unable to accommodate the high
population and also expensive leading to the creation of slums and shanty settlements.
 Sanitation Problems: Rural-Urban migration results to increased population in the destination
region. The increased population has created sanitary problems such as choked and filthy
gutters and contaminated water bodies, littered streets and improper huge refuse dump sites.

FAMILY PLANNING
Family planning refers to the programmes designed to help couples and individuals to decide on the
number, timing and spacing of their children considering one’s available resources.

METHODS OF FAMILY PLANNING

 Natural Methods:

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  The Rhythm Method:
 The Withdrawal Method:

 Artificial Methods:
 Condom Use:
 Oral Contraceptives:
 Foaming Tablets;
 Spermicidal Creams:
 Tubal Ligation:
 Vasectomy:

IMPORTANCE OF FAMILY PLANNING

 Helps Couples and Individuals to have Control in their Family and Sex Life:
 Reduction in Population Growth:
 Check the Problem of Dependency Burden:
 Reduce Pressure on Government Expenditure:
 Reduce Pressure on Employment Opportunities:

FACTORS THAT HINDER THE ACCEPTANCE OF FAMILY PLANNING PROGRAMMES IN GHANA

 Illiteracy:
 Traditional Beliefs:
 Misconception of Effects of Family Planning:
 The Fear of Sexual Immorality:
 The Notion of Children as Social Security:

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF FAMILY PLANNING

 Side-Effects of Some Methods:
 Promote Sexual Immorality:
 Results to the Problems of Low Population Growth:
 Breakdown of the Religious and Traditional Concept of Child bearing Fruitfulness:

-CHAPTER 20-
YAGA Series

WORK, PRODUCTIVITY AND

ENTREPRENEURSHIP
 Work: This refers to any legal and socially acceptable act that an individual performs to earn a
living.
 Productivity: This refers to the measure of worker efficiency.

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  Entrepreneurship: This refers to an individual who combines and controls the other three
factors of production which are land, capital and labour to produce goods and services and also
bears the risks involved.

QUALITIES OF AN ENTREPRENEUR
 He must have vision and foresight.
 Have good decision making skills
 He must be courageous.
 He must have good human relations.
 He must of knowledgeable.

SOURCE OF FINANCE AVAILABLE TO THE ENTREPRENEUR

 Personal savings.
 Loans from banks and other credit facilities.
 Ploughed-back profits.
 Capital from inheritance.

HOW AN ENTREPRENEUR CAN SUSTAIN HIS BUSINESS

 Maintain high quality product and services.
 Apply higher skills and technology.
 Separate business account from personal account.
 Remuneration for workers
 Maintain good inter-personal relationship.

THE PROBLEMS FACING ENTREPRENEURS (PRIVATE SECTOR ENTERPRISES) IN GHANA

 Inadequate financial base.
 High tax rates.
 Low taste for local goods and services.
 Trade liberalization policy.
 Inadequate skilled labour.

SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS FACING ENTREPRENEURS (PRIVATE SECTOR ENTERPRISES) IN

GHANA
 Provision of investment capital.
 Provision of tax relief.
 Developing taste for local goods and services.
 Trade restrictions on foreign goods and services.
 Provision of professional training.

TYPES OF BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS

 Sole Proprietorship
 Partnership:
 Joint Stock Company:
 Public Corporations:
 Co-operative Societies:

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 FACTORS THAT ACCOUNT FOR THE DIFFERENCE IN PRODUCTIVITY LEVELS OF THE PRIVATE
AND PUBLIC SECTORS IN GHANA

 Nature of supervision.
 Provision of incentives and remuneration.
 Use of modern technology.
 Negative work attitudes.
 Bureaucracies.

HOW TO ACHIEVE INCREASE IN PRODUCTIVITY IN GHANA

 Education and training.

 Improved conditions of work.
 Development of positive work attitudes.
 Adoption of modern technology.

WORKING ETHICS

 Positive Working Ethics:


 Negative Working Ethics:


-CHAPTER 21-
YAGA Series

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
 COMMUNITY: Community refers to a relatively large group of people who are united by a
common interest, values, characteristics, associations and behavior patterns.
 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT: Community development refers to the positive change in the
values, attitudes and physical structures in the community resulting to the improvement of the
quality of life of the people.

LEVELS OF COMMUNITY

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There are different levels of communities. On the local level, they start from the family, to the
neighbourhood and expand to the villages, towns, districts, regional and national levels. On the
international level, they start from sub-regional (example West African sub-region) to regional (example
African) and the World.
Communities can also be identified on the basis of a common shared interest such as work, education,
social activities, etc.

FACTORS THAT PROMOTE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

1. Leader with Foresight and Vision: A leader with foresight and vision has the ability to project
into the future. The policies and projects that the leader formulates and implements will have
relevance in the years to come. In Ghana, the vision of Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, which led to the
establishment of schools and the construction of the Akosombo Dam is still relevant to the
socio-economic development of Ghana.
2. Adoption of Positive Attitude: Community development can be promoted if the leader and
members of the community positively change their attitudes. This positive attitude change will
enable the people show concern for the community and devote their time, energy and
resources for the socio-economic development of the community.
3. Participation in Community Projects: The participation of members of the community in
community projects will help promote community development. This is because, the member’s
involvement in communal activities will help them provide more social amenities to improve
their socio-economic development of the community.
4. Protection and Maintenance of Community Property: Community development can be
promoted if the members of the community protect and properly maintain the property of the
community. This will save the community from spending its resources to repair and replace
broken amenities.
5. Participating in Communal Labour: Community development can be promoted through active
participation of the members in sanitation activities to keep their environment clean and
hygienic. A community with clean environment helps promote socio-economic development of
the community.

COMMUNITY INITIATIVE
 INITIATIVE: Initiative refers to the act and ability of making decisions and implement them
independently.
 COMMUNITY INITIATIVE: Community initiative refers to a collective social action that enables a
community to find sustainable solutions to socio-economic problems with little or no help from
the central government.

IMPORTANCE OF COMMUNITY INITIATIVE

1. Provision of Social Amenities: Through community initiative, the people are able to provide
themselves with social amenities such as schools, hospitals, electricity, portable water, public
places of convenience and others. These facilities ensure the socio-economic development of
the community and the improvement in the standard of living of the people.

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2. Improvement in Sanitation: Community initiative helps to improve the sanitary conditions of
the people. As the people engage in communal labour and clean the environment, they rid the
community of filth and other waste materials. Community initiative, therefore, prevents the
outbreak of such diseases as cholera, malaria and typhoid.
3. Provision of Employment: Employment opportunities are also provided through community
initiative. As communities undertake projects such as lorry parks, markets and public places of
convenience. Some members of the communities are employed to manage these facilities and
these people receive income to improve their standard of living.
4. Promote Peace and Social Harmony: Community initiative also helps in ensuring peace and
order in the community. Members of the community constitute themselves into watch-dog
committees to clamp down on criminal activities such as armed robbery, gambling, smuggling,
stealing, etc.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN COMMUNITY DECISION MAKING PROCESS

1. Sensitization of the People: One of the major factors that need to be considered in community
decision making process is the sensitization of the people on the need for community
development. When the people become aware of the need for socio-economic development of
the community, they will be ready and willing to devote their time, energy and resources for the
betterment of the community.
2. Identification of Needs/Problems: In community decision making process it is important to
identify the needs or problems confronting the community. Through the identification of
problems or needs, decisions can be taken to combat the needs or problems.
3. Prioritization of Needs/Problems: After the needs or problems have been identified, it becomes
important to prioritize the list of problems or needs, in order to address the most challenging or
pressing needs or problems.
4. Mobilizing Community Support: In community decision making process it is important to gain
the support of members of the community. This help in the effective making and implementing
of decisions, as all or majority of the members of the community accepts and agree to proposals
and decisions.
5. Mobilizing Funds and Resources: The availability of resources and funds is important in
community decision making process. Funds and resources will facilitate the implementation of
decisions, hence, decisions can only be made based on the funding and resources available or
provided by the community.
WAYS BY WHICH THE INDIVIDUAL CAN CONTRIBUTE TO COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
(ROLE OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT)
1. Participating in community-initiated projects: The individual can contribute to community
development by participating in community-initiated projects. The individual can offer his/her
skills and labour during the implementation of community projects.
2. Adoption of positive attitude: The individual should exhibit positive attitudes towards the
development of his/her community. The positive attitude will enable the individual show
concern for his community and devote all his time, energy and resources, for the socio-
economic development of his/her community.
3. Involvement in communal labour: Every individual in the community must get involved in
communal labour. This can be done through organizing cleanup exercise to remove waste from
choked gutters and plant tress to beautify the environment.

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 4. Respect for societal norms and regulations: The respect for societal norms and regulations is an
important role of the individual in community development. This will help to ensure peace and
harmony in the community. People can go about their daily work or business without fear,
because security is assured and there no threat to their lives and property.
5. Articulating the problems facing the community: The individual can contribute to community
development by making known or pointing out the problems or needs confronting his/her
community. When the individual is able to articulate the needs of his/her community, they can
be noted and effectively dealt with to ensure the socio-economic development of the
community.

WAYS COMMUNITY LEADERS CAN MOBILIZE THEIR PEOPLE (COMMUNITY) FOR

DEVELOPMENT
1. Exhibiting Foresight and Vision: A community leader with foresight and vision is able to mobilize
his/her people for development. The people will acknowledge the decisions taken by the leader
which have been fruitful and relevant in the future.
2. Involvement of The People in Planning and Decision Making: A community leader can mobilize
the people by involving the people in the planning and decision making process in the
community. The involvement of the people in decision making will make them feel recognized
and this will urge them to support their leader’s decision to promote socio-economic
development of their communities.
3. Effective Implementation of Projects: Community leaders can mobilize their people for
development through the effective implementation of projects. A community leader who is able
to implement decision and projects using the available funds and resource of the community
gains the support and respect of his/her people.
4. Judicious Use of Community Funds: Community leaders can mobilize their people for
development through the judicious use of community funds and resources. Members of a
community will willingly support a leader who is able to wisely use the community’s available
funds and resources to undertake projects aimed at improving the living conditions of the
people.
5. Having Good Inter-Personal Relation with The People: Communities leaders can mobilize their
people for development by having a good inter-personal relation with the people. Community
leaders should listen to problems and needs of the people and try to help them address those
problems and needs. The leaders should also show appreciation through the appreciation of the
efforts of the community members.
-CHAPTER 22-
YAGA Series

PROMOTING NATIONAL SOCIO-ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT
 Development: This refer to the process of growth that lead to both quantitative and qualitative
improvement in resources in the society, reflecting in the standard of living of the people.

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  Economic Growth: This refers to the improvement in the infrastructural base of a country
through the establishment of physical structures such as roads, electricity, industries, etc. to
enhance economic development.
 Social Development: This refers to the positive change in the attitudes, perceptions and way of
life of people, leading to the improvement in the standard of living of the people.

FACTORS THAT PREVENT/MILITATE AGAINST DEVELOPMENT IN GHANA

1. Poor Attitudes to Work. 4. Unfavourable Government Policies.
2. High Rate of Illiteracy. 5. Nature of the Educational System.
3. Corruption and Embezzlement. 6. Inordinate Taste for Foreign Goods and Services.

WAYS OF FACILITATING DEVELOPMENT IN GHANA

1. Long-Term Development Plan
2. Adoption and Exhibiting of Positive Working Attitudes.
3. Restructuring of the Educational System.
4. Conscious Efforts to Improve Human Resource.
5. Easy Access to Capital.

THE SECTORS OF THE ECONOMY

The national economic life revolves around the activities, which bring about an improvement in the
quality of life of the people. These activities include the extractive, manufacturing and the service
industries which aim at improving the economy. The activities can conveniently be grouped into
primary, secondary and tertiary sectors.
 The Primary Economic Sector: This sector or activity refers to the extraction of resources from
the natural environment. These resources are in their raw state. These activities include
agriculture, lumbering and mining.
 The Secondary Economic Sector: This sector involves the processing and transformation of raw
materials into manufactured or finished goods. These activities include, manufacturing, mineral
processing/refinery, construction and utilities.
 The Tertiary Economic Sector: This sector or activities involves the provision of services to
ensure the effective functioning of primary and secondary activities. These activities include,
transport, banking, trade, insurance, tourism, hotels and restaurants, education, postal and
communication services, health, personal services and other government services.

IMPORTANT OF THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR

1. Provision of Employment: The agricultural sector employs a large number of Ghanaians. It is
estimated that the sector employs about 55percent of Ghanaians who engage in the various
agricultural activities such as crop production, fishing, logging and livestock rearing.
2. Provision of Raw Materials: The agricultural sector provides raw materials to feed the various
manufacturing industries in the country. Cocoa, for example is used by Nestle Ghana Limited to
produce the various cocoa products such as milo and other cocoa drinks. Cotton, fish, fruits,
vegetables and other food crops are raw material for the local manufacturing industries to
produce various items.

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 3. Provision of Market: The agricultural sector provides market for the sectors of the economy.
Farmers provide market for manufactured goods such as cutlass, hoe, earth chisel, seeds,
fertilizers and chemicals, as they buy these goods from the manufacturing industries for their
farming activities. Moreover, farmers provide market for commercial drivers who cart
agricultural produce from the producing centers to the buying centers.
4. Provision of Food: The agricultural sector provides food for the teeming population of the
country. It is estimated that the agricultural sector provides about 80% of the food requirements
in the farm of crops such as yam, plantain, cassava, cocoyam, rice, maize ,garden eggs, tomato,
pepper and others ; livestock production such as beef ,pork, fish and poultry products to the
rapidly growing urban and rural population.
5. Provision of Income: The agricultural sector also provides farmers who are engaged in the
various agricultural activities of crops production, fishing, livestock rearing and others with
income. The farmers use their incomes to purchase and consume varieties of manufactured
goods to raise their standard of living.

REASONS FOR THE LOW AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY OR INABILITY TO

OBTAIN FOOD SUFFICIENCY IN GHANA
1. Poor Storage Facilities. 4. Poor Transportation Facilities.
2. Inadequate Investment Capital. 5. Incidence of Diseases and Pest.
3. Over-Dependence on Rainfall for Crop Cultivation. 6. Outmoded Farming Practices.

FACTORS THAT MILITATE AGAINST THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDIGENOUS

INDUSTRIES
1. Inadequate Investment Capital.
2. Lack of Skilled Labour.
3. Inordinate Taste for Foreign Goods and Services.
4. Inadequate Power Supply.
5. Low Application of Technology.
6. Inadequate Raw Materials.

TOURISM
Tourism refers to the movement of people to a place with a unique physical, cultural, historical and
geographic features for pleasure, educational and religious purposes/reasons.

FACTORS THAT FAVOUR THE GROWTH OF TOURISM IN GHANA

1. Presence of Natural Resources: The presence of natural resources in Ghana including natural
lakes, waterfalls, rock caves, sandy beaches and extensive vegetation attract many local and
foreign tourists to such areas.
2. Nature of Climate: The climate of Ghana is tropical with abundant sunshine and with pleasant
temperature. This attract foreign tourist who would want to escape the harsh climate conditions
in their home country.

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 3. Political Stability: The culture of democracy is very strong in Ghana, making Ghana the beacon
of democracy in the West African sub region. The strong culture of Ghana’s democracy has led
to the stable political governance since 1983. This has resulted in the rapid growth of the tourist
industry in Ghana.
4. Training of Tourism Professionals: The establishment of tourism institutions such as Silicon
Travel and Tours Limited and Bestway Travel and Tours Limited has favoured the growth of
tourism in Ghana by the training of tourism professionals such as Travel Agents, Tour Operators,
etc.
5. Reduced Crime Rate: Acts of terror and crime rates are low in Ghana compared to other Africa
countries making Ghana the suitable destination for tourists. The unique hospitality of
Ghanaians has also favoured the growth of the tourism industry.
6. Publicity and Promoting or Advertising of Tourist Sites: The intensive marketing of tourist site
in Ghana on televisions, radio, internet, magazines, etc. has help tourists both domestic and
foreign to identify various tourist sites and accommodation facilities to aid their visit.
7. Improvement in Environmental Sanity: The general improvement in the sanitation around
tourist sites in Ghana especially around beaches has boosted the tourism industry.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OR CONTRIBUTIONS OF TOURISM TO THE ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT OF GHANA
1. Source of Employment Opportunities: The tourism industry in Ghana offer diverse employment
opportunities. The establishment of tourism institutes has helped train and prepare people for
tourism jobs in the form of waiters, travel agents, tour operators, craftsmen, fashion designers,
etc.
2. Source of Foreign Exchange: The tourism industry provides a substantial amount of foreign
exchange through the export of cultural elements and artifact. This foreign exchange help
improve the balance of payment.
3. Promote Infrastructure Development: The need to promote tourism in Ghana has led to the
provision of facilities such as roads, railway, electricity, communication systems and recreational
structures such as hotels, restaurants and nightclubs.
4. Projection of Ghana’s cultural heritage: Tourism projects and markets the rich cultural heritage
of Ghana to both domestic and foreign tourist. Cultural celebrations such as festivals, puberty
rites and other cultural practices attract large foreign visitors.
5. Promote the Conservation of the Environment: The need to promote tourism in Ghana has
created numerous game and wildlife reserves and national parks. The creation of such parks and
reserves helps to protect and conserve the environment.
6. Source of State Revenue: The tourism industry serves as a source of state income for individuals
and the government. The government generate income from custom duties and taxes levied on
importation of goods for use by the tourism industry. Most Ghanaians also earn income from
their businesses that render services in the tourism industry.

PROBLEMS FACING OR AFFECTING THE DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM IN GHANA

1. Lack of Investment Capital: Ghana lacks adequate capital resources to develop her tourism
industry. This lack of finance has affected the growth of tourism due to inadequate capital to
develop tourist site and establish tourism facilities and recreational centres.

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2. Low Publicity and Promoting Strategies: The tourism industry in Ghana lacks effective publicity
and promoting strategies that will advertise information on the various tourism sites to both
local and foreign tourists.
3. Inadequate Tourist Professionals: The tourism industry in Ghana lack skilled personal who are
trained professionals in tourism. There are inadequate tourism institutions to train skilled
personal and also, there is low patronage of tourism courses in the various tertiary institutions.
4. Incidence of Poor Sanitation: The poor sanitary conditions at various prominent tourist sites
affects the development of these sites. This filthiness at the tourist sites deter tourists especially
foreign tourist from visiting such sites.
5. Inadequate Social Amenities: Most tourist centres lack or have inadequate social amenities
such as electricity, hospitals, water supply and recreational facilities to meet the demands of the
tourists. This has affected the development of the tourism industry in Ghana.

SOLUTIONS OR WAYS OF IMPROVING TOURISM IN GHANA

1. Provision of Investment Capital: The government must provide the tourism industry with loans
and credits to help them establish and increase their infrastructure and activities to meet local
and international demands.
2. Intensive Publicity and Promoting Strategies: The tourism industry should intensify the
marketing of tourist site in Ghana on televisions, radio, internet, magazines, etc. to help tourists
both domestic and foreign to identify various tourist sites and accommodation facilities to aid
their visit.
3. Provision of Tourism Training: The government and other private institutions should establish
tourism institutions such as tourism training schools and introduce tourism courses in the
various tertiary institutions. This will help to improve the growth of tourism in Ghana.
4. Improve Environmental Sanitation: The people must be educated to improve the sanitation
around tourist sites in Ghana especially around beaches to make the sites attractive to tourists.
5. Provision of Social Amenities: The government should provide social amenities such as
transport networks to links tourists to the tourist sites. The presence of electricity, water supply,
hospitals and recreational facilities is also vital to improve the tourism industry in Ghana.

REASONS FOR THE LOW PATRONAGE OF DOMESTIC TOURISM IN GHANA

1. Inadequate Capital: Most Ghanaians live below the poverty line and find it difficult to improve
on their living standards. This affects their ability to undertake local tourism travels since they
can’t afford it.
2. Lack of Appreciation for Natural Beauty and Leisure: Most Ghanaians lack the interest and
appreciation for nature because of the perception that it does not affect their lives directly.
Most Ghanaians would rather visit family and friends at their leisure or during long vacations.
3. Low Publicity and Promotion of Tourist Sites: Most Ghanaians do not engage in domestic
tourism because they lack adequate information on the tourism potentials in the country. This is
as a result of the low publicity and promotion of tourism sites in the country.
4. Poor Sanitary Conditions at Tourist Sites: The poor sanitary conditions at various prominent
tourist sites is so appalling. This filthiness at the tourist sites deter local tourist from visiting such
sites.

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 BUOYANT ECONOMY
A buoyant economy is an economy in which all the various sectors of the economy function effectively
leading to significant improvement in the quality of life of the people.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A BUOYANT ECONOMY

1. High Per-Capita Income: A major characteristic of a buoyant economy is that it has a high per
capita income, which is the income per head, and should be about 6,000 US dollars. Examples of
countries that have buoyant economies are USA, Japan, UK, France, Canada, etc.
2. High Level of Technology: High level of technology is another characteristic of a buoyant
economy. A buoyant economy adopts modern methods of production in sectors of her
economy.
3. High Rate of Industrialization. The rate of industrialization is high in a buoyant economy. Many
industries have been established in a buoyant economy to manufacture and process various
items into finished goods.
4. Improved Infrastructure and Social Amenities: Buoyant economies are characterized by
improved infrastructure and social amenities. There are good roads, portable drinking water,
electricity, hospitals, educational facilities, etc. to help improve the living standard of citizens.
5. High Rate of Employment: The feature of high industrialization in buoyant economies provides
numerous job opportunities and also the provision of services due to the high level of
technology provides employment opportunities.
6. High Standard of Living: The citizens of a buoyant economy enjoy a high standard of living. They
can afford the basic necessities of life that makes their life comfortable.
7. High Mechanized Agriculture: A buoyant economy is characterized by a highly mechanized
agriculture in which sophisticated and modern machines such as the combined harvesters and
planters are used to increase agricultural production.

-CHAPTER 23-
YAGA Series

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

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 Sustainable Development: This refers to the conscious effort of ensuring that projects,
initiatives and policies are kept functioning effectively for a long time.
 Maintenance Culture: This refers to the positive attitudes of citizens of consciously ensuring the
protection and repair of infrastructure and amenities of society.

HOW TO ENSURE OR PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN GHANA

1. Re-orientation of the Educational System: A major measure that can be adopted to ensure that
Ghana sustains her growth and development is the change in the educational system of the
country. Education and training should put more emphasis on vocational, technical and
technological skills rather than on academic knowledge based. This will enable the people
transform the country’s resources through the jobs provided by government or when they have
established their own businesses.
2. Development of Maintenance Culture: Ghana can sustain her growth and development when
the government and citizens adopt the positive attitude of maintenance culture, which will
enable the state protect and repair amenities and infrastructures efficiently. This will help the
government save more funds to undertake productive investments in the economy.
3. Using Quality and Durable Materials: The use of best quality materials will also enable Ghana
sustain her growth and development. This is because these materials will enable the
construction of quality and durable infrastructure that will stand the test of time. In order to
ensure the use of quality materials, the institutions which award contracts to people should
monitor them to make sure that they use the required materials, both in quality and quantity for
projects.
4. Political Stability: A stable political environment will help the country to sustain growth and
development. This lack of military coups in recent times and also stable governance of the
country provides assurance for investors that the country is safe to do business. This attracts a
lot of developmental projects in the country.
5. Adoption of a Long-Term Development Plan: The state should adopt a long-term development
plan, which would be adhered to by all governments that assume political power and help to
develop and sustain growth in the country.

FACTORS THAT HINDER SUSTAINABLE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN GHANA

1. Nature of the Educational System: The nature of the educational system in Ghana hinder
sustainable development, as this kind of education is knowledge based with less emphasis on
technical, vocational and technological skills. Because of this, people are unable to acquire
themselves with the requisite skills and technical expertise to contribute and sustain national
growth and development.
2. Lack of Maintenance Culture: The state and its citizens generally do not have the positive
attitude of maintenance culture and thus are unable to protect and repair state properties
efficiently. This lack of maintenance culture hinders sustainable growth and development in the
country.
3. Using Inferior and Substandard Materials: The use of inferior and substandard materials in the
construction of projects has been one major factor that has hindered sustainable growth and
development in the country. The execution of state projects such as roads, hospital, schools,
bridges, etc. with inferior and substandard materials result in shoddy work which do not last to
serve it required purpose.

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4. Political Instability: The frequent change of political power from one government to another
hinder sustainable growth and development in Ghana, as incumbent governments abandon the
projects of previous governments. Also in past, military regimes that took over power halted the
development projects that had been initiated by the civilian governments that they had
overthrown.
5. Lack of a Long-Term Development Plan: The state lacks a long-term development plan that
stipulates the development goals and strategies of the nation. This long-term development plan
would be adhered to by all governments that assume political power and help to develop and
sustain growth in the country.

BENEFITS OR IMPORTANCE OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

1. Helps Save Funds for other Projects: Sustainable growth and development is associated with
maintenance culture, which enable the government to save money for development in the
various sectors of the economy including the agricultural , industrial and services sectors. Since
the government will not spend resources to repair or replace broken assets, it will generate and
save more funds to secure more asses in the form social amenities and infrastructural projects.
2. Leads to Continuous Growth and Development: Sustainable growth and development will lead
to continuous socio-economic growth and development, as maintenance culture enables the
government to save and generate capital for new amenities and infrastructural projects.
3. Leads to Improvement in Standard of Living: The continuous growth and development as a
result of sustainable growth and development will lead to improvement in the standard of living
of the people. The people will live in comfort and this will boost their morale to work very hard
to increase productivity.
4. It Promotes Political Stability: The continuous growth and development as a result of
sustainable growth and development will result to political stability, as the quality of life of the
people is enhanced. There will be no agitation on the part of the people, as they enjoy better
standard of living.

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