UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES, DHARWAD

Lecture notes
for
CROP PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY - II (Rabi Crops)
AGR 203 (1+1)

Prepared by
Dr. SURESH C. ALAGUNDAGI
Dr. SUNILKUMAR S. NOOLI
Mr. SADASHIVANAGOWDA S N O

Course teachers
Dr. SURESH C. ALAGUNDAGI
Dr. G. B. SHASHIDHARA
Dr. SANGSHETTY
Dr. RAJENDRA A. NANDAGAVI

DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DHARWAD - 580 005, KARNATAKA
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UASD/AGRONOMY/AGR 203(1+1)/S C ALAGUNDAGI, S S NOOLI & S S GOWDA
 Crop Production Technology-II (Rabi crops) [AGR 203 (1+1)]
II B.Sc.(Hons.)Agriculture Semester-II

Course outlines
THEORY
Week Lecture Topic
Origin, geographical distribution, economic importance, soil and climatic requirements, varieties, cultural
practices and yield of Cereals, pulses, oilseeds, commercial crops and forage crops
1 1 Sorghum
2 2 Wheat
3 3 Barley
4 4 Chickpea
5 5 Lentil
6 6 Safflower
7 7 Linseed
8 8 Rapeseed and Mustard
9 9 Sunflower
10-13 10 Sugarcane
14 11 Sugar beet
15 -16 12 Cotton
17 13 Tobacco
17 14 Chilli
18 15 Berseem
18 16 Lucerne
18 17 Oat
19 18 Napier hybrid
19 19 Guinea grass
19 20 Para grass
20 21 Forage conservation
Annexure I Terminologies
Annexure II Crops and their special operations and Institutes
PRACTICAL
1-2 1 Area, production and productivity of rabi crops in world, India and Karnataka
3-4 2 Sowing methods of different rabi season crops
5-6 3 Identification of weeds in rabi season crops
7-8 4 Study of morphological characteristics of rabi crops
9 - 10 5 Study of yield contributing characters of rabi season crops
11 - 12 6 Yield and juice quality analysis of sugarcane
13 - 14 7 Study of important agronomic experiments of rabi crops at experimental farms
15 - 16 8 Study of rabi forage experiments
17 9 Visit to research stations and industries of related crops

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UASD/AGRONOMY/AGR 203(1+1)/S C ALAGUNDAGI, S S NOOLI & S S GOWDA
 Selected references

1. Mukund Joshi, 2016, Text Book of Field Crops. PHI Publication.

2. Rajendra Prasad, 2012, Text Book of Field Crop Production Vol-1 and 2. ICAR, New Delhi.
3. Srinivasan Jeyaraman, 2018, Field Crops - Production and Management Vol-1 and 2. Oxford & IBH
Publishing Company.
4. Chhidda Singh, Prem Singh and Rajbir Singh, 2010, Modern Techniques of Raising Field Crops.
Oxford & IBH Publishing Company.
5. Das, N. R., 2007, Introduction to Crops of India. Scientific Publication.
6. Singh, S. S., 1998, Crop Management. Kalyani Publication.
7. Panda, S.C., 2006, Crop Management and Integrated Farming
8. Reddy, S.R., 2009, Agronomy of field crops. Kalyani Publication.
9. Hand book of Agriculture, 6th Revised edition, ICAR Publication.
10. George Thomas, C., 2008, Forage crop production in the tropics. Kalyani Publishers
11. Arun Kumar Mukherjee and Sunirmal Maiti, 2009, Forage crops-Production and Conservation.
Kalyani Publishers
12. Narayanan, T.R. and Dabadghao, P.M., 1972, Forage crops of India. ICAR, New Delhi.
13. Package of Practices for higher yields, 2020,UAS, Dharwad

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 SORGHUM (King of coarse cereals)

Botanical name: Sorghum bicolor L. Moench Family: Poaceae/Graminae

ICRISAT-International Crops Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics, Hyderabad

ICAR- Indian Institute of Millets Research, Hyderabad
ICAR- AICRP on Sorghum, Hyderabad

Importance

 Sorghum is one of the 4 major cereals of the world. It follows wheat, rice, maize in area and
production
 Sorghum is grown in tropics and sub tropics under variety of names viz., Jowar, Jaur, Cholam
or jola in India, guinea corn, kafir-corn and Durra in Africa, Kaoling in China and Milo and
Milo Maize in America
 Sorghum with sweet juicy stem are known as sorgho
 Sorghum with stiff branches of head make good brooms and are knownas broom corn
 Millions of people in Africa and Asia depends on sorghum as the staple food, in addition, the fodder
and Stover is fed to animals providing milk, draft power and meat
 Minor uses includes molasses (syrup), brooms, basketary material, fuel and alcoholic beverages
(Ethenol)
 The National flag of Burundi an East African country had a figure of a bundle of sorghum plants
 It thrives with less rainfall than is needed for rice and maize
 Its performance is better than maize in marginal lands under moisture stress or excessive moisture

Uses

 Chopped green stems and foliage are used to prepare hay or silage and also as pasture crop.
 Sweet sorghum & pop sorghum are parched and consumed by human beings.
 Jowar cake can also be prepared from fermented dough.
 Sweet sorghums are used to prepare syrups, biscuit making in bakeries.
 Left over stubbles are used as a source of fuel.
 Tribals eat sorghum grains and sweet stems containing 10% sugar.
 "Vani jowar" is a speciality of south Gujarat which is eaten under green parched conditions.
 Jowar dhani i.e., pop sorghum is very popular among children.
 It is one of the most widely grown dry land food grains in India. It does well even in low rainfall area
 It makes comparatively quick growth and gives not only good yields of grain but also a very large
quantities of fodder
 Sorghum grain is eaten by human beings in India either by breaking the grain and cooking it in the
same way as rice or by grinding it in to flour and preparing roti/chapatis.
 It is also said that sorghum is one of the several really indispensable crops required for the survival of
man.
 Sorghum grain contains about 9-14% protein, 3% fat and 70-90% CHO, therefore it can
satisfactorily replace other grains in the feeding program for dairy cattle, poultry and swine.

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Origin

East and Central Africa (Ethiopia/ Sudan) is regarded as the place of origin of sorghum because
of the greatest diversity of types grown in that region.

Area and distribution

 In the world sorghum is cultivated over 43.75 m.ha producing about 62.8 million tonnes and
productivity is 1400 kg/ha
 Nearly 80% of the cultivated area in the world lies in Asia and Africa
 Among the sorghum growing countries, India ranks first in acreage but second in production.
 The major sorghum growing countries in the world are- The great plains of North America, Sub
Saharan Africa, North eastern China, Deccan plateau of central India, Argentina, Nigeria, Egypt
and Mexico. USSR, France and Spain.
 With regard to productivity, Argentina stands first (4375 kg/ha) followed by USA (4370 kg/ha)
 All India (2016-17)- area (m ha):5.62, Production(m t):4.57 and Productivity(kg/ha):812
Area (m ha): Maharashtra (3.05), Karnataka (0.95) and Rajastan (0.58)
Production (m t): Maharashtra (2.17), Karnataka (0.85) and Madhya Pradesh (0.38)
Productivity (kg/ha): Andra Pradesh (2041), Madhya Pradesh (1721), Gujarath (1415) and
Karnataka (892)
 Sorghum cultivation in the country is concentrated in the Deccan plateau where cultivation is
completely dependent on rains. The major states growing sorghum are MH, KA, TN, AP, MP,
Rajastan and Gujarat.
 In Karnataka, sorghum is staple food of N Karnataka. It is grown both under irrigated and
rainfed ecosystems. In Karnataka, rabi sorghum is grown over an area of 9.94 lakh ha with a
production of 10.39 lakh tonnes and productivity 1100 kg/ha (2017-18).
 Sorghum is cultivated both as kharif and rabi season crop with an average productivity of 2812
kg/ha. This crop is cultivated both as kharif and rabi crop in Raichur and Ballari districts.
 Rabi tract comprising of Vijayapura, Kalaburagi, Raichur, Ballari, Dharwad and Belagavi
districts is characterized by inadequate soil moisture and low productivity (570 kg/ha).
Classification:
1. Based on use
a. Grain sorghum
b. Forage sorghum: Called as sorgos, have sweet, tall, thin stem
c. Sweet sorghum: Has more sugar, brix, used for extraction of
molasses and ethanol.
2. Based on spikelet type
a. Basic races
1. Bicolor (Sorghum bicolor-cultivated sorghum)
2. Guinea
3. Caudatum
4. Kafir
5. Durra
b. Hybrid races : Guinea bicolor, Caudatum bicolor etc.
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Sorghum belongs to the family Graminae/Poaceae and genus Sorghum.

The 3 main native species of sorghum located in Asia and Africa are-
1. Sorghum bicolor sp arundinaceum 2n=20
2. Sorghum propinquum 2n= 20
3. Sorghum halepense 2n=40

 Clayton (1961) considered the name Sorghum bicolor L. (Moench) as correct specific name for the
cultivated sorghum.

 These races overlap in areas and freely hybridise among themselves producing intermediate races.
The modern sorghum improvement work is concentrated on crosses between milo and kafir types.

Climatic requirement

 Sorghum is primarily a tropical warm weather crop

 is adopted to tropical, sub tropical and temperate climates
 It is a sturdy crop and can withstand varied climatic hazards more than any other crop. It is
successfully grown in arid areas of UP, Rajasthan and also in humid regions of W. Bengal and
Bihar.
 The optimum temperature for photosynthesis is 30 to 36 0 C. It does not tolerate frost and most
sorghum production is concentrated between latitudes 40 o N and 40 o S.
 It tolerates temporary water logging and can be grown on cracking clay solis with poor internal
drainage. Sorghum can be successfully grown in areas having an annual rainfall between 600 and
1000 mm.
 Time from emergence to anthesis is affected by both photoperiod and temperature
 Sorghum is a typical short day plant.
 Flowering and grain formation starts when day length shortens during winter.
 The min temp required for germination is 7 0C to 10 0C and 26 0C to 30 0C for optimum growth
 Flowering is hastened by short days and delays by long days.

Sorghum is a drought resistant crop; however cultivars differ in their reactions to drought.

Drought resistance is related to morphological and physiological traits.

 Slow short growth rate until the root system is well developed
 Great root weight and volume and high root/shoot ratios in resistant cultivars
 A larger adventitious root system and lower leaf area than maize
 Ability to reduce leaf osmotic potential and maintain turgor during stress
 Ability to maintain relatively high leaf water potential under conditions of increasing soil
moisture stress
 Ability to produce large amounts of epicuticular wax and roll leaves in times of drought to
reduce water loss
 Although sorghum is able to resist drought, the crop responds well to plentiful water during
booting and heading- the growth stages most sensitive to drought.

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Soil requirement

 Sorghum can be grown on wide range of soils. It is better adopted than pearl millet to the deep
cracking clays and the black cotton soils of the tropics
 Soils with clay loam or loam texture having good WHC are best suited for sorghum cultivation
 It does not thrive in sandy, gravely and marshy soils.
 It can be grown in wide range of soils with pH range from 6.0 to 8.5 (The crop grows well in
neutral pH of 7.0.)
 In comparison with other cereals, grain sorghum is most sensitive to salinity than barley but less
sensitive than maize.
 The black cotton soils of central India are very good for its cultivation
 Sorghum can be grown in heavy black soils to red soils, but comes up well in heavy black
soils.

Cultivation practices

Seed bed/land preparation

 Sorghum requires a well prepared seed bed.

 Soil should be brought to fine tilth as seed size is small.
 A cloddy seed bed leads to uneven stand.
 Deep tillage using mould board plough is particularly advantageous on red soils and shallow and
medium deep soils
 In red soils, it mixes bottom clay with top layers and thus improves soil moisture holding capacity
apart from improving wetting depth
 In deep to very deep soils- deep ploughing once in 2-3 years. In deep cracking heavy soils every year
deep ploughing is not necessary.
 Deep tillage operations are to be carried out when the upper soil surface is dry but lower layer is
moist. This condition is usually observed after cessation of South-West monsoon in the months of
Nov-December.

Advantages of deep tillage

 Deep tillage leaves the surface rough and thus provides more opportunity time for runoff water to
infiltrate. The benefits are particularly visible during the years of low rainfall
 The concept of off-season tillage helps to shorten time lapse between post rain and actual seeding
time
 It helps to control weeds as well as conserves moisture from the pre season rains. On receipt of
pre monsoon showers, the deep ploughed lands are to be cultivated with wooden plough, grubber
or blade harrows to break the clods and to control perennial weeds and incorporate crop residues.
 Repeated harrowing, crush the left over clods, control weeds and incorporate manures and
smothen surface leaving a fine seed bed for sowing.
 Shallow tillage soon after rains also helps to retain water in the soil profile specially in fine
textured soils.

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  It is a practice among farmers in deep black cotton soils during kharif to allow sheep (sheep
penning) overnight on lands after sowing sorghum. This practice helps to compact the soil
because of trampling by sheep, as a result it become difficult for birds (pigeon) to pull the
seedlings out of soil, at the same time seedlings will be erect and vigorous because of urine
depositions.

Seed hardening and seed treatment

 Nearly 70% sorghum area depends on rains and rains are not assured in most of the sorghum
growing areas, as such the crop productivity in these areas is low. To increase the productivity,
various pre sowing chemical seed dressings are recommended.
 Pre sowing seed hardening helps in modifying physiological and biochemical nature of seeds so
as to get the characters that are favourable for drought tolerance
 Seed hardening is a process of subjecting seeds before sowing to alternate cycle of wetting and
drying to induce tolerance to drought
 20 g of CaCl2 (2%), 25 % cow urine and 3 ml of endosulfan 35 EC in 1.5 litres of water
mixed and is soaked. Sorghum seeds are soaked in this solution for 8 hours and dried in
shade and used for sowing.
 This will improve the germination, seedling growth, reduce incidence of shoot fly and leads to
higher yield
 Treating the seeds with Azospirillum or Azotobacter (500 g/ha each) – asymbiotic nitrogen fixing
bacteria will increase the yield by 10-15%
 For control of grain smut disease - treat the seed with sulphur@ 5g/kg seed. OR
 With organo mercurial compounds or carbomates @ 2.5g/kg seed.
 For shoot fly-carbofuran 50wp@ 100g/kg seed.

Time of sowing: It depends upon

 Cultivar
 Soil moisture
 Rainfall pattern
 Duration of species
 Incidence of pest and diseases
 Soil type and cropping sequence and intensity.
 Sorghum is photosensitive crop hence varieties are season bound, therefore when rabi sorghum
varieties are grown during kharif, plants donot develop earheads properly and when kharif sorghum
varieties are grown during rabi season, plant become dwarf, mature early and yield low.

Seasons
Kharif season – May – June
Rabi season – Sept 15 to October 15
Summer season – January- February
Delayed sowing leads to shoot fly attack

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  Spacing : 45 x 15 cm
 Depth of sowing : 2.5 to 5 cm (kharif/summer irrigated) and 5 to 7 cm for rabi rainfed season
Seed rate
 Kharif season - 7.5 kg/ha
 Rabi season - Rainfed- 6 to 7.5 kg/ha Irrigated- 7.5 kg/ha
 Summer season (irrigated) – 7.5 kg/ha
Method of sowing
 Sowing in rows is common in black cotton soils
 In N India, sorghum is sown either by broadcasting or in rows behind the plough

Sorghum is sown by various methods in different parts of the country. The methods are
l. Broadcasting, 2. Drilling, 3. Dibbling, 4.Transplanting, 5.Ratooning

Ratoon crop: The cultivation of an additional crop from the re growth of stubbles of previous main crop
after its harvest, thereby avoiding reseeding or replanting such as sugarcane, sorghum, rice, fodder grasses
etc.,
Year round tillage

To assist the farmers in combating weeds and to enable him to carry out sowing under improved seed
bed Conditions with his tillage and seeding equipment using bullock power "a year round tillage programme"
was developed at CRIDA, Hyderabad.

The year round tillage has several advantages:

1. The primary tillage with country plough in the kharif is done during the non crop season when the
farmers are relatively free and at a time when the land and bullocks are in good condition. This
operation minimizes carryover of weed population from one crop season to another.
2. The subsequent harrowing operations have the advantage of a thorough weed control. Firm seed bed
and conservation of moisture in the seed zone which in turn enables early planting and good plant
stands is so vital for increasing the productivity in dry lands.
3. In an intercropping system, it is necessary to till or harrow the field immediately after the harvest of
one of the component crops as otherwise weeds take over and the yield of longer duration component
is drastically reduced.

Growth Stages of Sorghum

Development of sorghum crop could be classified into number of ways. A fairly simple classification
is based on 3 growth stages (GS1, GS2 and GS3 ) and are described as follows ( Vanderlip and Eastin )

GS1 (Emergence to PI): Growth stage 1 is a strictly vegetative period. It is necessary for producing
sufficient leaf area and functional root system to support maximum grain development.

GS2 (PI to Anthesis: This is very critical stage in the development of crop, since maximum potential seed
number is set. Higher seed number generally is the most important yield component associated with
increasing yield in sorghum.

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G53 (Anthesis to Maturity): Ultimate yield is the function of both the length of the grain filling period and
metabolic or synthetic efficiency. During that period either seed number or potential size (sink) are not
limiting.

Relationship between yield attributing characters and growth stages

 Number of grains produced and number of fertile grains will be mostly decided at 2nd growth stage i.e
from PI to flowering (GS2)
 Test weight or weight of individual grains will be based on the function of the plant in the
physiological maturity stage (Le. GS3)

After care
Sorghum is a warm season crop. The environmental conditions which favour the germination and
growth of sorghum are also favourable for luxuriant weed growth. Sorghum seedlings are weak and make a
slow growth during the initial stages upto 40-45 days.

Effective weed control during this stage is inevitable.

Important weeds

Grasses : Cenchrus sp., Digitalis sanguinalis, Echinochloa crussgalli, Eleusine indica

Sedges: Cyperus rotundus

Broad leaved weeds: Amaranthus viridis, Celosia argentina Commelina benghalensis, S triga lutea

Varieties

In India during 1962 Co-ordinated sorghum improvement project was initiated by ICAR and a series
of CSH (co-ordinated sorghum hybrids) and CSV were released. The first hybrid i.e., CSH-1 was released
during 1964.

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 Hybrids Ecosystem Sowing time Duration (days) & special characteristics
/varieties
Hybrids (Kharif)
CSH-14 Irrigated/rainfed May-June 105 – 110 days, 150 cm height, grains are
bold and white. Suitable for raising 2 crops
in a year.
CSH-16 Irrigated/rainfed May-June 100 – 115 days
CSH-18 Irrigated/rainfed May-June 110 – 115 days, Dual purpose (both for
grain and stover)
CSH-30 Irrigated/rainfed May-June 105-110 days
Improved varieties (Kharif)
DSV-1 Rainfed May-June 100-105 days, Grains are bold, multi disease
resistant. Since it matures within 105 days
is better suited for low rainfall areas
CSV-15 Rainfed May-June 115-120 days, dual purpose
DSV-3 Rainfed May-June 115-120 days
SSV-74 Rainfed May-June 115-120 days, Sweet sorghum variety useful
for green fodder which is highly palatable.
Suitable for ethanol production also.
DSV-6 Rainfed May-June 120-125 days, A dual purpose variety,
yields higher grain and fodder, grains will
not turn dark even caught in rains

Rabi season, Hybrids

DSH-4 Rainfed Sept - Oct 115-120 days, Drought resistant, early
maturing, resistant to charcoal rot.
Improved varieties
M-35-1 Rainfed & irrigated Sept- Oct 120-125 days, tolerant to shoot fly
(Maldandi)
Muguti (5-4-1) Rainfed Sept-Oct 120-125 days, It yields good quality fodder than
M-35-1
DSV-4 Rainfed & irrigated Sept-Oct 125-130 days, it is a charcoal rot resistant
DSV-5 Rainfed (atleast 1-2 Sept-Oct 130-135 days, resistant to charcoal rot
BJV- 44 irrigations required) Sept-Oct 125-130 days
SPV 2217 Rainfed Sept-Oct 120-125 days
Rainfed
Summer season
DSV-6 Irrigated Dec - Jan Dual purpose, higher grain yield with good
quality. Resistant to different foliar diseases.

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 Manures and fertilizer application
Fertilizer recommendations for sorghum crop vary with the season, crop, genotype, soil fertility
and moisture status. Production of 1 tonne of grain (and associated stover) found to uptake 19 kg N, 9 kg
P and 21 kg K.

Kharif season Rabi season Summer

Zone No. Rainfed Irrigated Irrigated
1 2 3 8 All zone 1 & 2 3 8 8
N 100 60 100 100 50 100 100 100 100
P2O5 70 40 75 75 25 75 62 60 75
K2O 35 40 37 25 - 40 37 40 40
ZnSO4 - - - - 15 - - - -
 Nutrient uptake is slow up to 35 DAS. Rapid uptake occurs from 35 DAS till dough stage. Grains alone
take up about 80% of total nutrients
Note
1. Apply fertilizers based on soil test values
2. Apply 50% of recommended N and entire quantity of P and K fertilizers at the time of sowing and
remaining 50% of N has to be top dressed at 30 DAS.

3. For kharif season in Zone 8 apply 50% of N, potassium and entire qty of P at the time of sowing. Apply
remaining 50% of N and K at 30 DAS

4. In Zinc deficient soils, recommended dose of Zinc has to be applied at the time of sowing by mixing with
equal quantities of FYM/compost

* Seed or soil inoculation of Azospirillum brasilense can save 25% of RDN

* Forming square basins (Compartment bunding) 5 m x 5 m at 3 weeks after sowing with the help of wooden
harrow which helps for more infiltration of water .

* The fertilizers should be placed 3-5 cm to the side and 3-5 cm below the seed

Thinning: Thinning is very important operation for maintaining desired plant population. Ensure 15 cm plant
to plant spacing in a row by thinning out extra plants at two stages. 1st thinning at 10-15 days after emergence
and 2nd at 20-25 days old seedlings. All disease and insect infested plants should be removed while thinning.

Water management
Sorghum is usually grown as rainfed crop. The irrigations however be provided wherever rains are
not received. Depending on soil and climatic conditions, for sandy soils once in 8 days and for clay soils,
once in 15 days irrigations should be provided.

Critical stages for irrigation: Irrigation is needed at 5 stages of the crop i.e.,
1. Germination (at the time of sowing)
2. Knee high stage (30-35 DAS)
3. Flag leaf stage (50-55 DAS)

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 4. Flowering (70-75 DAS)
5. Grain formation stage (100-105 DAS)
Water requirement of sorghum is estimated to be between 500 to 600 mm during kharif and 600-700 mm
during summer.
• The peak water needs of sorghum crop is at booting to seed setting stage.
Time of irrigation
The optimum time for irrigating sorghum is when the soil moisture (ASM) is depleted to the extent
of 50-60% in the effective root zone. It was observed that irrigating the crop when the ASM falls to 50% in
the root zone of 60 cm has given the highest yield of grain.
Points to be considered for better water management in sorghum
1. Deep tillage and other moisture conservation practices to increase infiltration and soil moisture
storage.
2. To provide drainage in black cotton soils during periods of excessive rainfall as sorghum crop cannot
tolerate water logging conditions.
3. Water harvesting during periods of excessive rainfall to make use of all available water for improving
and stabilizing crop production.
4. Following improved irrigation techniques and timing to utilize a limited supply of tank or well water
most effectively.
5. Adjusting of planting dates and cropping systems to optimize efficiency of water use.
6. Use of fertilizers and other improved production practices to increase WUE.
Weed management
Yield loss (15-40 %) due to weeds. Keep the field weed free for first 35 DAS. Hand weeding,
Interculture operation, pre-emergent application of Atrazine @ 1kg ha-1/ simazin @ 2.5 kg ha-1 and Post-
emergent application of 2-4 D.
Striga : Striga asiatica, S. lutea, S. hermonthica (Witch weed), is a semi-root parasite /partial root
parasite in sorghum, maize, sugarcane and reduces the yield markedly. Striga can be managed by
1) Post emergence application of 2, 4- D Na salt at 2.0 kg/ha at 25 to 30 DAS
2) Use of methyl bromide @ 200 kg / ha as a fumigant, which is costly
3) Crop rotation with trap crops like cotton, sunflower, groundnut, cowpea,etc., which induce
germination of weed seeds, but they are not parasitised
4) Using germination stimulants like Strigol and Ethylene gas as pre-plant incorporation
5) Higher N and FYM application, Spraying Urea @ 10% solution @ 25-30 DAS
6) Flooding the field
7) Deep ploughing, Double the recommended dose of N, Growing resistant varieties like SPV-462, N-
13 etc.,
Intercultivation /Dust mulching

Repeated or frequent intercultivation with hoe creates dust mulch which plugs the capillaries in soil
which ultimately reduces the evaporation. This helps in conservation of soil moisture.

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 Transplanting in sorghum

It is common practice in sorghum

Best practiced in some parts of Tamil Nadu
Seedlings are raised in nursery and transplanted in main field (15-18 days old ) at 45 cm x 15 cm
spacing
Advantages of transplanting

1. The crop duration is reduced by 10 days

2. Optimum plant population can be maintained
3. Seed rate is reduced by 2.5 kg/ha
4. Shoot fly on large area is difficult to control. Under nursery condition it can be effectively and
economically controlled.
5. Downey mildew affected seedlings can be effectively removed at nursery stage itself.
Contingency plan for drought

1. If moisture stress occurs when crop is 40 days old, harvest the crop for fodder purpose and encourage
ratooning.

2. Reducing the plant population, alternatively thinning the plants or removing alternate rows. This
practice is known as Crop life saving technique.

Ratooning
Cultivation of crop regrowth is called as ratooning. A good ratoon crop can be obtained from
kharif and summer sorghum. The main crop after maturity should be cut close to the ground and then apply
fertilizers (half of the fertilizer applied to the main crop) and irrigate the crop. Ratoon crop matures 10-15
days earlier than main crop and the quality of the grain is good. Under good management practices, ratoon
crop yields higher than main crop.
Fodder-food production system (zone 8)
Advantages
1. Reduced cost of production through saving in land preparation and care of the plant during early
stages
2. Reduced crop life cycle period for the ratoon crop
3. Better utilization of growing season, especially in mansoonal climate
4. Higher production of high quality grain and fodder per unit area in a given period of time
5. Ratooning is particularly advantageoun in breeding studies as the same plant stubble (clone) can be
maintained for many seasons
6. Saving in inputs like fertilizers, seeds, irrigation water etc., in ratoon crop are comparable to main
crop
Disadvantages
1. Possible build up of diseases, pests and weeds
2. Loss of nutrients from same profile depth
3. Reduced yield levels

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Sweet sorghum
It is having more sugar, brix, used for extraction of molasses, ethanol. Harvest grains at physiological
maturity and green stalks/cane should be harvested within 12 hours after harvest of earhead and crushed
immediately to extract juice for syrup or jaggery or ethanol production.
Varieties: SSV-74, SSV-84, NSSH-1 (Madhura) (Hybrid)

Bad qualities of sorghum

1. Sorghum poisoning
Young sorghum plants when fed to animal’s causes death. It is due to the presence of cynogenic
glucoside called dhurrin. Its content is higher specially if the plants are subjected to stress and plant utilize
larger amount of nitrogen. When 4-5 kg of such plant fed to animals, the dhurrin is hydrolysed in the
stomach of animal and release HCN which is poisonous. This is referred as sorghum poisoning/prussic
acid poisoning.
Dhurrin content is maximum at 30 DAS. Leaves contains higher dhurrin (48 mg/100 g fresh weight)
than stem (6.5 mg) and roots (0.05 mg).
Sorghum poisoning can be managed through

1. Crop should not be harvested till it attains 60 cm height ( 45-50 DAS)/flowering stage
2. Apply P,K , S and Ca under drought condition which reduces the dhurrin content
3. Provide irrigation under stress
4. If unavoidable to use, dry the plant before use which makes dhurrin to volatilize
5. Give molasses to animals
6. Intravenous injection of sodium thiosulphate will restore oxygen supply and prevent death of animals.
2. Sorghum injury/sorghum effect
Sorghum stubbles/roots have high C:N ratio (50:1) i.e., it contains low amount of N. Hence microbes
take the soil N for decomposition than from the decomposed stubble which causes temporary immobilization
of soil N. Hence succeeding crop after sorghum is affected due to N deficiency in the early stage called
sorghum injury. Therefore succeeding crops needs higher N.
3. Pellagra
Nutritional disorder due to the presence of high amount of leucine : isoleucine ratio (3:4). This is
common in Africa.
Cropping system
1. Sorghum is intercropped with legumes such as redgram, field bean, cowpea, safflower, sunflower
etc., and sequenced with wheat, potato, groundnut, cotton, chickpea etc.,
2. Sorghum + red gram (6:1), (4:2), green gram, soybean, black gram, groundnut are also raised in
kharif seaon with sorghum.
3. During rabi season: Safflower, linseed, chickpea, are raised as mixed or intercrop with rabi sorghum

Double cropping
Raising short duration pulses maturing in 2 to 2.5 months in kharif season followed by sorghum in
rabi season, e.g. Greengram, sesamum, potato, cowpea, groundnut followed by rabi sorghum.

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Harvesting and threshing
 When the grain is ripe and hard, the crop is to be harvested (i.e., when the grains become hard and
contain less than 25% moisture, they are considered fully ripe for harvesting).
 Generally, the irrigated crop matures later than dry crop.
 The plants are pulled out with the roots, cut at the base with sickles; when the crop is of short height
are where mixed cropping is practiced, the ears alone are harvested first, leaving the stalks to be cut at
a future date.
 The harvested plants are allowed to dry in the field for 3-4 days and the ears are then removed.
 The straw is kept in stacks in the field for a week for complete drying. Then it is carted and tacked in
the yard.
 Sorghum grown for fodder purposes should be harvested either up to or at 50% flowering. Younger
jowar plants possess, a high hydrocyanic acid (HCN) content which is poisonous to the animals.
Further, there is a sharp decline in the protein content and digestibility of nutrients beyond the
flowering stage
In case of multi cut varieties
First cutting : 2 months after sowing
Subsequent cuts : 30-40 days after the first cut
Threshing of the dried ears is done by beating with sticks or trampling under the feet of cattle. Stone
rollers are also used for this purpose. The grain has to be winnowed, cleaned and dried to reduce the moisture
to about 12-13 %. Threshing machines are also available.
Yield attributes
1. Number of panicles/unit area
2. Length of the panicle (cm)
3. Number of filled grains/panicle
4. Test weight or 1000 grain weight
Yield is the function of above yield attributing factors.
Yield
Rainfed: 10-15 q/ha – grains + 2.5 t/ha fodder, Irrigated: 40-50 q/ha – grains + 7.5-10 t/ha fodder

Mid season correction

The practices that are adopted when crop is subjected to prolonged drought/aberrant weather
conditions in order to mitigate the adverse effects caused due to them are known as mid season corrections.
They are
1. Ratooning
2. Thinning the plant population
3. Removing the crop which is more sensitive to moisture stress in mixed cropping (eg: sorghum
+ safflower)
4. Foliar spray (eg: groundnut) with nutrients are some of the mid season corrections.
5. Urea spray (2%) next day after rains
6. KNO3(0.5%) spray during long dry spells

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 The average composition of sorghum grain is as follows
Protein 7.4 – 14.2%
Lipids 2.4 – 6.5%
Carbohydrates 70 – 90%
Fiber 1.2 – 3.5%
Minerals ((mg/100g))
Ca 11 – 586
P 167 – 751
Fe 0.9 – 20.0
Compared to other cereals, sorghum protein is deficient in lysine and rich in leucine. Lysine is
required for bone formation. Children are more susceptible to lysine deficiency than adults.

Pest and diseases

Insects
• Shoot fly
• Shoot bug
• Stem borer
• Army worm
• Earhead midge
• Earhead bug
Diseases
• Smut
• Rust
• Downey mildew
• Black stem rot

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 WHEAT (King of cereals)

Botanical name: Triticum spp. Family: Poaceae/Graminae

ICARDA- International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Beirut, Lebanon
CYMMIT - Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maizy Trigo, Mexico
ICAR- Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal
ICAR-AICRP on Wheat and Barley Improvement, Karnal

 Wheat is the world’s most important grain crop.

 Wheat ranks first position in the world among the cereals both in respect of area and production.
 It is a crop that is primarily grown in temperate regions.
 It constitutes the staple food in at least 43 countries.
 In terms of production and acreage, India ranks 2nd place among the wheat growing nations of the
world.
 The most important wheat growing countries are the USSR, USA, China, India, Canada, Argentina,
Australia and a number of European countries.
 In India, it is the second important food crop being next to rice and contributes to the total food grain
production of the country to the extent of about 25%.
 The introduction of Mexican dwarf wheat varieties in the mid 1960’s revolutionized the wheat
productivity as well as its total production in India.
 Wheat contributed to the lion’s share in the Green Revolution.
 Gene responsible for dwarfing in wheat is Norin-10.
 The introduction of the Reduced height (Rht)-B1b and Rht-D1b semi-dwarfing genes led to
impressive increases in wheat (Triticum aestivum) yields during the Green Revolution.
 Wheat protein - Gluten

In World

Country India China World

Area (m.ha) 30.8 24.7 220.3
Production (m.t) 92.3 113.3 749.1
Productivity (kg/ha) 3034 5396 3401

In India

State Uttar Madya Pradesh Punjab

Pradesh
Area (m.ha) 9.66 6.03 3.50
Production (m.t) 30.06 17.94 16.44
Productivity (kg/ha) 3113 2976 4704

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UASD/AGRONOMY/AGR 203(1+1)/S C ALAGUNDAGI, S S NOOLI & S S GOWDA
 State Punjab Haryana Rajastan
Productivity (kg/ha) 4704 4514 3175
(Anon., 2018)

In Karnataka, Area-1.93 lakh acre, Production -2.19 lakh tonnes and Productivity-453 kg/acre

Utility

1. Wheat is ground to prepare flour which is mainly consumed after preparing leavened bread i.e.,
chapathi (cellular spongy like structure due to the presence of Gluten)
2. Its flour is also used to prepare in the form of pan baked bread, called ‘chapathi’. chapathis also
called Puris or Parthas etc.,
3. One of the most imp use of wheat is to manufacture flour to prepare bread, pastry and biscuits
etc.,
4. It is also used for the production of semolina for the macaroni industry and for preparing
breakfast foods.
5. Varieties of Durum wheat having large white kernels are often used for puffing.
6. Wheat straw makes an important fodder.
7. By-products of wheat flour mills particularly bran are used as cattle feed.
8. Among the industrial uses of wheat, the production of starch for the paper industry is important

Proximate (chemical) composition of wheat grain.

Starch :60 - 68 %
Protein :8 %
Fat :1 ½ -2 %
Cellulose :2-2 ½ %
Minerals :1 ½ -2%
Origin
 From the earliest times, it has played an important role in the development of civilization.
 The origin is supposed to be South west Asian countries from where it spread to European countries.
 Its cultivation was known in 17th century off Atlantic coast.
 The Aryans are supposed to have brought it to India.
 Several forms of wheat were cultivated as back as 10,000-15,000 BC in N-E.
 The tatraploid and hexaploid species of wheat originated from the wild diploid species by mutations
and hybridization resulting in a wide range of adaptability in the modern wheat.
 The most important cultivated wheat spp. are

Triticum aestivum (Diploid) 2n = 14

Triticum durum (Tetraploid) 4n = 28
Triticum sphaerococcum (Hexaploid) 6n = 42
The inflorescence of wheat is called Spike.

The fruit of wheat is called as Caryopsis

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UASD/AGRONOMY/AGR 203(1+1)/S C ALAGUNDAGI, S S NOOLI & S S GOWDA
The wheat researchers in India have divided country’s wheat area under 6 zones, namely
1. North hill zone
2. North-western plains zone
3. North-eastern plains zone
4. Central zone
5. Peninsular zone and
6. South hill zone

Most zones cultivate T. aestivum whereas, T. durum is preferred in Central Zone.

Northern hill zone (NHZ)
Foot-hills of Himalayas in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and
Arunachal Pradesh form this region. Nearly 4% of area and 3% of wheat production in India is
contributed by this zone. Crop durations are long, starting from October/November, they end in
May/June. On higher hills the crop is sown in May-June and harvested in October-November. T.
aestivum is grown in this zone.

North-western plains zone (NWPZ)

This zone covers arid western plains and includes Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan and Western
Uttar Pradesh and covers nearly 37% of area and contributes about 45% of wheat production in the
country. Wheat is sown in mid-November and harvested in April/May. T. aestivum is grown in this
zone.

North-eastern plains zone (NEPZ)

This zone comprises eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal and contributes about 24% total
production of wheat from 27% area. Crop season spans from November till March/April. Winters are
relatively short in this zone. Sowing is often delayed due to higher moisture conditions in the fields after
rice. T. aestivum is grown in this zone.

Central zone (CZ)

Parts of arid western India, Central India and Vindhyas comprise this zone. This zone covers nearly
17% area and contributes 13% to production. Crop is sown during October and harvested by March.
Triticum durum is preferred in this zone.

Peninsular zone (PZ)

The Deccan plateau, Western ghats and Karnataka plateau comprise this zone. This zone has 6%
area and contributes 2.5% to total production of wheat. The crop is sown during later half of October
and harvested by March. T. aestivum, T. durum and T. diococcum Schubl. are cultivated in this zone.
Thermo-insensitive varieties are most preferred.

Southern hill zone (SHZ)

The zone comprises hilly areas of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Wheat has a minor importance with
respect to area and production. Though T. aestivum is the predominant species, T. dicoccum is also
grown in some areas. Wheat is grown twice a year in this zone, i.e., May to September and October to
April. Stem rust perpetuates in this zone.

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UASD/AGRONOMY/AGR 203(1+1)/S C ALAGUNDAGI, S S NOOLI & S S GOWDA
 Triticum sphaerococcum (6n=42) has now practically gone out of cultivation because of its (1) low
productivity and (2) high susceptibility to diseases.

Triticum aestivum (2n=14) the common bread wheat is by far the most important sps, occupying
about 85% of the total area under wheat. It is grown all over the country from sea level upto elevation of
3658 m in the Himalayas.

Bulk of the wheat area is under bread wheat and more than 85% of the wheat produced in India is
consumed as ‘Chapati’ (unleavened thin circular bread). UAS Dharwad varieties: DWR 225, UAS 304

There are four categories in this group (Mishra,2007).

Indian amber wheat (IAW)

Grains are bold, plump, amber, translucent and lustrous with about 11% protein. It has medium
strength dough and is popular among the elite group of people, who can afford a little higher price. Some of
the varieties are C 306, Sujata, HD 2781, HD 2189, HD 2833, UP 262, HW 2004, HW 2045, LOK 1 and
Raj 3077.

Indian sona wheat (ISW)

Grains are medium in size, plump, translucent with medium hard texture and a protein content of
about 10% with medium gluten strength. It is grown all over the country with the largest production from
NWPZ and CZ. Some of the varieties are: HD 2285, HD 2733, HD 2643, HD 2687, PBW 343, UP 2338,
UP 2425, WH 542, WH 147, HP 1731, HUW 234, GW 193 and GW 190.

Indian pissi wheat (IPW)

Grains are medium sized. White, opaque and contain less than 10% protein. It is produced in NEPZ,
CZ and NHZ of India. It is suitable for making biscuits, cakes and other bakery products. Some of the
varieties are: Sonalika, Pissi Local and HB 208.

Indian hard wheat (IHW)

Grains are medium bold, translucent and hard with about 12% protein. It is most suitable for making
bakery bread. It is grown in north and western Maharashtra, Karnataka and Gujarat and parts of Madhya
Pradesh. Some of the varieties are: Raj 1482, GW 496, DWR 162, DWR 195, HI 977 and K 9107.

Durum wheat (4n=28)

Triticum durum, (the macaroni & Suji) wheat is the 2nd most imp sps of wheat occupying about
14% of wheat area. Its cultivation is confined to central and southern India only. It was under cultivation
at one time in Punjab & WB, but now has been completely replaced by the bread wheat i.e., T. aestivum.

Grains are bold, lustrous, translucent and hard textured with more than 12% protein and are fairly
good in α-carotene and low yellow berry. It is good for making pasta (vermicelli, spaghetti, macaroni etc.).
Other products include porridge, sweets, bhapale, rotela, chapati etc. Fresh chapattis made with durum
wheat emit an appetizing aroma, which makes them costlier. Some of the varieties are: HI 8498, HI 8381,
HD 4172, PDW 233, WH 896, MPO 1066. UAS Dharwad varieties: DWR 1006, DWR 415, UAS 428

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UASD/AGRONOMY/AGR 203(1+1)/S C ALAGUNDAGI, S S NOOLI & S S GOWDA
 Triticum dicoccum or emmer wheat is grown on a very restricted scale in Gujarat, Maharashtra, A.P
and T.Nadu where it is known under the names of popatya, Khapli, ravva godhumalu and samba,
respectively. It is preferred for granular preparations.
Ex : Upma

Emmer wheat, commonly known as khapali/ samba / sajjaka /jave/sajjage is traditionally cultivated
in Karnataka, southern Maharashtra, Saurashtra region of Gujarat and some parts of Tamil Nadu and
Andhra Pradesh.

It covers only 0.5 million ha and the approximate production is 0.35 million tonnes. The grains are
long, medium bold and hard textured. It remains in vegetative phase for a longer period and is more heat-
tolerant than T.durum and T.aestivum. It also possesses a high degree of resistance to stem and leaf rusts. It
is richer in protein (about 13%) and β-carotene and has gained some importance from the view point of
making pasta (vermicelli, spaghetti, etc.).

Climate
 Wheat is mostly a winter crop. It requires cool temperature during early period of growth.
 The tillering is favoured by cool conditions.
 Generally grow in Temp. 22 0C -26.4 0C, optimum temperature- 21.1 0C, for germination-4.5 0C
 Wheat requires : Moderate amount of soil moisture and low humidity which favour early ripening and
reduces lodging as a result of which the crop escapes from rust attack. Base temperature for
germination is 4.5 0C
 Wheat is grown in areas with annual rainfall varying from 375-1750 mm.
 Optimum annual rainfall required by crop is 750-1000 mm
 In India, wheat is grown in areas with annual rainfall varying from 125-1125 mm.
 It can also be grow in high altitudes. It is grown in Kashmir at an attitude of 2000-3000 m above
MSL.
 Wheat crop takes 180 days in hills of Northern India; western region and 100 days in Peninsular India
for maturity.
 It can tolerate severe cold and snow and resume growth with the setting of warm weather.
 Best wheats are produced with cool moist weather during major portion of growing period (dry warm
weather during grain ripening period)

Soils
 In India, wheat is grown in different soils; but it does well on well drained loams and clay loams.
 Best growth is achieved in alluvial soils of Gangetic plains; but it does also well on black cotton
soils of central India.
 Since wheat is a temperate and sub-temperate region crop, it is not grown on Ultisols and Oxisols,
which generally occur in tropical regions of the world. Salinity and/or alkalinity of the northern
Indian wheat cultivation zone reduces crop stand and yield considerably (Singh, 1990).
 The threshold salinity level for wheat is at electrical conductivity (EC) 6 dS/m

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 Seasons
 In India, wheat is grown during rabi or winter season. The high temperatures on both ends of wheat
season restrict the cultivation of this crop in India. Too cooler months, high temperatures in
September do not permit good tillering of the crop. They also favour root rot and seedling blight.
Hot summer during the grain ripening period hastens the maturity of the crop giving inferior quality
of the crop.

Preparatory cultivation

 It requires well pulverised but compact seed bed for good and uniform germination. 3-4 ploughings
in summer, repeated harrowing in the rainy season followed by 3 or 4 cultivator workings and
plankings immediately before sowing produce a good fine seed bed for the dry crop on alluvial
soils. Timely cultivation and conservation of moisture are essential.
 In black cotton soils blade harrow is used instead of the plough . 1 to 3 ploughings with an iron
plough may some times precede the use of blade harrow. For irrigated crop the land is given a
pre sowing irrigation and the number of ploughings is reduced .
 Where white ants and pests are problem, use Aldrin & BHC 10 % @ 25 kg /ha.

Methods of sowing : 5 methods

1. Broad casting : Scattering of seed by hand followed by ploughing/harrowing. Cheap and quick
method very inefficient and requires heavy seed rate.
2. Sowing behind plough with hand: A man/woman follows a plough and drops seeds in the furrow.
It is mainly followed on irrigated lands.
3. Sowing with seed drill : Seed drills are generally used for sowing on barren lands (dry) (rainfed).
Dibbling : Dibbling 2 or 3 seeds by hand at 4-6 cm depth at a distance of 22.5 cm between rows and
10-15 cm between plants in a row. It is a good method for quick multiplication of pure seed material
on a small scale.But it is laborious and time consuming for large scale sowing.
4. Transplanting : seedlings are raised in the nursery. About 3-4 weeks old seedlings are transplanted
in well irrigated fields. It is a good practice of sowing wheat in late season but it is a time and labour
consuming method.
5. FIRB system: The furrow-irrigated raised bed (FIRB) system has been developed and is being
promoted by the Rice-Wheat Consortium of the CGIAR Institutes. In this method, wheat is sown on
raised beds accommodating 2-3 rows of wheat. Between the beds are furrows that are used for
irrigation. This system permits adequate saving in irrigation water. The yields obtained are similar
to or more than conventional seedling.

Time of sowing
Optimum time

1st FN of November . If early sowing is to be done, sow it towards the end of October using a variety
like Kalyansona . For late sowing, the varieties of less than 100 days duration like UP 301 or Hira - can be
done upto the end of November .

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UASD/AGRONOMY/AGR 203(1+1)/S C ALAGUNDAGI, S S NOOLI & S S GOWDA
Spacing
 Unirrigated ( Rainfed ) areas 30 cm row to row
 Irrigated areas : 22.5 cm row to row with 2 seeds/hills found better .
 Under favourable conditions : 30 cm x 10 - 15 cm with 2-3 seeds per hill is good method in
dibbling by hand

Depth of sowing
 For dwarf wheats, depth should be between 5-6 cm. Planting/ sowing beyond this depth results in
poor stand .
 In case of conventional tall varieties the depth of sowing may be 8 or 9 cm .
 Deeper sowing is practiced ( 6-7 cm ) under rainfed condition where shallow sowing is done under
irrigated conditions .

Seed rate
 Heavy seed rate of 100 - 125 kg / ha is required for bold seeded and shy tillering varieties like
Sonalika .
 For medium sized grain varieties 75 - 100 kg / ha ( Eg:Kalyansona )
 For late sown crop: 125-140 kg/ha,Under rainfed conditions 100kg/ha
 Generally, 150 kg/ha and dicoccum with cover @150 kg/ha (by UASD)

Seed treatment

Seed treatment with Thiram 0.2 % against seedling blight captan @1:300 parts by weight of seed can
also be used (i.e., 10 g/3 kg of wheat seed)

Intercultivation
Weeds are to be controlled during the early stages of crop growth and to give slight earthing up. A
light plough can be worked in between lines.

Fertilisers
 The rainfed wheat is not fertilized by farmers due to economic reasons.
 It is desirable to apply 2-3 t of FYM/ha at 5-6 weeks before sowing. 40 kg N + 20 kg P2O5/ha will
give a considerable boost to wheat yield if it is to be applied at 10 cm deep (3-4 cm below the seed)
at or before sowing of seed.
 For irrigated wheat : 120-60-40 kg NPK/ha
 Entire P & K and ½ of N should be applied 5 cm below the seed at the time of sowing. Remaining ½
N should be applied at the time of 1st irrigation i.e., at the CRI stage (21 DAS).
 In case of Zn deficiency, 25 kg ZnSO4/ha is to be applied as a basal dose in the soil.

As per package of practices by UAS Dharwad

 FYM-6 t/ha, 50:25:00 kg N:P:K/ha (Rainfed)

 FYM-7.5 t/ha, 100:75:50 kg N:P:K/ha (irrigated)
 60:30:20 kg N:P:K/ha (for diccocum)

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UASD/AGRONOMY/AGR 203(1+1)/S C ALAGUNDAGI, S S NOOLI & S S GOWDA
Stages of crop growth
There are 5 important stages. Adequate soil moisture is an important factor at these stages.

1. CRI: In wheat, the first node of crown is formed near the soil surface irrespective of the depth of
sowing. Crown roots start developing at this node. Depending upon temperature, CRI takes place 20-
25 DAS. Plants at this stage are very sensitive to soil moisture stress. Hence, there is a need for
adequate moisture at this stage.
2. TILLERING: The lateral buds at these nodes give rise to tillers. Tiller initiation takes place 4 weeks
after sowing and tillers continue to emerge for another 2 or 3 weeks.
3. JOINTING STAGE: It represents the node production and active growth period. Upto this stage,
the seedlings consist of a whorl of leaves. At this jointing stage, the stem becomes visible with
distinct nodes.
4. HEADING: This is the stage where the internodes begin to elongate. Flag leaf and ear emerge
towards the end of this stage. Adequate moisture should also be present in the soil at the heading
stage.
5. GRAIN DEVELOPMENT: It is up to the end of soft dough stage of the grain. At this stage also, the
plant requires adequate moisture (dough stage).

Weed management
Manual/mechanical
Hand-weeding with a khurpi or hand-hoe 20-25 DAS used to be the conventional practice. However,
due to increasing nuclear families and heavy cost and scarcity of farm labour, this practice is now restricted
to poor small-holders. Also it is difficult to identify P.minor and A.ludoviciana in early stage of growth from
wheat seedlings.

Chemical
A pre-emergence application of pendimethalin (Stomp 30 EC) @ 1 kg/ha (3,300 ml/ha) in 500-750
litres/ha of water within 3 DAS provides a broad-spectrum control of weeds in wheat. However, post-
emergence application of herbicides is necessary for effective control of weeds, which is generally
recommended at 25-30 DAS. Earlier, isoproturon was generally used for the control of P. minor, but this
weed has now developed resistance to isoproturon in several parts of the country. Isoproturon has been
replaced by cladinofop, fenaxaprop-p ethyl and sulfosulfuron. It may also be mentioned that some wheat
cultivars, such as HD 2009, WH 283, WH 416 and Sonaka react to 2,4-D application and develop malformed
spikes, resulting in reduced yield. Thus one has to be careful with the application of 2,4-D in wheat.

Irrigation

 A life saving irrigation is necessary for uniform germination and good plant stand. Total water
requirement is 300-400 mm.
 In light soils (which tend to form hard crust), irrigate and then sow the seed.
 In heavy soils. It is better to sow in drysoil and then irrigate. There after , 4 irrigations are quite
essential during the following critical stages of crop growth.
i. CR I ( 15 - 21 D A S )
ii. Jointing ( 45 DAS )

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UASD/AGRONOMY/AGR 203(1+1)/S C ALAGUNDAGI, S S NOOLI & S S GOWDA
 iii. Heading ( 65 DAS )
iv. Dough stage ( 85 - 90 DAS )

 Under limited water supply, if irrigation water is available - if only one irrigation available
Apply at CRI
 if only two irrigation available CRI & Dough stage
 if only three irrigation available CRI + heading + Dough stage
 In wheat the time of irrigation is more important than the number of irrigations.
 In light soils crop should be irrigated frequently.
 In heavy soils with high moisture storage capacity, the no of irrigations can be reduced.
 In black soils of heavy texture (where more moisture at the time of sowing of crop), irrigation
not seems essential.

Conclusions drawn based on the experiments conducted on irrigation of wheat are

1. Given with short growth durations, the water requirements of dwarf wheat is higher than the
tall varieties.
2. Irrigation may be given when ASM% has gone down to 40-50% in top 60 cm depth.
3. Border strip method of irrigation is the best method for effective water distribution. Where
water supply is scarce, irrigation at tillering to late jointing can be avoided.

For long duration varieties scheduling of irrigation : 6 stages are recommended .

Stage Period (DAS)

CRI 21-25
Late tillering 25-60
Late jointing 60-70
Flowering stage 90-95
Milky stage 100-105
Dough stage 120-125

Harvesting

 It varies from season to season and zone to zone and also growing conditions (RF/irrigated)
 RF crop reaches maturity earlier than irrigated. The same variety behaves differently in respect
of maturity in different zones. Eg: Kalyan sona
 In peninsular India, harvested at the end of Feb or March beginning. Whereas, same variety
planted at same time in Northern Hills is harvested by May-June. The higher temperatures
shorten the growing period in peninsular India.

Maturity symptoms

 The crop is harvested when the grains harden and the straw becomes dry.
 Don't allow the crop till it is dead ripe. Harvest the crop while base of the stalks are slightly
green to avoid shedding.
 Non shedding varieties -They are harvested when the grain is matured fully.
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Test : A simple test is to crush a few grains between teeth and the seed should crack (25- 30%
moisture).
Ordinary method of harvesting is by sickle which is quite efficient for small holdings. But
where a large area has to be harvested or higher intensity of cropping is followed a bullock reaper
is more efficient implement and economical to adopt. Now a days combine harvesters are used.

Threshing
Grain is generally threshed by trampling with cattle on a threshing floor. Use of stone roller,
saw threshers and tractors also expedite the operation.

Simple mechanical threshers Eg: Ludhiana thresher & Sherpur thresher are used by some farmers.
Threshers are very common in Punjab. Winnowing is done generally with winnowing baskets. A disc
harrow with a light tractor separates the grain and makes the "bhusha“ fine.

Yield

 Rainfed conditions - 6 -11 q / ha

 Irrigated conditions - 18-23 q /ha
 With improved methods of cultivation yield of 27 to 31 q/ha of grain. The yield of straw
is generally double the yield of grain.

As per UAS Dharwad (PoP)

Rainfed conditions: Grain- 12.5 -15 q/ha, Bhusa- 2.5-3.5 t/ha

Irrigated conditions: Grain- 35-40 q /ha, Bhusa- 4-5 t/ha
Irrigated dicoccum : Grain- 35-40 q /ha (with cover), Bhusa- 6-7 t/ha
Grain: Straw ratio is 1: 2
Yield attributes

1. No. of productive tillers / unit area

2. Total no of grains / head
3. % of fertile grains/ear head
4. Test weight (1000 seed weight)

Storage
1. The grain should be thoroughly dried before storage. The storage life of grain is closely related to its
moisture contest. Grains with less than 10% moisture store well.
2. In Eastern India, the storage of wheat grains without losing viability for the next crop is a big problem
due to high humidity prevailing in that area.

Structures: The storage pits, bins or godowns should be moisture proof and should be fumigated to keep
down the store grain pests including rats. ZnPO4 is very effective against rats.

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Crop rotations

1. Rabi wheat is followed in kharif with crops such as maize, jowar, bajra, cotton & arhar.
2. Sometimes green manure crops like blackgram, guar, clover are sown immediately after the harvest
of kharif crop to enrich the soil.
3. With the availability of photoinsensitive varieties, recent emphasis in intensive agriculture, the
rotation patterns have undergone some changes.
4. In Haryana, Western UP, rice becomes an important crop in kharif. It is followed by wheat (Rice-
wheat)
5. In Eastern India Rice-wheat
6. In some states like West Bengal -Rice-Wheat-Jute rotation has become more
popular.
7. Sugarcane -Wheat rotation is also common in North India.
8. Where irrigation facilities are available, legume crop is grown in between two cereal crops to enrich
the soil as well as to get the needed pulses.
9. Black soils of central India & Peninsular Inida, unirrigated wheat is rotated with sorghum, bajra or
cotton in the kharif in the preceeding year.
10. Growing of quick growing crops like blackgram, gingelly(seasme), onion or even groundnut or early
sown maize as catch crops before wheat are fairly common.

Mixed cropping

 All over India, the growing of wheat mixed with barley, mustard, gram, lentil and safflower is quite
common.
 A row of mustard or safflower for every 8-12 rows of wheat is kept. This mixed cropping meets the
farmers family requirement for cereals, pulses, oil and also gives some insurance against pests,
diseases and other natural calamities which may destroy the single crop.
 In north western India and in the Tarai regions of UP, wheat is grown as a companion crop with row
crops eg: sugarcane. About 3-4 tons of wheat is harvested as bonus in such companion cropping,
without affecting the quality or yield of sugarcane.

Wheat based cropping Systems

 The introduction of dwarf Mexican wheat varieties have opened new dimensions with respect to its
stability under various growing conditions. Thus, in turn, has made wheat a very common component
of various cropping systems.
 Wheat has made inroads into traditionally non-wheat growing provinces like WB, Assam, Odisha,
AP, Karnataka and Maharashtra.

Traditional crop rotations are: (Wheat belt of NI)

Maize-wheat-sorghum-wheat;
Pearl millet-wheat.

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 The evolution of HYV’s, short duration, photo & thermo insensitive varieties of rice, the availability
of adequate production inputs and the margin of profitability have made Rice-wheat cropping an extensively
practiced systems, both in traditional and non traditional rice/wheat areas.
Some common and promising sequences involving wheat are

 Maize-wheat- Prosomillet
 Maize-wheat-Greengram
 Prosomillet/maize -wheat-maize/cowpea is followed in areas having assured water supply in Gujarat,
MP & Rajasthan.
 Intercropped with barley, mustard, chickpea, lentil, safflower and linseed.
 Mustard is a very common crop usually intercropped with wheat.

Export potential and economic importance

 World wheat production is expected to set a new record of approximately 600 mt. The net import
of wheat products by developing nations was 26 mt in 1995 of which Asian markets imported
nearly 17 MT.
 Demand for wheat products may never cease in future.

Pest and diseases

• Insects: Termite, stem borer and aphids

• Diseases: Rust (stem and leaf), Leaf spot, collar rot and smut

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 BARLEY

Botanical name: Hordeum vulgare Family: Poaceae/Graminae

ICARDA- International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Beirut, Lebanon
ICAR- Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal
ICAR-AICRP on Wheat & Barley Improvement, Karnal

 Is an important cereal crop all over the world.

 Among cereals, it ranks fourth with respect to area and production after wheat, rice and maize.
 There are evidences to indicate that it is one of the oldest crops known to have been cultivated in
India.
 The Sanskrit term ‘yava’ found in ancient texts refers to barley. It was most likely the principal
staple food crop of the Indo-Aryans during the vedic period.
 It is widely believed that the ‘Near East region’ is the probable place of origin of barley around 8000
BC (Harlan, 1968).
 Archeological remains dating back to 8000 BC at Mureybat on the Euphrates in Syria, 6800 BC at
Beidha in Southern Jordan, 6000-7000 BC at Alikosh (Iran), Ramad (Syria), Jericho (Palestine) and
Catal Huyuk and Halcier in Turkey have been found (Harlan and Zohary, 1966).
 Vavilov (1951) has proposed two main centres of diversity, namely, North-East Africa and
mountainous regions of Abyssinia for occidental type and South-East Asia, China, Japan and
regions adjoining Tibet for oriental type.
 The barley-producing countries are the erstwhile USSR, Canada, France, Spain, UK, Germany,
Turkey, Australia, Morocco and Ethiopia.
 The demand for barley has been steadily increasing for its use as an animal feed and for various
industrial purposes.
 On the contrary, in India, both the area and production of barley have decreased especially after the
introduction of high-yielding varieties of wheat, the cultivation of which is comparatively more
remunerative.
 Barley is also comparatively more tolerant to saline and alkali soil conditions than other winter
season(rabi) crops. Thus, it can be grown on problem soils where other crops fail to give economic
returns.
 In India, eastern Uttar Pradesh and north western districts of Bihar comprise the major barley-
growing area.
 In addition to these areas, southern Uttar Pradesh, northern Madhya Pradesh, north-eastern and
southern districts of Rajasthan and Haryana and hills of Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh constitute
important barley producing regions.
 Owing to its very hardy nature, barley is successfully cultivated in adverse agro-environments like
drought, salinity, alkalinity etc. in varied topographical conditions like plains and hilly areas under
rainfed and irrigated conditions.
 It is a preferred crop by farmers where wheat cannot be grown due to some agronomic and
managerial limitations.

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  It can thus fit in areas having limitations of inputs and environment and unsuitable for other crops.
Barley is quite a nutritious cereal. The grains have 8-10% protein, good amount of carbohydrates,
minerals and vitamin B complex and forms a staple food for many people in India. The dishes like
chapati, sattu etc. prepared from barley flour are still highly popular.
 In addition, the energy rich drinks are prepared from the malt extracts of barley. The parched grains
of barley are consumed in many parts of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Haryana. It is preferred in
place of wheat for consumption during summer due to its perceived cooling effect on human body.
 While the barley grains make a palatable and nutritious livestock feed, the straw is used as forage and
green forage either directly fed to the animals or used for making hay and silage. The grains are also
used as feed for pigs and poultry birds. The pork quality is found to improve with barley food and
feed to pigs in Europe.
 Malt is the second largest use of barley and malting barley is grown as cash crop in many developing
and developed countries including India.
 In India about 75% barley is used for feed, 20% for malt and remaining 5% for food purposes. The
end products of malting are used for brewing the alcoholic drinks like beer, whiskey etc.
 Malting involves germinating barley seeds for a limited period and then drying and lightly cooking
the pre-germinated seeds.
 The product from which the dried rootlet (culms, coombes, Cummins, sprouts) have been separated is
called malt.
 Malt is an intermediary in several manufacturing processes and its types differ depending on their
intended use, e.g. the manufacture of malt flours, malt extracts, cereal syrups, various types of
distilled spirits, beers and malt vinegar.
 Barley protein- Hordeins

Barley, Hordeum vulgare L., (2n=14) is one of the highly acclaimed members of the family Graminae
(Poaceae) and tribe Hordea.
It has been classified into different types by different authors depending upon one or many
morphological features. Often these classifications overlap with one another.

Inflorescence of barley is called as Spike

Fruit of barley is called as Caryopsis

Classification based on spikelets

On the basis of arrangement of spikelets on rachis and fertility status, barley has been classified into
three different types

(i) Two-rowed type: Hordeum distichon L.

(ii) Six-rowed type: Hordeum vulgare L. emend

(iii) Irregular type: Hordeum irregulare L.

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 In the two-row barley, the two lateral spikelets are sterile, thus each spike has only two vertical rows
of kernels. Generally each spike produces 15 to 30 kernels.

In six-row barley both the lateral florets are fertile but their size may vary from slightly to moderately
smaller than the central floret. In this type each spikelet consists of one floret with three fertile florets
attached to one side of the rachis and three on the other; six vertical rows of kernel are usually produced on
each spike. About 25 to 60 kernels are produced on each spike (Delorit et al., 1984).

However, in terms of botanical classification it is generally accepted that cultivated barley regardless
of kernel row number in the spike, is all one species, namely Hordeum vulgare L. (Fedek, 1994).

Classification based on awns

On the basis of presence or absence of awns in grains it has been grouped into (i) awned type, and
(ii) awnless type.

Again on the basis of nature of awn type they are sub-grouped into (i) smooth awned and (ii) rough awned.

Awnless types are also called hooded because of the hood-shaped structure that develops in place of awn.

Classification based on adherence of chaff to grains

• Hulled (syn. husked) type: In this type of barley, floral glumes, that is, the husk or chaff remains
adhered to the grain. This type of barley does not thresh free.

• Hull-less (syn. naked) type: It is also called naked type of barley. The chaff in this type does not
adhere to the grain and therefore the grain can be easily separated on threshing as in wheat.

Distribution and spread

Area, production and productivity of barley in India
Area Production Productivity
Continent/Countries
(million ha) (million tonnes) (kg/ha)
World 47.54 123.70 2,658

Area Production Productivity

Zone/States
(million ha) (million tonnes) (kg/ha)
North
Uttar Pradesh 0.171 0.362 2,117
Uttarkhand 9.924 0.026 1,750
Haryana 0.042 0.137 3,262
Punjab 0.014 0.047 3,357
Himachal Pradesh 0.021 0.016 764
Jammu and Kashmir 0.014 0.008 552
East
Bihar 0.012 0.013 1,122
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 West Bengal 0.002 0.002 1,412
Sikkim 0.001 0.001 1,200
West
Rajashtan 0.223 0.620 2,774
Madhya Pradesh 0.085 0.110 1,297
Maharashtra 0.003 0.001 881
All India 0.624 1.355 2,172

Varietal development
Barley varieties recommended for different zones

Year of Zone for which

Growing situation Variety Developed by
release recommended
RD 2552 1999 NWPZ, NEPZ ARS, Durgapura
PL 751 2006 Central zone PAU, Ludhiana
BH 902 2010 NWPZ CCS HAU, Hisar
Irrigated
NB 2 (NDB 940) 1999 Uttar Pradesh NDUAT, Faizabad
BH 393 2001 Haryana CCS HAU, Hisar
RD 2592 2003 Rajasthan ARS, Durgapura
Jawahar Barley 1 2009 Madhya Pradesh CoA, JNKV, Rewa
K 560 1997 NEPZ CSAUA and T, Kanpur
K 603 2000 NEPZ CSAUAT, Kanpur
RD 2624 2003 NWPZ ARS, Durgapura
Rainfed (Plains)
RD 2660 2006 NWPZ ARS, Durgapura
Getanjali (K 1149) 1997 Uttar Pradesh CSAUAT, Kanpur
PL 419 1995 Punjab PAU, Ludhiana
JB 58 2005 Madhya Pradesh COA, JNKV, Rewa
HBL 276 1999 Northern Hills Zone HPKV, Bajaura
BHS 352 2003 Northern Hills Zone IARI, RS, Shimla
BHS 380 2010 Northern Hills Zone IARI, RS, Shimla
Rainfed
(Northern Hills) UPB 1008 2011 Northern Hills Zone GBPUAT, Pantnagar
VLB 56 2005 Uttarakhand VPKAS, Almora
VLB 85 2008 Uttarakhand VPKAS, Almora
PRB 502 2009 Uttarakhand GBPUAT, Pantnagar

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Barley varieties suitable for malting and brewing

Production Year of
Variety Developed by Area of adaptation
condition release
Irrigated (TS, LS) DL 88 IARI, New Delhi NWPZ, NEPZ 1997
Irrigated (TS) RD 2552 ARS, Durgapura NWPZ, NEPZ 1999
Irrigated (TS) NDB 1173 NDUAT, Faizabad NWPZ, NEPZ 2004
N Barley 1
Irrigated (TS) NDUAT, Faizabad Uttar Pradesh 1999
(NDB 209)
N Barley 3
Irrigated (TS, LS) NDUAT, Faizabad Uttar Pradesh 2001
(NDB 1020)

Barley varieties for cultivation under saline-alkaline soils

Production
Variety Year Area of adaptation Developed at
condition
Aha 93 1994 Irrigated (TS) NWPZ DWR, Karnal
BCU 73 1997 Irrigated (TS) NWPZ, NEPZ, PZ DWR, Karnal
DWR 28 2002 Irrigated (TS) NWPZ DWR, Karnal
DWRUB 52 2007 Irrigated (TS) NWPZ DWR, Karnal
RD 2668 2007 Irrigated (TS) NWPZ ARS, Durgapura
DWRB 73 2011 Irrigated (LS) NWPZ DWR, Karnal

Barley varieties suitable for dual (grain and green forage) purpose
Variety Year Production condition Area of adaptation Developed at
RD 2715 2008 Irrigated Central zone ARS, Durgapura
BHS 380 2010 Rainfed Northern Hills IARI, RS, Shimla
RD 2035 1994* Irrigated NWPZ ARS, Durgapura
RD 2552 1999* Irrigated NWPZ ARS, Durgapura

Growth Stages
Germination and initial seedling establishment
This stage is marked by the exhaustion of endosperm and initiation of crown-root formation stage and
lasts up to 20-25 days after sowing (DAS).

Tillering
A plant may produce 4-5 productive tillers depending on the variety and environment. In general,
two-rowed barley produces more tillers than the six-rowed barley. This phase of growth continues up to 30-
35 DAS.

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Jointing and booting
The emergence of the flag leaf or boot leaf virtually marks the termination of the vegetative growth
phase. Jointing lasts up to 55-65 DAS.

Heading
This stage ends with the production of watery ripe grains. The crop remains in this phase up to 75-85 DAS.

Ripening
This stage lasts up to 90-100 DAS. It takes about 25 days from anthesis to maturity.

Climate
 The crop requires a minimum annual average assured rainfall of 200 to 250 mm. However, it
performs very well as a rainfed crop in regions receiving an average rainfall of 400 to 500 mm.
 Barley is comparatively more drought resistant than wheat.
 It is also endowed with an in built ability to resume growth as soon as soil moisture conditions
become favourable after a spell of soil-moisture stress.
 Barley is grown both in tropical as well as subtropical climates.
 It requires approximately mean daily temperatures of 12 to 150C during the growing season
and about 30 0C for ideal grain maturity.
 Excessive heat or dry weather after earing precludes normal maturation and proves detrimental to
grain quality.
 Barley is basically a long day plant.
 Thus a light period of 10-12 hours during vegetative growth and 12-14 hours during reproductive
growth is ideal.
 Of late, with the release of photo-insensitive varieties, the criterion of photo-period
requirement has been minimized.
Soils
 Barley can be grown on variety of soils ranging from light sandy to heavy clay soils. It performs well
on properly drained loamy soils having a pH range of 7-8.
 Fertile deep loam and well-drained soil is ideal for barley.
 On heavy soils, its growth is poor and the grain quality is adversely affected mainly due to
impeded drainage.
 Similarly, very light soils are also not suitable as they have a low soil-moisture retentively.
 Excessive available N in the soil results in heavy growth and lodging.
 Hence, a medium fertile soil will be ideal for the cultivation of barley.
 Barley is the most dependable cereal in saline-sodic soil conditions.
 In can tolerate salinity to a great extent both during germination and later stages of growth.

Land preparation and seeding

1. Barley may be grown on a rough seedbed and hence one cross cultivation with soil turning
plough followed by planting is sufficient to get a good seedbed for sowing.
2. Conservation of late monsoon rains received during August and September is important.

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 3. In moderately saline-cum-high water table conditions, the last preparatory cultivation should be given
7 to 10 days before sowing to allow the salts to accumulate near the surface to facilitate sowing of
seeds in a relatively less or non-saline soil layer.

Optimum time of sowing barley in different zones

Zone Sowing time Recommended dates

Normal 25 Oct. to 11 Nov.
Northern hills zone
Late 25 Nov. to Dec.
Normal 5 Nov. to 15 Nov.
North-western plains zone
Late 10 Dec. to 16 Dec.
Normal 15 Nov. to 25 Nov.
North-eastern plains zone
Late 10 Dec. to 16 Dec.
Normal 12 Nov. to 18 Nov.
Central zone
Late 2 Dec. to 10 Dec.

Seed rate, raw spacing, depth and methods of sowing barley for rainfed and irrigated conditions

Rainfed Irrigated-normal sowing Irrigated-late sowing

Seed rate 100 kg/ha 75-80 kg/ha 100-120 kg/ha
Row spacing 22.5 – 25.0 cm 22.5 cm 20.0- 22.5 cm
Depth 6-8 cm 4-5 cm 4-5 cm
Method of sowing Sowing in rows by bullock- Sowing in rows by Same as in irrigated
drawn desi plough/seed drill bullock-drawn desi condition.
plough/seed drill / tractor
mounted seed drill

General fertilizer application recommendations for barley under different growing situations are:

 Rainfed conditions : 40 kg N + 20 kg P2O5/ha.

 Irrigated timely sown: 60-80 kg N + 30 kg P2O5/ha. Irrigated late sown: 50-60 kg N + 30
kg P2O5/ha. 150 % RDF of rainfed 60:30 kg N: P2O5/ha
 Barley grown with the purpose of using grains for malting needs a different management strategy.
 To maintain the protein content at required level both fertilizer and irrigation should be given
cautiously.
 Nutrients should be balanced like 50:25:25 kg NPK/ha and all the nutrients should be given at the
time of sowing.
 No top-dressing should be made, as it results in higher protein content in grains.

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Water Management
Hulled barley

The following stages have been identified as critical for irrigation.

Active tillering : about 30-35 DAS

Flag leaf/booting : about 60-65 DAS
Milk/grain filling : about 80-85 DAS
Fodder and forage barley
 The first cut or harvest should be done at about 60-65 DAS. Application of 20 kg N/ha and giving
one irrigation is essential to have better and vigorous growth after the cut.

Malt barley

 One extra irrigation given at grain filling results in better quality grains for malting.

Weed Management

A good cultural practice like one hoeing and one hand weeding after first irrigation at 30-35 days
after sowing gives effective control. If weeds persist, chemical weed control may be contemplated.

Different types of weeds and their chemical control methods

Type of weeds Herbicides Dose/ha Method of application

Broad leaf 2,4-D 500g Spray around 35 days after seeding
Metsulfuron 4g using 400-500 litres water.
750-1,000 Spray around 35 days after seeding
Isoproturon
g. using 400-500 litres water.
Both narrow and Isoproturon + 750 + 500
broad leaf 2,4-D g.
1,000- Spray pre-emergence using 400-500
Pendimethalin
1,500 g. litres of water.

Harvesting

 Barley is ready for harvesting once the plants turn yellow and dry up.
 The grains become hard and moisture content is around 18-20%.
 Delay in harvesting results in shattering of ears and loss of grains.
 Lodging of plants deteriorates the fodder value of crop and at times the quality of the grains gets
impaired.
 The crop is harvested by cutting at ground level by sickles.
 The harvested product is bundled and moved to threshing yard.
 It is further dried there and threshed by allowing bullocks to trample or by using stone rollers or
mechanical threshers.

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  The grains so threshed are winnowed to separate them from chaff and other admixture of plant
parts.
 Alternatively, the crop is harvested by using the combine harvester wherein the cutting,
threshing and winnowing is done at one go.
 The cleaned grains are dried and a moisture content of about 12% is maintained before being
transferred to gunny bags and moved to godown for storage.

Yield
 Recent high-yielding varieties have the grain yield potential of 4-5 tonnes/ha.
 The grain yield of rainfed barley varies from 1.5 to 2.5 tonnes/ha.

Cropping systems
Barley has been found suitable for multiple and mixed cropping systems in a variety of conditions.

1. Cereal-cereal system: Rice-barley, Maize-barley, Pearlmillet-barley, Sorghum-barley

2. Legume-cereal system: Pigeonpea-barley, Mungbean-barley, Blackgram-barley, Cowpea-barley.
3. Miscellaneous system: Groundnut-barley, Cotton-barley, Sunhemp- barley, Sugarcane-barley, Potato-
barley.
4. Vegetables-barley is also another important sequence in diara lands in eastern Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar.
Further, wherever there is irrigation, growing of short duration summer crops like mungbean,
cowpea, fodder or forage crops is also possible before going for kharif crop. In addition, barley is also
suitable for mixed or intercropping with rabi crops like field pea, chickpea, rajmash, mustard/rape-seeds,
linseed etc.
Grain quality

Barley flour does not contain gluten and the bread loaf darkens due to the presence of tryosinase
enzyme. Large grained two-rowed barley varieties are best suited for milling to make flour. General
composition of hulled barley is – carbohydrates 68.0-69.6%, protein 11.5-11.8%, fat 1.0-2.0% and crude
fibre 3.9-5.7%.

Analytical standards for malt barley in India

** Revised during 43 rd Annual meeting of the All India Coordinated Wheat and
Barley Improvement Project, at IARI, New Delhi (27-30 August, 2004).

Sl. No. Parameter 2-row barley 6-row barley

1. Moisture (%) <12.0 <12.0
2. Kernel shape Elliptical Elliptical
Kernel size Uniform plump Uniform plump
3. 1,000-grain weight (g) >45 >42
4. Protein content 9.0-11.0% 9.0-11.5%
5. Beta glucans 3.7-5.0% 3.7-5.0%

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 PULSES – Importance of pulses in Indian agriculture

ICRISAT-International Crops Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics, Hyderabad

ICARDA- International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Beirut, Lebanon
ICAR-Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur
ICAR-AICRP on Pigeonpea, Kanpur
ICAR-AICRP on Chickpea, Kanpur
ICAR-AICRP on MULLaRP,Kanpur
ICAR-AICRP arid legumes,Jodhpur
ICAR-AINWP on Underutilized crops, New Delhi

• Pulse crops called grain legumes are the most important food crops after cereals.
• They have been valued as food, fodder and feed and have remained as main stay
of Indian agriculture.
• The term pulse is derived from the Latin word “Puls” meaning “pottage” (thick
soup)
• Pulse crops play an important role in agricultural economy of India .
• They fix atmospheric nitrogen and their deep penetrating root system enable the
plants to utilize limited available moisture more efficiently.
• Indian Institute of Pulses Research (IIPR) was established in 1993 at Kanpur
• In 1992-93, Technology Mission on Pulses was started by 2 sub themes.
a) NPDP : National Pulse Development Programme.
b) SFPP : Special Food grain Production Programme.
• Per capita requirement of Pulses
• Per capita requirement of Pulses: Acc. to ICMR – 150 g/day and Acc. to FAO – 140 g /day
• At present, the per capita net availability of pulses in India is only 54.7 g/day (2016-17)
• At present, the per capita net availability of food grain in India is only 488.7 g/day (2016-17)
Importance of Pulses
• They are rich source of proteins
• The average protein available in pulses is 20-30%. Pulses are rich in ‘Ca’ & Phosphorus. They are
also good sources of Vitamins.
• Pulses provide a superior quality fodder & feed to the cattle, as they are good forage
crops with proteins and mineral content.
• They are considered as good green manure crops because of rich canopy development.
• They improve the soil fertility by biological nitrogen fixation
• The nitrogen needs of pulses is low and they minimize the N requirement of succeeding
crops by around 23 % of its total requirement.
• Pulses help in the soil and water conservation.
• They improve the physical condition of the soil like soil aeration, water holding capacity by
improving microbial population, breaking of hard pans and moisture retention.
• Pulses are important in crop mixtures / rotation. They act as catch crops.

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 • Some crops act as smothering crops which control weeds & protect soil from erosion E.g. Cowpea
and horse gram. Pulses can also be used as better intercrops.

Area, production and productivity of pulses in India

 Pulses are grown over an area of 28.8 million ha with a production of 24 million tonnes with
average productivity levels ranging from 648 kg/ha.
 India accounts for 33% of total world area under pulses and 25% of total world production.
 Kharif pulses (Pigeon pea, black gram, green gram, horse gram, moth bean, Cowpea) cover 45
% of total area and 30 % of total pulse production.
 Rabi pulses (Chick pea, pea, lentil, lathyrus) cover 55% of total area and 64% of
production.
 Major pulse producing states are Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan and Uttar
Pradesh.
 Highest production of pulses is from Madhya Pradesh followed by Rajasthan and Uttar
Pradesh.

Major Pulses Growing states (2016-17)

Area (lakh ha) Production (lakh tonnes)

Sl. No. State
Kharif Rabi Total Kharif Rabi Total
1 Madhya Pradesh 19.74 42.35 62.09 16.38 43.61 59.99
2 Maharashtra 23.77 18.76 42.53 16.00 15.57 31.57
3 Rajasthan 34.76 15.23 49.99 14.95 14.98 29.93
4 Uttar Pradesh 9.77 16.81 26.58 6.75 16.27 23.02
5 Karnataka 17.11 11.01 28.12 9.19 5.07 14.26
6 Andhra Pradesh 4.46 10.65 15.11 2.97 10.09 13.06
7 Gujarat 7.28 2.4 9.68 5.84 2.55 8.39
8 Jharkhand 4.18 3.15 7.33 3.92 3.37 7.29
9 Chhattisgarh 2.16 6.37 8.53 0.98 5.28 6.26
10 Tamilnadu 2.15 6.78 8.93 1.54 4.34 5.88
Other states 13.6 16.08 29.68 8.7 13.02 21.72
All-India 138.98 149.59 288.57 87.22 134.15 221.37

Productivity Gap (kg ha-1) (Anon., 2018)

World- 958
India - 588
Gap -370 kg (38.6 %.)
USA (2034), Canada (2011), Ethiopia (1806), Russia (1750) and China (1732).

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Reasons for low yield of pulses in India

I. AGRONOMIC CONSTRAINTS
i) Improper sowing time: The pulse crops get last preference and priority in the sowing schedule. Late
planting not only results in poor growth but also leads to high attack of sucking pests.
ii) Low seed rate: Farmers hardly use any recommended seed rate.
iii) Defective method of sowing: Pulses are hardly sown in rows. This creates lot of problems in adopting
agronomic practices such as weeding, hoeing, spraying, harvesting etc.,
iv) Inadequate interculture: Farmers hardly follow interculture in these crops. Line sowing helps for
interculture operations through bullock drawn implements and hand hoes etc. Pulse crops suffer due to the
infestation of weeds because of their initial slow growth.
v) Insufficient irrigation: Though pulse crops are drought tolerant, one or two protective or life saving
irrigations are required, particularly in rabi pulses. Irrigation, if provided, wherever possible, enhances
production, particularly at the pod development stage of pulse crops.
vi) Sowing under utera cultivation: Large area under pulses is sown as utera without cultivation and
inputs. The yields of such crops is very poor.
vii) Poor management conditions: The concept that pulses can grow and produce better yields on marginal
lands without any inputs and management is not correct. Being protein rich crops, pulses require more
energy input per unit of production as compared to cereals. But on the contrary, they are grown under
conditions of energy starvation resulting in poor yields.
viii) Non-availability of efficient Rhizobium culture: In general, Rhizobium culture is the cheapest input
with high benefit-cost ratio: Symbiotic nitrogen fixation takes place very effectively if the natural
relationship is established between the legume cultivar and its specific strain of Rhizobium. However, use of
Rhizobium culture is not getting popular among the farmers because unlike fertilizers, the specific cultures of
desired quality are not readily available in the market. Many times spurious cultures are supplied to the
farmers which are not effective and the farmers lose faith in using Rhizobium culture.
ix) Weed infestation: Because of their inherent slow growth rate at the initial stage, pulse crops suffer due to
infestation of weeds. Depending upon the duration of the crop, the critical period for weed competition in the
pulses varies from 20-45 DAS. If weeds are not controlled during this period, marked crop losses ranging
from 30-50% in chick pea have been recorded.
x) Losses due to diseases and insects pests: Pulses in general are susceptible to a large number of diseases
and insect pests, which cause heavy losses. The major diseases are wilt, blight and grey-mould in chickpea.
For yield stability and wider adaptability of genotypes, it is essential that varieties with multiple resistance to
these major diseases are identified, adopted and popularized. Such multiple resistant varieties are wanting
among the pulse crops.

II. GENETIC CONSTRAINTS

The major constraints of pulse production in the country is the lack of suitable genotypes with higher yield
potential on farmer’s fields. Some other genetic constraints are,
 Lower productivity
 Non synchronous flowering/fruiting
 Non-responsiveness to good management

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  Complete or partial absence of genetic resistance to major diseases and pests (eg: Helicoverpa
armigera, wilt etc.)
 Indeterminate growth habit of most of the pulses
 Instability in performance,
 Lack of good quality and certified seed. SRR (seed replacement ratio) for pulses is 2.5% against the
recommended SRR i.e., 10%.
 Non-availability of drought and water logging resistant varieties.

III. PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS

Besides the agronomy and genetic constraints, physiological constraints also play a major role in the low
production and productivity of pulses. Some of the physiological constraints are:
 Low harvest index
 Low sink potential [source=leaf, dry matter; sink=seed]
 A lot of dry matter goes for production of stalk, with the result, the harvest index is very low.
 Flower drop is another physiological problem in pulse crops. This results in poor pod setting and
consequently lower yield.
 Non-responsiveness to fertilizers.
 Photo and thermo sensitive phenomenon.
 Lack of short duration varieties i.e., long duration gives low per day production.

Strategies for improving the productivity of pulses

The problem of short supply of pulses was brought to notice of ICAR and an integrated All India Co-
ordinated Programme was started in 1972-73 in collaboration with U.S. Department of agriculture for the
pulse improvement work in the country.
The main emphasis for increasing pulse production is to be laid on the following points:
1. Bringing an additional area under short duration high yielding varieties to fit in multiple cropping
programmes to be grown as catch crop.
2. Developing new cropping systems like companion cropping, mixed cropping (or) intercropping for
growing pulses between widely spaced crops such as sugarcane, sorghum etc. both under irrigated and
rainfed conditions.
3. Evolution, multiplication and use of improved seeds of various pulses.
4. Adoption of efficient plant protection measures.
5. Basal placement of phosphatic fertilizers and treating the seeds with Rhizobium culture.
6. Growing pulses on relatively fertile lands rather than growing them on marginal and submarginal lands.
7. Adoption of improved package of practices like line sowing, control of weeds, harvesting at right time or
at physiological maturity to avoid splitting of pods and thereby minimising shattering losses.
8. Granting subsidy on Government loans to the growers and providing improved seeds, fertilizers and plant
protection materials on concessional price to the farmers.
9. Evolution of better plant-types of pulses for boosting pulse production.
10. Post harvest measures: small scale processing, value addition etc.

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The varieties thus developed are characterized under
a) non-spreading and erect types.
b) Thermo and photo insensitive.
c) Early maturing
d) Responsive to applied inputs with higher yield potentials.
e) Fairly resistant to water logging, insect pests and diseases.
f) Resistant to drought and frost.
g) High nutritional qualities.

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 GRAM/BENGAL GRAM/CHICKPEA (KING of PULSES)

Botanical name: Cicer arietinum Family: Fabaceae/Leguminosae

ICRISAT-International Crops Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics, Hyderabad
ICARDA- International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Beirut, Lebanon
ICAR-Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur
ICAR-AICRP on Chickpea, Kanpur

It is also known as Gram (or Chana)

Economic importance
 Chick pea contains 21% protein, 2.2% fat, 62% carbohydrates.
 It also contains calcium of about 190 mg/100g; Iron 90.5 mg/100g; Phosphorus 280 mg/100g.
 Among the pulses, chickpea has relatively lower protein content but of higher biological value and
protein digestibility.
 Germinated seeds can cure “scurvy”
 An acid liquid from the granular hairs of leaves and pods contains two acids.
i) Malic Acid (90-96%) ii) Oxalic Acid (4-10%)
 Which are used in the preparation of drugs, and are prescribed for the intestinal dis-orders and blood
purification.
 Soaked seed and husk are fed to cattle.

Origin: Western Asia (Turkey) /(SYRIA), 42 wild spp., 2n=16

Self pollinated crop, Long day plant and Hypogeal type of germination
The inflorescence of chick pea is Axilary raceme and its fruit called Pod
Global scenario
 Chickpeas are one of the oldest pulses known and cultivated from ancient times both in Asia and in
Europe.
 It is assumed that gram is originated either from Himalayas or Mediterranean region.
 Important countries- India, Canada, USA, Ethiopia, Pakistan, Australia, Myanmar, Italy, Greece,
Romania, Russia, Egypt, North Africa and many other countries of world
 Chickpea is valued for its nutritive seeds with high protein content, 25 – 28%.
 Chickpea seeds are eaten fresh as green vegetables, parched, fried, roasted, boiled and as value added
products (flour).
India
 India contributes to 68% of the global chickpea production.
 Chickpea has a share of 41% in India’s pulse production.
 National demand: 9.0 million tonnes
 Proportion of production sold commercially: 20-50% by marginal to small farmers; 50 to 90% by
medium to large farmers
Area: 9.63 m ha, Production: 9.38 m t, Productivity: 974 kg ha-1 - (All India)
Area (m ha): Madya Pradesh (3.22), Maharashtra (1.93) and Rajastan (1.55)
Production (m t): Madya Pradesh (3.54), Maharashtra (1.72) and Rajastan (1.41)
Productivity (kg ha-1): Jharkand (1174), Chattisgarh (1171) and Gujarath (1116)
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 Karnataka: Area (m ha): 1.00, Production (m t): 0.59, Productivity (kg ha-1): 590

Soils: It can grow on wide range of soils from medium to heavy black soils. It does well on block cotton
soils and sandy loams.
- Optimum pH required for crop growth is 6.0 to 7.5 (>8.5pH not suitable)
- It does not withstand water -logging, saline and alkaline conditions.

Climate: It is a rabi pulse crop and requires cool humid weather and mainly suitable to North India.
- It is suited for moderate rainfall areas of 400-700 mm.
- Water-logging results into wilt diseases (when grown with red gram)
- Optimum temperature regime for chick pea is 24 0C -30 0C.
- Chick pea is a long day plant and requires sufficient bright sunshine.
- The period of cool temperature decides the duration of the crop, because of which in North India,
it comes to harvest in 160-170 days.
- Whereas, the winter is warm in South India, and the duration is shorter of about 90-110 days.
Types and varieties in chickpea
There are 2 important varietal types available in India. They are:
1) Kabuli type 2) Desi type
Mostly cultivated type of chick pea is Desi type.
Differences between Desi type and Kabuli type
Characteristic Desi type Kabuli type
Area under Cultivation More Less
Colour of the seed Yellow to dark brown White (or) Pale cream
Size of the seed Small Large ,bold and attractive
Shape of the seed Irregular and wrinkled Smooth
Plant structure Small and bushy Taller and erect
Percentage of production 85% 15%
Yield potential High Low
Adaptation Mostly in winter Mostly in spring
Test weight 17-26 g /100seed 50-55 g /100 seeds
Varieties A1, JG-11, JAKI 9218 Kranthi and Sweta (MNK 1)

Heat tolerant genotypes

Cultivated: ICCV 92944, ICC 1205, ICC 14815, ICC 15618, BGD 103, KAK 2, JAKI 9218
Genotypes identified resistant/moderately resistant against two diseases
Wilt, dry root rot : JG 24, JSC 37
Wilt, Ascochyta blight : CSJ 515
Wilt, BGM : Phule G 0511, JG 38, CSJK 27, GJG 0904
Ascochyta blight, BGM : IPC 2008-11
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Other varieties : Radhay, Gwalior,Vikas, Chabba
Wilt tolerant variety : Vishal, Vijay, Avarodhi, JG 11, MNK 1
Popular varieties grown in Karnataka: Annegiri 1, JG 11, JG 14, JAKI 9218
GBS 964, BGD 103, BD 1105 (kabuli), BGD 111-1
Seeds and sowing
Seed rate: Desi type 65-70 kg/ha, Kabuli type 80-90 kg/ha
In Karnataka, 62.5 kg/ha (irrigated), 50 kg/ha (rainfed)
Spacing: Desi type 30 cm x 10 cm, Kabuli type 45 cm x 10 cm

Time of sowing: Mid October to first fortnight of November.

Depth of sowing: 6-8 cm.
- If delayed, results in possibility of wilt diseases.
- Early sowing results in excessive, vegetative growth and poor setting of pods.

Fertilizers
The crop comes up well with a residual fertility. But the recommended fertilizers are:
kg/ha Rainfed Irrigated Karnataka (all basal)
Rainfed Irrigated
N 10 20 10 25
P2O5 40 60 25 50
K2O 20 40 00 00

‘Zn’ deficiency can be corrected by 0.5% ZnSO4 spray or soil application of 25 kg /ha
Zinc Sulphate is effective in increasing the yields.

Bio-fertilisers: Seed treatment with the Rhizobium strain namely

Cicer rhizobium will increase the Nitrogen fixing ability of the plant and thereby yield will be
enhanced by 20-30 %.
- 2 % CaCl2 (30 min)/25 % cow urine (8 hours soaking and 7 hours shade drying) afterwards polymer
(ZnSO4, FeSO4, Borax, Ammonium molybdate) @2 g/kg seeds, coating (6 ml/kg seeds)
Irrigation
55% area of chickpea is under Rainfed.
Under drought conditions, the crop requires 2 irrigations at critical stages.
1) At flowering (45 DAS) and 2) At pod formation (75 DAS)
If water is adequate, then four irrigations are recommended at:
1) Sowing 3) Flowering
2) Branching 4) Pod filling
Evaporative demand is high in South India, Irrigation at that time can double the yield.
Evaporative demand is low in North India, where in Irrigation can cause excessive growth leading to
lodging.
Nipping: at 35-40 DAS

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Weed Management
Weeds become problematic in chickpea due to its short growing nature.
Among the different herbicides used for chickpea,
Pre-emergence herbicides were
Oxyfluorofen @ 0.25 kg ha-1or
Pendimethalin @ 3.25 l ha-1 or
Pendimethalin @ 1 kg ha-1+ 1 hand weeding or
Pendimethalin @1 kg ha-1fb Quizalofop-ethyl @ 50 g ha-1 or
Pendimethalin @ 1 kg ha-1+ Imazethapyr @ 50g ha-1 (tank mix)
Harvesting
In North India, chickpea duration is 160-170 days. In South India crop comes to harvesting within 90-
110 days.
Crop is harvested when leaf turns to reddish brown and starts leaf shedding.
Harvesting is done during morning to avoid shattering of pods. Plants are pulled out or cut with a
sickle and carried to threshing floor.

Threshing
The harvested plants are dried in sun for about a week and then threshed under the feet of cattle (or)
by beating with sticks. Then the grain is collected and it can be used directly (or) crushed.

Cropping systems
Rice – chickpea
Cotton – chickpea
Intercropping
Chick pea + Mustard
Chick pea + Linseed (4:2 Karnataka, rainfed situation)
Chick pea + Sunflower
Chick pea + Coriander (for South zone)
Chick pea: wheat (3:1) (Irrigated)

Seed yield- Rainfed: 15 q ha-1 Irrigated: 20-25 q ha-1

Collection of acids from chickpea crop

The leaves and pods of bengal gram are coated with thin film of Malic acid (90-96%); oxalic acid (4-
9%), and are dissolved in dew and settles on plants during winter season, due to this the plants give sour
taste.
These acids are considered to have some medicinal properties and they may be collected and stored.

Procedure for collection: A thin clean piece of cloth like

• Muslin cloth is spread over the crop during night.

• Acids are soaked in the cloth that are dissolved in dew during night.
• Now the cloth has been absorbed of these acids, is squeezed and acids are obtained.
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 • This process is to be repeated until all acids are collected.
• After the collection is over, allow the concentrate solution in sun to evaporate and thus crystallization
takes place.
• This crystallized acid is similar to the taste of vinegar.
• Which is used for curing of indigestion and stomach complaints.
• About 4 – 4½ kg of acids may be obtained from one ha of crop.

Pest: Helicoverpa armigera (pod borer)

Diseases: Wilt, root rot, sterility

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 LENTIL

Botanical name: Lens culinaris Family: Fabaceae/Leguminosae

ICARDA- International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Beirut, Lebanon

 Lentil is the fourth most important pulse crop of the world after beans, pea and chickpea. One of the
oldest and most nutritious pulses.

 Although, lentil is relatively minor crop on a world scale, it has local importance in certain regions.

 This is particularly true in countries surrounding the Mediterranean, in the northern parts of India and
in Latin America.

 In these regions, lentil is a valuable source of protein besides an important component of local or
international trade.

 It has the potential to cover the risk of rainfed farming. It is also used as a cover crop to check soil
erosion. It is eaten as dal.

 The split dal are deep orange or orange yellow in colour. It contains protein 25.0%, carbohydrate
60.0% and fat 1.8%. It is rich in calcium, iron and niacin.

 Being a leguminous crop, fixes atmospheric nitrogen and improve the soil fertility.

 Whole pulse is known as Malka masoor.

 The inflorescence in lentil is Raceme

 Hypogeal type of germination

Origin, Distribution, Area and Production

Origin: Eastern Mediterranean consisting of Asia Minor, Greece and Egypt

The cultivated lentil is supposed to have originated in central Asia (India, Pakistan, USSR).

Two types of lentil are known:

1. Bold seeded group: Macrosperma (masur or malka masur) with large flat pods and large seeds
(6.9 mm dia) found in Mediterrancan, Africa and central Asia.

2. Small seeded group: Microsperma (masuri) with small convex pods and small seed (3-6 mm dia),
chiefly found in India, Pakistan and south and west Asia.

Lentils are grown in Egypt since pre-historic times from where it spread to southern Europe, west
Asia, India and China.

The major lentil producing countries are Turkey, India, Canada, USA, Syria, Morocco and Ethiopia.
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 Globally, it is grown in about 2 m ha with a production around 2.5 m t. Highest yields are obtained in
Egypt (2.2 t ha-1) followed by USA (1.0 t ha-1) and Canada (0.8 t ha-1).

In India: Area (m ha) -1.46, Production (m t) -1.22, Productivity (kg ha-1) -838

Area (m ha): Madhya Pradesh (0.53), Uttar Pradesh (0.49) and Bihar (0.15)
Production (m t): Madhya Pradesh (0.45), Uttar Pradesh (0.37) and Bihar (0.15)
Productivity (kg ha-1): Bihar (1005), Rajastan (1003) and West Bengal (976)

Soil and climatic requirement

 Lentil is a cool season (rabi) pulse crop, sown in winter season. It is not an economical crop in hot
tropics.

 It is a long day plant.

 However, it has wider adaptability and can be cultivated from plains to an altitude of 3,500 m above
sea level.

 Optimum temperature regime for growth and development is 150-200C. It can tolerate cold (can
tolerate frost and severe winter). However, low temperatures less than 100 C delays germination with
reduced vegetative growth.

 Requires cold temperature during vegetative growth and warm temperature at the time of maturity.

 It can come up well on stored soil moisture in regions with annual rainfall of 350- 500 mm. Not
affected by rain at any stage. It is a very hardy plant.

 North India-Light loams and alluvial soils, M.P and Maharashtra - Well drained, moderately deep,
light black soils, Punjab-undulated lands.

 The crop can withstand moderate amount of alkalinity.

 Acid soils are not suitable.

Varieties and seasons

 Lentil resembles bengal gram a great deal in habit and cultivation. The duration of most varieties is
70-100 days.
 Lentil, a cool season crop, requires temperature of around 6 0C for good germination.
 As such, optimum seeding time is from October first fortnight to November first fortnight.

Seed rate

Normal sown: 30 to 40 kg/ha

 Delayed sowing, heavy yield reduction after 15th November

 Yield reduction can be minimized by closer spacing and higher seed rate.

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  Late sowings require a seed rate of 60 to 80 kg ha-1 with a closer spacing of 30 cm x 5 cm. Optimum
seeding depth is 4 to 5 cm.
 It is also grown as relay (paira or utera) crop. The seed is broadcasted in standing rice crop a week
before its harvest.

States/UTs Recommended varieties

Assam HUL 57, KLS 218, DPL 15, Pusa Vibhav, Pant L 4, L 4076, Sapna, K 75, Pant L
406.
Bihar HUL 57, KLS 218, DPL 15, Pusa Vibhav, Sapna, K 75, Pant L 639, Pant L 406.
Delhi Pusa Vibhav, DLP 15, Lens 4076, PL 81-7, Sapana, JLS 1.
Gujarat DLP 62, DLP 15, Lens 4076, PL 81-7, Sapana, JLS 1.
Haryana DLP 62, Garima, Pusa Vibhav, DLP 15, Lens 4076, PL 81-7, Sapana, JLS 1.
Jarkhand HUL 57, KLs 218, DPL 15.
Madhya Pradesh Noori (IPL 81), JL 3, Subrata, L 4076, Malik JL 1.
Maharashtra Noori (IPL 81), JL 3, L 4076, Malika, Subrata.
Odisha HUL 57, KLS 218, DPL 15, Pusa Vibhav, Pant L 4, L 4076, Sapna, K 75, Pant L
406.
Punjab DLP 62, Pusa Vibhav, DLP 15, Lens 4076, PL 81-7, Sapana, LL 147, LL 56, JLS 1.
Rajasthan Pusa Vibhav, Garima, DLP 15, Sapna, Pant L 4, Pant L 639.
Uttar Pradesh HUL 57, KLs 218, DPL 15, Noori (IPL 81), JL 3, Subrata, Narendra Mansoor 1,
Pusa Vibhav, DLP 62, Pusa Vibhav, DLP 15, Lens 4076, PL 81-7, Sapana, JLS 1,
Pant L 4, L 4076, Sapna, K 75, Pant L 639, Pant L 406.
Uttaranchal PL 5, VL Masoor 103, VI masoor 4.
West Bengal HUL 57, KLS 218, DPL 15, Pusa Vibhav, Pant L 4, 4076, Sapna, K 75, Pant L 639,
Pant L 406, Subrata, Ranjan, Asha.

Varieties

Pusa Punjab Uttar Pradesh

Pusa 1 : 100-140 days L912, LL56:150-160 days. Type 8 : 120-125 days
Pusa 4 : 130-140 days Type 36: 130-140 days
Pusa 6 : 130-135 days

Seeding and Plant Population

 The seed is sown both by broadcasting and drilling in rows.

 Broadcasting is the only way for a relay crop of lentil in standing kharif rice.

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  Optimum seed rate is 50 kg ha-1 for macrosperma (bold seed) when sown in optimum time with a
spacing of 30 cm x 10 cm.

 Late seeding requires higher seed rate of 80 kg ha-1 and closer spacing of 20 cm x 10 cm.

 Microsperma (small seed) when sown in time require a seed rate of 30 kg ha1 at a spacing of 30 cm x
5 cm.

 Late sowing require higher seed rate of 40 kg ha1 with a closer spacing of 20 cm x 5 cm.

 Deeper sowing more than 4 to 5 cm is not ideal.

Nutrient Management

• Lentil crop yielding about 2 t ha-1 removes around 100 N, 30 P2O5 and 80 K2O kg ha1.

• The crop is hardly fertilized. Results of experiments clearly indicated the need for
fertilizer application for economic yield.

• A starter dose of 20 kg N ha-1 is adequate to meet the needs of crop till nitrogen fixation is initiated.

• Depending of soil test, 40 P2O5 kg ha-1 appears to be optimum for most situations.

• Usually the crop does not respond to potassium. However, based on soil test value, 20 K2O kg ha-1
meet the crop needs if the soil is deficient in potassium.

• Fertilizers should be applied by placement, 5 cm away from the seed at a depth of 5-10 cm at
sowing.

• Drilling the fertilizer followed by drilling the seed appears to be the best method of application.

• Single superphosphate, as source of phosphorus, can meet the needs of sulphur requirement of the
crop.

• Lentil is highly susceptible to zinc deficiency especially if it follows rice.

• If zinc is not applied to rice crop, 25 kg ha-1 of ZnSO4 can meet the needs of lentil crop. Foliar
application of 0.5 per cent ZnSO4 can correct the zinc deficiency in standing crop.

• N: 20 to 25 kg/ha, P: 50 to 60 kg/ha. Whenever cultivated after rice 0.5% ZnSO4

Water management

Lentil crop is usually grown during rabi on stored soil moisture. If it is seeded early in the season
(November), there is no need for irrigation. Delayed seeding, especially on light soils is subjected to soil
moisture stress at reproductive stage.

Flower initiation and pod development stages are critical stages for water deficits. Two irrigations,
one each at these critical stages are adequate for optimum yield.

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Weed management

Lentil crop is poor weed competitor due to slow initial growth. The first 45 to 60 DAS is the critical
period of weed competition.

Hand weeding at 30 and 60 DAS is the traditional practice.

Fluchloralin 0.75kg a.i./ha as pre -planting spray or PRE herbicides such as Prometryn (1.0-1.5 kg ha-1)
and Pendimethalin (1.0-1.5 kg ha-1) can effectively control the weed in lentil crop.

However, herbicides use is not economical under several situations due to lower yields.

Harvesting: When the plants dry up, pods mature and moisture reaches 12%.

Seed yield: 1.8 to 2.0 t ha-1

Pod borers and aphids cause considerable damage to lentil crop. Rust and wilt diseases may cause
considerable yield losses.

Since, chemical control is not economical, growing resistant cultivars appears to be the ideal practice
to minimize the losses under different situations.

Quality considerations

Lentil seed contain protein 25 per cent, fat 1.5 per cent and carbohydrates 56.6 per cent. Calcium, iron and
phosphorus contents (mg 100 g-1) are 130, 6.0 and 250, respectively.

Lentil has high saponin content (3.7-4.6 g kg-1 seed), which reduces the cholesterol levels in the blood.

Lentils contain raffinose, which generate gas (flatulence). However, sprouting the seed can reduce its
content to cater limits.

Lentils are recommended for treatment of diabetics, as they are good source of dietary fibre.

Most of the lentils are consumed as dhal or in soups. Unripe pods are used as green vegetable, dry leaves
and stalks as cattle feed. In Kashmir valley, it is grown as green manure crop in rice crop.

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 OILSEED CROPS

ICAR- Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research, Hyderabad

ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagarh
ICAR-Directorate of Soybean Research, Indore
ICAR-Directorate of Rapeseed and Mustard Research, Bharatpur
ICAR-AICRP on Groundnut, Junagarh
ICAR-AICRP on Soybean, Indore
ICAR-AICRP on Sesame and Niger, Jabalpur
ICAR-AICRP on Rapeseed & Mustard, Bharatpur
ICAR-AICRP on Sunflower, Safflower, Castor, Hyderabad
ICAR-AICRP on Linseed, Kanpur
 The crops that are cultivated for the production of oils are known as OILSEED CROPS.
 Oilseeds are the raw materials for vegetable oils and they are energy rich crops.
 Oilseed crops are the most important commercial crops in India.
 Edible oils are next to food grains in Indian diet.

The Rapeseed and Mustard, Sesamum, Sunflower, Safflower, Linseed, Soybean, Niger, Groundnut
and Castor are the most important oil seed crops of India.

Classification:-The oilseed crops are classified according to the nature of oil produced as follows:

1) EDIBLE OILSEED CROPS

The most important source of supply of edible oils are the seeds known as edible oil seeds and the
crops belong to this category are known as edible oil seed crops.

E.g., Rapeseed & mustard, sesamum, groundnut, niger, sunflower, safflower, soybean etc.

2) NON-EDIBLE OIL SEED CROPS

The most important source of supply of non-edible oils are the seeds known as non-edible oil seeds
and the crops belong to this category are known as non-edible oil seed crops.

E.g., Castor, Linseed etc.

Nutritional Value o f Oilseeds

The bio-chemical composition and quality of the oilseeds and their products are important for the
food and feed purposes.

 Edible oils are the concentrated sources of energy. The energy content of oil is much higher (39.80
MJ/kg) than protein (23.88 MJ/kg) or carbohydrate (16.76 MJ/kg).

 They contain useful carbohydrates, essential fatty acids and vitamins A,D,E and K and provide
essential fatty acids.

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  Oil cakes/ oil meals are rich sources of protein (40-60%) to human and animals. They can also be
used as organic manures.

 Oil quality for food purpose can be described in terms of Saturated Fatty Acid (SFA),
Monounsaturated Fatty Acid ( MUFA) and Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acid ( PUFA)

Saturated Fatty Acid (SFA) - Palmitic and Stearic acid. They have direct relation with blood cholesterol
and coronary heart diseases as it increases low density lipoprotein that is harmful.

Unsaturated Fatty Acid (SFA) - Oleic, Linoleic , Linolenic and Erucic acids. Linoleic & Linolenic acids
(Poly Unsatutated Fatty Acids – PUFA) are Essential fatty acids (not synthesized by human body and are to
be supplied from outside) and if they are absent, it leads to physiological disorders. They increase high
density lipoprotein, which is beneficial.

 Safflower and mustard oils have both essential fatty acids as Linoleic and Linolenic acids.

 Rapeseed and mustard oil has high amount of erucic acid, an anti nutritional factor and leads
to coronary diseases.

Keeping Quality of Oils

The ratio of oleic to linoleic acid affects the storage ability of edible oil and hence affects the
nutritional quality. It should be greater than 1.6 for longer shelf life.

 Sunflower and safflower oils cannot be stored for longer periods.

 Soybean oil loses its original flavour after once deep frying.

 Groundnut oil has very good stability due to the presence of tocopherols (vit E) and can be stored at
room temperature even up to 18 months without any quality deterioration.

 Sesamum oil – highly stable due to the presence of ‘Sesimol’, anti- oxidant.

 Mustard oil is also rich in vit. E and has good stability at high temperature also.

Importance of oil seed in Indian economy

1) In terms of vegetable oils, India is the fourth largest oil economy in the World after USA, China and
Brazil.

2) India is one of the major oilseed producing countries in the world accounting for about 16% of the area
and 10% of world oilseed production.

3) In India oil seeds occupy nearly 14% of country’s gross cropped area and contributes to 5% of the GNP
and 10% of the value of the agricultural products.

4) The oil seeds contain 20 – 60 % oil, which is chiefly consumed as food and energy source. They are
energy rich and cash value crops.

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5) The edible oils are used as cooking oil, vanaspati and proteins.

6) The oil seed crops earn lot of foreign exchange.1,300 crores of rupees was saved during 2008-09
exporting oil seed.

7) The oil seed cultivation also provides employment to rural people. It is estimated that in India 35 million
people are engaged in oilseed production and one million in their processing.

8) The oldest non-food use in lamp oil and as a lubricant which are used in textile and leather industries.

9) Vegetable oils and its derivatives are biodegradable and eco-friendly thus they can be used as diesel
substitutes.

10) Vegetable oils have a number of industrial uses such as plastic films, metallic foils, soaps, detergents,
condiments, cosmetics, plastic, polymers, organic coatings, printing ink, oiled cloth, linoleum, rubber
additive as substitutes to hydraulic & brake oil & chemical intermediates.

11) Oil seeds contain useful carbohydrates, essential fatty acids, vitamin viz., A, D, E and K and also contain
18 essential aminoacids & trace elements.

12) Oil seed crops can serve as pasture, cover and green manure crops.They are also used as fodder and for
silage.

13) The oil seed cake which has 40-60% protein is worth while as animal feed and organic manure.

14) In India, direct export of cakes has earned foreign exchange of INR 2,200 crores but can be upgraded as
valued human food.

15) Vegetable oils have medicinal and therapeutic value and also used as laxatives. E.g., Castor,
Safflower & Sunflower oil.

Safflower tea – prevents cardiovascular diseases and gyanecological disorders - if consumed daily,
it reduces blood pressure.

16) Oil seeds are energy rich crops and in terms of energy equation.

1 g of oil = 1.66 g of proteins = 2.37g of CHO

17) Certain oil seed cakes have wormicidal action & it is used for pest control purposes. E.g., Mustard

18) Lecithin is a co-product in oil industry which is used as emulsifier in

pharmaceutical products, bakery products & other food stuffs.

Constraints in oil seed production

There is an imbalance between demand and supply in edible oils due to low productivity of oil seeds.

The constraints in oil seed production are:-

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1. Oil seeds are energy rich crops, but are grown in energy starved conditions. More than 85% of the area
under oilseeds is rainfed, often cultivated under low input and poor management practices.

2. Most of the oil seed crops are raised in marginal and sub marginal lands which are having poor fertility
status.

3. Oil seeds are subjected to the vagaries of the monsoon resulting in lower yields compared to irrigated
crops.

4. Lack of suitable HYV or hybrids which are having higher levels of oil content.

5. Most of the cultivars of oil seed crops are drought susceptible and HYV are generally of long duration (>
100 days).

6. Small and marginal farmers generally cultivate the oil seed crops which are still not well adapted to new
farm technologies.

7. In India, most of the oil seed crops are grown under monocropping in traditional areas without crop
rotation which results in perpetuation & development of inoculum of pests and diseases, without crop
rotations. Yield losses due to diseases and pests accounts for 40%. The attack of insect pest mainly aphid is
one of main causes of low yield of oil seed crops, particularly in rapeseed & mustard.

8. Inadequate supply of best quality seeds to the farmers compared to cereal crops.

9. Failure of hybridization and seed multiplication programmes in oil seed crops compared to cereals.

10. Seed multiplication ratio is very low in case of oil seed crops.

11. The progress in respect of oil seeds has not been substantial, mainly because food grains
were given first priority in research & development.
12. Supply of desired inputs and transfer of technology from farm institutions to the farmer is
poor.
13. Lack of farm implements and machinery for sowing and post harvest processing.

14. Lack of suitable post harvest technology to prevent losses & also to avoid the deterioration
of quality of oil seed.
15. Lack of storage, grading and marketing facilities in rural areas mainly due to future trading.

16. The efficiency of oil extraction units or expellers is very poor.

17. Scarcity of short, high yielding input responsive drought/insect/pest resistant crop varieties.

Need for improvement of productivity and production

 In India edible oil consumption is growing at the rate of 6-8% annually due to the rapid economic
growth and increasing consumption.
 The country's demand for vegetable oils is expected to increase to 21.8 mt by 2020. This is roughly
equivalent to about 66 mt of oilseeds.
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  The Indian Central Oilseed Committee (ICOC) was established in 1947 to increase the oilseed
production through co-ordiated research effort.
 All India co-ordinated Research Project on Oilseeds (AICRPO) was set up in 1967 to carry out
location specific research on different oil seed crops.
 Directorate of Oilseeds Research (DOR) was established in Hyderabad on 1st August, 1977 to guide
the research & development in nine mandate crops.

The oilseed scenario in India had undergone dramatic change with the initiation of TMO (Technology
Mission on Oilseeds) in 1986. (Dr. M V Rao)

The highest oilseed production was achieved by 24.75 mt during 1994-95 against 11.0 mt during 1986-
87. At present 29.88 mt, this dramatic change of Indian oilseed production from a net importer to a status of
self sufficiency and net imported during early nineties has been popularly known as Yellow Revolution.

In post WTO regime, there is a great need to adopt multifaceted strategy for improving oilseed
production through increase in area (38%) and productivity improvement (62%) including processing
facility. There is great scope for increasing the yields of oil seed crops.

A number of oil seed development projects such as NODP (National Oilseed Development Project)
(1984-85) , Oilseed Technology Mission etc., have been in operation & they are essentially an extension of
intensive oil seed development programme. The GOI launched ISOPOM (Integrated Scheme for Oilseeds,
Oilpalm, Pulses and Maize Development Programme) to provide flexibility to the states in implementation
based on regionally differentiated approach to promote crop diversification.

STRATEGIES FOR INCREASING THE OIL SEED PRODUCTION IN INDIA

 Bringing more area under irrigation. (under drip & sprinkler irrigation)
 Good quality seed of recommended varieties for the specific area & situations should be chosen and
cultivated.
 The seed should be treated with fungicide, bactericide etc. as recommended before sowing of seed.
 It is most important to select a levelled field as far as possible and good drainage should be provided
for the oil seed crops, Water logging condition is harmful for these crops.
 A fine seed bed free from weeds and clods should be prepared to facilitate good germination &
stand.
 The sowing of the seed should be done at appropriate time with proper row spacing in case of line
sown crop and the optimum plant population should be maintained by thinning at 15-20 days after
sowing.Early sowing escapes the attack of many diseases and pests. Under Paira cropping, sowing
should be done at the dough stage of paddy.
 The suitable variety for each crop must be chosen for the tract and season.
 Adoption of improved crop production technologies.
 The recommended doses of fertilizer for the specific crop should be applied at appropriate time.
 The field should be kept free from weeds particularly during first 20 – 30 DAS.
 The protective irrigation should be provided wherever possible during Kharif season and irrigation
should be applied at critical stages for rabi /summer crop.

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  The plant protection measures should be under taken, if needed.
 Harvesting should be done at right time to avoid capsule shattering and reduction in oil content of
seed.
 The seed should be cleaned and dried well before storage.
 Oil extraction from sources such as rice bran, cotton seed and corn apart from flora of under utilized
plants of forest.
 Introduction of oil seed crop as intercrops along with cereals in non-traditional areas and also in
double/multiple cropping sequences.
 Extending oilseed cultivation i.e., safflower, sunflower, seasame etc to under utilized situations like
rice fallows.
 Strengthening of research and extension system.
 Strengthening of processing facilities as crushing, solvent extraction, oil refining and hydrogenation
for value addition to the products in the context of WTO.
 Provision of favourable Govt. policies such as price and credit policies etc. strengthening of farmers
support system through supply of all inputs.

India (2009 -10) - Total oilseeds

Area – 26.11 Mha Production – 24.93 Mt Productivity - 955 kg/ha

At present, Production – 29.88 Mt

On Global basis, India ranks first in the production of safflower, second in rapeseed and mustard,
third in linseed.

* The major oilseed growing states in India are:

Madhya Pradesh (20.5%), Rajasthan (21.3%), Maharashtra (13.3%), Gujarat (16.7%), Andhra
Pradesh (7.3%), Karnataka (10.3%), Uttar Pradesh (3.9%), Tamil Nadu (2.5%) and Others (9.7%) of the total
oilseed area of the country.

Rajasthan produces 21.3% of total annual oil seed crops followed by Madhya Pradesh (20.5%), Gujarat
(16.7%) and Andhra Pradesh (7.3%).

 In India, per capita consumption of oil is 11.6 kg/head/year considerably lower than in developed
countries of 17.8 kg/head/year. ICMR recommendation is 14 kg/head/year or 35 - 40 g/head/day.

 Indian edible oil market is the largest after China & European Union.
Each year India consumes around 10 mt of edible oils.

Consumer oil preferences in India

 East and North India -- Mustard, Rapeseed

 West India -- Groundnut
 South India -- Groundnut & Coconut
The expected demand of oilseeds production is 65 mt by 2020.
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  Supplementary sources of vegetable oils – Rice bran oil is having high nutritive value & cotton
seed oil is having 18% oil .

 Tree Based Oils are Jatropha, Karanj, Pongamia, Neem, Mahua, Sal etc.

 Among the major tree crops, Oil palm forms another high potential prospective and cheaper source
of edible oil in International market. (Malaysia is leading)

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 SAFFLOWER

Botanical name: Carthamus tinctorius Family: Compositae/Asteraceae

ICAR- Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research, Hyderabad

ICAR-AICRP on Sunflower, Safflower, Castor, Hyderabad

 Safflower is an ancient oilseed crop grown in India for the orange red dye (Carthamin) extracted
from its bright coloured florets as well as seed oil.
 Due to the availability of synthetic dyes at present, it is used for extraction of oil only.
 The cultivated Carthamus tinctorius is supposed to have originated either from Carthamus lanatus -
Saffron thistle, Carthamus oxycantha- Wild Safflower
 Safflower was known to ancient India and the poet laurate Kalidas compared safflower to the “sakhis
of Shakuntala” as Kusum (or) Kusumba in Sanskrit literature.
 Carthamus is derived from Arabic word “Quartum”.
Uses

 Safflower oil is rich in poly unsaturated fatty acids of linoleic acid up to 78% which play an
important role in reducing cholesterol content and it is a drying oil and contains 24 -35% oil (is
recommended for heart patients).

 The hot oil poured in cooled water, becomes a plastic of thickness and used for adhesive in glass
industry.

 The oil is used in the preparation of “ROGHAN” which is used for preservation of leather and
production of water proof cloth. It is also used in manufacturing soaps and varnishes.

 Safflower oil is the healthiest oil of all vegetable oils and its value is increased when it is blended
with rice bran oil.

 The safflower cake is used as cattle feed which contain 20% protein but low in lysine

 Safflower was recognized as remedy in Rheumatism.

 Dry petals are used in the preparation of herbal medicine and drugs.

 The Safflower is also used to provide resistance to inflammation.

 In Ethiopia, decorticated seeds are pounded finely and mixed with water to prepare a beverage “FIT
-FIT”.

 The yield of floret ranged between 70-100 kg/ha and it contains two colouring materials. Water
soluble yellow pigment “carthamidin” and orange red dye (2%) which is insoluble in water but
readily soluble in alkaline solution is known as “CARTHAMIN”.

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  Carthamin is of commercial importance and is used as additive in food, beverage, cosmetics paints,
also for dyeing of cotton and fabrics.

 Safflower is grown as border (guard) crop to protect the main crop of wheat in North India and is
also a green manure crop at young stage.

 Hull is used to manufacture cellulose insolations.

Origin

As per, Decandolle -Arabia, Vavilov - India

Spiny type of Safflower is having higher oil content than non spiny type. Yellow coloured flower
types yield higher oil content. It is a xerophytic in nature.

Area and distribution

 India, China, Mexico, USA, Ethiopia, Argentina and Australia are the major growing countries.
 China grows safflower mostly for medical purpose.
 Safflower occupies seventh place in the area among nine oilseed crops.
 In India 98% of the area comes under three states viz., Maharashtra, Karnataka and A.P.
 In Karnataka, Area- 0.44 lakh ha, Production- 0.35 lakh t and Yield – 830 kg/ha (2015-16)
 India is the largest producer of Safflower with 54 % area and 40 % production.
 Maharashtra and Karnataka are the first and second with reference to area and production where as
productivity is highest in Gujarat (1000 kg/ha) followed by Karnataka ( 2008-09).

Climate

 Safflower is well adapted to wide range of climatic condition.

 However, the maximum production is confined up to 1000 MSL in semi arid tropics and arid areas
with latitude of 14 °N to 22°N.
 Important production factors are soil temperature and soil moisture.
 Temperature is the most important climatic parameter as it is thermo sensitive and it is mainly grown
as rabi oil seed crop.
 Optimum temperature of soil for seed germination is 15-16°C. It may tolerate temperature upto
49°C, if sufficient soil moisture is available.
 Temperature more than 40°C reduce the plant height, dry matter production and seed set and test
weight.
 Day temperatures in the range of 24-32°C at flowering is the optimum.
 Higher temperature at flowering is harmful to crop resulting in sterile heads.
 Crop is tolerant to frost at seedling stage but sensitive at later stages.
 It is a day neutral plant, but a day length of 12-14 hour is essential for flowering and seed set.
Compared to day length, temperature is more important.
 It is a drought resistant and susceptible to water logging.
 It comes up well with a rainfall of 500-600 mm.

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  It cannot withstand excessive soil moisture/humidity at any stage due to damage from fungal
diseases.

Soil: Being a drought resistant, it is cultivated in all type of soils, but well drained, fertile and deep soil with
high water holding capacity are the best. Safflower is mostly grown on residual soil moisture.

South India – Deep black soil (Karnataka, Maharashtra).

North India – latosols (Laterite and sandy loam soil).

Commercial cultivation is extended on medium to deep black soils in peninsular India

 Higher yield are obtained at neutral soil pH range of 5-8.0.

 It is salt tolerant crop i.e. up to 7dS/m. However, seedling stage is sensitive to salinity.

Varieties – Manjira, Sagaramuthyalu (APRR–3), Parbhani Kusum, A-1 (National Check), A-2, S-144,

NARI-6 (non spiny)

Hybrids - DSH – 129, NH – 1 (First non-spiny hybrid in the world), NARI – 15, NARI – 38, Bhima, Girna,

Sharda and Sweta.

Land preparation

Safflower requires fairly pulverized seed bed free from clods. Being a deep rooted crop it requires
deep ploughing. Crop raised for dye purpose requires fine tilth than oil crop. One deep ploughing with M.B.
plough is sufficient followed by 2-3 harrowings with planking.

Seed and sowing

Season – rabi

Time of Sowing - II. FN of September to I. FN of October

If delayed, Aphid damage is more common.

Seed rate – 8-10 kg/ha as pure crop. 4-6 kg/ha as mixed crop/border crop.

Spacing – 60 cm × 30 cm

Method of sowing – Broadcasting, behind the plough (pora method) and seed drill

Depth of sowing – 4-5 cm (Normal), 7.5-10 cm (dry Land).

Thinning @ 10-15 DAS.

Very high density of plant population significantly reduces the branching ability

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Manures and fertilizers

 On an average safflower crop remove 60-65kg N, 30 kg P 2O5 and 40 – 45 kg K2O ha -1.

One tonne of seed removes about 45 kg N

 FYM @ 5-10 t/ha

 CaCl2 (2%), Azospirilium-500 g/ha

UASD recommendations

 FYM @ 5-10 t/ha

 Rainfed -40:40:12.5 kg/ha N:P2O5 :K2O –all are basal dose

S-30 kg/ha and ZnSo4-15 kg/ha

 Irrigation 75:75:40 kg/ha N:P2O5 :K2O, S-30 kg/ha and ZnSo4-15 kg/ha

Basal 50% N, remaining 50 % N as top dressing at flowering stage

 30-40 kg N, 30-40 kg P2O5, 20-30 kg K2O /ha (National)

Water management

 Water requirement is 250-300 mm. Safflower is generally grown as rainfed on residual soil moisture
and it is highly drought tolerant as it is a deep rooted crop. In light soil, 2-3 irrigations are given
where as in vertisol, residual soil moisture is sufficient. One life saving irrigation should be given
when drought condition occur.

 Rosette stage (Early vegetative stage) is the most critical stage of safflower i.e., 21 DAS or 4-6
leaf stage and yield can be increased by 40-60%.

 Poorly drained soil and water logged condition enhance the problem of wilt and root rot. The WUE
is 5.64 kg seed/ha-mm. safflower is cultivated on saline soils by sowing on the slope of the ridge.
Under high salinity, the oil content is reduced by increasing hull percent. Broad bed & furrow at 1.5–
2 m is suitable to minimise contact of water with above ground part & minimize the root & stem rot
in heavy soils.

Weed management

 The growth habits of safflower make it extremely susceptible to weed competition. The critical
period of crop growth-weed competition is Rosette stage to flowering stage.

 The rosette stage - 25-30 DAS in Rabi and may be prolonged up to 60 DAS in winter situation.

 The field should be free from weed infestation during early growth stage depending on the length of
the rosette stage.

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  PPI of Fluchoralin @ 1 kg ai /ha. or PE of Oxadiazon @ 1 kg ai /ha. or PE of Alachlor @ 1.5 kg ai
/ha. or PE of Atrazine @ 1 kg ai /ha.

 Pendimethalin @ 0.75 kg/ha + one hand weeding provides weed free environment and is cost
effective. Safflower is sown in wide rows. So, intercultivation implements can be used for weed
control.

 Two harrowings at 25-30 DAS & 45-50 DAS in combination with one hand weeding can effectively
check weed growth.

Cropping systems

In low rainfall areas receiving 400-500 mm, safflower is superior to other winter crops as it extracts
moisture from sub soil.

Intercropping

Although sole crop of safflower is more profitable under conditions of adequate moisture
availability, it is grown as intercrop with traditional crops to overcome the risk of crop failure under adverse
conditions.

Andhra Pradesh – Chickpea + safflower (3:1 or 2:1), Coriander + safflower (3:1 or 2:1)
Karnataka - Linseed + Safflower (6:2)
Maharashtra - Wheat + safflower (3:1 or 2:1)
Sequence cropping: It is profitable where rainfall is 700 – 800 mm.

In Northern Zone - Maize – Safflower, Sorghum – Safflower

Sesame – Safflower, Mungbean – Safflower
Scarce rainfall Zone – Greengram – Safflower, Sesame – Safflower , Soybean– Safflower

Harvesting

The crop comes to maturity within 110-120 days. As soon as the leaves and most of the bracteoles
except a few of last formed become brown and seeds are dried and easily separated from the head. The crop
is harvested either by uprooting the plant or cutting at the bottom.

Plants are thorny and harvesting is taken up at the early hours of the day and to be completed
before 10.00 am when the spines will be soft.

 As the day advances, spine becomes stiff causing inconvenience to harvesting.

 The harvested plants are heaped for a day or two in the field and threshed by beating with stick,
cleaned, dried and stored at 8% moisture content.

 Combined harvesters used in wheat could also be used for harvesting and threshing.

 Seed yield : Rainfed -7.5-10 q/ha, Irrigated -15-20q/ha

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Oil quality

 Traditional safflower seed contain 50% hull & 28-32% oil.

 It is pale yellow in colour
 Good drying oil.
 Fatty acid composition is - Linoleic acid 70-80%,
Oleic acid – 6-8%,
Stearic acid – 2-3% and
Palmitic acid – 5-8%.
• Due to 90% of poly unsaturated fatty acids, safflower oil is considered to be the best of edible
vegetable oil.

Pests and diseases

Insects-Aphids, Leaf eating catterpiller

Diseases- Collar rot, Leaf spot, Leaf blight

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 LINSEED/FLAX

Botanical name: Linum usitatissimum Family: Linaceae

ICAR- Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research, Hyderabad

ICAR-AICRP on Linseed, Kanpur

 Flax, is one of the oldest cultivated crops grown for seed from which oil is extracted
 It is worldwide cultivated commercially for flax (fibre), while in India for oil.
 Flax also known as common flax or linseed (Linum usitatissimum) is a member of the
family Linaceae. It is known as Alsi in Hindi.
 Before the spread of the mechanical cotton gin in the early 1800s, most Americans had a choice of
two clothing fibers – wool or linen
 In addition to being a fiber source, flax was also an important oilseed.
 Linseed oil, squeezed out of flax seed, used as a preservative finish on wood.
 Linseed oil is a "drying oil", as it can polymerize into a solid form.
 It is an edible oil but, because of its strong flavour and odour, is only a minor constituent of human
nutrition.
 In parts of Europe, traditionally eaten with potatoes and quark (cheese).
 It is regarded as a delicacy due to its hearty taste, which spices the bland quark.
 Flax fiber is obtained from the stem of plants, from a blue flowered plant and woven into a fabric
generally known as linen Flax.
 Common names of flax are alsi, tisi, kshuma, lin, llion, liner, linum, line, linen, lein
 Flax is grown in modern times for two entirely different purposes
(i) for fibre and (ii) for seed . The seed of the flax plant is known as linseed
 In India, flax is grown primarily for linseed oil which is not only used for human consumption but
also for commercial use as paint, varnish, finished leather and printing ink.
 Flax oil is high in omega-3 fatty acid, which lowers cholesterol, in the diet
 Flax seed is fed to chickens, eggs from those chickens, marketed as omega eggs.
 India imports the flax fibres from European countries and does not utilize the flax produced in India.
The reasons for this are, Indian flax does not match with the quality standards of imported flax.
 But now a number of dual purpose varieties including Gaurav, Shikha, Jeevan and Parwati
released from Chandra Shekhar Azad University of Agriculture & Technology (CSAUAT), Kanpur
are suitable for both oil and fibre purposes.
 Among the four varieties, the white flowered variety (Linum usitatisimum album) produces stronger
plants and are resistant to diseases than the blue flowered vrieties (Linum usitatissimum vulgare)
which yields fine fibres of high quality.

Origin and Distribution

 Linen's history dates back to 7000 BC when Mesopotamians used flax

 Romans and ancient Greeks cultivated flax for fibre and seed and established Linen industry

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  As per Vavilov, cultivated annual linseed originated from India and Ethiopia
 It is native of eastern Mediterranean to India and was probably first domesticated in the fertile
crescent.
 Later on Egyptians, Babylonians, Greeks, Romans and other civilized people cultivated flax for fibre
.
 Major producers are Canada, Argentina, USA, Poland, Uruguay, Romania, USSR, China and India.
 Reported to have spun in countries viz., Belgium, Russia, Switzerland, Brazil, England, France and
Argentina etc. and is used in making fine quality fabrics called linen.
Area and Production
Flax is currently grown on about 4.8 m ha worldwide, with the majority of the production in northern
Europe and Russia.
India occupies 25 per cent of world acreage and ranks first in area, fourth in production and eighth in
productivity (395.0 kg/ha) of the flax crop.

Morphology
 Flax is a broad to small, narrow leaved that are less than an 2.5 cm long.
 Stems are slender, flexible, branched, near base of plant, with height 75-80 cm, dividing at their tips
into inflorescence bearing attractive blue flowers.
 The inflorescence of linseed is Cymose. Flowers are mostly self -pollinated, with some cross
pollination by insects.
 New flowers will emerge for a few weeks, each developing into a round seed capsule or boll about 8
mm in diameter.
 . The linseed fruit is known as Capsule, each capsule contains 4-10 seeds, glossy in appearance,
traditionally brown in color.
 However, a new variety of flax, Omega, is golden-coloured to make it more acceptable in the food
market.
 If exposed to water, flax seeds will become sticky due to mucilage in the seed coat.
Climate
 Crop, grown for seed, performs well in moderately cool climate, but the crops for fibre purpose,
requires cool and moist climate.
 Linseed requires moderate or cool temperature during vegetative stage and dry weather during the
maturity of the crop.
 Requires temperature of 25-300C during germination, 15-200C during seed formation.
 It requires high humidity.
 Temperature above 32 0C along with the drought during flowering reduces yield, oil content and oil
quality of linseed.
 Plants are susceptible to frost and causes injury to blossom
 It is resistant to drought and grows well in areas receiving an annual rainfall of 450-750 mm.
Soils
Crops grows on well drained, moderately deep silt loam, clay loam & silty clays. Light soils area not
suitable especially in low rainfall areas. Crop can tolerate soil acidity but ideal pH is 6.0.

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Land Preparation
 More sensitive to salinity, but fibre and oil content decreases at EC of 6.1dS/m
 Majority of linseed area is rainfed and grown in marginal and sub marginal lands
 Hence adoption of soil & moisture conservation practices is important for good yields
 Ploughing 2-3 times with cultivator, followed by 2-3 harrowings to obtain fine tilth,
 Hoeing after each shower conserves the soil moisture.
Varieties
State Utera Rainfed Irrigated
Janki,
Himachal Surabhi, Janki, Surabhi ,
Himalini,
Pradesh Himalini Janki
Nagarkol
Maharashtra
R-552 Kiran, Sheetal Jawahar -23
Madhya Pradesh
Punjab LC-54, Himalini LC-54, Himalini
Garima, Shubra,
Uttar Pradesh Swetha, Shubra
Neelam
Karnataka NL 115 Rainfed 110 Days Powdery mildew resistant

Sowing Time
 Sowing time varies from October - Nov 15th in different states depending on availability of
soil moisture, irrigation and cropping systems
 Early sowing helps to escape attack of powdery mildew, rust, and linseed bud fly
 Pure “Rabi” crop should complete the sowings by November 15th .
Seed rate
Under rainfed : Broad casting @ 40 kg/ha, Drilling @ 30kg /ha
Under irrigated : Broadcasting @ 35 kg / ha, Drilling @ 25 kg/ha
Under all situations: Dual methods @ 25 kg/ha
Thinning should be done 15 days after emergence.
Seed Treatment
Seed treatment with thiram @ 3g/kg of seed or bavistin @ 1.5g or topsin M @ 2.5g/kg seed to protect
the linseed seed borne diseases.

Sowing depth
 Shallow sowing @ 2-3 cm with adequate soil moisture helps in early establishment.
 Drilling facilitates even distribution, uniform depth of seeding which is result in better stand and good
yields.
 In drier situations, where surface moisture is not adequate, sowing in deeper layers of 5-8 cm ensures
germination

Spacing : 30 cm x 10 cm (National), 30 cm x 5 cm (UAS Dharwad)

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Fertilizer Schedule
FYM: 3 t/ha (UASD)
Under Rainfed conditions: 40:20:20 kg N P K / ha (UASD)-All nutrients applied as basal dose
Under Irrigated conditions: 90: 40:30 kg N P K /ha- basal 50% N and full P and K, top dressing of
50% N at 35 DAS
Weed Management
 Weed free conditions upto 30-45 days is critical
 Adequate tillage, prior to seeding, minimizes the weed growth.
 Two intercultivations at 20 and 30 DAS with the manual weeding is ideal.
 Fluchloralin @ 1 kg ai /ha as PPI or Pre emergence application of alachlor @ 1kg ai/ha or Post
emergence application of dichlofop methyl @ 0.7 kg ai/ha at 30 DAS is effective.
 Pronamide @ 1.5 kg ai/ ha is effective in controlling Cuscuta infestation in linseed.

Irrigation
 More than 90% of area under linseed is rainfed, where bold seeded and deep rooted varieties are
preferred.
 Linseed responds well to irrigations.
 Small seed with the shallow rooted varieties are to be preferred under irrigated conditions
 Frequent light irrigations are ideal and economical than heavy irrigations at longer intervals
 Irrigations at critical stages like flowering and seed development is essential under moisture stress
conditions.
 Providing irrigations at 35 and 75 DAS has doubled the yields of linseed.

Cropping systems
Saflower/wheat/chickpea with linseed in 2:1/3:1
Green gram- linseed (Sequence cropping)

Harvesting
 The crop should be harvested when the leaves are dry. A thumb rule is to harvest when 90 % of the
seed capsules are brown and shiny.
 For fibre purpose, harvesting should be done at physiological maturity when the crop is still green.
 Crop is harvested in March to April, cutting the plants close to the ground or pulling the plants.
 Harvested crop is left in the field for few days for sun drying.
 Care should be taken in cutting the stalk and to facilitate undamaged stalk in retting.

Seed yield: 10-12.5 q/ha (Irrigated)

6-8 q/ha (rainfed)
Quality considerations
 Linseed contains 20-24 % protein, 37-42% oil, 15-29% CHO’s, 5- 9% crude fibre, 2-4% ash.
 Linseed oil cake contains 30% protein, 7% fat, carbohydrate - 42% which is a valuable protein source
to poultry and ruminants.

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Uses
 Its use is limited to animal feed because of undesirable compounds like phytic acid, cyanogenic
glucoside and goitorogen.
 The fibre is used in manufacture of gloves, foot wear, sports netting, paper and textile industry,
cigarette wrapping paper, strong canvas, suitings and shirtings.
 Woody matter and short fibres are used as raw pulp in paper industries.

Utera / Paira cultivation

 Paira or utera cultivation is broadcasting linseed in standing kharif rice, when the crop is at flowering
and dough stage or 10-12 days before harvest of the crop.
 This practice is followed for utilizing the conserved soil moisture in post rainy season, there by
utilizing the available irrigation sources judiciously in season.
 In sufficient water available areas, a new method of utilizing available soil moisture, Crack system
of sowing linseed is practiced.
 This method involves development of deep 5 cm cracks, in the standing rice crop at the end of dough
stage, followed by watering/ irrigating the field.
 Then sowing are done in October preferably with short duration varieties .
 Varieties like R-7 (Jawar -7) & R-552 resistant to rust, powdery mildew and wilt are preferred for
utera cultivation.

Fertilizers: Linseed utilizes residual fertility of manures and fertilizers applied to the rice crop. 10 kg of
Nitrogen is applied to rice crop itself at flowering or one week before sowing of linseed , which is beneficial
for establishment and growth.

Weeding:
 Once manual weeding is done in linseed crop after rice is harvested.
 Utera method gives 50 % higher linseed yield, without any adverse effect on rice yields.

Double purpose linseed

Linseed when grown for fibre is known as fibre flax, when cultivated for seed known as seed flax/oil
flax/linseed.

Linseed or seed flax: varieties are dwarf profusely branched & high seed potential.

Fibre flax :
 Varieties are tall, scarcely branched, having low seed yielding, ability with high fibre yields.
Commonly cultivated in temperate regions.
 Identification & development of the crop having both the characters of high seed & fibre yield
is the concept of double purpose linseed.
 Total monetary returns per unit area or per unit time is an important consideration
 Extraction of fibre from well grown linseed crop requires cooler temperature during retting
process.

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  In India, after the harvest of crop, temperature rises and alters quality of fibre and thus Indian
flax does not command good price in international market.
 Dry scotching machine was developed for oil and fibre extraction.
 DPL 21, LCK 152 & RL 993 (Meera) are the promising double purpose linseed varieties.
 Giza 5 and Giza 6 are high yielding double purpose varieties.

Yield: of fibre flax is about 10-15 quintal/ha

Retting flax
 There are several methods of retting flax.
 It can be retted in a pond, stream, field or a tank.
 When the retting is complete, the bundles of flax feel soft and slimy, and quite a few fibers are
standing out from the stalks.
 When wrapped around a finger the inner woody part springs away from the fibers.

Pond retting is the fastest.

 It consists of placing the flax in a pool of water which will not evaporate.
 It generally takes place in a shallow pool which will warm up dramatically in the sun; the process
may take from only a couple of days to a couple weeks.
 Pond retted flax is traditionally considered of lower quality, possibly because the product can
become dirty, and easily over-retts, damaging the fiber.
 This form of retting also produces quite an odour.

Stream retting is similar to pool retting, but the flax is submerged in bundles in a stream or river. This
generally takes longer than pond retting, normally by two or three weeks, but the end product is less likely to
be dirty, does not smell as bad and, because the water is cooler, it is less likely to be over -retted.

Both Pond and Stream rettings were traditionally used less because they pollute the waters used for
the process.

Field retting is laying the flax out in a large field, and allowing dew to collect on it. This process normally
takes a month or more, but is generally considered to provide the highest quality flax fiber and produces the
least pollution.

Pests and diseases

Bud fly, Leaf eating caterpillar, Powdery mildew and Root rot

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 RAPESEED and MUSTARD

Botanical name: Brassica spp. Family: Brassicaceae/Cruciferae

ICAR- Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research, Hyderabad

ICAR-Directorate of Rapeseed and Mustard Research, Bharatpur
ICAR-AICRP on Rapeseed & Mustard, Bharatpur

• In Sanskrit literature it is referred to as “Sarshap”

• Rapeseed and Mustard are the major rabi oilseed crops of India.

• It is next to Groundnut in area and production, meeting the fat requirement of about 50 per cent
population in all the northern states.

• It is one of the most edible oilseed crops of Indo-Gangetic plains.

• In India, rapeseed and mustard account for about 27% of total oilseeds production and 31% of total
vegetable oil production.

• In common Indian language, ‘Raya’ or Rai refers to mustard while sarson, toria and taramira are
rapeseed.

• It is grown as oilseed crop as well as condiment and for their medicinal use.

• The young plants are used as vegetable as they supply enough sulphur and minerals in the diet.

• Oil content range from 37-49%

• In the tanning industry, mustard oil is used for softening leather.

• It is used in the preparation of hair oils, medicines, soap making, greases etc...

• The oil cake is used as a cattle feed and manure. It is a rich source of protein (40%). But its use is
limited due to the anti-nutritional factor Glucosinolate.

• Refined oil is called colza and is used in Europe.

• The peculiar pungency of rapeseed-mustard is due to the presence of Sinigrin

Origin and distribution

 The growing of rapeseed and mustard were known from time immemorial in India and these were
mentioned in all Ayurvedic Samhitas.

 It seems that Rai (Indian mustard, Brassica juncea) was introduced into India from China.

 Its probable origin is Africa. It is extensively grown in Europe, Africa and Asia.

 From India it spread to Afghanistan and other countries.

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  China is the largest producer of these crops.

 Afghanistan together with adjoining areas of N-W India is one of the independent centres of origin
of brown sarson.

 India accounts second position in area and third position in production.

 China, India and Pakistan account for 90% of the world production.

 Other major producing countries are Canada, Germany and France.

Area and distribution (2016-17)

Area (m ha) Production (m t) Productivity (kg/ha)

India 6.09 7.92 1304
In India: Area (m ha) – Rajasthan (2.56), Madhya Pradesh (0.71), Uttar Pradesh (0.69)

Production (m t) - Rajasthan (3.65), Haryana (0.95), Madhya Pradesh (0.92)

Productivity (kg/ha) – Haryana (1853), Gujarat (1711), Rajasthan (1422)

Important states

• Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat

Classification

 There is lot of confusion and misunderstanding about the names and kinds of rapeseed and mustard
that are grown in India.
 The same local vernacular name may be used for different forms and different local names are used
for the same form in different areas.
 Singh (1958) tried to remove this confusion by giving the following description of Indian rape and
mustard.
 Rapeseed and mustard belong to the family Brassicaceae (cruciferae) and genus Brassica. Brassica
includes the following important oilseed species.
 The fruit of rapeseed and mustard is known as Siliqua and its inflorescence - Raceme

Rapeseed : (Brassica campestris var. Sarson and toria), = (B.rapa)

 It is a herbaceous annual plant.

 The plant is shorter than mustard (rai).
 The height of the plant ranges between 45 and 150 cm.
 The stems are generally covered with waxy deposits.
 Plants of rape are easily distinguished from mustard (rai) by the character of leaves.
 In rape leaves are borne sessile and are glabrous and hairy.
 The lower part of blade (lamina) grasps the stalk partially or completely.

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  Fruits(siliqua) are thicker than those of mustard (rai) and arlaterally compressed, with a beak of one
– third to half their length.
 Seeds are either yellow or brown with a smooth seed coat.
Mustard (Brassica juncea)
 It is known as rai/raya.
 The plants are tall (90-200 cm), erect, and branched.
 The leaves are not dilated at the base and not clasping as in the case of rape but are stalked, broad and
pinnatified.
 The fruits (pods) are slender and only 2 to 6.5 cm long, strongly ascending or erect with short and
stout beaks.
 The colour of the seed is brown or dark brown. Seed coat is rough.

Classification of kinds of rapeseed and mustard grown in India

Indian International Species Common Local Chromosome

group commercial name name number
name
1. Rapeseed
i. Sarson Indian colza, a) Brassica Turnip rape Yellow 20
colza, rape compestris sarson
var.Yellow
sarson
b) Brassica Turnip rape Brown 20
compestris sarson
var. Brown
sarson
ii. Toria Rape a)Brassica Indian rape Yellow 20
compestris toria
var.Yellow
toria
a) Brassica Indian rape Black toria 20
compestris or Lahi
var. Black toria
2. Mustard
i. Rai Mustard a) Brassica Indian Rai or Raya 36
juncea Mustard or Laha
b) Brassica Rugosa Pahari rai 36
juncea var.
Rugosa
c) Brassica Black Banarsi rai 16
nigra Mustard

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Climate requirements

 Rapeseed and mustard are of the tropical as well as the temperate zone crops. Grown as rabi crop.

 It requires relatively cool temperature and a dry harvest period.

 Cool temperature, clear dry weather with a plentiful of bright sunshine accompanied with adequate
soil moisture increases the yield.

 These favourable conditions are existing in northern India.

 It is grown in rabi season from September-October to February –March.

 They prefer moderate temperature of 24 oC -28 oC with an optimum of 20 oC. Brassicas grow well
in areas receiving 350-550 mm of rainfall.

 Sarson and Taramira are preferred in low rainfall areas where as raya and toria are grown in medium
to high rainfall areas, respectively.

 Toria is more liable to suffer from frost and cold and therefore, usually sown earlier and harvested
before the onset of frost.

 Rape seed and mustard are long day plants.

 These crops are neither tolerant to drought nor for water logging.

Varieties

a) Toria: Agrani, Bhawani, Parbati, Anuradh and T-22 (Punjab selection)

b) Mustard: Pusa Agrani, Pusa Jaikisan, Geeta, Kranti, Jagannadh, Jawahar Mustard 2,
Vasundhara,Varuna, Vardhan, M-27
for Karnataka, Andra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu - Pusa Agrani, Varuna and Vardhan

Soil

• Brassicas can be grown on wide range of soils as alluvial, medium loam, sandy loam or heavy
loams.

• Heavy clay soils, subjected to water logging are not desirable.

Land preparation

 A fine seed bed requires to ensure good germination.

 In rainfed areas where toria, brown sarson or raya are taken as a pure crop after kharif fallow seed
bed preparation should be started during mansoon rains.

 For getting good yields the field should be well prepared first by ploughing deep with soil turning
plough followed by two cross cultivations.

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  Every ploughing should be followed by a light rolling or planking so that soil is finely pulverised
and levelled.

 Care should be taken to see that weeds and stubbles etc. are removed from the field and that the soil
contains adequate moisture to ensure good germination.

Seeds and sowing

 Planting time is the single most important variable affecting the seed yield of rape and mustard to a
great extent.

 Since the rate of development of oil in seed is greatly influenced by variation in atmospheric
temperature, humidity and other biotic factors, sowing either too early or too late have been reported
to be not desirable.

 In case of mixed cropping they are generally sown in rows 180 to 240 cm apart in the main crop.

 5 to 6 kg seed should be sown in rows at a depth of 2.5 to 3.0 cm in case of a pure crop.

 When sown mixed with some other crop, 1.5 to 2.0 kg seed per hectare is sufficient.

 Sowing could be done either behind the local plough or through seed drill.

 Before sowing seed should be treated with thiram or captan @ of 2.5 g per kg of seed.

 To ensure good seed germination and early seedling vigour, seed must be soaked in water before
sowing.

 This is best done by covering the seed with moist gunny bag.

 The seed can be mixed with equal quantity of sand for uniform seed distribution at sowing.

Depth of sowing: 3 – 4 cm

Spacing: 30 x 10 cm (Varieties) or 45 x 15 cm (Hybrids)

Time of sowing: September to October

Toria : 1 st fortnight of September, If wheat is to follow, sow the crop by the end of August

Sarson : 3rd week of September to 2nd week of October

Raya : 2nd week of October to 2nd week of November

Thinning of the plants at 20-25 days after sowing to maintain a plant to plant distance 10 to 15 cm.

Manures and fertilizers

 12 -15 tons of FYM ha-1

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  Under irrigated conditions, if the preceding crop is heavily manured, brassicas can be grown on
residual soil fertility.

As per ICAR

Fertilizers (kg/ha) Rainfed Irrigation

N 30-60 100-120

P2O5 20 50
K2O (if deficit) 20 20

 Half of N at sowing and the remaining half at first irrigation.

 Whole P & K to be applied at the time of sowing.

 Rape seed and mustard have higher requirements for sulphur; therefore, nitrogen should preferably
be applied through ammonium sulphate and phosphorus from single super phosphate.

 In coarse textured soils, application of 20 kg S/ha is suggested. But higher rates of sulphur
application may increase the anti-nutritional factor glucosinolates.

 Among micro nutrients, Zn and Boron have positive role in increasing the yield of raya.

 In rice fallows, 25 kg ZnSO4 applied to rice is sufficient for the succeeding brassica crop.

 Application of 2 kg boron/ha is sufficient to meet the requirement especially on saline soils.

Irrigation

 Due to scanty winter rainfall, brassicas show favourable response to irrigation.

 About 60% of the total area under brassicas is under irrigation.

 Among the brassicas, raya is most responsive to irrigation.

 Rape and mustard have low water requirements. It ranges from 450 – 600 mm.

 Generally they are grown utilising the residual moisture of the monsoon in medium to heavy soils.

 In toria, yellow sarson and raya, two irrigations have been found to be beneficial.

 With regard to the time of irrigation, it is recommended to delay the first irrigation as much as
possible. This helps the plants to branch well, which in turn results in profuse flowering and fruiting.

 The best time for first irrigation is when the flowering has sufficiently advanced. The second
irrigation should be given at fruiting stage.

 Ridge and furrow system results in yield advantage with 20% saving in irrigation water.

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Weed control

 Brassicas are fast growing crops and rarely infested with second flush of weeds.

 In early stages the crop should be kept free of weeds since the weed competition results in serious
yield losses.

 2-3 weedings are necessary. First weeding along with thinning, and remaining weeding at fortnight
interval.

 One intercultivation at 3 weeks after sowing is beneficial.

 PPI of Fluchloralin @ 0.5-0.75 kg/ha is also effective.

 Pre emergence application of Isoproturan 0.75 – 1 kg/ha or Oxadiazon 0.5 – 0.75 kg/ha.

 Post emergence application of herbicides is limited because of smothering effect of brassicas.

 Avoid monocropping to reduce the infestation of Orobanche. Crop rotation and sesamum-mustard
sequence significantly reduces Orabanche infestation

Crop Rotation and Cropping Systems

• Mixed cropping: It is grown as a mixed crop with wheat, barley during winter season.

• Intercropping: Brassicas are generally intercropped with rabi crops.

Some profitable systems are Wheat+ Mustard (4:1), Gram+ Mustard (4:2)
Barley + Mustard (6:1)
• Intercropping in autumn planted (adsali) sugarcane has increased the net returns without affecting the
yield of sugarcane.

Rotations

• Brown sarson and mustard (rai) are usually cultivated as pure crops in rainfed areas. During rainy
season no other crops should be sown, rather moisture should be conserved as much as possible by
ploughing.

• In regions where irrigation facilities are available, crop rotations may be followed.

• Toria being a catch crop, maturing in 90-100 days can easily be adjusted in the following crop
rotations.

Irrigated

Rice – Toria
Rice – Toria – mung
Maize - Toria - Wheat
Maize - Toria - Sugarcane

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 Maize - Toria - Cotton
Maize - Toria - Sugarcane - Ratoon
Moong – Brown or Yellow sarson or Rai
Soybean - Mustard
Guar (green manure) – Sarson or Rai
Maize – Sarson or Rai
Early paddy – Sarson or Rai

Rainfed

Pearlmillet - Mustard
Sesame - Mustard
Jute - Toria

Harvesting and threshing

 Toria is the earliest brassica oil seed crop to be harvested.

 It takes about 80-100 days for maturity and thus crop is ready for harvest from mid-December to
middle of January depending upon the time of sowing and variety used.
 Rai can be harvested in 110-180 days. Yallow sarson 130-160 days. Brown sarson 105-145 days.
 When the crop is ripe, the leaves become yellow, the plants are uprooted or harvested with the help
of sickles.
 Sarson is less liable to shattering.
 But in case of mustard care should be taken to see that it is harvested just before the pods open in
order to avoid heavy losses from shattering of seeds.
 Threshing can easily be done by beating with sticks. The pods easily shatter and give away seeds.
 The seeds should be dried for a couple of days before they are stored.

Yield Attributes

 No. of plants/unit area,

 No. of pods/plant,
 No. of seeds/pod and
 Test weight

Yield (seed)

 Rainfed: 8-15 q/ha

 Irrigated :20-25 q/ha

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Oil quality consideration

 Seed colour could be yellow, black or white or brown depending upon the cultivars.

 Yellow coloured seeds have lesser seed coats, hence higher oil content.

 The light coloured oil from yellow seeds of brassicas are the premium oil to enter trade.

 The brassica oilseeds have the oil content of 30-48% in air dried seeds.

 Colour of the oil is yellow to brown.

 Rapeseed and mustard oils have anti nutritional factors like erucic acid.

 However, varieties are now being developed with reduced erucic acid (<2%).

 The cultivars with <2% of erucic acid in oil and < 30 micromoles/gram of glucosinolates in oil meal
are called as Canola varieties suitable for edible purpose.

 It is also desirable to have less linolenic acid (<3%) and higher linoleic acid(>30%)
for prolonged cooking and higher shelf life.

 But brassicas destined for industrial purpose should contain higher erucic acid (>60%) as it has
high heat stability and used as lubricating oil, fossil fuel and additive to diesel.

Pests and diseases

Insect pests

1. Mustard aphid (Lipaphis erysimi) upto 97% loss

2. Mustard saw fly (Athalia proxima)
3. Painted bug (Bagrada cruciferarum)

Diseases

1. Alternaria blight
2. White rust
3. Sclerotia rot
4. Powdery mildew
5. Phyllody

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 SUNFLOWER

Botanical name: Helianthus annuus Family-Compositae/Asteraceae

ICAR- Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research, Hyderabad

ICAR-AICRP on Sunflower, Safflower, Castor, Hyderabad

 It is an important oilseed crop of the world, contributes 14 % to the total oil seed production.
 Helios – Sun, anthos – flower. Belongs to the family compositae or Asteraceae.
 The heliotropic movement of the plant up to the anthesis is called notation, the movement towards
the sun ceases when plant reaches anthesis, later it faces eastwards.
 Popularly known as Surajmukhi
 Earlier this crop was ornamental crop, after 1972 it is cultivated for commercial purpose.

Economic uses

 Seeds are used to treat diuretic and in certain disorders of the respiratory tract.
 Flour is nutritive and used in bakeries. Large achenes (fruits) of non oil seed types have low oil
content but are high in protein (40 to 44%).
 Oil is an alternative source for diesel engine. Oil is edible oil. (40 to 50%) yellow in color & having
good aroma & odour, rich source of linoleic acid (64%) and oleic acid (26%), reduce the cholesterol
level.
 Sunflower seed consists of 25% hull, 45% oil, 15% each protein & crude fiber.
 Oil is blended with drying oils and used in certain paints, varnishes and plastic additives, soaps and
detergents, synthetic lubricants.
 Sunflower heads after threshing are fed to livestock. The bast fiber of the stem is used for preparing
low quality paper. It is also an ornamental plant.

Origin: South America

Area and distribution (2016-17)

Area (m.ha) Production (m.t) Productivity (kg/ha)

Karnataka 0.22 0.10 445

Maharashtra 0.06 0.04 594

Andra Pradesh 0.02 0.02 1000

India 0.38 0.25 660

Productivity (kg/ha): Punjab (1655), Bihar (1428) and West Bengal (1312)

 Leading countries for Sunflower production are China, USA, USSR, Argentina, Spain, India and
Turkey.

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  ‘Pustovit’ of USSR is responsible to develop varieties of high oil content from 30 to 50 %. In India,
sunflower is introduced during early 70’s.
 Cultivation of sunflower in marginal and submarginal lands with poor management practices is the
major reason for lower yield in the peninsular Indian states viz.,Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. It is fast spreading to North Indian states like Punjab, Haryana and Uttar
Pradesh.
 Sunflower plant is an erect, hairy annual herb, attaining a height of 150- 200 cm. Stem is un
branched, hairy & rough in nature and woody with a terminal capitulum or head.
 Leaves are alternate with long stout petiole, rough on both the surface. Irregular tooth on the margin
of the leaf. The capitula has a diameter of 10 to 15 cm.
 Sunflower inflorescence has both male & female flowers maturing at different time. It is highly cross
pollinated crop.
 Single head can produce about 250 to 2000 seeds. Seeds are black or black with white strip.
 Pollination is entirely by bees or other pollinating insects. Fruit is botanically an ‘achene’ which
consists of seed or kernel and adhering pericarp called the hull.

The test weight of 1000 seeds is 40 to 200 g.

Root spread: 150-270 cm deep and 60 – 100 cm lateral spread.

Special features of the crop

 Can be grown in all the seasons or it has the capacity to grow in various climatic conditions (Photo
insensitive) - wider adaptability.
 Easy cultivation.
 Drought & salinity tolerance.
 Short duration crop (90 days), can be grown in multiple cropping system.
 Edible oil can be used in industries and pharmaceuticals.

Soil requirement

 Deep soils, heavy clay and ill drained soils are not suited.
 Can be grown on well drained black or alluvial soils, grown well on neutral to moderately alkaline
soils (pH 6.5-8.5).
 Tolerate salinity.

Climatic requirement

 It is basically a temperate crop but highly adaptable to both cold and high temperature.

 Slightly high temperature is desirable for growth but for fruit set 21-240 temperature is desired.

 Minimum temperature required for germination is 8-10 0.

 Night temperature of 18-20 0C and day temperature of 24-26 0C are ideal temperature, beyond
40 0C result in reduction in yield, oil and protein percentage.

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  This crop is classified as photoperiod insensitive because it flowers at wide range of day length.

 In general, sunflower loves bright sunshine and excessive shade causes drastic reduction in yields.

 Elevation-from mean sea level to 1500 m, excellent crop is obtained under well distributed rainfall of
500 to 750 mm.

 High rainfall of 1000 mm is not conducive.

 Yield loss is considerable due to lodging and diseases particularly in ill drained clay soils.

Physiology (Growth and yield attributing parameters)

The growth and yield attributes are plant height, dry matter production, number of heads per ha, head
diameter, seed weight per plant. Oil content is negatively related to hull thickness. Number of heads per unit
area (plant population) is the most important yield component.

Agronomic practices (Cultivation practices)

 Sunflower requires a well prepared seed bed for better germination and growth.

 One deep ploughing followed by planking and harrowing ensures fine weed free seed bed.

 Row spacing ranges from 45 to 135 cm, but wider spacing (135 cm) are adopted under
mechanized cultivation and in dry land situation. Plant to plant distance is 30 cm. (45-135 cm x
30 cm)

 Plant density of 60000 – 12000 plants per ha. seems to be optimum.

 However, lower plant population is preferred under rainfed conditions.

 60 cm x 30 cm and 120-125 x 10 cm (UAS Dharwad)

 Square or hill planting and sowing in east – west or north – south direction does not influence the
yield.

 Seeds are to be water soaked for 12 – 14 hours and shade dried before sowing for better germination
and early establishment in dry land situation.

 Depth of sowing is 3 to 5 cm in normal situation.

 In shallow black soil and sandy soils, 45 cm row spacing is preferred where as 60 and above row
spacing is preferred for heavy soils.

Varieties (95-100 days): KBSH 44, KBSH 41, KBSH 53, RSFH 130, RSFH 1887, DSFH 3

Sowing time

The crucial factor to choose the optimum sowing time is that no rains should be received or
higher temperature of above 400c should co-inside at flowering and seed filling stages.
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 Kharif – June 15 to middle July
Late kharif or early rabi – II fortnight of August to September 1st week
Rabi – September
Rabi irrigated – October to November
Summer – December to 1st week of February
Seed treatment

 Seed treatment with fungicide, thiram or captan at the rate of 3 g per kg of seed.

 Azospirillum – 500 g/ha

 Soaking 1 kg sunflower seed in 1.5 liter water + 30 g CaCl2, (2% CaCl2) for 6 hours and then shade
drying is helpful to improve germination % and early seedling vigour.

Seed rate: 5-7.5 kg/ha

Nutrient management

 National- N is applied in three splits, 50 % at basal, 25 % at button (30 day after sowing) and 25 % at
flowering stage (40 – 60 DAS)

 And also UASD- Basal 75 % N and full dose of remaining all, top dressing 25% N at 40 DAS in
irrigated condition.

 In any case fertilizers should be placed 5 to 10 cm below the seed.

 In sulphur deficient soils, addition of 25 kg per ha sulphur improves oil content, number of seeds per
head and seed weight.

 Among the micro-nutrients Bo, Fe, Mn and Mo are essential to improve the yield and quality.

 Most contribution is made by Boron. A directed spray of borax (0.5 %) to capitulum (5 g per liter
water) at ray floret opening stage (10 % flowering) increases the seed filling, yield and oil content.

 In Zn deficient soil, soil application of ZnSO4 at the rate of 10 kg per ha or 1 % ZnSO4 foliar spray is
beneficial.

 Low cash inputs like growing niger crop as sprinkle crop (125g/ha seed rate) or as an intercrop in
3:15 row proportion with sunflower increases honey bee activity & yield of sunflower and application
of Zn and Boron helps in better seed filling in sunflower.

 Boron increases the pollen viability and thereby results in higher seed yield.

Weed management

For the effective management of weeds, 2 inter cultivations at 25 and 45 DAS followed by one hand
weeding are must. Pre-emergence herbicide butachlor 50 EC applied @ 3 l/ha or Pendimethalin 30 EC
@ 4.5 l/ha is economical.

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Irrigation water management

 The consumptive use of water in sunflower is 500 – 600 mm.

 A maximum evapo-transpiration of 8.5 mm per day was observed during anthesis. Any water stress
at anthesis results in development of aborted seeds and peps.

 The three critical stages are bud initiation (30 to 40 DAS), flower opening (40 to 60 DAS) and seed
filling (50 to 80 DAS) stages.

 Total number of irrigations depends on soil type and vary from 3 to 6 for kharif or rabi sowing and 4
to 8 for summer sowing.

 Irrigation interval is once in 8 to 10 days in red soil, sandy soil or sand mixed soil and once in 15 to
20 days in black soil.

 A cut off period shall be 20 days prior to harvest or at physiological maturity stage. Sunflower is an
excellent indicator plant to show the soil moisture status at its initial growth stage.

 Hand pollination : 8-10 am , 8-10 days, 20-25 % increases in the yield

Yield: Hybrids 15-20 q/ha

KBSH-53: oil content 45-48%. KBSH- 44-(black seed with white strips)

KBSH–1: Head diameter-15 cm, 12 q ha-1 yield, 42 % oil content and 95 to 100 days duration.

RSFH–1: Head diameter–15 cm, 10 q ha -1 yield, 38 % oil content and 95 to 100 days duration.

Pest and Diseases

Diseases: Alternaria leaf blight, rust, downy mildew head rot (head necrosis) and powdery mildew.

Insects: Capitulum (head) borer, black headed hairy caterpillar (BHC), Spodoptera and sucking pests

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 SUGAR CROPS

• Globally 62 % of white crystal sugar comes from sugarcane and 38 % from sugar beet
• Sugar beet is confined to the temperate regions while Sugarcane has a predominant position in tropics
and sub tropics.
• Another ideal sugar crop grown in tropics and sub tropics is sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolor).
• Specific varieties of sweet sorghum have TSS in juice varied from 19 to 21%.
• Sugarcane by products are molasses, filter cake or press mud, furnace ash, flue gas, bagasse.
• Bagasse is used for making pulp and paper of all grades including newsprint.
• It is also used for the manufacture of fibre, particle board and rayon grade pulp.
• Bagasse is used as an excellent fuel for making charcoal, activated carbons, chemicals like furfural
cellulose, xylitol etc.

SUGARCANE

Botanical name: Saccharum spp. Family: Poaceae/Graminae

ICAR-Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore

ICAR-Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow
ICAR-AICRP on Sugarcane, Lucknow

History

• Sugarcane is the traditional crop of India and cultivated from time immemorial in the Indo-Gangetic
belt.
• There are wide references to sugarcane in mythological books.
• The sugarcane was mentioned in our ancient books such as "Atharva veda', 'Rig veda' and Manu's law
book.
• Alexander the great and his soldiers described sugarcane as a "sweet reed" from which honey was
extracted.
• His invasion was responsible for west-ward spread of sugarcane from India.

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) 1753

• Genus: Saccharum is derived from the Sanskrit word "sarkara - white sugar .
• It is an important crop in the Indian sub-continent.
• Sugar industry is second largest agro-based industry next only to textiles
• Sugarcane crop contributes more than 62% of world sugar production.
• Juice is used for making of white sugar, brown sugar [khandasari] and jaggery
• S-cane provides cheapest form of energy giving food [sucrose].
• Is a source as bio-fuel, fibre, fertilizer etc. by products viz, bagasse [power of sugar mills} and
molasses [main raw material for alcohol].

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 • Sugarcane is playing a greater role in the Indian economy by offering a stable income to the farmers
by way of cane price, by providing employment to rural masses, excise duty, cane cess / purchase tax
and foreign exchange earnings.

By products in sugarcane industry

1. There are many end uses - probably more than 150, but many of them are of negligible economic
interest
2. 38 end-products are potentially important

• The four main byproducts of the sugarcane are:

 Cane tops
 Bagasse
 Filter mud / press mud and Spent Wash
 Molasses

Cane tops

1. The tops of sugarcane are used as cattle feed.

2. Cane tops have no real market value
3. They can be compared to fair quality fodder with an average feed value,
4. When fresh, of about 2.8 MJ of metabolizable energy per kilo of dry matter.
5. However cane tops should be collected and transported from the cane fields to the feed lot.

Bagasse

1. It is the fibrous residue of the cane stalk left after crushing and extraction of the juice .It consists of
fibres, water and relatively small quantities of soluble solids - mostly sugar
2. Utilizations are:

• Electricity, Particle board,Paper

• Furfural:It is a colorless, inflammable, volatile, aromatic liquid 25 tonnes of bagasse
will produce 1 tonne of furfural. Furfural has many industrial uses: Selective solvent
for the refining of lubricating oils .
• As an intermediate in the production of nylon and resins, Methane. Besides, Baggasse
also used as co-generation of power using bagasse as a fuel.

Filter mud / press mud: The precipitated impurities contained in the cane juice, after removal by
filtration, form a cake of varying moisture content called filter mud.

• This cake contains much of the colloidal organic matter anions that precipitate during clarification, as
well as certain non-sugars occluded in these precipitates
• The use of filter mud: As animal feed has not proved economically rewarding, the main constraints
being the magnitude of the drying process involved and the low digestibility of the dried scums.
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 • As soil nutrient there are limitations

 Wax percentage is in substantial quantity which prevents microbial action

 High concentration of various chemicals which are detrimental to survival of beneficial microflora.
 Bio-degradation being exothermic reaction survival of microbes except thermophiles is difficult.
 Due to above mentioned difficulties, bio-degradation of pressmud and spent wash is a difficult
process

1. Press mud contains considerable amount of plant nutrients and important source of organic matter
including, major and micro nutrients.
2. Press mud has 1.23 % N, 2.36 % P, 1.37 % K and micronutrients like zinc (160 ppm), iron (555
ppm), manganese (142 ppm) and copper.
3. Press mud is used as manure in saline and alkaline soils.

Molasses: Molasses is the final effluent obtained in the preparation of sugar by repeated crystallization.

• It is the residual syrup from which no crystalline sucrose can be obtained by simple means
• The yield of molasses is approximately 3.0 percent per tonne of cane but it is influenced by a number
of factors (2.2 to 3.7 percent) .
• The specific gravity varies between 1.39 and 1.49, with 1.43 as indicative average.
• The composition of molasses varies but, on average, would be as follows:

Water 20%
Sucrose 35%
Nitrogenous compounds 4.5%
Fructose 9%
Glucose 7%
Ash 12%
Other reducing sugars 3%
Other carbohydrates 4%
Non-nitrogenous acids 5%

Uses: For distillery industry Alcohol and related products. Export to some developed countries as raw
materials. It is an ingredient to animals feed.

 Ethanol is produced from molasses, which is later blended with petrol (GASHOL) to make excellent
biofuel.
 Brazil produces 11.7 billion litres of ethanol per annum to run 6.5 million vehicles.

• In urban areas, sugarcane juice has demand as the thirst quencher.

• Sugarcane trash on inoculation with microbes, after decomposition acts as an excellent organic
manure and serves in maintaining sustainability in agricultural production.

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 • Cane trash can be composted and used as organic manure for field application.
• Cane trash compost has narrow C : N ratio (22 : 1) and contains 1.60 %N, 1.10 % P, 0.50 % K,
• 1.0 % Ca, 0.6 % Mg, 0.48 % S and
• Good amount of micronutrients like iron (2710 ppm), manganese (450 ppm), zinc (370 ppm) and
copper (80 ppm).

Classification: Sugarcane belongs to genus Saccharum family Poaceae. The cultivated canes belongs to
two main groups:
• Thin, hardy North Indian types – S. barberi, S. sinense.
• Thick juicy noble cane - S. officinarum.
• Wild species – S. Spontaneum, S. robustum.

Sacharum officinarum: These are called as noble canes due to thick, juicy low fibre canes of high sucrose
content and high tonnage. However, by 1975, the noble cane area ended due to sucrose diseases like mosaic,
smut, red rot.

Saccharum sinense and Saccharum barbari: These species are characterized by thin stalks, low to medium
sucrose content and early maturity. These were in cultivation for many centrics but now a days canes of
these species have been replaced by complex hybrid canes.

S.rosbustam: This wild species and origin is new Guinea.

S.spontenaum: It is also wild species and origin is sub tropical India.

Area and production

 The cultivation of sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) dates back to the Vedic period.
 Globally, it is cultivated on 26.5 m ha with an annual production of 1861 m t with an average
productivity of 70.1 t ha-1 (Anon., 2018).
 India ranks 2nd in the world next to Brazil in terms of area (4.95 m ha) and production (348 m t) with
an average productivity of 70.4 t ha-1 contributing 19.98 % in world’s total (27.1 m t sugar)
sugarcane production (Anon., 2018).
 India is 2nd largest consumer of sugar in the world (15.59 m t) and ranks 14th in exports (0.21 m t)
and 5th in the world for imports (0.67 m t) (Anon., 2016).
 In India, Uttar Pradesh occupies half (2.16 m ha) of the total area followed by Maharashtra (0.63 m
ha) and Karnataka. But, Tamil Nadu has highest productivity (86.9 t ha-1) followed by Maharashtra
and Punjab (Anon., 2018).
 In Karnataka, it is cultivated on 0.40 m ha with a production of 27.38 m t with an average
productivity of 68.96 t ha-1 (Anon., 2018)
 It is the 2 nd largest industry (Rs. 30,000 crore industry) in the agro-processing sector, next to textiles
and represents the principal livelihood of 35 million farmers and 50 million others who are employed
in its 571 sugar-related industries.

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  Apart from this, sugarcane is in great demand for various other uses like fodder, fibre, bio-fuels, co-
generation etc.

Origin and distribution

– India has been widely accepted as the home of thin sugarcane that was under cultivation in
the North eastern India.
– Ancient Greek doctors referred it as 'Indian Salt'.
– It's large scale cultivation in the tropical belt took place during the last six to seven decades.
– Now it is grown in most of the Indian states to varying extent and the crop has great socio-
economic importance.
– Tropical cane might have originated in some of the larger islands of Oceania, most probably
in New Guinea.

Origin:

• S.officinarum – New Guinea. Cultivated

• S.barberi & S.sinense – Northern India.

• S.robustum – New Guinea. Wild

• S.spontaneum –Sub tropical India.
– The important sugarcane producing countries are India, Brazil, Cuba, Mexico, Pakistan,
China, Philippines and Thailand.

Morphology and physiology of sugarcane:

• Sugarcane is a C4 type, short day plant.

• Hence it is one of the most efficient converters of solar energy producing larger biomass.
• Sugarcane is a giant grass of 12 month duration.
• It grows for 18 months in certain parts of the country and is known as adsali cane.
• In Hawaiian islands, it is grown for 24 months.
• In fact it is a perennial grass.
• Stem is also known as stalk or millable cane.
• Setts: The stem pieces used for planting are known as setts which contain one or several buds.
• The buds sprout under favourable conditions and give rise to secondary and tertiary stalk.
• The sugarcane stem is solid unlike most grasses which have hallow stems. Inside the rind tissue, the
delicate parenchyma are present which contains the sucrose rich vacuoles.
• The stem is generally coated with wax which is specific to each variety and growing conditions.
• The stem may grow upright or bent.
• The growth ring above the node is made up of meristematic tissue and permits the stalks to strengthen
up or turn towards the light.
• Usually stem is thicker towards base and tapers towards the top.

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 • The stem colour varies with varieties.

Composition of sugarcane

– At harvest, the sugarcane stalks account for 75% and the leaves and tops 25%. Ripe sugarcane
of 12 months duration has the following composition.

Fibre 14-17% Sucrose 12-20%

Water 63-75% Total solids of the juice 17-22%
Reducing sugars 0.1-1.0% Soluble impurities 1.5-2.5%

Growth phases

Sugarcane has four growth phases. They are germination, tillering, grand growth and maturation and ripening
phases.

1. Germination phase (0-45 days)

It is from planting to the completion of germination of buds. It occurs within a week to 10 days. But
in field conditions it may be upto 30-35 days after planting. The optimum temperature for sprouting is about
28-30°C. Warm and moist soil ensures good germination. About 60% germination is considered as safe for
raising a crop.

2. Tillering phase (45-120 days)

This phase is between 45 to 120 days after planting. Tillering provides appropriate number of stalks
for good yield. About 30°C temperature is optimum for tillering.

Maximum tiller production is seen by 90-120 days. During 150-180 days, almost 50% of the tillers
die and the population is maintained. This is called tiller stabilization stage

3. Grand growth phase (120-270 days)

The stalks start growing rapidly @ 4-5 internodes per month. Grand growth phase lasts by 270
days. About 30°C temperature with 80% humidity is conducive for good growth. The leaf production
and their growth are frequent and rapid.

At this phase the actual cane formation, elongation and yield build up takes place.

4. Maturation and ripening phase (270- 360 days)

• Maturation phase is from 270 to 360 days.

• At this phase the vegetative growth is reduced and there is rapid accumulation of sugar.

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 For ripening of canes

1. More sunshine 2. Clear skies 3. Cool nights 4.Warm days and dry weather are conducive

Sugarcane growing regions

• There are two distinct agro-climatic regions of sugarcane cultivation in India viz., Tropical and sub
tropical regions.
• But, for varietal development of sugarcane there are five agro-climatic zones in India. They are:
• (i) North western zone
• (ii) North central zone
• (iii) North eastern zone
• (iv) Peninsular zone and
• (v) Coastal zone

Tropical sugarcane region

• This region consists of states like Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh, Goa, Pondicherry and Kerala.
• The agro-climatic zones 4 and 5 namely the peninsular and coastal zones are within the tropical
region.
• This region also consists of Deccan plateau and east and west coastal areas of the peninsular India.
• In this region, ideal climatic conditions are prevailing for the growth of the sugarcane resulting in
higher sugarcane and sugar yields. The crop is cultivated with better management practices and
higher irrigation regimes.
• This region contributes about 40% of the total cane production in the country.
• The average cane yield is about 80 t/ha.
• Long hours of sunshine, cool nights with clear skies and the latitudinal position of this area are highly
favourable for sugar accumulation.
• Moisture stress during the early part of the cane growth, during March to June, is an important
constraint.

Sub tropical sugarcane region

• About 60 to 65% of total sugarcane area of India is in the sub tropical region.
• The sugarcane agro-climatic zones viz., North western, North central and North eastern zones are in
the sub tropics.
• The most important sugarcane growing states are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana and Punjab.
• Extremity of climate is the main feature of this region.
• During April to June, the weather is very hot and dry.
• July to October is rainy season with south west monsoon rains. December to January are the very
cold months. Due to the extremes of weather, the active sugarcane growth is restricted to 4 to 5
months only.

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 • The cane yields are lower due to short growing season, moisture stress, more pest and disease
problem, floods and water logging and very poor ratoons. The average yield is about 55 t ha-1.

Classification

Family: Poaceace

• The cultivated sugarcane is classified into three species viz.,

Saccharum officinarum, S. sinense and S. barberi.

(i) S. officinarum : These are thick and juicy canes good for chewing purpose also.

• Called as Noble cane

• It is cultivated in tropical areas.
• These canes contain high sugar content, low fibre and produce high tonnage.
• However, by 1975, the area ended because of susceptibility to diseases.

(ii) S. sinense : These are indigenous to North-eastern India.

• They have long and thin stalks, broad leaves,

• Low to medium sucrose content and early maturity.
• Internodes are long and more or less zig-zag and nodes are prominent.

(iii) S. barberi : These are also indigenous to North-eastern India.

• They have short and thin stalks, narrow leaves,

• Low to medium sucrose content and early maturity.
• But now, the complex hybrid clones replaced the above species.
Climate

• Sugarcane is a tropical plant.

• It requires two distinct weather conditions.
• The growing season should be long and warm with adequate rainfall or irrigation, Long hours of
sunshine and higher relative humidity, help in rapid growth.
• The optimum temperature for cane growth is between 24 and 30°C. At active growth period, the
minimum mean temperature of 20°C is needed.
• If the temperature is >50°C the growth is arrested and < 20°C slows down the growth.
• Rainfall at active growth period is useful for rapid cane growth, cane elongation and internode
formation.
• The ripening period of cane should be 2-3 months with warm days, clear skies, cool nights and dry
weather without rainfall which help for build up of sugar.
• During ripening period, the mean day temperature of 12 to 14°C is desirable. At ripening period,
rainfall is not desirable which may cause poor juice quality.
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 • A well distributed rainfall of 2000 to 2500 mm per year is ideal for obtaining higher yield.
• But in India, sugarcane is cultivated with a rainfall range of 600 to 3000 mm. The crop requires a
long growing season of 10 to 12 months.
• Under long day conditions the crop produces more dry matter production.
• Sugarcane is a sun loving plant. About 7 to 9 hours of bright sunshine is most useful for its active
growth, tillering and ripening. Under bright sunshine, the stems are thicker, shorter and the leaves are
broader and greener.

Soil

• Sugarcane is grown in almost all types of soils.

• But the major soils are alluvial, black, red and laterite soils.

I Alluvial soils are found mostly in sub-tropical states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West
Bengal and Gujarat.

II Black soils

• The black soils are usually alkaline in reaction.

III Red soils

• The red soils are generally low in fertility, excellent in drainage but poor in water holding capacity.
The organic matter content is generally lower in this soil.

IV Lateritic soils

• The lateritic soils are fairly deep, highly leached, well drained and acidic in reaction. Liming is an
important practice to be followed for raising successful crop.

Ideal soil for sugarcane

• A well drained loamy soil with neutral reaction with pH of 6.5-7.5 is ideal. The crop is grown in light
soils with adequate irrigation and heavy clays with proper drainage and addition of organic matter.
• Saline, alkaline and acidic soils are not suitable.

Per ha cane yields of sugar cane recorded of three important states situated in different location.

State Cane yield (t/ha) Sugar recovery (%)

• Tamil Nadu 113.9 8.68

• Maharashtra 85.5 10.92
• Uttar Pradesh 60.0 9.46

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Planting seasons

• The duration of the sugarcane crop in India ranges from 10-18 months.
• A 12 months crop is most common.
• Spring & Autumn are the two important seasons.

 Spring planting (January-March, 80-85 % area in subtropics)

It is known as ‘Suru’ in Maharashtra and Eksali in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Karnataka. In
subtropics, sugarcane planting is done after the harvest of the winter crops like wheat, gram, potato etc.
during Feb.-April. About 80 to 85% cane of this region is planted in this season. This crop suffers severe
moisture stress and high temperature conditions during early growth. The crop picks up after the onset of
south-west monsoon. The crop growth is vigorous till November.

Then winter sets, in which affects growth and the crop switches over to ripening phase. Thus crop season
has only 5-6 months of active growth period and so the yield is relatively lower. This season is practiced in
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

 Autumn planting (September-October, 15 % area)

In Northern India, it is done in September-October, while in peninsular India – it is done in

October-November. It is known as pre-season planting in Gujarat and Maharashtra. It matures in
13-15 months. Only 15 % area, because of interference with rabi crops.

 Adasali planting (July-August, Tropics)

In Maharashtra, Karnataka, adsali planting is done in July-August. Crop matures in 16-18

months. Because of extended growing season there is increase in yield as well as sugar recovery.
Biggest advantage is that it passes through only one summer season. The crop is planted during
monsoon season and also passes through another monsoon before its harvest. But this type of planting
leads to harvesting problems affecting sugar recoveries. Now, area under adsali planting is decreasing
because of less availability of water for irrigation.

 Late planting (April, subtropics), In North India after rabi

Because of larger area under wheat in rabi seasons in Northern and Central India planting of
sugarcane is delayed until the harvest of wheat in March-April. Research results proved that delay in
planting causes yield reduction (16-20% yield loss). Varieties suitable for delayed planting: CoS 767,
Co1148, CoC7710, CoC 8102, BO 91, CoS 7918.

Varieties

 Early maturing varieties: These varieties mature in about 10 months. CoC 671, Co 6907, CoC 92061,
CoC 771, CoS 96258, CoS 96268, CoS 93231, CoS 95255.
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  Mid late maturing varieties: These varieties have crop duration of 12 months. Co 6304, Co 8021,
CoS 88216, CoS 92423, CoS 93278, CoS 94257, CoS 95222.

Characteristic features of sugarcane varieties and their suitability

Varieties Sucrose content (%) Yield (t/ha) Suitability

Early varieties (10 months)
Co-67 I -- 68-72 Susceptible to red rot and wilt
Good ratooning, for autumn
CoS-687 15.5-18.5 63-70
planting
Co-77 1 -- 65-70 Tolerant to moisture stress
Good ratooning, resistant to
Co-7717 17 68-70 drought and lodging, susceptible to
red rot
For autumn planting, resistant to
CoS-8436 16.5·19.5 65-78
wilt
CoS-88230 17.5-19.5 71-75 Resistant to smut, good ratooning
Good ratooning, resistant to smut
CoS-90265 15.5-18.5 83-88
and wilt. Good ratooning
Good ratooning, resistant to
CoS-95255 16.25-18.85 85-102
lodging
CoS-96258 17-20 87-97 Good ratooning, non lodging.
CoS-96268 16.7-17.8 80-90 Good ratooning, non lodging
Non-lodging, resistant to drought
CoS-9323I 15.8-16.9 79-90
and frost
Mid late varieties (12 months)
CoS-767 16-18 77-88 Resistant to smut
Co-1148 13-15 75-88 Resistant to lodging and red rot
Co-1158 12-16 70-80 Resistant to lodging
CoS-8432 16-19 66-68 For waterlogged conditions of UP
UP-5929 14-15.5 75-85 For waterlogged conditions of UP
UP-9530 14-16.7 70-75 Good ratooning
CoS-88216 14-19.5 87-93 Less fibre content, good ratooning
CoS-93278 14-17.5 82-95 Good ratooning
CoS-94257 13.5-17.5 84-101 Good ratooning, non lodging
CoS-95222 14.8-16.7 94-108 Resistant to smut
 Late maturing varieties: These crop varieties have duration of 14 months. Co 62175, Co 740.
 Juice varieties: Co-997, CoC-671, Co-7712, Co-7704, Co-8362, Co-86250, Co-8341, Co-8338,
CoJ-64

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  Jaggery varieties

State Varieties for jaggery purpose

Uttar Pradesh CoS-687, CoS-767, Co-1148, Co-1158, CoS-7918, CoS-510.
Maharashtra Co-775, Co-7704, CoC-671, Co-80I4, Co-7527, Co-7634,
Co-740.
Gujarat Co-75, CoC-67 I, Co-7527, Co-62175, Co-80I4, Co-8338,
Co-740.
Rajasthan Co-997, Co-419.
Bihar CoS-767, Co-I 148.
Punjab CoJ-81, CoJ-67, Co-7314, Co-77 17.
Haryana CoJ-64, CoJ-76, CoJ-83.
Tamil Nadu CoC-671, Co-7704, Co-8341, CoG-94077, Co-802l, Co-8145,
Co-8153, Co-62175, CoSi-86071.
Andhra Pradesh Co-6907, Co-7508, Co-7219, CoR-80Ol.
Karnataka CoC-67I, Co-419, Co-62175, Co-740, Co-7219.

Sugarcane varieties released By ARS Sankeshwar, UAS, Dharwad, Karnataka

Early- SNK 09211 (Co 86032 X Co 86250) and CoSnk 03632 : (Co 8013 poly cross)
Co 9004, CoC 671, SNK 044 (Wooly aphid resistant)

Mid Late- SNK 09227 (Co 86032 X Co 86250), Co 86032 (Nayana), SNK 632

Jaggery - SNK 07680, Co 92005

Late - CoM 265, SNK 9293

Land preparation

• Sugarcane remains in the field for about 2-3 years (planting + 1-2 ratoons).
• Thorough soil preparation once in 2-3 years is essential.
• About 45 cm depth of the soil should be well prepared since about 75 % of the sugarcane root system
is present at this layer.

In North India, the soil of sugarcane field is alluvial loam. In this case,

• One deep ploughing followed by two cross harrowings or 5 to 6 ploughings with local plough is
required.
• Planking is done to make the field smooth and clod free.

In peninsular India, sugarcane soils are mostly clays and clay loams which require more ploughings. One
or two deep ploughings followed by 2 to 3 harrowings are given to bring the seed bed into fine tilth.
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Planting material / seed material:

• Sugarcane is a vegetatively propagated crop.

• Seed materials used are the stem cuttings which are known as ‘setts’.
• Each sett is having one or several buds.
• In India, use of 3 eye bud sett is common.
• Whole stalk are planted in countries where sugarcane planting is done through machine.

Selection of setts

• The setts should be obtained from disease and pest free seed crops of around eight months.

Good quality setts should have

• Healthy buds,
• Higher moisture content,
• Adequate nutrient,
• Higher amounts of reducing sugars and
• It is always desirable to obtain seed material from nursery crops of 6 to 8 months which are raised
from originally heat treated seeds. Setts should not be drawn from a ratoon crop, a disease or pest
infected crop or from a crop grown under stress condition such as salinity, alkalinity, water logging or
drought. Seed canes from nursery crops are harvested at appropriate age.
• The trash and green leaves are hand stripped to avoid damage to the buds.
• The setts with either two or three eye buds are cut using a sharp knife placing the cane on a small
wooden log.
• The cut should be slanting.
• Multiple cuts and splits must be avoided.
• The sett preparation is done just before planting.
• Transporting of seed cane is done along with trash.
• About 35,000 to 40,000 setts are required to plant one ha which weigh about 7.5 to 8.0 tonnes of
cane.

Nursery crop or short crop

• A sugarcane crop raised exclusively for seed purpose is known as short crop or nursery crop.
• This crop is harvested by 8 months. All management practices are practiced as that of main crop.
• Detrashing should not be done.
• The entire stalk can be used for preparing setts.
• This crop may be given additional dose of fertilizers in about 6 weeks prior to harvest.
• This improves the seed quality by improving sett nutrient status and sett moisture. The seedlings
establish quickly and grow vigorously.

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Sett treatment

• The sett treatment is carried out to protect the setts against fungal pathogens.
• Carbendazim solution + Urea + Chlorpyrifos @ 0.1 % is recommended.
• The setts are dipped in the solution for about 5 minutes soon after
cutting.
• The seed borne diseases are avoided through heat treatment. This is done by hot water, hot air. moist
hot air or aerated steam treatment. .
• Hot water treatment: Water is heated to 50°C and the setts are treated for 2 hrs.

Seed rate

Under normal planting, if the quality of the setts is good, about 40,000 two-bud setts or 25,000 three-bud
setts would be sufficient for planting one hectare of land and raise a good crop. But, as bud damage is
quite usual while handling and transportation. 60,000 two bud or 35,000 three budded setts per hectare
are safe.

UAS, Dharwad package: 25000-35000 ha -1(3 budded setts)

Mechanical planters

• IISR, Lucknow has developed bullock drawn and tractor drawn planters.
• The bullock drawn planter is suitable for flat planting system followed in the sub-tropics in light
textured soils.
• This gives an out-turn of 1.5 hectares per day at 90 cm row spacing.
• The tractor drawn semi-automatic sugarcane planter is useful for furrow planting.
• Tractor can have a two-row unit and it can cover 3.5 hectares per day.
• An improvement over the semi-automatic planter is the automatic planter in which sett feeding is
done automatically. With this machine, 4-5 hectare planting per day is possible.

Planting methods

 In India sugarcane is planted manually.

 There are many system of planting viz.,

I. Ridges and furrow system

Tropical region

 Ridges and furrows are formed using tractor drawn or bullock drawn ridgers usually.
 90 cm spacing is followed.
 Closer spacing of 60 to 75 cm is adopted for early varieties, short duration varieties, shy tillering
varieties and for poor soil fertility and adverse growing conditions.

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  Wider row spacing of 100 to 120 cm is adopted for high fertility soil, long duration and high tillering
varieties.
 Depth of furrow is kept at 25 cm. This is the most ideal system of planting under heavy irrigated
conditions. This system facilitates easy irrigation, provides soil aeration and support to the plant when
earthing up is done.
2. Flat system

• Flat system is followed in the sub tropical region. In this system repeated ploughing using country
plough and compaction by planking are carried out to conserve soil moisture.
• Then shallow furrows are formed with country plough and the setts are dropped and covered by
planking. Manuring and other cultural practices are followed on the receipt of south-west monsoon
rains.

3. Trench system

• Trench system is followed mostly in coastal heavy clay soils and coastal wetlands. Here, clod
formation is commonly observed. U shape furrows or trenches of 25 to 10 cm deep are formed using
spade and clods are heaped manually. It prevents lodging during north-east monsoon period.

4. Partha method

• This is a technique of planting developed by Mr. S.Y. Parthasarathy, sugarcane scientist.

• This system is suggested for water logged or excess soil moisture condition found in coastal Tamil
Nadu and Andhra Pradesh during north-east monsoon period.
• Three bud setts are planted in a slanting manner at 60° in the wet furrows or half of the ridges
keeping one bud into the soil and two buds above the field.
• After receding of monsoon, the in-situ sprouted setts are pressed into the soil in a horizontal manner.
Then the crop is manured.

5. IISR method (Rayungans)

• About 2 months before planting, the seed crop is topped to remove the green leaves and the tip of
the top most internode.
• This practice results in sprouting of buds and side shoot formation. For
sprouting, it takes 2-1/2 months during cooler months and one month in April planting.
• Trenches of 30 cm depth, 20 cm width at 90 cm spacing are formed.
• One third of fertilizer is applied followed by digging and loosening of trenches to 15 cm depth. The
dug out soil and remaining fertilizer is applied to the trench.
– The setts are collected from topped cane which has sprouted.
– Long "rayungans" or "tailed rayungans" of 40 cm with top side shoot intact are used after
trimming the leaves in the trenches at 50 to 75 cm spacing.
– About 20,000 rayungans are required for planting one hectare area.

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6. Deep trench method

• Deep trenches of 30 to 45 cm depth and 60 cm width are dug out at 120 cm spacing.
• The setts are planted on either side of the trench bottom and covered with soil slightly.
• As the cane grows. the trench is filled with the soil with each manuring. This system is ideal for
early drought and late water logged conditions of coastal Tamil Nadu. This system requires more
labour.

7. Ring or pit method

• This system was evolved in IISR, Lucknow.

• Circular pits of 90 cm diameter are dug out to a depth of 45 cm with a gap of 30 cm between the two
adjacent pits.
• In the modified system, a gap of 60 cm on one side and 90 cm on another side is found suitable.
• Irrigation channels are formed in the 90 cm gaps.
• About 4000 pits can be formed per ha.
• The pits are refilled with loose soil and FYM or pressmud mixture to a depth of 15 cm.
• Setts are planted 20 Nos. per pit and covered with soil to a thickness of 5 cm. As the crop grows, the
pit is filled with soil during manuring.
• This method gives very high yields in the sub tropical region.
• In tropical region, 25% yield increase was obtained.
• This method is found useful for saline soils and saline water irrigated conditions and drip
system. But it requires more labour. Now machines are available to form pits.

8. Modified trench system

• In this method, ridges and furrows are formed at 120 cm spacing, using ridger. The furrow bottom is dug
and widened and the soil is kept on ridges.
• This forms trenches. Basal fertilizer is applied and planting of setts carried out. At each manuring slight
earthing up is done. This system is beneficial for saline soil and saline water irrigation.
• About 30 % higher sugarcane yield is obtained over ridges and furrow method.

9. Contour system

In mild undulating terrain, this system is followed. Here, the furrows are opened along the contours or
across the slope.

10. Single bud direct planting

Single bud setts are planted directly in the furrows at 30 to 45 cm spacing between the setts. This is
known as regulated planting technique. The buds should be healthy and the field should have good
moisture level.

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11. Spaced transplanting technique (STP)

The seedlings are raised in a nursery bed with single bud setts. Six week old seedlings are
transplanted in the field. This system has several advantages. The seed requirement is only 2 to 3 tonnes ha-1.
There is uniform tillering and maturity of canes resulting in higher sugar recovery and yield. There is a
saving of 2 to 3 irrigations. The main field duration is reduced by 20 to 30 days.

12. Poly bag seedling transplanting

• The seedlings are raised in perforated polybags of 10 x 15 cm. The bags are filled with FYM/
pressmud, soil and sand in equal ratio. In this method, the field establishment is about 95 to 99
percent. Small pit is dug out at 45 cm spacing and the seedlings are planted. Before planting, small
quantity of phosphorus is applied and covered with soil.

13. Chip bud technique

• The bud along with a portion of the nodal region is chipped off using knife or bud chipping machine.
• The bud chips are treated with fungicide and planted in raised bed nursery or polythene bags. The
seed requirement is only 1.0 to 1.5 t/ha.

14. Paired row planting

• Two cane rows are placed together followed by a wider space. The paired rows are formed at 60 cm
with 120 cm gap.
• The wide gap is used for accommodating intercrops. Sugarcane population is also maintained.
• Better earthing up is given.
• There is better light penetration resulting in higher yields.

Water management
 Sugarcane being a long duration crop producing huge amount of biomass.
 Requires large quantity of water.
 It is mostly grown as an irrigated crop.
 In the tropical belt, a 12 month crop receives as many as 30 to 36 irrigations and in sub-tropics the
number of irrigation range from 5 to 10.
 The water requirement of sugarcane has been estimated to vary from 2000 to 3000 mm per annum per
hectare.

Approximate water requirement of 12 month sugarcane

 Germination (0 to 45 days) : 300 mm
 Tillering phase (45 to 120 days) : 550 mm
 Grand growth phase (120 to 270 days) : 1000 mm
 Ripening phase '(270 to 360 day) : 650 mm

2500 mm

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Scheduling of irrigation

• The irrigation interval of sugarcane varies with the soil types and growth stages of crop. Generally,
furrow system of irrigation is practiced.

Irrigation interval (days)

Growth phases of sugarcane Soil type
Coarse texture Medium texture Fine texture
Germination 5-6 6-7 8-10
Tillering 6-7 7-10 12-15
Grand growth 7 10 12-15
Maturity 10 12-15 15-20
Sprinkler irrigation

• The sprinkler irrigation system is suitable in undulating topography where furrow Irrigation is
difficult to follow. The amount of water applied is equal to or less than the soil infiltration rate. This
method is particularly suited to sandy soils which have a higher rate of infiltration.
• There is 15 to 20 % increase in yield with 30 to 40% saving in irrigation water.

Drip irrigation

• In this system water is carried In small pipes usually made of PVC and delivered in drops or trickles
near the root zone in such away that only required quantity alone is supplied avoiding almost all kinds
of losses.
• The technique involves laying plastic tubes of small diameter near the root zone and delivering water
through emitters.
• The water is usually carried at a particular level of pressure.
• There are two types of drip Irrigation system viz., surface drip system and sub-surface drip system.
• About 40 percent water saving and 15 per cent yield increase are recorded under drip system of
irrigation.
• Either single row or paired row planting or sugarcane is followed.
• In the surface drip system the water carrying lateral pipes are placed on the soil surface close to the
plant and the emitters fixed at regular intervals discharge water at required rates.
• Water gets into the soil and wets the root zone to the required depth.
• The quantity of water could be easily regulated.
• There is no wastage of water through percolation and wetting the area, away from the root zone.
– In the sub-surface system, the water carrying lateral pipes are buried In the soil, near the root
zone and water is delivered.

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Nutrient management

• Sugarcane is a giant crop producing huge quantity of biomass and therefore its nutrient requirements
are high.
• 100 tonne crop per hectare removes 100, 60, 225 kg N, P2O5 and K2O from the soil, respectively.
• The efficiencies of applied fertilizer nutrients vary greatly depending upon the soil type, climatic
conditions, variety
• Levels of other inputs (such as water) and crop management. The efficiency usually ranges from 20
to 40 per cent.
• Higher cane and sugar yields cannot be produced and sustained without adequate amounts of fertilizer
nutrient.
• At the same time, the costs of chemical fertilizer have increased and there is need to economize their
use without affecting productivity.
• In recent years, other sources of nutrient such as biofertilizer, factory products etc. are also used as
supplemental sources of nutrition.

Nutrient management

• The important nutrients that must be applied and managed for maximizing productivity are N, P and
K.
• Intensive sugarcane farming without adequate quantities of traditional manures has also
created problems of several micronutrients, particularly of zinc and iron.
• In several regions, farmers apply only nitrogen or excess of nitrogen. This creates imbalanced
nutrition affecting particularly Juice quality.
• Therefore, there is need to apply adequate quantities of macro, secondary and micro nutrients In
appropriate times to optimize nutrient use and maximize sugarcane and sugar productivity on a
sustainable basis,

Nitrogen is the key nutrient element influencing sugarcane yield and quality. It is required for

1. Vegetative growth, i.e., tillering. foliage formation,

2. Stalk formation,
3. Stalk growth and
4. Root growth.

Since vegetative growth is directly related to yield in sugarcane,

The role of nitrogen is of paramount to build yield.
Phosphorus requirement is relatively less than N and K.

However, phosphorus plays very significant role in sugarcane production. Phosphorus is necessary
for the formation of proteins and thus for yield build up. It plays an important role in cell division and
thus it is indispensable for crop growth.

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 Potassium is required for several plant activities such as carbon assimilation and photosynthesis and
translocation of carbohydrates.

It is involved in various enzymatic activities of the plant. Thus for sugar synthesis and its
translocation to the storage tissue, potassium is highly important.

Growing region State Season N P2O5 K2O

Maharashtra Adsali 400 170 170
Deccan canal Eksali 250 115 115
Deccan canal Pre-seasonal 340 170 170
Eksali 250 75 125-185
Karnataka
Adsali 250 75 75
Tropical region Gujarat 250 125 125
Eksali
Tamil Nadu 275 62 112
Coastal and canal 225 62 112
Lift irrigation Eksali 175 62 112
Jaggery area 112-224 -- --
Andhra Pradesh Eksali 150 -- --
Spring 225 -- --
Punjab
Autumn 150 -- --
Sub-tropical region
Spring 180 -- --
Uttar Pradesh
Autumn -- -- --

UAS, Dharwad package

250:75:185 kg N:P2O5: K2O ha-1
Basal: 10% N + 100 % P2O5 + 100 % K2O
I top dressing: 20 % N at 6th week
II top dressing: 30 % N at 10th week
III top dressing: 40 % N at 14th week

Time of fertilizer application

• The bud develops with the food material available in the setts. There is no much root system available
at germination stage to absorb nutrients from soil.
• Hence, basal application of N is not required.
• Tillering phase requires high amount of N.
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 • At grand growth of 90 to 120 DAP, N uptake is very high.
• Potassium application is usually done along with N for better utilization of N by the crop in the
presence of potassium.
• Phosphorus has to be applied just before planting right below, the setts. Nitrogen and potassium
fertilizers are applied in split doses as band application on either side of cane rows.
• The fertilizers should be covered with soil.
• First top dressing is followed by partial earthing up and
• Second top dressing is followed by full earthing up.

Split application

• For early maturing and short duration varieties application of N and K is done at 30, 60 and 90 days
after planting in equal splits.
• For adsali crop, N is given in four equal splits and 4th split is applied on 5 to 6 months after planting.

Integrated nutrient management

• In INM approach, inorganic, organic and biofertilizer are used in suitable combinations.
• Organic: FYM @ 25 t/ha or @ 2.5 t/ha vermi compost or @ 12.5 t/ha pressmud (once in 3 year).
Pressmud should be composted and applied.
• Bio-fertilizers: Azsopirillum @ 10 kg/ha and phosphobacteria @ 10 kg/ha is applied as basal along
with FYM. They can also applied as top dressing at 30, 60 and 90 days after planting.
• Effluents: Sugar factory effluent water is rich in nutrients which can be used for irrigation after
proper treatment.
• Leaf Colour Chart (LCC)

Sugarcane trash

• Trash contains 0.35 per cent N, 0.13 per cent P205 and 0.65 per cent K2O. Trash can be composted
and applied.
• Single super phosphate can be substituted by 50 per cent with rock phosphate along with
phosphobacteria.
• Rock phosphate can also he added to the composts of pressmud or trash and the manurial value could
be enhanced.

Micronutrients

• Inadequate supply of organic source and ratooning of cane cause micronutrient deficiency. Iron
chlorosis is one of the major problems noticed, especially lime induced chlorosis in calcareous soils.
• Iron chlorosis results in interveinal chlorosis and stunted growth. This is corrected by repeated foliar
spray of ferrous sulphate @ 0.5 to 1.0 per cent.
• Zinc deficiency is also observed in soils where paddy is cultivated in rotation.
• This problem is corrected by spraying 0.5% zinc sulphate.

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 • This spray can also he done along with ferrous sulphate spray.
• Both micronutrients can he applied to soil at 25 kg each per ha.

Crop logging

• Crop logging is a technique of sugarcane nutrition developed by H.F. Clements in Hawaii. It

involves supplying nutrients and water to the crop grown on commercial scale in such a way that the
optimum level of crop indices are maintained at various growth stages.
• In simple words, it is defined as foliar diagnosis comparing the nutrients status of comparable
leaves of high and low yielding crop plants.
• Leaf N, sheath phosphorus and potassium and sheath moisture in leaf/leaf sheaths 3, 4. 5. 6 are taken
for establishing the indices. At critical growth phases of the reference crop, nutrient indices and
moisture may he assessed and additional nutrients and irrigation arc applied to improve the crop
status to promote optimum growth. This technique has limited applications by certain factories
especially to check .maturity by means of sheath moisture.

Weed management

• Sugarcane is planted at wider spacing of 60 to 135 cm,

• The growth of the cane is slow and takes about 35 to 45 days for complete germination and 60 days
for full canopy development.
• For about 90 to 100 days the soil, space and sunlight are not effectively utilized by the crop. First 90
days period is the critical period for crop-weed competition.
• In India, the cane yield loss due to weeds is about 12 to 72 per cent.
• At 10 per cent loss, the total cane yield loss in the country per annum would be 25 million tonnes.
Weeds such as Cynodon dactylon, Imperata cylindrica and some graminaceous weeds act as alternate
host for ratoon stunting disease.
• Weed control could be achieved through agricultural practices such as crop rotations, crop
competition, mulching, clean cultivation, trap cropping etc.
• Monocot and twining weeds are checked by rice rotation. Fast growing intercrops like mung, cowpea,
groundnut, sunflower, maize, wheat, potato, mustard, gram and onion are useful to suppress the
weeds.
• Trap cropping also checks weeds.
• Mulching with sugarcane trash suppresses weeds effectively.
• Green manure crops like sunn-hemp, daincha grown for in situ incorporation act as catch crops
encouraging weed growth which subsequently gets destroyed during incorporation with green
manure.
• Herbicidal weed management is very effective due to the non-availability of labour in time and early
weed control is difficult in conventional methods.
• Pre-emergence application of atrazine @ 1 kg/ha or simazine @ 2 kg/ha was found to be most
effective on a wide range monocot and dicot weeds under sole cropped situation.
• Under intercropping condition, oxyfluorfen @ 0.3 kg/ha or pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg/ha is found
to be effective.

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 • Pre emergence application of herbicide followed by one or two hoeing and weeding is the
recommended IWM practice for sugarcane.
• Pre-emergence and post-emergence application of 2,4-D at 1.0 to 1.5 kg/ha has been found highly
effective in controlling most of the dicot and other broad leaved weeds.
• Pre-emergence application of simazine and 2, 4-D amine each at 2 kg/ha kills all monocot and dicot
weeds. 2, 4-D and atrazine each at 1 kg/ha effectively controls several dominant weeds.

UAS, Dharwad package

Atrazine 50%WP @ 2.5 kg ha-1 (pre-emergence), 2,4-D Na salt 80% WP @ 2.5 kg ha-1 at 60 DAP

After cultivation

Besides weed control,

Manuring and irrigation, the other important post-planting cultural operations in sugarcane
cultivation are
1. earthing-up/hoeing
2. detrashing,
3. propping and wrapping
4. flowering control.

• These operations carried out at appropriate times would help to improve cane and sugar yields.
• These are labour-intensive operations, but are highly important for scientific cane cultivation.

Earthing up

• Earthing up is commonly followed in tropical region.

• This operation is done in two to three stages which also control weeds.
• The first earthing-up is known as 'partial earthing-up' and the second operation is full
earthing-up.
• The partial earthing-up is done after first top dressing essentially to
cover manure and to provide anchorage to the freshly developing shoot roots. In this case, soil from
either side of the furrow is slightly taken and placed over the fertilizer band manually. This could be
carried out also by using bullock-drawn implement or a narrow wooden plough.
• Full earthing-up is done after the final manuring at 90 to 120 days coinciding with the peak tillering
stage. This prevents further tillering.
• During full earthing-up the soil from the ridge in between is fully removed and placed near the cane
on either side.
• This operation could be done either manually or by using a bullock-drawn ridger.
• This provides better soil aeration, prevents lodging and further root growth is promoted.
• One more earthing up is done at 6 months which prevents lodging, improve soil aeration and
prevents late shoot or water shoot formation.

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Hoeing

• Hoeing is mostly followed in sub tropics where crust formation is common. It is done immediately
after germination using bullock drawn implement. Hoeing by tractor tillers is also folowed.
• Some setts are uprooted and they are again pressed down manually. Such hoeing is repeated after a
month,
• Hoeing by tractor tiller is common in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh due to labour
shortage.

Detrashing

• The top 8 to 10 leaves are required for optimum photosynthesis.

• The dry and the lower green leaves are removed which is called as "detrashing".
• This operation should be done at cane formation stage by 150 days after planting.
• Then this is repeated at bimonthly interval depending upon the labour availability. Normally it is
done manually.
• A hand tool can also be used.
• This operation helps for free air movement within the canopy and makes more food material available
for stalk growth.
It reduces the problem of pests like scales, mealy bug, white fly etc.
• It also prevents bud sprouting and provides clean cane for milling.

Propping and wrapping

• Propping is the operation of tieing the canes together using the dry leaves and bottom green
leaves.
• This is a measure to check lodging of cane.
• Propping is extensively followed practice in the coastal areas where sugarcane is more prone to
lodging during NEM season.
• The trash is twisted to form rope and cane stalks are tied together.
• This is known as 'trash twist propping', propping can be either done for each row or two rows can be
brought together and tied.
• In areas where cane growth is heavy and lodging problem occurs, propping is very much necessary.

Control of flowering
The flowering is called as “arrowing".

• Sugarcane flowers during October to December in tropical India. It is mainly a varietal character. It is
also influenced by
• age of the crop,
• photoperiod,
• temperature,
• moisture and nutrition,

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 • In commercial cultivation flowering is not desirable.
• After flowering, the vegetative growth stops and ripening starts.
• For about 2 to 3 months, the cane can be kept after flowering.
• Thereafter there is deterioration of cane resulting in inversion of sugars, increase in fibre, pith
formation and reduction in yield.
• Non-flowering or shy flowering variety should be used.

To control flowering of sugarcane various practices are to be followed

1. Growing non-flowering or shy flowering varieties like Co-8021, C0-86032, Co-87025, Co-87044,
Co-91O 10, Co-94005, Co-94008, SnK 9211 and SnK 9227, SnK 07680
2. The planting dates may be changed. At Coimbatore planting after May does not flower. Flowering is
considerably reduced in April planted crop.
3. Certain varieties escape flowering in April-May planting.
4. Adsali planting or special season planting (July to September) helps in avoiding flowering and its
adverse effects.
5. Skipping one or two irrigation a month before flower induction reduce flowering.
6. Use of chemicals like maleic hydrazide, monuron, diuron, paraquat, diquat and ethephon suppress
flowering and they are used on commercial scale.
7. At Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore ethephon (Ethrel) at 500 ppm twice or 1000 ppm once
during floral initiation period is found to give good results. This checks flowering and improves
sucrose percentage of juice and yield. The cost of the chemical with application charges is around Rs.
1000 per ha and the expected income is Rs. 5000 to 8000 per ha due to increase of cane and sugar
yield.

Harvesting

• Maturity: The peak maturity or quality can be assessed by various means. Standard analytical
techniques are available which are simple, quick and reliable. Without such analysis, the harvesting is
done by the criteria of crop age and appearance.
• Varieties could be harvested at 12 months without any analysis.
• Mature canes when tapped give a sort of metallic sound.
• When a mature cane is cut in a slanting way and held against the sun, it can be observed sugar
crystals glistening (to shine brightly).
• These are the simple ways of assessing maturity by appearance.
• Sugarcane quality parameters like juice Brix, pol or sucrose and purity also used.
• Pre-harvest maturity survey may be made by Hand Refractometer brix of the top and bottom.

The ratio of top/bottom can be used as category of maturiry of cane.

Sheath moisture assessment can also be used.
Sheaths of leaves 3, 4, 5 and 6 from top of the canes are taken.
The sheath moisture of the mature crop will be about 74 to 76%.

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 – Before cutting the crop, it is customary to give the cane field with good irrigation. Sugarcane
harvesting should be so timed that the cane has attained peak maturity and maximum yield
level under the given growing conditions.
– The method of harvest should be such that maximum of the cane produced is harvested to the
ground level and all extraneous matter such as tops, trash, roots etc. are excluded to the extent
possible.

• Ripeners: Ripeners are extensively used in many countries where cane is cultivated on plantation
scale. Ripeners help to obtain cane for different periods of crushing. In many countries, the cane
quality is poor. Hence, ripeners are used to improve the quality. Polaris and sodium meta-silicate
are used as ripeners @ 2 to 3 kg ha-1 about 8 to 10 weeks prior to harvest.

Chemical ripeners: Ethrel (Ethephon), Glyphosate analogues, Fusilade Super, Gallant Super,
Glyphosate-borate complex etc.
Plant protection

• A large number of pests and diseases attack sugarcane.

• The type of pest or disease and the extent of damage caused varies with regions depending upon the
agro-climatic conditions and the level of crop management practices.
• To manage any pest or disease the best approach is an integrated approach involving cultural.
mechanical, biological and chemical methods, employed in appropriate course and economics.
• The IPM/IDM also emphasized that one should follow "need based" pest and disease control
measures so that unnecessary wastage of resources is avoided.

1. Shoot borer (Chilo infescatellus)

• It is called as shoot borer in sub tropics and early shoot borer in tropical region.
• It usually attacks during the early part of cane growth, before internode formation.
• The pest problem occurs mostly during March to June in main season (spring) planted cane.
• In the adsali crop the infestation occurs during September to October. It also attacks the cane stalks in
the years of scanty rainfall.
• The pest causes heavy losses as it affects initial crop stand.
• The borer larvae enter the cane laterally by one or more holes in the stalks (shoot) and bores
downwards as well as upwards killing the growing point. Thus it cuts off the central leaf spindle
which eventually dries forming a "dead heart".
• The dead heart can be easily pulled out. It emits an offensive odour.
• Borer infestastion during the germination phase kills the mother shoots resulting in the drying up of
the entire clump.
• The average cane yield loss due to ESB is reported to be around 10 tonnes per hectare.

Control

• Avoid hot weather planting.

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 • Whenever cane planting gets delayed apply Lindane (20% EC) on the setts as prophylactic measures.
• The dead hearts should be mechanically pulled out and the larvae are killed.
• Soil application of sevidol at 12.5 kg ha-1 is done around the base of the plants at 30 days and if
needed at 60 days after planting.
• The chemical may be applied in the whorls.

2. Top borer (Scirpophaga excerptalis)

• It is a major pest in sub tropical India.

• It infects sugarcane during all the stages of crop growth.
• The first instar larva tunnels into the midrib and causes a white streak which later turns reddish
brown.
• The larvae bore its way to the central core of the spindle through the unfurled leaves.
• The rows of shoot-holes can be seen when the leaves open.
• As the larva nibbles into the central core portion, the leaf is also eaten.
• There is dead heart formation, but it can not be pulled out easily.
• In the tillering phase of the crop, the attacked shoots die, resulting in the formation of side tillers.
• In the grown up canes, the infestation results in dead heart formation which leads to sprouting of the
buds producing a "bunchy top" appearance.
• Severe yield and quality loss occur due to top borer, the extent depends on the level of incidence.
Losses upto 20 to 30% in yield appears common.

Control

• Collection and destruction of egg masses and

• roguing of affected sugarcane tops before moth emergence on a campaign basis is quite effective.
• The crop planted during July-August show higher degree of top borer incidence.
• Therefore change of planting date would help reduce the pest attack.
• Good drainage is important; besides, skipping irrigation during peak period of moth emergence is
helpful.
• Carbofuran 1.0 kg a.i./ha or phorate 3 kg a.i./ha effectively controls top borers.
• Varieties viz., CO 1007, CO 1158 and COS 767 may be used in endemic areas.
• Biological control of top borer is possible by the use of Trichogramma japonicum in sub tropics and
lsotima javensis in tropics.

3. Internode borer (Chilo sacchariphagus)

• It is a major pest in peninsular India.

• It damages the crop soon after internode formation and its activity continues till harvest.
• Lodged canes and crops in waterlogged areas are severely attacked by this pest.

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Control

• Borer free setts may be used for planting.

• Detrashing the crop may he done at 5, 7 and 9 month stage of the crop.
• Removal of water shoots at 8 or 9 months is useful.
• High dose of N may he avoided.
• Biological control with T chilonis when released at 3.5 cc per hectare per fortnight from 4th month
until a month before harvest gives very effective reduction in the incidence and its intensity.

Root grub

Application of Metarrzium anisopliae@10-15 ka/ha

Wooly aphid

Disease

Red rot

• The red rot disease is caused by the fungus Collectotrichum falcatum

• The symptom appears mostly on the third or fourth leaf which show yellowing and drying from
margin to midrib.
• At advanced stage of the disease, the entire top including the crown dries and dies.
• The natural colour of the stalk is lost and the rind becomes dark.
• Reddish lesions are also noticed on the rind.
• Considerable shrinkage of the stalk is observed.
• Pinkish powdery mass of the spores of the pathogen is seen on the nodal region.
• The most characteristic symptoms of the disease are observed when the affected stalks are cut open
longitudinally.
• The internal tissue shows reddish discoloured patches or lesions and white horizontal patches.

Control

• Resistant varieties viz., CO 8021, CO 7704, CO 6010 and COG 93076 may he used.
• Use quality setts.
• Crop rotation with paddy and green manure is useful.
• No seed material should be brought from a red rot endemic area.
• Debris, crop residues etc. of the affected crop should be destructed.
• Ratoons from the infected crops should be avoided.
• Flow of irrigation water from infected field to the other fields should be avoided.
• The affected clumps as soon as detected should he removed and destroyed.

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Cropping system

• Intercropping: The following are the popular and remunerative intercrops.

• Potato:1:2 Sc autumn planted cane (90 cm) In sub tropical region. Potato varieties Kufri
Chandramukhi and Kufri Sindhuri are suitable. The leaf litter fall of potato improves the productivity
of sugarcane.
• Wheat: One row of autumn sugarcane with 2 to 3 rows of wheat are grown. Dwarf variety Hira is
suitable.
• In paired row planting of 45 cm and 135 cm gap, 4 to 5 rows of wheat could be sown. After 45 to 50
days of cane growth, wheat crop is sown.
• Mustard: One row of mustard is drilled behind country plough or seed drill immediately after planting
sugarcane. Varuna is a suitable mustard variety. The mustard yield (0.5 to 1.0 tonnes) compensates
the slight yield decline noticed in sugarcane crop.
• Pulses: Blackgram and greengram are sown during spring season.
• Peas and gram are raised in autumn planted sugarcane.
• Soybean is sown @ 1 or 2 rows with 30 x 10 cm in 90 cm row planted cane.
• Under paired row planting system, 3 rows of soybean are sown which is a common practice in
Madhya Pradesh.
• Groundnut: It is a useful intercrop in tropical region. Sugarcane yield is also improved.
• Other crops: Short duration (60 to 70 days) variety of sunflower is sown profitably.
• Sugarbeet is also a good companion crop and used for late crushing.
• Onion is very useful and ideal crop which does not affect the main crop sugarcane.
• Sugarcane:potato (2:1), Sugarcane:wheat (1:2/3, 4/5),sugarcane: mustard (1:1)
• Sugaracne :blackgram/grrengram/peas/bengalgram/soybean/groundnut/sunflower/sugarbee

UAS Dharwad package

Sugarcane + soybean (1:1) - on one side of ridge
Sugarcane + onion (1:2) - on both sides of ridge
Crop rotation
Tropical region
Cotton-sugarcane-ratoon-sorghum (Maharashtra)
Sugarcane-ratoon-wheat (Maharashtra)
Rice-groundnut-sorghum-ragi-sunnhemp-sugarcane - Karnataka (canal area)
Sub tropical region
Rice (early)-sugarcane (autumn)-ratoon-moong (East Uttar Pradesh)
Maize (early)-potato-sugarcane-ratoon –wheat (West and Central Uttar Pradesh)
Maize-wheat-sugarcane-ratoon-wheat (Punjab, West Uttar Pradesh)

Ratoon management

• Ratooning or stubble cropping is a common feature in sugarcane.

• In India, about 50 per cent of the cane area is always under ratoon.
• A yield decline of 10 per cent in ratoon is quite common.

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 • This decline is due to : (i) gift crop attitude of the farmers, (ii) reduced initial population

(iii) decline in soil nutrient status (iv) soil compaction and poor soil physical status

(v) more incidence of pests and diseases and (vi) adverse weather conditions in sub tropics.

In several places, multiratoons are taken. Deep alluvial soils and in situ trash incorporation are useful
for multiratoons.

Advantages of ratooning

 25-30 per cent saving in operational cost for setts and field preparation.
 Saving in time as they establish and mature early.
 Stabilised cane area, since 40-50 per cent area is under ratooning.
 Gives better quality canes and help in improved sugar recovery.

Management practices for ratoon cane

Variety: Most of the varieties have good ratooning ability.

• Early maturing varieties are poor ratooners than mid late or late varieties.
• Thin or medium thin varieties provide better ratoons than thick varieties.
• Variety Co 1148 is most popular for ratooning in sub tropics.
• Co-6304 variety is widely grown in Tamil Nadu for ratooning.
• Other suitable varieties are Co-7314, Co-8013, Co-8018,Co-8021, Co-812l, Co-8122, Co-8134, Co-
8145, Co-820S, Co-8362, Co-86010 and Co-86011 etc.

Plant crop and its harvest: The plant crop should be raised under optimum input levels viz.,nutrients
and irrigation. Good ratoon results from healthy plant crops. Plant population of ratoon is maintained
when there are adequate stubbles in the field. Pest and disease infected plant crops should not be
ratooned.

• Time of harvest: Harvesting the plant crop when weather conditions are conducive for stubble
sprouting is important. Low and high temperatures at harvest time are harmful.
• Duration of harvest: The duration of harvest of a field should not exceed a week. This will ensure
uniform sprouting and growth of ratoon crop.
• Method of harvest

1. Harvest of plant crop: Harvesting of plant crop close to the ground level is very important to get a better
ratoon crop. This is more important in places where stubble shaving cannot be carried out or unfavourable
soil conditions like excess or lack of moisture exist.

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 2. Trash disposal: Green tops are mostly used as cattle feed. About 8 to 10 tonnes per ha trash is available
in the field. Farmers usually burn the trashes. But, the trash has to be conserved and used in the field.
Sugarcane trash add considerable amount of organic matter and nutrients and improve physical conditions of
soil. The average nutrient content of trash is 0.35% N. 0.13% P2O5 and 0.65% K2O.

• Trash is temporarily removed to bunds for carrying out initial field operations and then either
incorporated into the field or used as mulches. In alternate furrows, trenches are formed and the trash
is applied and closed with soil. Mulching conserves soil moisture and arrests weed
growth. Mulching is effective under extreme weather conditions. About 5-10 tonnes of more cane
yield is recorded.
• In Maharashtra, the in situ trash composting is followed under wide row spacing of 120 cm. The
trash is arranged in furrows. Over the trash, the soil obtained during stubble
shaving is added and microbial cultures like Trichoderma viride or Pleurotus are added for easy
decomposition.

3. Stubble shaving

• The stubbles protruding out of the field are cut below ground level using sharp spade. This facilitates
healthy underground buds to sprout and establish a deeper root system. If soil is hard and dry, the
field is irrigated lightly and the stubble shaving is done at optimum soil
moisture. In shallow rooted varieties like CoC 671 sharp knife is used. Tractor drawn stubble shaver
developed by IISR, Lucknow can also be used. This can cover 2 ha/day and the cost is saved by 50
per cent.

4. Shoulder breaking (off barring)

• The soil is compact after the harvest of plant crop. This compaction may
prevent the movement of air, root development and absorption of nutrients and water by the crop.
Shoulder breaking or off barring is an operation wherein the ridges are broken or cut on either side.
This operation is done by bullock drawn wooden plough or small ridger, But the interspaces between
the rows are dug out to loosen the soil.

5. Gap filling

• Due to poor sprouting and pest and diseases, gaps are noticed. A month before harvest. nursery may
be planted with single bud setts and the seedlings are planted in the gap. The clumps may also be cut
into quarters and planted in the gaps especially in wetland conditions. Polybag seedlings can be raised
and used for this purpose.

6. Nutrient management

The soil is already depleted by the plant crop. The root system of ratoon is poor and so the
absorption of nutrients is affected. There is temporary immobilization of nutrients due to the action of
microbes on decaying old roots and crop residues. Early growth is recorded in ratoon. This
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 necessiates early application of fertilizer. Dose: 315: 75: 190 NPK/ha. Entire dose of P 2O5, 1/3 rd dose
each of N and K2O are applied immediately after stubble shaving and off barring on either side of
ridges and covered with soil. Remaining quantity of N and K2O is applied in equal splits at 30 and 60
days after SB.
That is at Shoulder breaking (SB) 115 kg N: 75 kg P2O5: 65 kg K2O
After 30 Days after SB 100 kg N: 0 P2O5: 60 kg K2O
After 60 Days after SB 100 kg N: 0 P2O5: 65 kg K2O
In coastal Andhra Pradesh, 25 per cent more dose of N than plant crop is used. Incorporation of
legume crop residues improves nitrogen use efficiency. Sunnhemp, French bean and green gram are
suitable intercrops. Foliar application of urea is also effective.

7. Water management: Ratoons have shallow root system and so they are more susceptible to moisture
stress. Scheduling of irrigation is carried out at frequent intervals especially in the early stage. Trash
mulching is effective under moisture stress situations. In canal irrigated areas, excess
irrigation may be avoided and drainage facilities to be improved.

8. Ratoon chlorosis: Ratoon crop shows iron chlorosis especially in calcareous soils due to poor nutrient
status of the soil coupled with inability of the roots to absorb nutrients in the early stage. This causes higher
mortality of shoots and poor crop stand. Ferrous sulphate @ 0.25% along with I % urea is sprayed on foliage
at weekly intervals at early stage of the crop. For crop beyond 60 days of growth, ferrous sulphate is sprayed
@ 0.5% for 2 to 3 times. At Coimbatore, the chlorosis is controlled with the addition of zinc sulphate @
0.5%.

9. Harvest: Generally, the ratoon crop matures one month in advance. But the ratoon juice quality is poor
than plant crop. Hence one month extra time is allowed to improve the quality and yield. The maturity of the
cane is checked before harvest.

Management for moisture stress conditions

I. Early planting : A grown up crop withstands stress better than a young crop. In tropical region, November
to January planting is better than March to April planting to overcome the moisture stress. In sub tropical
region, too early spring planted crop withstands moisture stress than a late or summer planted crop.

2. Seeds and sowing: The row spacing may be reduced to 60 or 75 cm. This may provide 15 to 20% higher
cane yield than normal spacing of 90 cm.

3. Trash mulching: Trash mulching is useful to conserve soil moisture and reduce the impact of moisture
stress and atmospheric drought. It also lowers soil temperature, improves germination, tiller survival and
growth of tillers and weed control.

4. Fertilizer management: Basal application of P2O5 and early top dressing of Nand K2O is desirable. Foliar
spraying of urea and muriate of potash each @ 2.5% (2.5 kg each urea and KCl in 100 lit of water) during the

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drought period at 15 to 20 days interval is found effective. The spray
should be done in early morning or late evening.

5. Lime soaking: The setts are soaked in saturated lime solution (80 kg kiln lime in 400 litres water) for one
hour before planting. This treatment enhances germination and improves drought tolerance.

6. Protective irrigation: Under limited availability of irrigation water, alternate furrow system of irrigation
and trash mulching is useful. Fifty per cent of water alone is utilized at each irrigation.

7. Deep trench system: In the deltaic areas deep trenches are effective. Similarly, Modified trench, ring
system and paired row planting are also useful.

8. Kaolin spray: Kaolin is sprayed @ 6%. This acts as a reflectant and reduces evapotranspiration

9. Tolerant varieties: Using varieties with high tillering, fast initial growth, deep root system, thin stalks,
narrow and erect leaves are desirable. Examples: Co 8208, Co 86011, Co 85007, Co 85004,
CoC 90063, Co 8362, Co 87263, Co 8145, CoC 85061, Co 6806, CoC 671.

Recent technology in Sugarcane

“The Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative (SSI) is an innovative set of agronomic practices that involves using
less seeds, raising seedlings in a nursery and following new planting methods with wider plant spacing and
better water and nutrient management to increase the cane yields significantly”.

 The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) entered into a
partnership with the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and introduced the concept of SSI in 2009
in A.P. and U.P under the leadership of Biksham Gujja and team.
 SSI is an alternate to conventional seed, water and space intensive Sugarcane cultivation (principle of
LEISA)
 SSI is well known as “Bud Chip Technology”,
 The concept of SSI came with a concept of “More with less”.
 SSI is a combination of cane planting innovations and water saving practices.

Raising nursery using single budded chips:

 Single budded chips, carefully removed from healthy canes are used for raising nursery. The
selected buds are placed in trays filled with coco-pith (coconut coir waste) to raise the seedlings.
 By raising nursery, high germination percentage can be achieved within a week depending on the
agro climatic conditions.

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Transplanting young seedlings

 The young seedlings raised in the nursery are transplanted to the main field at the age of 25 –
35 days.
 It is important to note here that there this one month growth of seedlings achieved under SSI
method cannot be achieved even after two months in conventional method.

Maintaining wider spacing in the main field:-

 In the SSI, widerows spacing of 5 x 2 feet is maintained in the main field leading to 1,12,500-
1,37,500 millable canes/ha because of more tillering.
 Wider spacing drastically reduces the seed requirement from 1,20,000 buds to 12,500 buds per
hectare.
 It supports easy air and sunlight penetration in the crop canopy for healthy cane growth.

Providing sufficient moisture and avoiding inundation of water

 In SSI, emphasis is to provide sufficient moisture rather than inundating the field with water as
flooded condition will actually hinder the growth of the plant.
 Measures like raising of nursery, following furrow/alternate furrow irrigation, optimum
application of water through drip irrigation should be followed.
 So, by giving only required quantity of water about 40% of water is saved.

Integrated nutrient and plant protection

 The SSI method discourages high application of chemical fertilizers and use of pesticides and
weedicides.
 Promotion of use of organic manures, fertilizers, bio-fertilizers and following bio control
measures.
 A gradual reduction of inorganic and adoption of integrated methods can be tried by farmers for
long term benefits.

Intercropping for effective utilization of land

 SSI supports intercropping in sugarcane with crops like wheat, potato, cowpea, french bean,
chickpea, water melon, brinjal etc.
 In addition to effective utilization of land, this practice will reduce the weed growth up to 60% (in
the initial stage) and give extra income to farmers.
 They act as a live mulch and preserve moisture and improve the soil fertility.

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Comparison between Conventional and SSI methods of Sugarcane Cultivation

Particulars Conventional method SSI method

Seeds/Setts 1,20,000 buds (40,000 three 12,500 buds (12500 single budded
budded setts/ha) chips/ha)
Nursery preparation No Yes
Measures to maintain No grading Grading is done during nursery
uniformity among plants
Planting Direct planting of setts in the Transplanting of 25-35 days old
main field young seedlings raised in a nursery
Spacing 45 to 75 cm between rows 150 cm between rows

Water requirement More Less

Plant mortality rate High Low
No. of tillers per plant Less (10-15) More (20-25)

No. of millable canes achieved 4.5 9-10

per clump
Accessibility to air and sun Low High
light
Scope for intercrop Less More

Quality parameters

1) Hand refractometer

Sampling will often began 4 to 6 weeks before the proposed start of milling and continued at an
interval of about two weeks until a decision regarding harvesting of the particular field has been taken.
Testing of juice in the field can easily be conducted by using a hand refractometer graduated to
give readings in degree brix. Brix reading indicates the total soluble solid (TSS) present in the
juice.TSS indirectly indicates the sucrose content in the juice. 10 brix is approximately equal to 1
per cent sugar. The cane is sampled by taking a small quantity of juice from the internodes of the upper
and lower thirds of standing cane in the field.

A simple tool consisting of a sharply pointed steel shaft of 0.75 cm diameter, 10 cm long with a
groove of 0.5 cm wide, extending 4.5 cm from the point and a ‘T’ handle is provided for taking the juice.
The point is pushed into the middle of an internode, groove upwards with the shaft horizontal, to about
half way through the stem. With a rotary motion and then slanting the shaft downwards, a small quantity
of juice will run into the groove. The tool is withdrawn and little of the juice is dropped on to the
prism face of the opened refractometer. The instrument is closed and the reading is taken by
observation through the eye piece. Temperature corrections may be applied to the readings. The

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 optimum brix reading for harvesting of cane is from 19 to 21. About 20 stools (whole plant)
collected at random in one hectare land are subjected for test.

2) Brix Saccharometer

This instrument requires only 60 cm3 of raw juice to enable accurate and rapid brix determination to
be made. It also shows total soluble solid (TSS) in the juice. Reading 19 is ideal for harvesting of
cane.

3) Polariscope

It consists of two prisms, one is situated near the light source in a fixed position and it is called as
polarizing prism, another prism (Nickel prism) situated at the opposite end of the tube which can be
rotated and this is called as analyzer. When optical axis of the two prisms is in the same line, light passes
through both of the prisms in the same path. No light will transmit when optical axis of the prisms is
right angle to each other. At this point optical active substance (sugar solution) is placed between the
prisms and plain of the polarized light is rotated until the light strikes the analyzer. If the prism (plain of
polarized light) is rotated to the right side is called dextrorotatory, otherwise levorotatory. Degree of
rotation is to the concentration of sugar in the solution.

4) Commercial Cane Sugar (CCS)

It refers to the total sugar per cent present in the cane

1. Brix = TSS of the juice (=sugar content of the juice) 10 Brix = 1 % sugar

2. POL % = Sucrose content.

POL % (sucrose)
Purity % = -------------------------- x 100
Brix (= TSS/sugar)
If purity per cent is 98, it indicates cane maturity.

3. POL ratio + Sucrose/reducing sugar. It should be unitary or 1

4. CCS (t/ha)= [Yield (t/ha) x Sugar Recovery (%)] / 100

Sugar Recovery (%) = [S - 0.4(B-S)] x 0.73

Where, S= Sucrose % in juice and B= Corrected Brix (%)

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 Schematic representation of sugar and ethanol production from sugarcane

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 SUGAR BEET

I. TEMPERATE SUGAR BEET

Botanical name: Beta vulgaris Family: Chenopodiaceae

International Institute of Sugar Beet Research (IIRB), Brussels (Belgium)

Economic importance
 Sugar beet is one of the most efficient converters of solar energy.
 It provides more than 45 per cent of world sugar requirement.
 Sugar beet is 6 to 7 months crop and produces equal yield as that of one year crop of sugarcane in
north India.
 The sugar content of sugar beet is about 15 to 16 per cent with 10 to 12 % sugar recovery.
 It produces about 35 to 50 tonnes of roots/ ha.
 The crop matures in April to May when the sugarcane crushing season is nearly over. Thereby the
working season of sugar mills is extended by two months.
• Sugar beet tops contain 10 % crude protein and 60 % total digestible nutrients.
• Beet pulp is a good feed to animal.
• Dry pulp contains 60 % carbohydrates and 5 % crude protein.
• One ton of sugarbeet produces 50 kg of dried and 300 kg of wet pulp.
• The molasses are used as feed and for other industrial uses in the production of citric acid,
lactic acid, yeast, antibiotics and products of fermentation industry. Sugar beet plant = A mini
sugar factory
Origin
• Sugar beet is originated from Mediterranean region. It has been cultivated for thousands of years. Its
medicinal value was also reported.
Distribution
• The important sugar beet producing countries are Russia, USA, France, Germany, Italy, Sweden,
Belgium, Poland, Turkey and Czeckoslovakia.
• It is one of the important sugar crops of the world, cultivated in about 8.66 m.ha with a production of
261.55 m.t of total beet production.
• In India, its cultivation was taken up in northern India by 1974.
• Commercial scale cultivation has been carried out in Sriganganagar of Rajasthan, Phaltan of
Maharashtra and Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh.
• In Kashmir valley and Himachal Pradesh it is promising as a rainfed spring crop. The crop may be
successfully cultivated in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
Morphology
• Sugar beet belongs to Chenopodiaceae family.
• It is a herbaceous, dicotyledonous biennial plant.
• In first year (season), the large succulent roots develop to full size and in the second year (season)
flowers and seeds are produced.

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 • Sometimes, due to unfavourable climatic conditions, the plants give out seed-stalks in the first year
itself which is technically called as bolting.
• Usually, it is cultivated as an annual crop for its sugar.
• It has a large tap root system.
• The tap root forms the tuberous root containing sucrose.
• It has a typical aggregate fruit that yields a seed hole with two or more viable seeds or germs.
• The plant consists of three parts viz., Crown, Neck and Root.
• The crown produces leaves which are arranged in a close spiral,
• Below the crown the most smooth and broadest part that is technically called as ‘neck’.
• The roots are cone-shaped which end into a slender tap form.
• Sometimes roots are flattened on two sides which are more or less grooved.
Climate
• Sugar beet is a temperate and cool climate crop.
• It is a versatile crop and can he cultivated in any region wit temperature ranging from 12 to 45°C
during the cropping season (October to May).
• The favourable soil temperature for germination is about 15°C.
• The ideal temperature is 20 to 22°C for better growth and sugar accumulation.
• The temperature beyond 30°C reduces sugar accumulation.
• The commercial cultivation of the roots is possible on the plains also during winter season. But the
seed formation is impossible due to unfavorable climatic conditions.
Soil
• Sugar beet can be cultivated in well drained sandy loam to clay loam soils with good fertility and
sufficient organic matter.
• Heavy clay soils should be avoided.
• A well drained fertile sub soil is most ideal.
• Optimum pH range is 6.5 to 8.0.
• It thrives well in saline-alkaline soils with a pH up to 9.5
• The field should have sufficient slope and drainage to prevent flooding. The acidic soils are not
suitable.
• The crop can not withstand water logging.
• Poorly drained soils are unfit for sugarbeet root production.
Varieties
Maribo Anglo poly, Maribo Magna poly, Maribo Resista poly, Kawegiga poly, Kawemega poly, Mezzano
poly, US 75, US 35, Hh Monitor, Romoskava 06, Erotype E, Bush E, Triplex

Season
• Sowing season is crucial for better performance of the crop.
• Generally 15th October to 10 th November is found to be ideal period for sowing

Field preparation
• Field is prepared by one deep ploughing with mould board plough followed by two to three
harrowing.

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 • Planking is done to have smooth and leveled seed bed.
• Proper leveling is essential to avoid water stagnation.
• Beds and channels or ridges and furrows at 50 cm apart are formed.
Seed treatment
• The seeds are soaked for 4 to 5 hours in plain water. This helps in getting higher germination of
seeds.
• To further improve the germination, the seeds may be soaked over night in 0.25% solution of a
mercurial compound or Aretan or Agallol. The seeds are then spread open for drying after which they
may be used for sowing.
• Subsoiler: Break bottom arable cap
• Compacting (Plough level) = Fangy roots
Seeds and sowing
• The ideal time for sowing sugar beet is October.
• The seed rate requirement is 8 to 10 kg/ha
• Pre irrigation is given to maintain optimum moisture at the time of sowing.
• The seeds are sown by dibbling or drilling at 50 x 10/20 cm spacing.
• The depth of seed placement is 2.5cm.
• The deeper sowing results in poor stand of the crop.
• A push type drill is developed by IISR, Lucknow for sowing sugar beet.
Gap filling and thinning
• Sugar beet has multigerm seeds. Hence the seeds produce number of seedlings per hill. Thinning is
done after 30 days to maintain optimum plant population of 0.8 to 1.0 lakh plants/ha.
• During thinning, the plant to plant spacing is maintained at 20 cm.
• Gap filling is done with fresh seeds soon after germination.
Nutrient management
• FYM or compost @ 20 to 30 t/ha is applied before forming ridges. A fertilizer dose of 120 kg N, 80
kg P2O5 and 80 to 100 kg K2O /ha is applied.
• Half dose of N and full dose of P2O5, and K2O are applied as basal dose before last harrowing.
• The remaining quantity of N is applied as top dress after thinning.
• In light soils, two top dressing is done at thinning and earthing up.
• It is advisable to avoid fertilizers consisting of chloride ions.
• Boron (B) deficiencies
Sugar beet responds well to foliar application of boron at 8-12 leaves @0.1 % boron
Water management
 Water requirement of sugar beet is 800 to 1000 mm. It can not tolerate drought.
 One or two irrigations are given upto thinning.
 Subsequently at 20 to 25 days interval irrigation is given.
 About 7 to 10 irrigations are required.
 Timely irrigation is essential to ensure good yield.
 The critical growth stages are formative, leaf growth and root development stages.
 Generally, irrigation is scheduled based on these critical growth stages with 2, 2 and 4 irrigations ,
respectively.

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  Water should not stagnate in the field beyond 24 hours.
 Adequate drainage facility is necessary.

Weed management
• In the early stages of crop growth, there is severe competition from weeds. Weed free condition is
required upto 35 to 60 days after sowing.
• Thereafter, the weeds are smothered by the crop.
• Three to four hand weeding are enough to maintain weed free condition.
• Pre emergence application of pyramin @ 3 kg/ha or pendimethalin @3.75 lit/ha to control annual
broad leaved and grass weeds.
• Post emergence application of betanol @ 2 kg/ha on 25 to 30 DAS is also useful.
• The soil should be little loosened and earthing up should be done by December after finishing the last
top dressing of fertilizer.

Cropping system
Sugar beet is a rabi crop. It is raised after harvest of kharif crops.
 Maize-Sugar beet
 Rice-Sugar beet
 Soybean-Sugar beet
 Cowpea-Sugar beet
 Blackgram-Sugar beet
 Greengram-Sugar beet
• Crop rotation of 3 to 5 years is best for the production of a healthy commercial beet root crop in
India. Some of the best rotations are
• Cowpea (fodder)-sugar beet-cotton- sugarcane-ratoon.
• Maize (early) or paddy (early) sugar beet-dhaincha-potato-sugarcane- ratoon.
• Guar + sugarcane-ratoon - sugar beet-sorghum (fodder )-maize-sugar beet.
• Intercropping of sugar beet with autumn sugarcane is economically feasible.

Plant protection
Disease
Sclerotium root rot (Sclerotium rolfsii)
Symptom : White cottony growth with surface deposition of mustard like bodies occur in patches.
Control : Crop rotation should be followed so that sugar beet is not grown for 3-4 years.
• Optimum moisture and nitrogen should be maintained in the soil to prevent the occurrence and
spread of the diseases.
• Drenching of Brassicol WP @ 15 kg ha-1.
Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora beticola)
Symptom : Small circular ash colored spots surrounded by yellow or reddish margin are noticed. Early
occurrence of the disease may cause significant loss of sugar.
Control: Spraying of Bavistin (@ 0.5 kg/ha) at 15 days interval is effective.
• Rots: (Rhizoctonia spp) (root and crown rot)

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 • Rots: Fusarium spp
• Rot: Rhizopus spp

Pest
Greasy cutworm
Symptom: This is the most common. The larvae are active in the fields during October- November and
feed on sugar beet plants during night and hide in day time below the soil surface.
They cut the plants at base just below the soil surface.
Control: Malathion 5% dust @ 20 kg /ha is mixed in the soil before sowing.

Sugar beet armyworm

Symptom: The newly hatched larvae feed gregariously in the vicinity of egg mass. Small army worms
feed on the lower leaf surface leaving a thin film on the upper surface. Older army worms feed leaf lamina.
Tobacco caterpillar
Symptom : The young larvae feed on the epidermis of leaves. They feed gregariously in the early stages
and the damaged leaves appear to be skeletonized. The larger larvae are voracious feeders and the crop may
be completely defoliated within a week.
Control : Carbaryl 50 WP @ 1.0 kg/ha in 1000 litres of water is sprayed. This is repeated if necessary
after 20 days.

Bihar hairy caterpillar

Symptom : It is a polyphagous pest. In sugar beet it is found in isolated patches from mid February till last
week of April. The newly hatched larvae feed on the leaf epidermis gregariously. The young larvae eat away
all the chlorophyll leaving midribs and veins only. They make bigger holes on leaves in advanced stage and
even eat away the entire leaf.
Control : The eggs and larvae are collected and destroyed. The young larvae can also be killed by dusting
methyl parathion 2% dust @ 25 kg/ ha .

Harvest
 The roots are loosened in the soil by a sub soiler attached to a tractor or mould board plough.
 The roots are collected and the tops and crown are cut off.
 The roots should not be washed in water. It causes rapid deterioration of roots.
 The roots should be transported immediately to the factory. Storage beyond 36 hours at high
temperature will make the roots unfit for processing.
 Under unavoidable conditions, the roots may be covered with foliage and tops.

Yield
Sugar beet produces about 50 to 70 tonnes of roots/ ha under good management practices.
The sucrose per cent is 15 per cent in March and 17 per cent in May.

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 II.TROPICAL SUGAR BEET
• Tropical sugar beet varieties are available for tropical and sub tropical countries.
• Sugar beet is a promising alternative energy crop for the production of ethanol.
• The ethanol can be blended with petrol or diesel upto 10 per cent.
• Harvesting of sugar beet is done from March to June which is the off season period for sugar mills.
• Hence the harvested beets can be effectively utilized for processing in sugar mills during the off
season period.
Variety
• Under tropical conditions the suitable sugar beet varieties are Pasoda, HI 0064 and Doratea.
• Designed seeds/Hybrids viz., Cauvery, Indus and Shubra are available.
• Duration of tropical sugar beet is about 5 to 6 months.
Climate
• Sugar beet requires good sunshine during growth period.
• It is grown during October to March with well distributed rainfall of 300 to 350 mm.
• High soil moisture or continuous heavy rain affects development of tuber and synthesis of sugar.
• It requires optimum temperature range of 20 °C to 25°C for germination, 30 °C to 35°C for growth
and development and 25 °C to 35°C for sugar accumulation.
Seeds and sowing
Seed rate: 3 kg ha-1
• Five pockets of designer seeds are required to plant one hectare area.
• Each pocket weighs 600 gram and has 20,000 seeds.
• The seeds are dibbled at 50 x 20 cm spacing.
• The seeds are sown at 2 cm depth on the top of the ridges at 20 cm apart using one seed per hole.
Nutrient management
• FYM is applied @ 25 t/ha. 150:60:60 kg N: P2O5:K2O ha-1
• Azsopirillurn and phosphobactcrium each at 5 kg/ha is applied basally along with FYM.
• The following fertilizer schedule is recommended as basal dose and top dressing. Nitrogen 75 kg,
phosphorus 60 kg and potassium 60 kg/ha as basal dose and top dressing of nitrogen @ 37.5 kg/ha
two times at 30 and 60 days after sowing should he applied.
Water management
• Pre sowing irrigation is essential.
• In light textured soil irrigation once in 5 to 7 days and in heavy textured soils once in 8 to 10 days is
needed.
• Light and frequent irrigation is beneficial.
• Irrigation is stopped 2 to 3 weeks before harvest.
Weed management
• The crop should be kept weed free for a period upto 75 days of crop growth. Pre emergence
application of pendimethalin @ 1.0 kg ha-1 on 3 DAS followed by two hand weeding at 25 and 50
DAS are recommended.
Earthing up
• Earthing up should be done coinciding with top dressing of fertilizers.
• This operation helps in better root development.

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Maturity
• The crop matures in 5 to 6 months. The' yellowing of lower leaf whorls of matured plant and tuber
brix reading of 15 to 18 per cent indicate maturity of beet tuber for harvest.

Yield: The tropical sugar beet can produce about 75 to 80 tonnes /ha of tubers.

Use as fodder and feeds

• Beet tops: One hectare of sugar beet crop produces about 5 to 10 t of beet tops which may be used as
cattle feed especially for milch animals. But the fresh tops contain oxalic acid.
• This bad effect is counteracted by the addition of 60 g of finely ground lime per 100 kg of tops.
• If the beet tops are available in huge quantities it may be used as green leaf manure. As green leaf
manure, the beet tops from one hectare area can add about 100 kg of nitrogen to the soil.
• Molasses: Mixing of molasses with pulp improves the quality of pulp by enhancing the palatability
and its taste.
Seed production
• The seed production of sugar beet is impossible in plain area due to very high atmospheric
temperature.
• Hence, commercial scale seed production is undertaken in Kashmir valley by National Seeds
Corporation and Government of Himachal Pradesh.
Sugar manufacture
• Sugar beet gets spoiled very fast and hence it has to be processed in sugar mills within 40 hours of its
harvesting.
• The sugar beet cultivation area must be nearer to the sugar mills so as to speed up loading and
transport of harvested beet roots and quicken the processing.
• The sugar is extracted through extraction process by using special diffusers based on the counter
current technique.
• The carbonation process is needed for clarification. Hence. clarification with diffusers and related
acccssories are essential to process sugar beet in the traditional sugarcane based sugar mills in India.
• Huge quantity of fuel is required for heating the juice.

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 FIBRE CROPS

ICAR-Central Institute of Cotton Research, Nagpur

ICAR-Central Institute of Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai
ICAR-Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres, Barrackpore
ICAR-National Institute of Research on Jute & Allied Fibre Technology, Kolkata
ICAR-Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Avikanagar, Rajastan
AICRP on Cotton, Coimbatore
All India Network Project on Jute and Allied Fibres, Barrackpore
Technology Mission on Cotton (CICR, Nagpur)
Technology Mission on Jute (CRIJAF, Barrackpore)
ARS, Hebbali (1904), UAS Dharwad

What is fibre?

Different kinds of tissues, Parenchyma, Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma. Sometimes, just a single
cell (sclerenchyma) that is long and dead at maturity
Function of fibers

 Gives structural support to plant stem.

 For preparation of cloth, fibers come from herbaceous plants.
 Fibres often are associated with the vascular bundle of a stem.
 Sometimes, the entire vascular bundle that includes fibers as well as xylem and phloem is considered
the “fibre” for spinning, such as in linen

Plant v/s animal fibres

 Animal fibres such as wool and silk are composed mainly of protein (keratin & fibroin)
 Plant fibres composed chiefly of cellulose, but also may have lignin, tannins, gums, pectins and
other polysaccharides
 Cellulose is very strong and gives tensile strength which rivals steel

Vegetable fibres

 FAO includes 12 primary crops and 5 delivered agricultural products

 Fibers of Animal origin: Same uses as vegetable fibres but are of much higher value

Vegetable fibres

1. Cotton: Gossypium spp.

2. Flax: Linum usitatissimum
* Flax is cultivated for seed as well as for fibre
* The fibre is obtained from the stem of the plant

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3. Hemp: Cannabinus sativa
* Synonyms: Hemp, Marijuana, Bhang, Ganja, Hashish
* This plant is cultivated for seed and fibre
* The fibre is obtained from the stem

4. Kapok: Ceiba pentandra (white silk cotton tree)

5. Jute: i. White jute: Corchorus capsularis

ii. Red jute, tossa: Corchorus olitorius

6. Jute like fibres

* China jute: Abutilon avicennae

* Congo jute, malva jute, paka (Urena lobeta; Urena sinuta)
* Indian flax (Abroma augusta)
* Kenaf, Mesta (Hibiscus cannabinus)
* Roselle hemp (Hibiscus sabdariffa)
* Sun-hemp (Crotalaria juncea)

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 COTTON (KING of FIBRES/ WHITE GOLD)

Botanical name: Gossypium spp. Family: Malvaceae

ICAR-Central Institute of Cotton Research, Nagpur

ICAR-Central Institute of Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai
ICAR-AICRP on Cotton, Coimbatore
Technology Mission on Cotton (CICR, Nagpur)
ARS, Hebbali farm (1904),UAS Dharwad

It Contributes 7% to GDP, providing employment to 60 million people in India, 45% world’s fibre need
is met from Cotton and 10% of world’s edible oil.

 Cotton is considered as king of fibre crops/white gold.

 It is one of the most important fibre crops playing a key role in economic and social affairs of the
world.
 It is oldest among the commercial crops of the world.
 Cotton is cultivated in India from Sub Himalayan region of Punjab in the North to Kerala in South
and from dry regions of Kutch to high rainfall areas of Manipur in East.
 Among the cotton growing countries, India occupies the foremost position in cotton acreage.
 Cotton constitutes 85% of raw materials for our textile industry, inspite of large quantity of synthetic
fibers (Tereylene, nylon, polyester etc.,) being used in recent years, therefore it is considered as
“backbone of textile industry”.
 Cotton is grown chiefly for its fibre used in the manufacture of cloth for the mankind.
 Being an important cash crop it earns valuable foreign exchange and provides employments to 60
million population in India.
 Cotton is also used for several other purposes like making threads and for mixing with other fibres.
 Among the by-products of cotton, used are cotton seed for seed oil, cotton stalk for paper and fuel
purpose and cotton seed linters for cellulose.
 Cotton seed which forms about 2/3 of seed cotton is a valuable by- product of cotton crop containing
15-25% edible oil depending on varieties.
 Refined cotton seed oil is free from the phenolic compound Gossypol, pale yellow in colour and can
be directly used as a cooking medium.
 Cotton stalks have been found suitable for preparation of particle boards, pulp, paper and fuel.
 Cotton seed linters are an important cotton seed product next in importance to seed oil and cake. The
amount of linters on the seed after ginning varies from 1-18%.
 Cotton linters have many end uses such as in the manufacture of surgical dressing twines, yarn and
wicks and also in padding and felting trade, they are also used by the cellulose based chemical
industry.
 American cotton contains more percentage of oil.
 Cotton seed cake after extraction of oil is good organic manure and contains about 6 % N, 3 % P
and 2 % K.

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  Cotton seed, cotton linters and pulp obtained during oil extraction and cotton meal are good
concentrate feed for cattle.

Origin and history: The cultivation of cotton spread from India to Egypt and then to Spain and Italy.
Evidences available prove that India was the original habitat of cotton.

Old world cotton from Southern Ethiopia

Area and distribution

India (2017-18): Area- 12.43 m ha, Production-34.89 m t, Productivity-477 kg/ha

• Cotton is the most important fibre crop of the world cultivated over an area of 33.1 m.ha with a total
production of 52.1 m.t
• The important cotton growing countries are India, USA, China, Pakistan, Brazil, Egypt,Turkey,
Mexico, Sudan and USSR. These countries constitutes nearly 85% of the total production
• India ranks first in World w.r.t area (9.17 m.ha) and 4th in total seed cotton production

In India (2016-17) Area (m ha): Maharastra (3.80 ), Gujarath (2.38) and Telangana (1.41)
Production (m t): Maharastra (10.62), Gujarath (8.58) and Telangana (3.44)
Productivity (kg/ha): Punjab (615), Gujarath (612) and Haryana (609)
• MH, KA, GJ, PJ, RJ, HA, TN and UP are the states where cotton is cultivated on a large scale

Classification: According to Hutchinson (1947); classified cotton based on staple/fibre length and
chromosome number

A. Old world or desi cotton (‘A’ genome)

1. Gossypium arboreum (2n=26)

2. Gossypium herbaceum (2n=26)

B. New world or American cotton (‘D’ genome)

1. Gossypium hirsutum (2n=52)

2. Gossypium barbadense (2n=52)

Gossypium arboreum: This species widely distributed in India, grows to 1.5 - 2 m height. Twigs and leaves
are pubescent; leaves have 5-7 lobes. The fibre is coarse and short (1.25 - 2.10 cm length) occupies 29% of
the area in India. Eg: Virnar, Gourani, AK-235 and Gerilla.

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Gossypium herbaceum: Grows to 1-1.5 m height. Stem is thick & rigid, leaves & twigs sparsely hairy,
leaves are flat with 3-7 lobes. Seeds with small fuzz & lint. Fibre length 1.25-2.30 cm. Covers 21% area. Eg:
Jayadhar, DDH-2, R-51, DB-3-12 (Renuka), GDH-149.

Gossypium hirsutum: Commonly known as American cotton, grows to 1.5 m tall, stem is green or brown.
Leaves & twigs are densely hairy. Leaves are 3-5 lobed. Flowers are creamy white at opening but later turn
pink or red. Fibre length 1.8-3.1 cm, occupies more or less 50% area. Eg: Laxmi, Hampi, Soubhagya,
Bhagya, Sharada, RAMPBS-155, RAS-299-1, Mysore vijay .

Gossypium barbadense: It is also called as Egyptian or Sea Island cotton. It includes most of the long staple
cotton of USA and Egypt. Fiber length 3.6-5.0 cm. The lint is readily detachable from seed, fine fibre.
Leaves and stems are non pubescent. Flowers are yellow in colour with purple spots. Negligible area in
India. E.g.: Sujata, Suvin, Varalaksmi, DCH-32 (Jayalakshmi). Egyptian cotton was first introduced during
1930, variety by name Sea island Andrews which was grown successfully in certain parts of AP, KA and
Kerala.

Botany

 Wild types are perennial, cultivated types are annuals.

 Cultivated cotton is herbaceous, attains a height of 60-200 cm, tap root, stem is erect & branching.
 There are two buds at the base of the each cotton leaf petiole. The true auxillary bud (up to lower 4th
node) develops in to vegetative branches, which bear only leaves but no flowers called monopodial
branches.
 The accessory bud generally develops in to sympodial or fruiting branch & bears flowers after 5th
node.
 The flower buds are called squares which consist of three triangular shaped leafy structures known
as bracteole & opens at 18-24 days after square initiation.
 The fruit is an enlarged ovary that develops in to 3-5 lobed capsule called as boll.
 Upon boll maturity, capsule crack or splits & fiber expands greatly in a white fluffiness.
 The number of seed in each boll may be 24-50.
 The cotton fibre is simply an elongation or outgrowth of an epidermal cell of the seed coat.
 The long outgrowth is called staple or lint, while shorter outgrowth form the fuzz.

The branches on a cotton plant can be classified as

• Vegetative branches are also called as monopodial branches. Vegetative branches, like the main
stem, meaning “Single foot”. Because vegetative branches have only one meristem, they grow
straight and erect much like the main stem. Vegetative branches can also produce fruiting branches.
• Fruiting branches are also called as sympodial branches. The branches from which fruiting buds
arise are called fruiting branches or sympodial branches, meaning “Multiple feet” because each
fruiting branch contains multiple meristems. Fruiting branches have “zig zag” growth habit, as
opposed to the straight growth habit of the vegetative branches.

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Climatic requirement

• It is a warm season crop. Optimum temperature is 21-270C for vegetative growth, tolerate high
temperature (43 0C) but fails if temperature goes below 210C.
• During fruiting, day temperature between 27-320C and cool nights are needed. At fruiting period,
heavy rains or irrigation may result in shedding of flowers and young bolls.
• Abundant sunshine is required for maturation. It cannot withstand frost. A frostless season of 180 -
240 days is required for successful crop production.

Soil requirement

• It can be grown on variety of soils except sandy, saline and water logged soils.
• It is grown on sandy loam to clay loam (black cotton soil). It needs fertile soil which is having good
water holding capacity, good drainage & aeration and cannot with stand excess moisture and water
logging.
• pH 5.5-8.5.
• Black cotton soils are ideal for rainfed crop in peninsular India & alluvial soils for rainfed as well as
irrigated crop in North India.

Growth stages

 Germination phase -4-7 days

 Early vegetative phase
 Squaring- it may be from 35-70 DAS depending upon genotypes
 Flowering
 20-35 days after first square formation
 It continues for 60-80 days
 However peak flowering is between 70-100 DAS.
 Boll development
 Within 15-18 days boll attains 90% size
 Mature size is attained within 25 days
 Cotton fibre develops from the outermost cells of the seed-coat
 Fibre elongation is complete by day 21-24
 Secondary wall thickening strengthens the fibre and continues up to 30-40 days after anthesis

30 DAS : Flower primordial initiation on 1st sympodial branch

45 DAS : Young buds or square formation
60 DAS : First flower primordial opening starts
70-75 DAS : Maximum flowering
125-135 DAS : First boll formation
150 DAS : Boll opening

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Varietal Development

 Around 250 high yielding cotton varieties and hybrids have been released by the AICRP on cotton
since its inception in 1967.
 These cater to the specific needs of the textile industry and possess special characteristics.
 Development of hybrid H-4 by Dr. C. T. Patel from Gujarat in 1970 is an important milestone in the
history of cotton research in India. This was the first successful hybrid in the world (intraspecific (
G. hirsutum and G. hirsutum ).
 Subsequently, other hybrid, Varalaxmi the first interspecific hybrid between G. hirsutum and G.
barbadense was released from the UASD in 1972 (Dr.B.H.Katarki).

Land preparation

• Cotton being a deep rooted crop requires well prepared seed bed
• The land should be ploughed 15-20 cm with MB plough or 4-5 times with country or desi plough
• Harrowing and planking are required to make the soil pulverized and leveled
• No stubbles of the previous crop should be left in the field

Seeds and sowing

Seed rate: With fuzz- 2.5 kg/ha without fuzz 1.25 kg/ha

Spacing: Hybrid : Rainfed - 90 x 60 cm Irrigated: 90-120 x 60 cm

Varieties : 60 x 30 or 90 x 20 cm

Seed treatment

• Before sowing treat the seeds with Conc. H2SO4 for 6-12 minutes, soak with emisan @ 5g kg-1 seeds
for 2 hr.
• It helps in grading the seeds by sorting out damage, cut, immature and shriveled seeds
• Pathogens present on the seed fuzz are also destroyed by treating with Conc. H2SO4
• The defuzzed or delinted seeds are easy to sow or dibbled. Such seeds germinate rapidly
• If seed delinting is not possible by using chemicals then the seeds should be rubbed with a paste
made of cow dung, ash and water, after rubbing the seeds should be dried under shade

Bio-fertilizers: Azospirillum- 500 g/ha and PSB- 500 g/ha

Sowing: Dibble the seeds at 3 cm depth, No of seeds: Fuzzy seeds (Hybrids-2, Varieties- 3)
Delinted seeds (Hybrids-1 and varieties-2)

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 Sl. No. Variety/Hybrid Zone & Time of sowing Duration (Days) and special Seed cotton yield (q/ha)
Situation characteristics
Irrigated Rainfed
Interspecific varieties/hybrids

1 DHB-915 2,3,8,9 May-July 15 180/Resistnt to leaf reddening, long 20-25 15-18

Irri/Rainfed staple
2 DCH-32 2,3,8,9 May-July 15 190/Extra long staple hybrid 15-20 12-15
Irri/Rainfed
3 RAHB-87 2,3 Irrigated May-July 15 190/Extra long staple hybrid 15-20 12-15
Intraspecific varieties/hybrids

1 NHH-44 2,3,8 May-July 15 160/Capable of reflowering 18-20 12-15

Irri/Rainfed
2 DHH-11 2,3,8 Feb-March 15 160/Big bolls, clean boll opening & 20-25 15-18
Irri/Rainfed more fibre
3 Suvidha 2,3 May-July 15 160/Medium bolls, clean boll 20-25 15-18
Irri/Rainfed opening, medium staple length
4 Banni 2,3 Irri May-July 15 165/big bolls, clean boll opening, 20-25 -
medium staple length
Hirsutum varieties
1 Abhadita 2,3,8 RF May-July 15 160/ mod res to boll worms - 15-18
2 RAMPBS- 2, IR May-July 15 170/round bolls, res to leaf 18-20 -
155 reddening
3 Sahana 2,3,8 IR/RF May-July 15 160/ mod res to boll worms 18-22 15-18
4 RLA-5166 3, IR Feb-Mar 160 15-18 -
5 Ganesh 3, IR Feb-Mar 170/ suitable for intercropping 18-20 -
with Maize

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 6 Gouri 3, IR Feb-Mar 160/Suitable for double cropping 18-20 -
system
7 RAH-100 2,3 IR May-July 15 165/Avg. staple length 18-20 -
8 RAH-95 2,3,8 IR May-July 15 165/Medium sized bolls, clean boll - -
opening, avg. staple length
9 RAH-98 RF May-July 15 165/Medium sized bolls, clean boll - -
opening, avg. staple length
10 RAS-299-1 2, RF June-August 165/drought resistant - -

Desi varieties
1 Jayadhar 2,3,8 RF July-Sept. 200/res. to pest & diseases, - 8-12
suitable for intercropping during
kharif
2 Renuka 2,3 RF July-Sept. 190/good fibre content - 8-12
3 DDHC-11 2,3,8 RF July-Sept. 180/good fibre content - 10-12
4 RAHS-14 2,3 RF July-Sept. 180/Suitable for saline and - 10-12
protective irrigation

5 DLSA-17 2,3,8 RF May-July 160/Long staple, more fibre and - 12-15

clean boll opening

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Sowing season

Northern Zone

 1st week of May

 For the new varieties, 3rd week to 1st week of June

Central zone

 3rd week of June to 1st week of July

 Irrigated may start from March

Southern zone

 June in Karnataka
 Jun / July in red soils of AP
 August in TN

After cultivation

Thinning and gap filling: Gap filling on 10th day, thin the seedlings to single plant on 15th day

Earthing up: Digging and earthing up is essential for soil aeration

Nipping/detopping: If monopodial continue with more than 15 nodes

Nutrient management: Apply FYM 10 t /ha (Irrigated) and 5 t / ha (Rainfed)

Sl. No. Situation RDF (kg/ha)

1 Rainfed Varieties Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
a) Rainfed areas (Zone 2,3) 30 15 15
b) Transition Zones (8) 40 25 25
2 Rainfed Hybrids
Zone 9 100 100 100
Zone 8 80 40 40
3 Irrigated cotton
Hybrids-Inter specific 150 75 75
Hybrids- Intra specific 120 60 60
Varieties 80 40 40
4 Summer cotton
Varieties 80 40 40
Hybrids (Intra) 120 60 60
50% N and full P&K at sowing and 50 % N at 50, 80 and 110 days after sowing in 3 splits.
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Bt Cotton (Rainfed) – 100:50:50 kg NPK /ha

 When cotton is crop at 80 days old stage, spray urea or DAP (2%) at 20 days interval.
 When the cotton is crop at flowering stage, spray planofix or Naphtaline Acetic Acid (NAA) @
4.5 ml in 18 litres of water. This controls the square, flower and boll dropping.
 To control the leaf reddening, spray 1% magnesium sulphate (MgSO4).

Water management

 Irrigate once in 8-10 days in red sandy loam and once in 15-20 days in black cotton soils.
 One irrigation after sowing, 2 irrigations before flowering, 4 irrigations after flowering.
 Stress at flowering and fruiting results in shedding of flowers and squares. It will not tolerate
water logging at any stage.
 Cotton can be irrigated at 75% depletion of available soil moisture in clay and 50% ASM in
sandy loam soils
 Early irrigation is important to have proper plant growth
 Mild stress before flowering is advantageous
 After flowering very crucial, deficit results in fruit abscission and excess moisture leads to
excess vegetative growth

Method of irrigation

 Flooding through furrows, Surge may be followed

 Drip irrigation & fertigation is also possible

Alternatively alternate furrow irrigation

 30-40 % water saving

 Saving time and labour cost
 Improves soil aeration and increased biological activity
 Protects soil health , No reduction in yield

Weeding and intercultivation

 Keep weed free condition up to 60 DAS.

 3-4 intercultivation after 30 DAS followed by hand weeding.
 PPI of fluchloralin @ 2 kg/ha or
 Pre-emergence spray of Diuran @ 1 kg a.i/ha or Pendimethaline (38.7 % CS ) @ 1.75 liter
 Post emergence at 30 DAS with Quizolpop ethyl @ 1 ml + Pyrithiabac sodium @0.5-1.0 ml
/liter of water

Cropping systems

• In Rainfed areas: monocropped and also mixed crops with pulses, millets, groundnut

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 • In Irrigated areas : Cotton – wheat, Cotton – pulse – millets, Rice – cotton

Cotton + chilli / onion (zone 8)

Intercropping in Bt Cotton

Cotton + Green gram (1:1), Cotton + Soybean (1:1), Cotton + Groundnut (1:2 or 3)

Cotton + Guar (1:1), Cotton + Coriander (1:2), Cotton + Peas / Beans (1:1)

Harvesting

• Harvesting usually commences in the month of Nov. and extends till March depending upon
sowing time and duration.
• Harvesting is done usually by manual labour i.e., hand picking the seed cotton from the open
matured bolls.
• Since cotton is indeterminate type, flowering occurs in no. of flushes hence all the bolls do not
mature at a time and bolls come to maturity stage at intervals of 2-4 weeks period.
• Harvesting is done in 4 -5 pickings as and when bolls are fully matured.

Precautions must be taken to maintain the quality of fibre at the time of picking.

1) Picking needs good experience, care is taken that all the cotton from all segments should be removed
in one stroke. without leaving any fibre in the boll.

2) Produce from each picking should be dried separately and stored separately.Cotton from all pickings
should not be mixed since they vary in their quality. Cotton should be dried on clean floor in shade.

3) Kapas should not be contaminated with foreign materials like leaf bits, trash, soil particles etc, at the
time of picking and shading.

While picking, weather conditions must be taken into account. Usually pickings are done in the
early hours of the day, As the day advances the fruit wall becomes brittle due to sun and while picking
they easily collapse and contaminate. Picking must commence after cessation of dew fall.

• Cotton of early picking are of superior quality and later pickings produce inferior quality fibre
due to inadequate nutrient supply at later stages, high incidence of pest and inadequate moisture
at later stages.
• Boll affected with insect is common feature which not only reduce yield but also produce
yellow stained cotton which is considered inferior fibre.
• Ginning is the process of separation of fiber from seed.

Two types of cotton picking machines are commercially available, they are Strippers type
pickers and Spindle type pickers or brush type are used in the developed countries

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  Periodical
 Early morning
 Without bracts or with minimum

Machinery needs

 Change in method of sowing

 Varietal preference
 One time harvest
 Weather at maturity (RF) plays vital role

After care

 Seed cotton should be collected from fully opened bolls.

 After harvesting, should be dried on clean threshing floor.
 Should not be mixed with other varieties.
 Hand picking and cleaning the pest infected kapas will enhance the quality

Physiological disorders in cotton

1. Boll shedding
2. Leaf reddening
3. Bad opening of boll
4. Excessive vegetative growth
5. Para wilt

1.Boll shedding

Factors/reasons for boll shedding

• Moisture stress
• Excessive moisture
• Low temperature/cloudy weather
• High temperature
• High wind velocity
• Nutritional imbalance
• Production of ethylene/ABA – cell becomes ageing: There is imbalance between growth
promoter and growth retardant

Control measures

1. Spraying of planofix @ 1 ml/4-5 litre of water (15-20% yield increases)

2. Proper application of fertilizers to correct the nutrient supply, proper irrigation with drainage.

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2. Leaf reddening

• It occurs in some varieties of Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium barbadense

• Asiatics are not susceptible
• It is not a disease (but a Malady)
• It was first noticed in 1960 at Gadag district where Laxmi variety was widely
grown

Factors/reasons for leaf reddening

• It occurs during the winter months of November, December and January , where the
night temperatures are <10 OC
• High wind velocity of > 20 km/hour
• Low temperature
• Deficiency of nutrients especially Nitrogen

Symptoms

• Usually discoloration of upper leaves only because they are exposed to severe cold and
dessicating wind
• Lower leaves are not usually affected unless they are exposed to severe cold
• Discoloration of green leaves starts due to the disintegration of chlorophyll pigment
• The other pigment i.e., Anthocyanin starts synthesizing which is responsible for
reddening of leaves (0.63 mg/g of leaves of chlorophyll in red leaf and 1.28 mg/g of
leaves of chlorophyll in green leaf)
• In severe case it extends to rind of the boll, once it turns red, it will not recovered

Control measures

 Application of Nitrogen as foliar spray @ 5 kg/ha during winter months (3-4 times). This will
be started from middle of November to middle of January at an interval of 15 days .
 Application of 10-15 ml of Cycocel/ha (Growth retardant). This will help in thickening of
leaves. Hence transpiration of moisture decreases and leaves become short .
 Foliar application of Planofix .
 Foliar application of B, P and K- This will give resistance.
 Spraying of MgSO4 @ 2% (Important constituent of chlorophyll)
 Bhagya is a resistant variety

3. Bad opening of boll

• Noticed in Northern part of the country (Tirak disease)

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Reasons

• Physiological factors
• Saline conditions
• Moisture stress
• Poor Nitrogen status of the soil, especially noticed in coarse textured soil
• Insect pest problem

Control measures

• Application of Nitrogenous fertilizers

• Proper irrigation with drainage
• Adequate plant protection measures

Pest and diseases

Insects: Aphids, thrips, mites, white fly, Helicoverpa, spotted bollworm, pink boll worm stem borer,
mirid bug
Diseases: Black arm, Alternaria leaf spot, rust wilt, boll rot

Recent advances

What is Bt Cotton?

• A genotype or individual which is developed by the techniques of genetic engineering is

referred to as transgenic. In other words, genetically engineered organisms are called
transgenics.
• A transgenic may be a plant, an animal or a microbe. Transgenic plants contain foreign gene or
genetically modified gene of the same species.
• The foreign gene may be from a distantly related species, closely related species or unrelated
species or from micro-organisms such as fungi, bacteria and viruses.
• Bt cotton refers to transgenic cotton which contains endotoxin protein inducing gene from
soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis.
• The first transgenic plant was developed in 1983 in tobacco in U.S.A. In cotton, the first
transgenic plant was developed in 1987 in U.S.A. by Monsanto, Delta Pine companies.
• Later on, the research work on development of transgenic was intensified all over the globe and
several transgenic plants were developed. The transgenic cotton is of two types viz.,
• (1) Bollgaurd and (2) Roundup ready cotton
• The former confers resistance to bollworms and the latter is resistant to herbicides.
• The area under herbicide resistant transgenic cotton is restricted to USA. However, bollworm
resistant Bt transgenic cotton has spread to several countries. Transgenic disease resistant
cottons have not yet been developed. Characterization of antifugal factors is underway at the
USDA.

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 • In India, a few resistant genes against Fusarium and Verticillium wilts have been isolated and
are being transformed into cotton. Chinese scientists have isolated ‘GO’ gene and have
transformed them into cotton which have shown resistance to both the wilts.

The major advantage of Bt cotton

 The Bt cotton has inbuilt genetic resistance to bollworms and is very effective in controlling the
yield losses caused by bollworms to a considerable extent.
 The resistance is governed by a single dominant gene. Use of Bt cotton reduces use of
pesticides resulting in reducing the cost of cultivation.
 It results in improvement of yield levels and also improves margin of profit to the farmers.
 It provides opportunities to grow cotton in areas of severe bollworm incidence also.
 It promotes eco friendly cultivation of cotton and allows multiplication of beneficial insects
i.e., parasites and predators of bollworms
 It also reduces environmental pollution and risk of health hazards associated with use of
insecticides. Because in Bt cotton the insecticides are rarely used.
 An average reduction of 3.6 sprays per crop season has been reported in Bt varieties as
compared to non-Bt. Bt genotypes: MECH 12 bt, MECH 184 bt, MECH 162 bt.

Fibre quality parameters

• Ginning percentage
• Colour
• Trash
• Fibre quality
• Fibre length
• Fibre fineness
• Fibre strength
• Spinning performance
• Oil content (14-26%) of the seed etc.

Ginning percentage

 Recovery of lint from seed cotton is called Ginning percentage.

 It is also known as Ginning out-turn . Expressed in percentage.
 A variety of cotton with high percentage of ginning is preferred as more lint per unit weight
of seed cotton can be obtained from such varieties.
 This value ranges form 24 -43 % in different cottons
 Barbadense – 28 - 30%, Hirsutum -33-38% , desi cottons -36 - 42%

Weight of lint
GP = -------------------------------- x 100
Weight of seed cotton

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Colour

• Most cultivated are white in colour. However, coloured cotton (Brown, Green, blue) of
various shades are also available. They are not under commercial cultivation.
• Egyptian cottons are geneally creamish in colour.
• Colour of the cotton is decided by visual observation. Cotton marketed in India
are classified on the basis of visual observation into white, grey, brownish, greenish and light
reddish.
• In lab colour grading is done by using NICKERSON – HUNTER colorimeter,.
Where a light is reflected from sample of cotton and the extent of yellowish
tinge is calculated.

Trash

• Foreign materials like leaf bits, burs (rough surface), broken seed, etc., in the lint are known
as trash.
• Any trash content lowers the grade, efficiency of processing and deteriorates quality of yarn.

Fibre quality: It is determined from its physical properties such as

- Fibre length - Fibre fineness - Fibre strength

- Merits of all cotton varieties are compared on the basis of their Fibre quality.

Fibre length

• The length of fibre is mainly predetermined by heredity and is only slightly influenced by
growing conditions.
• Fibre length is the mean length of lint hair expressed in mm. longer the length superior will be
the quality.
• Presence of excess moisture and poor nutrition will result in long fibre with poor
length. Length is determined by varies methods (at 65 % RH & 21 0C temp.)

1. Seed is combed making halo and length is measured by a disc, which gives mean length

2. By measuring each fibre with scale and getting average length which is teadious, laborious and not
practicable on large scale.

3. By using digital fibrograph where in sum amount of light is transmitted through the fibre beard
after combing along the fibre length and calculated. On the basis of fibre length, cotton is classified
into

Groups Length (mm)

Short staple < 20

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 Medium staple 20.5 – 24.5
Medium long staple 25.0 – 27.0
Long staple 27.5 – 32.0
Extra long staple 32 & above

Staple length / Halo length: it is overall length of the lint without the fibre taken out of the seed

Fibre fineness

• It denotes the diameter of the fibre hair or thickness. Lesser the diameter superior is the quality
.
• Thickness of the fibre ranges from 15-20 microns. Fineness is measured by taking the weight
per unit length of fibre which gives indirectly the finesses because measuring diameter of the
fibre is very difficult as they are thin and minute. Fibre fineness is generally expressed as
microgram/ inch of the fibre which is also called micronaire value. It is measured by the

1) Weight /unit length – specified number of fibre are taken with known length and weight is recorded
using a sensitive balance. Lesser the weight, superior is the quality and finer the lint hair.

2) By using instrument MICRONAIRE. In this cotton plugs are prepared by using known weight of
cotton lint, i.e., 3-4 g by pressing in a specially designed cylinder. Air is passed at high pressure
through cotton plugs and fineness is determined indirectly by the flow of air through the plug. Finer
cotton will allow more air to pass than coarse fibre. This is calculated on a scale and expressed as
micronaire value. On thebasis of fineness, cotton are classified into five groups.

Micronaire value
Groups Fineness (microgram/inch)
Very fine < 3.0
Fine 3.0 – 3.9
Average 4.0 – 4.9
Coarse 5.0 -5.9
Very coarse > 6.0

Fibre strength

• Fibre strength does not refer to a individual fibre but to a tuft of fibres of a given thickness.
• It is expressed as maximum load in terms of kg that a fibre bundle can take when stretched in
one direction before it breaks.
• Strength is determined by using Stelometer.
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 • Fibre strength is expressed in terms of tenacity defined as the load or force required to break
the fibre of unit linear density (g/tex or centi Newton per tex)
• Based on strength cotton is classified into Very strong , Strong, Average, Fair ,Weak

Spinning performance

• Spinnabilty of the fibre depends on length and thickness of the fibre. It is expressed in counts
or hanks.
• A count is the number of hanks that a pound of cotton gives.
• One count is equal to 840 yards.
• Thus finer the thread the greater will be the count.
• Ordinarily Indian cottons have 22 counts.
• Today we have varieties with count range from 6s -120s.

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 TOBACCO

Botanical name: Nicotiana tabacum L. Family: Solanaceae

ICAR-Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundry

All India Network Project on Tobacco, Rajahmundry

It is an important commercial crop, playing major role in the national economy as foreign
exchange earner and provides employment to lakhs of agricultural labourers, curers, graders and
traders.

Used in manufacture of cigarette, bidi, chewing formulations, snuff, etc.

Origin

• The information available on the origin and history of tobacco suffers generally from
ambiguity and contradictions. May be originated from America
• According to one source, tobacco was in existence in Asia even during the 12th century, when it
was not known elsewhere.
• It was not only used as an intoxicant but also as a cure for all kinds of ills and paying homage
to deities.
• However, it was Christopher Columbus who discovered the narcotic qualities of tobacco
accidentally in the course of his American voyage in 1492.
• On landing in the Islands of Tobago, Columbus and his men were taken by surprise to find the
natives either sniffing a powdered dry leaf with evident pleasure or smoking roughly made roll
of dried-up leaves.
• On trying these themselves, Columbus and his men were satisfied with the intoxicating
effect.
• They took along with them some quantity of dried leaves and seeds and that was how tobacco
got introduced into Europe.

According to another version

• The Red Indians, used tobacco for both medicinal and ceremonial purposes.
• They used to inhale its smoke from burning leaf through the nostrils by means of a hollow
forked cane and the name of the instrument was given to the plant which came to be known as
`Tobaco' in Spanish and `Tobacco' in English.
• The plant was first introduced into Europe in the year 1560 by a Spanish physician sent to
Mexico.
• About this time, Jean Nicot, the French Ambassador to Portugal came to know of tobacco in
Lisbon and introduced it to the French Court.
• The botanical name of the plant, Nicotiana and the word Nicotine have been derived from his
name.

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 • The habit of smoking spread to several countries during the 17th century.
• Tobacco is said to have been introduced into India in the beginning of 17th century. As
elsewhere in the world, it has thrived in spite of considerable neglect and social disapproval.

History of Indian tobacco

• Tobacco cultivation in India was introduced by Portuguese in 1605.

• Initially tobacco was grown in Khaira and Mehsana districts of Gujarat and later spread to
other areas of the country.
• Attempt to improve Indian tobacco began with the establishment of the Calcutta Botanical
gardens in Howrah in 1787.
• In 1814, seven species of Nicotiana imported from America were cultivated in botanical
gardens of Calcutta.
• In 1875, a model farm was established at Pusa, Bihar for growing and curing tobacco. The
farm was given under operational lease to “Begg Dunlop & Co.” for continuation of tobacco
trials.
• Imperial Agricultural Research Institute, established in 1903, carried out botanical and genetic
studies on tobacco.
• The first Director of Imperial Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), Dr. Howard isolated 52
lines of tobacco. Later Shaw and Kashiram added 18 more lines in the series. Among those
lines NP-28, NP-58 and NP-63 were found most promising. (They worked on both N.tabacum
and N.rustica)
• In 1940, Dr. B.P. Paul, the Royal Economic Botanist of IARI identified a selection NP-70,
which became very popular among the tobacco growing area of North Bihar due to its superior
quality and it continued to be popular among the farmers till 1960s.
• Virginia tobacco cultivation and experiments were initiated in Pusa and Ghazipur (UP).
• Commercial cultivation of Virginia tobacco in India in black soils was commenced in the year
1920.
• Flue curing was first successfully done in 1928 at Guntur, Andhra Pradesh.
• After 1930, India found a place on the world tobacco map.
• IARI established a Cigarette Tobacco Research Station at Guntur during 1936.
• During 1943-44, the excise duty on tobacco was introduced and since then tobacco remained
as the important source of excise revenue.
• Realising the importance of tobacco in National economy, the Govt. of India constituted Indian
Central Tobacco Committee (ICTC) in 1945.
• The Central Tobacco Research Institute was established in 1947 under the aegis of ICTC,
Madras.
• The function of CTRI was taken over by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in
1965.
• CTRI has seven regional Research Stations located at Guntur, Kandukur, Jeelugumilli,
Hunsur, Vedasandur, Dinhata and Pusa and a research centre at Jeddangi.
• Recently CTRI Research Station, Pusa was merged with newly established ICAR Research
Complex for Eastern Region, Patna during 2001.

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Distribution

• Leading tobacco growing countries are China, India, Brazil, USA, Zimbabwe and Turkey
• India is the 3rd largest producer of tobacco in the world after China and USA.
• Of the total production in India, 39% Bidi, 23% Cigarette (Flue cured Virginia )
• Karnataka (bidi tobacco): Area: 0.95 lakh ha, Production: 0.89 lakh tonne, Productivity: 384 kg ha-1

15% Chewing, 2% Snuff, 3% Cigar & 2% Natu, Burley & Lanka tobacco.

Nicotine content - 1.26 % in Burley/Cigar tobacco where as upto 9.71 % in Bidi tobacco.

Types of Tobacco: With its rich agro-climatic diversity, India has the unique position of growing
different types of tobacco which are broadly classified as:

Sl.No. Type of tobacco Area

1. FCV tobacco Andhra Pradesh & Karnataka (Zone 7-Piriya Pattana,
Hunusur, H D Kote, Arakalagudu, Hole Narasipura
Talukas, Zone -6 K R Nagar )

2. Bidi tobacco Gujarat, Nipani area of Karnataka (Belagavi, Ballari and

Dharwad) & Nandyal area of Andhra Pradesh
3. Cigar & Cheroot tobacco Tamil Nadu & West Bengal

4. Hookah tobacco Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, UP & Gujarat

5. Chewing & Snuff tobacco Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam & Uttar
Pradesh

6. Natu, Burley, Lanka tobacco Andhra Pradesh

7. Pikka tobacco Odisha
Botanical Classification of Tobacco

The genus Nicotiana is one of the five large genera of Solanaceae and is represented by about
68 recognized species.

Description is available for all the 68 species, which are grouped in

Three sub -groups

Sub- genus - Rustica

Sub- genus - Tabacum
Sub- genus - Petunioides

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 The original habitat of the genus is considered to be South America, particularly the regions
surrounding the Andes. There are, however, several species in Australia and South Pacific Islands that
do not occur in the new world. They are considered to be derivatives of the South American stock.

Out of the 68 species, only two species, i.e., Nicotiana tabacum and Nicotiana rustica are
cultivated extensively.

India grows both the species, but by far the largest area is under N. tabacu (90 %) and 10 % is
under N. rustica

Since N. rustica requires cooler climate, its cultivation is confined mainly to the northern and north -
eastern areas of the country, i.e., Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar & Assam.

Tobacco leaf contains an alkaloid called Nicotine, which is a factor for stimulating effect after
smooking or inhaling. In wild species the dominant alkaloid present are Nor-nicotine, anebasine and
Nicotine.

Comparison between N. tabacum & N. rustica

Particulars N. tabacum N. rustica

Varieties known as Desi type `Vilayati' and `Calcuttia‘ type
Area Larger area under cultivation Lesser area under cultivation (10 %)
(90 %)
Plant type Tall plants and broad leaves Short plants with round puckered leaves
Flower type Pink flowers Yellow flowers
Climate Requires warmer climate Requires cooler climate, its cultivation is
restricted to Northern & North Eastern areas of
the country (Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, West
Bengal, Bihar and Assam)
Mainly used for Cigarette, Cigar and Cheroot, Used for chewing, hookah and snuff tobacco
Bidi, Hookah and Snuff (has relatively higher nicotine content (>6%))
tobacco (owing to low nicotine
content (4-6%)

In addition to N. tabacum and N. rustica which are commonly cultivated, many species of
Nicotiana, such as N. affinis are grown for ornamental purposes.

• Some of the other species were used in old days by aboriginals (Red Indians and Australian
natives) for chewing and smoking.
• There are 68 Nicotiana Sp. available in the world, of which 45 are being maintained in India.
• Several of these species have resistance to pests and diseases and are being used for
developing disease/pest resistant tobacco varieties.

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Soil requirement

• Tobacco is very sensitive to the physical and chemical properties of the soil.
• The best soils are those which are open, well drained and properly aerated.
• Tobacco is sensitive to water logging, if grown in low lands have poor burning quality
because, it absorbs moisture and deteriorates colour at storage.
• The desirable soil pH is 5.0 to 6.0. But, in many parts cultivation is successful where the pH is
8 or more.
• Soil should be well drained, poor in humus content, rich in potash, phosphoric acid and iron.
• Light soils tend to produce a large and thin leaf, light in weight and colour, mild in
strength and weak in aroma, whereas leaf produced on heavy soils is usually thick and
heavy, dark colored, strong and aromatic.
• Good quality leaf should be thin and bright. This can achieved in light soils. High fertility affect
the quality and hence not taken after legume. As a general rule heavy and naturally fertile soils
are preferred for cigar, filler, pipe, hookah and chewing purpose as it needs thicker, coarser leaf
with higher nicotine content.
• Sodic soils are unfit for tobacco production because the plants absorb a lot of chloride ions
which results in a poor burning quality of leaves. &
• Mild acidic soil reaction is always better for the production of superior quality leaves.

1) FCV Tobacco – well aerated or free draining soils, medium to low fertile soils are good.
Nitrogen starvation condition should prevail at the time of maturation of leaf.

It is grown in black clay soils, sandy loams and red soils. (60% of total area is under Flue Cured
Virginia tobacco).

Efforts are being made to extend the area under the sandy loams and red soils as the tobacco
produced from these light soils is found to be of exportable quality. (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
parts of Gujarat).

2) Bidi tobacco soils – (1) Charotar tract of Gujarat comprising of Anand, Petlad and Nadiad
taluks of Kheda District – sandy loam soils. (2) Silt loam to clay soils of Nipani.

Climate:
• Tobacco is tropical in origin, but can be grown on wide range of environment.
• It is grown successfully under tropical, sub-tropical and temperate climates.
• Normally it requires about 100 to 120 days frost-free climate with an average temperature of
270C , to mature.
• It requires 21 0C for germination, temperature of 27-32 0C for germination and low temperature
affect the quality.
• In India, tobacco is grown under a very wide range of conditions from the coast-line to an
altitude of 3,000 feet.
• Tobacco plant is remarkably sensitive to the environment. Ideal conditions required for
successful production of high quality leaf are

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  A liberal and well-distributed rainfall during active vegetative growth stage
 Long day lengths
 A mean temperature of 26.6 0C during growing season and
 A high relative humidity of 70-80%.
 Crop starts wilting at a temperature > 35 0C.
 Needs 500 – 1000 mm rainfall distributed throughout the growing period.
 Areas having a rainfall more than 1250 mm are not fit for tobacco production
 Whereas a rainfall of less than 750 mm results in production of leathery leaves having
very high nicotine content. The leaves remain smaller and possess very poor burning
quality.
 A light shower in the early stage of crop after transplanting is boon. Heavy and
unexpected rains late in the season, when the crop is about to mature result in poor
quality out turn in respect of brightness, grade & chemical composition of the leaf.
There is likelyhood that crop once again turns green and its quality is adversely
affected.

In the South, the crop is raised in winter from October to March when the temperatures
are moderate, but in Punjab it is grown as an early summer crop. In the eastern and western
parts of the country it is grown between September and January.

Varieties

FCV: FCV special, CTRI special, Haryana special, Virginia gold, Bhavya, Swarna, Trupti (150-170
days) ,UAS Bengaluru-Trupti, Bhavya, Sahyadri (150-175 days)

Swarna Released from CTRI Hunsur, Cured leaf yield 1450 kg/ha, Resistant to powdery mildew
disease, suited for Karnataka light soils.

Burley : Burley-21, Ky-58

Chewing: Bhagya lakshmi, VTK-1, I-64, Belapathi, Kattalipatti, Guttigida, Nagarahede

Hookah : DD-413, HD 65-40, R-12

Beedi : Anand-3, Anekivi, Kunkumathri, spoorthi, NPN 22 , PL5, Bhagyashree, Bhavyashree,

Vedaganga, NMD-209 (170-175 days)
Bhavyashree-in Karnataka, cultivated on light soils, resistant to black shank and knot nematode.
Cured leaf yield- 2000 kg/ha. NPN 22- ARS Nipani 1964 kg/ha. PL5 - ARS Nipani 2000 kg/ha

Nursery

Sowing: Since the seeds of tobacco are very small and initial development of seedlings is very slow,
the tobacco is not sown directly in the field, first seedlings are raised in nursery and then they are
transplanted in the field after attaining a particular size.

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Site selection /Nursery raising: Generally, tobacco nurseries are grown on sandy or sandy loam soils.
The nursery site should have a good internal as well as surface drainage and should be situated at an
elevated place.

Raising of nurseries on heavy black soils is hazardous due to poor internal drainage due to clay
content, heavy rainfall, high temperatures and pre-disposing the crop for disease like damping off.

Sterilization/Rabbing

It is desirable to change the nursery site every year as it would minimise incidence of
pests and diseases and also eliminate contamination by other varieties.

If it is not possible to change the site, old site can be used after sterilizing by rabbing, i.e., by
burning any of the slow burning waste materials like, tobacco stalks, paddy husk, sugarcane- trash, etc.
For the best results this operation should be done at the right moisture content, after the final
preparation of the seed bed and a few days before sowing

• Layout of nursery on raised beds with intervening channels help in quick drainage of rain water.
• The beds are 1.0 m to 1.25 m wide to facilitate hand weeding and watering with rose cans.
• The area of nursery should be around 1/100th part of the main field. One gunta area is required
to raise the seedlings sufficient for one hectare.
• For transplanting seedling in one hectare, one bed of 15 m x 1 m x 10 cm is enough (by UAS
Dharwad).

Manures and fertilizers

• For each bed 1 kg ground nut cake or 45 kg compost + 45 kg press mud or 90 kg FYM is
required.
• By mixing well in the top layers at least 20 days before sowing is beneficial in obtaining more
number of transplantable seedlings.
• Growing of a green manure crop like dhaincha or sunnhemp for 6 to 7 weeks and ploughing it,
is also practiced in places like Dinhata (West Bengal).
• Basal application of 50 g of ammonium sulphate, 50 g of potassium sulphate and 300 g of
super phosphate and 100 g of dolomite per 10 sq.m. bed is recommended.
• After germination of seed, top dressing of ammonium sulphate @ 25 g/10 sq.m. twice at 4 days
interval and thereafter @ 50 g/10 sq.m. thrice at 4 days interval and potassium sulphate @25
g/10 sq.m. twice is recommended.
• After each pulling, top dressing with ammonium sulphate @100 g/10 sq.m. is to be applied to
boost the growth of remaining seedlings.

Seed rate

• Seed rate is actually dictated by climatic conditions and the optimum seed rate 10-15 g/ha
(bidi), 20-25 g/ha (FCV) – UAS Dharwad package

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 Seed Treatment

• Seeds must be treated with Dithane M-45 or Dithane Z-78 before sowing in the nursery against
the seed borne diseases.

Sowing time State Type of Tobacco

August-September Andhra Pradesh Cigarette, Cheroot and Bidi
April- May Karnataka FCV and Natu
May-June Gujarat Bidi
June -July Uttar Pradesh Chewing
August-September Bihar Hookah and Chewing
December Uttar Pradesh Chewing

Method of sowing in Nursery

Usually water soaked seeds are sown by broadcasting on the surface of the beds and later are
mixed in the soil up to a depth of 1.5 –2 cm with the help of rake. The seeds are mixed with ash or fine
sand in 1:15 or 1:20 ratio for the uniform distribution

Care of the seedlings in the Nursery

• After sowing, sufficient moisture should be maintained by covering the bed with mulch.
Once germination is initiated, the mulch should be removed.
• The seedlings must be thinned out at 10 – 15 days after sowing in order to protect them from
damping off.
• Re-setting of 3 – 4 weeks old seedlings at a distance of 5 x 5 cm in new beds may be done for
hardening of the seedlings.
• Timely weeding is must soon after the emergence.
• A spray of Dithane M – 45 at the rate of 12 liters of 0.03% solution for every 40 sqm. area
prevents spread of fungal diseases.
• For control of pests, a spray of carbaryl 50% WP (Sevin 50 g in 22 litres of water) is useful.
• Seedlings are transplanted when they are is 7 to 9 weeks for tabacum and 5 – 6 weeks for
rustica.
• Irrigation of the beds should be stopped about 10 – 15 days before transplanting so that they
may become drought resistant and may resist the transplanting shock.

Seedling age

• Seedlings of pencil thickness and of 10 to 15 cm length are normally preferred.

• Shorter seedlings may establish well under optimum conditions in heavy soils.
• In light soils longer seedlings are preferred for planting.
• Normally, the seedlings are ready for planting by the end of 7th week and in the first picking
30 to 40% of the total seedlings are available.
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 • The seed bed is top- dressed after each pulling to make the remaining seedlings grow to
transplantable size.

Field preparation

A clean and well pulverized seed bed of good tilth is necessary for transplanting.

• Well drained soils

• Deep summer ploughing
• Ridges and furrows
• Apply heavy FYM @25 t/ha before last ploughing

Transplanting in the Main field

• The optimum time for planting is primarily determined by the weather onditions prevailing
during certain stages of the crop.
• In Andhra Pradesh, the normal period of planting is from mid-October till mid -November.
• Early plantings are damaged by heavy rains and late plantings suffer from deficiency of
soil moisture.
• In Karnataka, time of planting ranges from April to May-June depending on the rainfall.
• In the northern parts of the country, planting is mostly governed by the time when cool weather
prevails as well as duration of winter.
• For bidi- tobacco, last week of August to first week of September is the optimum planting time
in the Charotar area of Gujarat and the middle of August in the Nipani area of Karnataka.
• In Belagavi & Dharwad districts normal planting time is - August- September

Transplanting Spacing

• Soil properties and tobacco type influence the selection of spacing between plant in the field.
• Generally, spacing is wider in soils of low fertility than in soils of high fertility, Broad- leaf
type varieties are spaced wider than narrow - leaf types.
• Due to different spacings adopted for various tobacco types grown in India, the plant densities
vary from 12,345 to 37,037 plants/ha.
• Wide- spacing allows the maximum expansion and thickness of the leaf; narrow - spacing
tends to produce small and thin leaves, generally lacking in body.

Chewing tobacco : 75 cm x 75 cm (17,777 plants/ha)

Cigar tobacco : 75 cm x 50 cm (26,666 plants/ha)

Cheroot tobacco : 60 cm x 45 cm (36,730 plants/ha)

FCV : 100 cm x 75cm (13,333 plants/ha)

90 cm x 60 cm (UAS Bengaluru)
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Hookah : 45 cm x 45 cm. (49,382 plants/ha)

Bidi tobacco : 75cm x 75cm to 90cm x 60 cm (18,518 plants/ha)

(26,500/ ha in Belagavi & Dharwad districts)

(10,000-15,000 seedlings ha-1, UAS Dharwad package 2020)

(100 cm x 75 cm, UAS Dharwad package 2020)

Planting

Dry Planting : Planting of 8 to 9 week old seedlings done by pot watering at the intersections of
marking in Andhra Pradesh and Nipani tract.

Planting of bidi- tobacco in Charotar area of Gujarat and hookah- tobacco in Bihar is generally
arranged on a cloudy day.

Wet Planting: Followed in Tamil Nadu. The field is irrigated prior to planting and seedlings are
planted in the saturated soil.

• Transplant single seedling of pencil thickness

• Irrigate the field prior to planting
• Make a hole and plant
• Cool hours or evening is preferable
• Gap filling within 7-10 days

Manures and Fertilizers

• Organic manures improve the soil health, increase yields by 10- 15% and also enhance the
flavour and taste of tobacco.
• Nitrogen should be applied as CAN or ammonium sulphate and potassium should be always
sulfate of potash. Potassium sulphate is preferred as it increases the alkalinity & lower nicotine
content.
• Potassium chloride is harmful as it reduces the burning quality of leaf and increases the
chloride content. Results in chlorine injury.
• High chloride produces Muddy leaves, uneven colour in the cured leaves with higher
hygroscopic character.
• If the leaf contains 2% chloride, the burning and keeping quality of leaves are adversely
affected and therefore potassium chloride is not recommended.
• Potassium improves yield of cured leaves, burning quality, fire holding, leaf colour, texture
and hygroscopic properties.

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 UAS Bengaluru (FCV tobacco of Karnataka)

• FYM-12.5 t/ha, 40:30:80 kg NPK /ha

• Basal : 50% N & K + full P, Top dress: 50% N and K at 30 DAS

UAS Dharwad (Bidi tobacco of Karnataka)

• 10t /ha press mud or 12.5 t ha FYM or 10 t ha poultry manure,125:50:40:20 kg NPKZn /ha
• At planting , Basal : 50% N + full P & K , Top dress: 50% N at 30 DAS
• Application of poultry manure controls the root knot disease

Irrigation

• It has a fairly deep and vigorous root system. It is drought tolerant crop.
• Early drought is preferable for better establishment and enables the plant to face any moisture
stress during the growth of the plant.
• Water requirement depends on type of tobacco and the region.
• Too much irrigation leaches the nutrients from the soil and produces sick leaves with dirty
colour. Irrigation reduces crop growth and curing becomes difficult.
• The total water requirement is about 50 cm. This may be met by the stored moisture in the
soil and remaining quantity by rain and irrigation.
• The field should be irrigated when the soil moisture falls about 20% field capacity, higher soil
moisture reduces the leaf quality.
• FCV – black cotton soils – rarely irrigated, FCV – light soils – 5-7 irrigation
• Bidi tobacco in Karnataka and Maharashtra Rainfed but under drought condition 1 or 2
irrigations are required.
• In FCV quality of water for irrigation to tobacco in respect of chlorine content is of
paramount importance. Limit is up to 30 ppm and should not exceed 50ppm.
• Critical stages for irrigation is knee high to bloom.

Weed management

Intercultural operations should start from 10-15 days after transplanting when the seedlings are
well established. Tobacco needs 3-4 intercultural operations for weed management. Hand weeding
three weeks after transplanting.

Tobacco is very often infested by Orobanche (O. cernua and O. indica) a flowering total root
parasite found to be associated with the tobacco roots and grow up through the soil around the tobacco
plants & cause 30-70% yield loss depending on the time of infestation. In the early stages of infestation
symptoms of wilting, drooping and ribbing of tobacco leaves are observed.

Control measures

1. Deep ploughing in February-March months

2. Green manuring
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 3. Regular weekly hand pulling of tender orobache shoots before they set the seeds
4. Growing of trap crops like sorghum, greengram and sesamum before tobacco cultivation.
These crops will stimulate germination of Orobanche but will not act as alternate hosts.
5. Fluchloralin @ 1.0 l/ha or Oxyflourfen 0.5 l/ha as pre-plant incorporation a week prior to
planting OR
6. Pre planting application of EPTC at the rate of 6 kg/ha (one month before planting)
Followed by post planting application of 2,4 D and 0.1-0.2 % allyl alcohol after emergence of
Orbanche.

Topping (Decapitation), suckering & desuckering

 The operation of topping consists of removal of the terminal buds just before or after the
emergence of the flower head. Following topping, the auxiliary buds become active and put
forth shoots known as sucker.
 Removal of these suckers is called de-suckering.
 The objective of topping and de-suckering is to divert the nutrients of the plant to leaves,
instead of flowers and seeds. It results in the gain in the size and body of the leaf, thus
increasing the yield and quality of the tobacco and also to make plant to ripen more uniformly.
 Desuckering: is must to derive maximum benefit from topping. 2 – 3 desuckering are generally
done when suckers reach a convenient size for handling. The manual desuckering is a time
consuming and more expensive process; therefore use of chemical may also be practiced.
Application of coconut oil to the top six axils soon after topping suppresses the emergence of
suckers Maleic hydrazide, NAA and Indole Butyric Acid, are also recommended for an
effective desuckering and also Deconol 4 % @ 5 ml (UAS Bengaluru)

Cropping systems

 Mono-cropping of tobacco is always discouraged as it leads to development of

pest and disease complex in addition to decreasing soil fertility.
 Crop rotation not only gives additional returns to farmers but also improves soil
fertility and maintains soil health.

Alternate cropping

(Kharif) Soybean/groundnut followed by (rabi) rabi sorghum

(Kharif ): 60-120-60 cm paired row chilli (green/dry) intercropped 3 rows of vegetable beans followed
by 2 rows of vegetable field bean

Intercropping

 Intercropped with onion and coriander (greens) & sequenced with Chilli, Onion, Jowar,
Maize etc.

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Harvesting

Tobacco is grown for the production of quality leaves which largely depend upon the stage of
the crop at which they are harvested. The sign of maturity and method of harvesting differs from one
type to another type of tobacco.

The right stage for harvesting the crop is when the leaves are mature that is when the green colour
changes to

• Beedi tobacco: Spangles, means red rusty spots which coalese as the leaves
mature.
• Cigar and cheroot: Puckers, group of wrinkles which are normally brown
• Hookah: Flecks/spots/speckles, brown spots

Method of harvesting: There are two types of harvesting

1. Priming 2. Stalk cut method

1. Priming: followed in FCV tobacco (cigarette tobacco), lower leaves mature first followed by upper
leaves.Staggered harvest done by removing a few leaves as and when they mature is referred as
priming. or harvesting two to three well-matured and ripe leaves is termed as Priming.

Ripe leaves have greenish- yellow colour, with a velvety feel, losing much of the stickiness.
They have a tendency to lie horizontally or bend slightly down the plant and the leaf-tips are slightly
dry.

Generally, it takes about 70 to 75 days from planting for the crop to be ready for the first priming.
After the commencement of first priming, subsequent primings are taken in about 6 – 7 days intervals.
The entire harvesting is completed in 6 to 8 or 10 primings depending on the leaf number (which may
vary from 18 to 26 leaves) and climatic conditions.

Harvesting must be done on a clear weather day and on an average, not more than three leaves
are harvested at a time. Immediately after rains or irrigation, harvest is to be delayed by 2 - 3 days.

2. Stalk cut method: Other types of tobacco namely Cigar, cheroot, chewing, hookah and bidi tobacco
are harvested by the stalk cut method.

 In this method plants are cut close to the ground with a sickle and generally left in the field
overnight for drying.
 Subsequent handling of plant varies according to the method of curing adopted for different
types of tobacco.

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Curing
• Tobacco leaves are cured after harvest, curing is a process by which harvested tobacco leaf is
made ready for market.
• Curing is done in order to impart required colour, texture and aroma to the final product. It is
essentially a drying process where by most of the leaf moisture is removed. Common methods
of curing are

1) Flue curing 2) Air curing 3) Fire curing 4) Sun drying

1) Flue curing (for Cigarette tobacco)

After each priming, leaves are sorted and tied separately by single string or double string
method on a thin bamboo stick of convenient length. Leaves are tied back to back and loaded in
a specially constructed barn measuring 5 m x 5 m x 5 m or 4 m x 4 m x 4 m or low profile barn
5m x 8 m x 5 m or 5 m x 8 m x 4 m. The green leaves are loaded on the top tiers, over ripe ones
on the bottom tiers and ripe ones on the middle tiers. After the barn is fully loaded, flue curing
is started.

Flue curing refers to slow drying of tobacco leaves under controlled conditions by passing
hot air around the leaves for prolonged period.

The following are the stages in flue curing.

1. Yellowing: is achieved between 32°C to 41°C under 81 to 71 per cent humidity. The
temperature is raised by 1°C for every 6 hours till yellowing is complete at 41°C. At this stage,
first open the bottom and top ventilators by about 2.5 cm, then gradually increase the opening to
5 cm at 41°C. Matured leaves normally take 36 to 48 hours for yellowing and may be prolonged
up to 72 hours.

2. Colour fixing: To fix the yellow colour, raise the temperature from 41°C at the rate of 0.5°C
for every 2 to 5 hours. As the temperature raises, both top and bottom ventilation must be
increased progressively. Complete ventilation should be given when the temperature is 52°C. At
this stage, humidity will be between 55 and 30 per cent. Increase or decrease in temperature at
this stage will result in bad curing.

3. Drying leaf lamina: This is achieved between 52°C to 60°C by raising the temperature by
2°C for every 2 hours. This takes about 25 to 30 hours. At this stage, humidity level should be
between 30 to 28 per cent. Drop in temperature at this stage will result in sponging and bad
curing.

4. Drying of midrib: is the final process of curing. Temperature is raised from 60°C to 71°C at
the rate of 2.5°C for every 2 hours. Bottom ventilators are closed and the top ventilators are
opened by 5 cm. All ventilators should be closed at 71°C to conserve heat. Maintain 71°C till
the midrib is completely dried. Drop in temperature at this stage will result in run back which
lowers the quality.
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 The ventilators are opened to allow the barn to cool. After the cured tobacco picks up
sufficient moisture, it is removed for bulking and grading. The whole curing process consumes
fuel at the rate of 7.5 tonnes of wood or 4.5 tonnes of coal per ha.

Curing of chewing tobacco

 The harvested plants are spread out in the field and turned upside down once in two or three
days for uniform drying.
 When the plants are completely dried, water is sprinkled to turn them soft and the plants are left
on the field overnight and are stacked in the morning.
 The plants are arranged in layers with the outer ends pointing outside, stacks are covered with
mats to avoid dissipation of water. After a day or two the plants are taken to curing shed and the
leaves are separated from the stalk along with a small piece of stalk
 The leaves are tied with banana fibre into bundles of 20-30 leaves and stacked again after
covering with mats for further fermentation.
 Fermentation bulks are broken up every 3 rd or 4 th day.
 They are then reconstructed bringing the tobacco from bottom to top and from side to centre and
vice versa.
 This is done to aerate tobacco and avoid over heating which is detrimental to quality of leaf.
 It takes 5 to 7 turnings. By this time 50 per cent of curing is attained.
 The leaves are stripped, graded and stacked again for fermentation.
 Turnings are given once in a week. At the end of fermentation, the leaves are uniformly dark
brown in colour and develop pleasant aroma.

Curing of bidi tobacco

 The harvested plants are arranged in drying yard in an inverted manner for six days and on the
seventh day the leaf lamina are separated from the main stem.
 The stems are further dried for one more week. Midrib and lamina are separated from the main
stem.
 The leaf lamina with midrib are packed separately and marketed.
 This is known as ‘anaged’ in Nipani area. In Hunsur area, rack curing is done. After 2 to 3
weeks when the midrib is completely dry; the leaves are conditioned and packed.

Air curing

• The matured leaves are primed and kept around the plant.
• The primed leaves are tied in to bunches of 8 to 10 leaves and cured on bamboo splinters in
curing sheds for 4 to 6 weeks.
• Various indigenous tobacco are subjected to air-curing.
• Most prominent among them are; wrapper tobacco of West Bengal, Lanka tobacco and Burley
tobacco grown in Andhra Pradesh.
• The process is rather slow and takes 6-8 weeks.

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 • Generally air-cured tobacco is dark brown in colour with lower levels of sugars and rich in
nitrogenous constituents.

Fire –curing (Smoke curing)

• Important type of tobacco that is fire-cured is Jaffna tobacco of Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu used
for chewing purpose.
• The leaf is harvested by either priming or stalk-cutting each leaf together with a portion of the
stem.
• The leaves are dried for four hours in the field, tied into bundles and hung on laths (long, thin
piece of wood) in smoke huts.
• They are then smoked for 12 hours by burning coconut husks, leaf stalks and palmyrah nuts,
stacked for 3 days and again smoked.
• Alteration of firing and stacking at an interval of few days helps in making the colour of leaf
uniform.
• During the smoke treatment, creosotic (= brown oily liquid) substances are deposited on leaf
surface imparting a peculiar taste.
• After smoking, the leaves are bulked for 3-4 weeks and treated with salt water/jaggery prior to
sale.

Sun -curing

• In India, a number of tobaccos are Sun-cured.

• In this method construction of costly structures are avoided.
• The process is relatively quick (2-3 weeks) and there is little interference from weather
changes.
• After initial wilting in the field, Leaves are stung to bamboo poles and sun cured for 15 to 20
days.

There are many modifications of Sun- curing

 Curing whole plant on racks: Cigar and chewing tobaccos of Tamil Nadu.
 Curing leaves together with pieces of stalk on racks: Natu tobacco in Andhra Pradesh.
 Curing whole plant on the ground: Bidi tobacco of Gujarat, Hookah and chewing tobacco in
Bihar.
 Curing primed leaves on the ground: Chewing tobacco in Uttar Pradesh and Hookah tobacco
in West Bengal.

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 Yield: Refers to the weight of dry and marketable leaves of various grades pooled together.

Type Cured yield leaves (kg/ha)

Cigarette 1250-1500
Bidi

Pest and diseases

Insects
• Cut worm
• Leaf and stem eating caterpiller
• Fruit borer
• Aphids
• White fly

Diseases

• Damping off
• Black shank
• Root knot nematode
• Tobacco mosaic virus
• Leaf curl
• Cercospora and Alternaria leaf spot

Quality parameters

Tobacco quality involves its all physical, chemical and taste properties that depends on tobacco kinds
and its treatment. Quality depends also on mutual influence of natural and producing conditions as well
as tobacco kinds, agrotechnic way, soil, disease damage, pests and treatment technology. All elements
of quality can be grouped in three groups as follows.

 Chemical
 Physical
 Tasting effects
Chemical indicator of tobacco quality

Chemical composition of tobacco leaves is seen on its external shape and its smoking figures.
There are great number of chemical elements of tobacco composition but the most important are aroma
elements, dried substance, mineral ingredients, protein, amino acids, ammonia, alkaloid, polysaharid,
glucozid, polyphenol, pectine substance, organic acids and pigments.

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Physical indicator of tobacco quality

Physical parameters of tobacco quality are directly related with chemical composition of the
row materials and its tasting properties. Having the important effect on the cut tobacco properties and
indirectly on the cigarette properties and burning conditions and the smoke figures features. The most
important external features that are the physical indicator of quality are: size and shape of leaves,
nervature and thickness, color, polishing and rough surface, strength and elasticity, volume weigh, leaf
aroma, capability of water retaining, combustion capability, fractions composition, among leaves and
insertion. Tobacco quality estimation in practice is mainly done according to the physical properties.

Tasting features of tobacco quality

Taste features represent the properties that tobacco shows by smoking, with relation of specific
effect of tobacco smoke on the sense of taste, smell and nerve system. The properties that are the most
determinative tobacco taste quality during smoking are as follows: aroma, taste, irritation, strength
harmony and burning.

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 CHILLI

Botanical name: Capsicum annuum L. Family: Solanaceae

ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut

ICAR- Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru
Spices Board India, Kochi

Economic Importance

• Chilli is an important cash crop of India and is cultivated both for the home market as well as for
export.
• Chilli is mainly grown for two purposes.
• Dry chilli (Red) – As a spice crop in India.
• Green chilli – Vegetable crop.
• Capsanthin – Red colour pigment and Capsaicin – is responsible for pungency
• The chillies are well known for their flavour and pungency
• Chillies are also important source of Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid). In ripe chilli, the Vitamin C content
has been found to be much higher than tomatoes.
•Green chillies are rich in Vitamin A and C, minerals and protein.
• Dry chillies are also rich in Vitamin A and D.
•Chillies both ripe (red) and green are used as condiments and for imparting pungency. It increases the
taste of the food
• The extract is found to cure tooth ache and digestive disturbances to some extent.
• From dry chilli, Oleoresin is also extracted.
• It is used as spice.
• It has got lot of importance in international market
• Sweet bell pappers are used as salads (Raw vegetables)
• Red ripe sweet peppers are grown and used for decorative colour and to impart flavour to the
processed food.
• Small amount of Capsaicin be can also be used to control potato beetle larvae.

Origin: Central and South America

Distribution: India, China, Turkey, Nigeria, Pakistan, Egypt, Mexico, USA, Spain, Italy, Bulgaria

States: AP, KA, TN and MH

Karnataka: Area - 1 lakh ha, Production -1.91 lakh tonne and productivity-1900 kg ha-1 (2017-18)

Districts: Dharwad, Belagavi, Mysuru, Chitradurga, Shivamogga, Ballari and Haveri

Soil requirement

• It is grown on a wide range of soil, but best soils are well drained fertile loamy soils
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 • Clay/black soils are also suitable provided with proper drainage facility
• Fruit/flower drop and plants become yellow in poorly drained soils, Sandy loam soils are
better for getting colour eg: Byadagi chilli , Optimum pH: 6.0-6.5

• Crop can with stand drought better than water logging.

• Chilli crop raised in red soils, have better quality fruits.
• Saline and sodic soils hinder crop growth and fruit development.

Climatic requirement

• It can be grown from Rajastan (low rainfall, drought prone area) to heavy rainfall areas of
Agumbe.
• Temperature range- 10-35 OC .
• Optimum: 20-25 OC.
• > 35 OC leads to lower yield, leaf curl and fruit drop.
• Sweet peppers are grown under low temperature conditions than hot peppers for ripe dry fruits.
• Hot peppers are mainly grown during kharif season (June to October).
• Crop is raised throughout the year for green fruits in Southern India.
• Chilli crop is raised under rainfed and irrigated conditions.
• In South India: Rainfed conditions where annual average rainfall is around 800 mm and well
distributed over 4-5 months .
• The crop under rainfed condition is transplanted during June to July during these months. High
RH and drizzling rains facilitate establishment of seedlings and can tolerate drought, moisture
stress better than sorghum crop.

Varieties

Variety Suitable for Characteristics

Byadagi Dharwad Byadagi Kaddi, Byadagi Dabbi, Dyavanur. Ripe fruits are
red in colour, on the surface wrinkles will be there, very long
Haveri, Gadag fruits (12-15 cm), less pungent, suitable for rainfed areas
Sankeshwar Belagavi Leaf and fruits ordinary green in colour, fruits are 20-30 cm
long, pungent, suitable for rainfed areas
Improved varieties
NP-46 A All zones Plants are bushy, fruits are long, deep red coloured, suitable
for irrigated areas, tolerant to thrips and mite problem
Pusa jwala All zones High yielding, resistant to leaf curl, medium sized bushy
plants, suitable for green chilli
Arka lohit All zones Plants are bushy, fruits are of ordinary length and pungent
KDSC-1 All zones Released from UAS, Dharwad, fruits are 9-11 cm long,
suitable for green chillies
Bhagyalakshmi All zones Fruits are 7-8 cm, long and pungent, suitable for green
(G-4) chillies, resistant to murda leaf curl disease
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Others: G-3: Dual purpose, G-5: Andhra Jyothi, Sindhur (CA-960) and X 235
IARI: NP-46 A, Pusa sadabahar (perennial type)
IIHR : Arka Abhir, Arka Khyati, Arka Lohit, Arka Suphal, Arka Sweta, Arka Harita,
Arka Meghana

Capsicum varieties -IIHR: Arka Basant, Arka Gaurav, Arka Mohini

Cultivation practices

Nursery preparation

• Prepare 15 nursery beds of 7.5 m x 1.2 m size to raise the nursery bed for 1 ha area. Select
well drained soils near the water source and make the raised beds of 10 cm height
• Apply 30 kg of well decomposed FYM per bed along with ½ kg of 15:15:15 complex
fertilizers per bed (It is very essential to apply adequate organics and chemical fertilizers to
raise healthy, vigorous seedlings)
• 50-60 grams of seeds are used per bed (750-900 g ha-1 requirement)
• Treat the seeds with Thiram @ 2 g/kg of seeds to prevent incidence of seed borne diseases.
• Along the border of these beds, BHC 10% dust is applied to prevent ants from taking away the
seeds. On 20th day of sowing, 300 g of Furadan 3G granules have to be applied in between the
seedling lines across the bed, stirred with the soil and then the beds are irrigated.
• Sow the seeds in the nursery in lines at a spacing of 10 cm.
• Seeds are uniformly covered with soil after sowing. Seed beds are usually covered with
coconut leaf or paddy straw and remove the cover when seedlings are 10-15 days old
• Water the beds regularly for 10-12 days, twice in a day and once in a day until they are pulled
out depending upon rain
• Harden the seedlings one week before transplanting and they are ready for transplanting in 4-6
weeks (Reduce/withhold the water before transplanting)

Preparation of main field, manuring and planting

• The field is ploughed 4 or 5 times and 25 tonnes of FYM is applied at the last ploughing.
Ridges and furrows are formed at a spacing of 60 cm or 45 cm depending upon the variety.
• As a basal dressing, 60 kg of Phosphorus (375 kg of superphosphate) and 30 kg potash (50 kg
of Muriate of potash) are applied along with 40 kg nitrogen (87 kg of urea) along one side of
the ridges and mixed with the soil (40:60:30 kg ha-1 basal).
• Just before transplanting, 2 lit Basalin (Flucholoralin 1 lit. a.i./ha) has to be mixed with 500 lit.
of water and sprayed on the soil surface as a pre- emergence herbicide. This should be followed
by irrigation.
• Then the seedlings are planted @ 2 seedlings per hill at a spacing of 30 cm along the side of the
ridges in which the fertilizers have been placed. For dwarf and compact variety like CO3, a very
close spacing of even 30 x 15 cm can be adopted to increase the yield per unit area.

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Transplanting

• Treat the seeds with Azospirillum @ 200 g/kg of seeds or dip the seedlings of chilli in a
solution containing 8 kg of Azospirillum and 8 kg of PSB in 40 litres of water. This will save
25% of the Nitrogen, besides higher yield

• Seedlings are ready for transplanting at 5-6 weeks i.e., 45 days.

• Ridges and furrows are prepared @ 75 cm x 45 cm.

Weed control: Butachlor (Pre-emergence) @ 1.5 l ha-1 or Pendimethalin @ 1 kg ha-1.

UASD Package: Butachlor @ 2.0 l ha-1 or Pendimethalin @ 2.5 l ha-1

Season: May-June (rainfed), October-November and January-February (Irrigated)

Seed rate: 1250 g/ha (Both irrigated and rain fed) FYM: 25 t/ha
(1 kg seed contains 1.2-1.7 lakh seeds)
Spacing: In Chilli crop spacing depends upon the varieties

UAS Dharwad- 75 cm x 45 cm
In KA and MH: Spacing is 90 cm x 90 cm (rainfed) and 75 cm x 75 cm
In AP and TN: 45 cm x 45 cm

Fertilizers: Irrigated: 150:75:75 kg NPK/ha

Rainfed: 100:50:50 kg NPK/ha
Apply 50 % of NPK during transplanting and provide irrigation, provide remaining 50% of
NPK at 6 weeks after transplanting

Water management

The first irrigation is given at the time of transplanting. On third day, life saving irrigation is
given and subsequent irrigations are given once in a week or 10 days depending on the soil moisture
condition.

Inter-cultural operation

 On 30 th day, one hoeing and weeding should be taken up and then go for earthing up.
 On 20th, 40th, 60 th and 80th day after transplanting, triacontinol 1.25 ppm (2.5 ml of Vipul
dissolved in 10 lit. of water) may be sprayed on the foliage of the plants using a hand sprayer.
 Traiacontanol increases the photosynthetic efficiency and thereby the yield upto the tune of 500
kg of dry pods per hectare. To improve the fruit set, as well as to reduce flower and fruit drop,
50 ppm of Naphthalene Acetic Acid (equal to 1 ml or 5 ml of Planofix mixed with 20 l or 100 l
of water) has to be sprayed.
For spraying these chemicals, only soft water should be used.

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Harvesting

 The crop starts yielding green chilli, at 40-50 DAS - Picking is done twice or thrice.
 Dry chillies – 70-80 days after transplanting (3-4 pickings)
 Colour development varies from variety to variety. After picking, dry the chilli under shade.
 Picking is done when 80% of the fruits are ripe i.e., when they turn completely red, keep under
shade and then market the fruits.

Yield level

Average yield Rainfed (kg/ha) Irrigated (kg/ha)

Green chilli 7,500-12,000 20,000-25,000
Dry chilli 750-1,000 2,000-2,500
Vaccume packing can store upto 2 years

Pests and diseases

Diseases

• Murda (Viral) disease transmitted by Thrips (upward curling), mites (downward curling) and
Aphids (crinkling of leaves).
• Powdery mildew
• Leaf spot
• Anthracnose

Insects: Fruit borer, spodoptera, cutworm and sucking pests –thrips, mites, aphids

Control measure: Garlic- Green chilli – Kerosene

1.5 kg green chilli crushed +1.5 kg garlic crushed + 1.5 liter kerosene

Mix for 8 hours, then soaking + 1.0 kg soap powder and used against sucking pests at the rate of 5 ml
per liter of water.

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 FORAGE CROPS

Institutes
International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi (Kenya)
ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal
ICAR – Indian Grassland Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi
ICAR- National Institute of Animal Nutrient and Physiology, Bengaluru
ICAR-AICRP on Utilization of Animal Energy (UAE), Bhopal (MP)
ICAR-AICRP on Improvement of Feed Resources and Nutrient Utilization in Raising Animal
Production, Bengaluru

Introduction
Live stock is an integral part of rural India and livestock husbandry is an important component
of farming though Indian agriculture is orienting towards specialized system, still it predominates with
mixed farming. Because
- Small land holdings
- Poor investment capacity
- Un-economic scale of production
- Lack of market accessibility and intelligence.
There have forced the farmers to practice crop-live stock based farming system.
Unless improved animals are fed adequately with quality fodder, this productivity cannot be
sustained.

Terminology
Forage (Broad term): Edible part of the plant other than separated grains that provide feed to the
livestock or can be harvested for feeding animals.
The term forage is used broadly to mean all plant material that are eaten by herbivorous
animals. It includes fodder crops, pastures, crop residues, such as, straw, stover, husk and foliage of
certain trees and shrubs. F
Fodder: Defined as any plant that is cut before being fed to animals in green state or after
conversion to hay or silage such as guinea grass, para grass and fodder maize.
Agrostology: Branch of Agricultural Science which deals with study of grasses, their classification,
management and utilization.
Hay: Fodder conserved in dry form by reducing the moisture content to <15%. This prevents the rapid
development of biological processes to build up the heat.
Soilage: Forage cut green and fed to livestock while it is in fresh form.
Silage: Process of preservation or conservation of green fodder under anaerobic conditions in the green
form is called ‘Ensiling’ and conserved fodders called ‘Silage’. It is highly palatable, slightly laxative
and easily digestible.
Haylage: Silage made from the material with high dry matter content under anaerobic conditions.
Moisture content is between 40-60%.
Pasture: A grazed plant community usually of several species of diverse botanical types. It includes
grasses, shrubs, legumes and trees.

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Grassland: Land on which vegetation is dominated by the grasses which are used directly as grazing
by the animals or cut and feet systems. Grasses may be either indigenous or introduced grasses.
Rangeland: Land on which the indigenous vegetation is predominant. Grasses, shrubs suitable for
grazing or browsing used and are managed as a natural ecosystem.
Paddock: Grazing area which is part of the grass land and separate from the other areas by a fence or
barrier.

Statistics
Scenario of fodder availability in India
(In million tonnes)
Supply Demand Deficit as % of actual
Year demand
Green Dry Total Green Dry Total Green Dry Total
2010 395.2 451 846.2 1061 589 1650 62.76 23.46 48.73
(666) (138) (804)
2015 400.6 466 866.6 1097 609 1706 63.50 23.56 49.18
(696) (143) (839)
2020 405.9 473 878.9 1134 630 1764 64.21 24.81 50.17
(728) (157) (885)
2025 411.3 488 899.3 1170 650 1820 64.87 24.92 50.60
(759) (162) (921)
Source: Draft report of the working group on animal husbandry and dairying for five year plan (2002-
2007, Govt. of India, Planning Commission, August 2001).

Deficit as % of actual
Feed Supply Demand
demand
Concentrate 45 123 63.41
Source: Hegde (2006)

Sources of fodder in India

Source Quantity (%)
Crop residues 54
Cultivated fodder 28
Grasslands 18
Source: Hegde (2006)
Scenario of fodder availability in Karnataka

Livestock population: 28.55 million (In million tonnes)

Sl. No. Particulars Green fodder Dry fodder Total
1 Demand 121.75 23.86 145.61
2 Supply 85.00 (70%) 15.00 (63%) 100.00 (68.68%)
3 Deficit 30% 37% 31.32%
Source: Economic survey 1998-99, Govt. of Karnataka
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Resource constraints for fodder production
1. Increased pressure due to human and livestock population
2. Low economy of farmers
3. Misuse or over use of resources
4. Non scientific cultivation practices
5. Aberrent weather situations

Ways to improve fodder production

 To bring more area under fodder crops
 In India more than 8.8% area under fodder crops should be maintained as per NCA (National
Commission on Agriculture)
 Raise short duration fodder crops before or after growing food crop with residual moisture and
nutrients.
 Encourage forage crops (Guinea grass, Stylo and Cenchrus) in horti and silvi-pasture systems.
 Growing more productive crops like NB hybrid and Lucerne
 Forage seed production should be strengthened.
 Growing dual purpose (forage+grain) varieties in crops like sorghum, bajra and oats with
strengthening the research on forages in India.

Forage research and development in India

 First research station was established in 1925 Lyalpur in Punjab province
 National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Karnal, Haryana (1955)
 Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI), Jodhpur, Rajasthan (1959)
 Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute (IGFRI), Jhansi (1962)
 IGFRI-Regional Research Station, Dharwad
 Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute (CSWRI), Avikanagar, Rajasthan, Malpura (1962)
 ICAR-AICRP Forage crops established in the year 1970 with 18 sub centres with main centre at
Jhansi (Mandya in Karnataka)
 NDDB – National Dairy Development Board- Anand, Gujarat, 1965 Founder-V. Kurien
 ICAR - Agro-forestry Research Institute, Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, 1988
 Milk Federations of the states (KMF in Karnataka)
 BAIF-Bharatiya Agro Industries Foundation
 Conservation of Desi cow breeds – Ramachandrapur muth (Shivamogga)
 Dr. Subhash Gumaste - Long serving fodder Agronomist of UAS Dharwad, Karnataka
credited with development of many production technologies and release of many varieties of
annual and perennial forage crops.

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 BERSEEM (KING of FORAGE)

Botanical name: Trifolium alexandrinum Family: Fabaceae/Leguminosae

Common name: Egyptian clover

They are the true clovers

Plant characteristics
- It is considered as King of forage crops because of its diverse nutritional qualities and
compilation adaption. It is main fodder for horses, camels and donkeys.
- Annual bushy shrub and winter growing to a height of 0.9 to 1.0 m with upright and decumbent
succulent stem terminating in trifoliate leaves.
- Seed is pear shaped and yellowish brown in colour. Crude protein content 18-21% and it is
good soil binder.
- Perennial forage legume of North India

Origin and distribution

Berseem is believed to be indigenous to Egypt. It was introduced to India from Egypt in 1904
and tried at various centres for its performance, with such a good results that by 1916, it was recognized
as a widely adaptable and valuable addition to the forage crops of India. Now it is the prominent
fodder legume in irrigated areas of Punjab, Delhi, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
In USA mainly grown as pasture crop.

Climate and soil

Grows in tropics, sub-tropics and temperate regions. Temperature range is 25°-35°C optimum
for seedling growth, 15-20°C optimum for vegetative growth and branching. 35-37°C optimum for
flowering and seed setting. Require cool temperature for longer period. It cannot tolerate frost
temperature below 4-5°C. Well drained deep loamy soils rich in lime, PK with PH 5.5-8.5 are
recommended. Do not perform well on sandy soils, water logging and acidic soils. Can tolerate salinity,
alkalinity and is thus useful for reclaiming brackish and alkaline lands.

Land preparation: One MB ploughing followed by 4-5 harrowings are required to make a fine tilth.
Fine seed bed is prepared since the seed is small.

Varieties
Based on stem branching habit (3)
1. Mescavi: Varieties under this group develop short side branches at the base of the stem in
advanced stage of its growth. When the plant is cut or harvested, these branches elongate and
produce new growth. Therefore it is possible to take 5-6 cuts per year from this group.
Other Varieties: Wardan, JB-1, JB-2, JB-3, UPB-103.
2. Fahl: Develop small side branches in the upper portion of the stem very freely. They do not
produce branches at the base. Therefore, there is no regeneration of these varieties after harvest.
They give only one cut.

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 3. Saidi: They develop shoots for a short time. Develop branches at the upper portion less freely
than in Fahl. They give 2-3 cuts per year. Ex: Khandwari, Pusa giant, IGFRI-99-I, IGFRI-54,
Jawahar.
Season: It is a rabi season crop. October to November sowings are adopted depending on prevailing
temperatures and vacation of kharif crop (usually paddy).

Seeds & sowing: A seed rate of 10-15 kg/ha for line sowing, 20-23 kg/ha for broadcasting would be
sufficient. Bright yellow, plump seeds should be used, discarding all the brown and immature seeds.
Spacing: Inter row spacing of 25-30 cm is adopted in solid rows. If seed production is taken, intra
rows spacing of 10 cm is maintained.

Seed treatment: Seed should be treated with 10% brine (salt) solution to remove the seeds of Chicory
(Chicorium intybus, high in silica). Scarified against hard surfaces to soften the seed coat for better
germination. Seed is soaked in water for 10-12 hr or in diluted H2SO4 for 2-3 minutes and then rinsed
with water 4-5 times. 10% jaggery solution @ 1.25 kg with 1.25 litres of water is prepared by boiling
and cooling to the room temperature. Then mix with 1.25 kg Rhizobium trifoli bacterial culture.
Sprinkle the culture on the seed uniformly and dry under shade. Mix the seed with 10 kg soil and
broadcasted or drilled in the field.

Methods of sowing: Can be sown dry or wet. The land is divided into small plots of convenient size,
irrigate the plots to a depth of 5 cm. Soak the seed in water over night and broadcast in the standing
water.

Manures & Fertilizers

Berseem responds well to manuring and need about 10 t FYM /ha (National:25 t/ha), 25-30 kg
N, 80-100 kg P2O5, 30-40 kg K2O/ha. P is applied as SSP and K as MOP 50% N, total P and K as basal
and remaining 50 % N should be applied at 30 DAS. Micronutrient deficiencies are common with
regard to B, Mo, Fe and Zn and has to be corrected. Boron deficiency is very common in coarse
textured and leached out soil. Its deficiency causes several pale yellow spots on the leaves which
resemble the leaf hopper damage. Corrected by foliar application of 0.1% borax or soil application of
borax @ 2.5 kg/ha as basal and Mo as Ammonium molybdate @ 1-1.5 kg/ha.
Irrigation: Water requirement is quite high. Initially irrigation is given at weekly interval, later at 10-
12 days interval. Crop requires 1400 mm of water in a year. In places where irrigation water is not
sufficient for berseem, oat can be grown as an alternate crop.

Weeding
Requires thorough weeding in initial stages. Chicorium intybus is associated weed of berseem.
Remedy is soaking in the 10% brine solution for 10-15 minutes, seeds floating on the water are
removed with supplement hand weeding at 30 DAS. Do not allow the weed to set seed. The seed live in
the soil for a longer period.
Chemical treatment: 0.75-1.0 kg a.i./ha Pendimethalin, as pre-emergence herbicide is recommended.
Incidence of Cascuta is also noticed.

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Harvesting: The first cut can be taken at 60-70 DAS or at 50% flowering stage. Subsequent cuts are
obtained at 30-45 days interval. Mescavi types are good for fodder purpose as they give 5-6 cuttings.

Yield: 35-55 t/ha/year from 4-6 cuttings.

Toxicities
Bloat or Tympanitis: Occurs due to the presence of 4-5% cytoplasmic proteins which act as foaming
agent. Accumulation of gases is an important disorder due to fermentation process.

Cropping systems
Berseem can be substituted with wheat in rice-wheat sequence to minimize the incidence of Phalaris
minor in wheat. Berseem can also be grown as intercrop with Napier Bajra for sustained supply of
forage for dairy units.
Maize + rice bean – berseem - sarson

Cup mixtures: Japanese rape, chinese cabbage, barley, oat.

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 LUCERNE (QUEEN of FORAGE)

Botanical name: Medicago sativa Family: Fabaceae/Leguminosae

Introduction
 Common name: Alfalfa/ snail clover/Chilean clover
 It is regarded as Queen of forage crops
 Also called as Green gold of forage crops
 ‘Alfalfa’ is an Arabic word means ‘the best’
Plant characteristics and uses
 A perennial deep rooted bushy herb growing to a height of 1.6 m with upright or decumbent and
quadrangular stem. Trifoliate leaves with fast and quick growth habit. Seed is kidney shaped
greenish yellow in color. Readily accepted by all animals especially horses.
 Fruit of Lucerne is pod and dehiscent (split on maturity), several seeded, spirally twisted.
 Vigourous and leafy

Salient features
 Highly nutritious (crude protein: 20-25%)
 Self sterile
 Rich in Vitamin A, Ca, P and other minerals
 Used as soilage and hey, dehydrated leaf meal (18% protein accumulated in leaf)
 100% palatable
 Export potential
 Easy to cultivate
 Used for medicinal purpose (seeds & leaves)
 Grown as annual, biennial and perennial
 Lactogenic effect
 More persistent (upto 10 years)
 Cosmopolitan in adaptability
 Heat and drought tolerant
 Provides good seasonal distribution compared to berseem
 Best suited to South Indian condition
 Research on Lucerne: Important states are Gujarat and Maharashtra

Origin and distribution

It was grown in Greece during 500 BC and in Persia during 700 BC. Well adapted to warm
temperature and cool sub-tropical region. In tropical climate also in S & C America, Africa and Asia.
As a temperate crop in Australia and Argentina.

It was originally a native of South Western Asia. It was introduced to India in the year 1900 and
grown in many states under irrigation.

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Climate and soil
It is a long day plant. Performs better in cooler and drier regions than cloudy, humid and wet.
Comes up well in tropics, sub tropics and temperate regions up to 2400 m above MSL. Temperature in
the range of 15-25 0C- Day time 10-20 0C- night time, 20-30 0C is required for seed set.15-20 0C is
optimum for vegetative growth.
Soil: It is well drained deep loamy soils rich in lime N, P, K with pH 5.5-8.5 are optimum. Do not
perform well on sandy soils. Can tolerate drought but not water stagnation and high humidity. Remains
dormant under conditions of drought and resume the growth in the availability of water in the soil.
Acidic soils are not suitable. Root growth is stunted due to less conc of Ca, S and Mg, can thrive on
alkaline soils too.

Land preparation
One MB ploughing followed by 4-5 harrowing to make a fine tilth. Field is made into
rectangular sized plots for proper irrigation and better drainage.
Varieties
Annual varieties: Anand 1, 2, 3, LLC-3, RCL-87-1 & LLC-5.
Perennial: CO-1, T-9 or Sirsa-9, Sirsa-8, RL-88, Srigangasnagar, IGFRI-S-244 (chetak), Alamdar-I &
IGFRI-S-54.
International varieties: Hunter river, Bustard, Ladakh, Buffalo ranger, Marl borough, Atlantic,
Drylandar, Victoria.
Season:It is a rabi season crop. Sowing are taken up during the months of October & November
depending upon the prevailing temperatures.
Seeds & sowing: Propogated only through seeds. A seed rate of 15 kg/ha in line sowing and 30 kg/ha
for broadcasting would be sufficient. 6 kg/ha (UAS Dharwad)
Spacing: Crop is sown 25-30 cm apart in solid rows. Shallow sowing should be done.
Seed treatment: Seed should be treated with 10% brine (salt) solution to remove the light seeds and
inert material. Scarified against hard surfaces to soften the seed coat for better germination. Seed is
soaked in water for 10-12 hrs or soaked in diluted H2SO4 for 2-3 minutes and then rinsed with water for
4-5 times and cooling to the room temperature. Then mix with 1.25 kg R. meliloti. Seed should be
treated with recommended rhizobium culture for nitrogen fixation, if sown first time in the land.
Manures and fertilizers
Lucerne responds well to manuring which needs about 25 t FYM/ha, 25 – 30 kg N, 120 kg P2O5
and 40 kg K2O/ha. P is applied as SSP and K as MOP. 50% N + full P2O5 & K2O as basal and
remaining 50% N at 30 DAS. Micronutrient deficiencies are common with regard to B, Mo, Fe and Zn
which need to be corrected.
UAS Dharwad: Organic manure-20 t/ha, 25:100:25 kg N:P2O5 and K2O (all basal)
Weeding
Require thorough weeding in the initial stages. Cuscuta (Cuscuta reflexa) is a complete stem
parasite. Remedy is to uproot the plants along with host plants and burnt. Do not allow the weed to set
seed. The seed will live in the soil for a long time. Cultivation of lucerne should be avoided in fields
once infested with cuscuta for at least 3 years.

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 Chemical treatment
0.75-1.0 kg Pendimethalin as pre-emergence herbicide or Imazethapyr @ 100 g/ha as early post
emergence (10-12 days). However, best management is crop rotation.

Irrigation: Water requirement is quite high. Initially, irrigate at weekly interval, then at 10-12 days
interval. Crop requires 10-15 irrigations in a year.

Harvesting and yield

The first cut at 60-65 DAS or at 50% flowering stage. Subsequent cuts at 25-30 days interval.
GFY (t ha-1) 70-75 per year (8-10 cuts/year).

Cropping systems: N-B hybrid + guar – Lucerne under semi arid conditions or it is taken as inter crop
with N-B hybrid.

Crop mixtures: Perennial grasses, barley, oat, berseem.

Intercropping: Maize, rabi sorghum

Toxicities
1. Bloat or Tympanities: occurs due to the presence of cytoplasmic proteins (4-5%) which act as
foaming agent. Accumulation of gases is an important disorder due to the fermentation process.
2. Isoflavonoides of oestrogen cause reproductive disorders due tothe production of excess heat in
the animal body.
3. Dermatitis or Photosensitization: caused due to histamines. The symptoms are inflammation of
the skin like reddening, swelling, oozing, scaling mostly in the white skinned animals.
4. Reduce the growth of animals (saponins)
Nutritive value
CP: 17-25%, Fat: 9%, CF: 26%, NFE: 40.7%, Total ash: 14.2%, Rich in Vitamin A, Ca, P
Seed production in lucerne

 National Seeds Corporation at New Delhi will produce the Lucerne seeds
 It is largely self sterile plant/predominantly cross pollinated crop
 Important bee forage/bee pasture
 Too cloudy and too bright sunshine not congenial
 Spacing : 60 cm rows
 Crop is normally allowed to flower after February. Before February taken for forage purpose
 Liberal application of Ca, P and K increases the production of seed and its yield
 Role of boron and molybdenum is observed in pollen development and nodule formation
 During flowering, IAA spray is also recommended for reproductive growth
 Simultaneous maturity of all the pods is not observed
 When 2/3 rd of pods are matured, then entire plant has to be cut, seeds are threshed on hard
surface (because seeds are very small, it should not mix with soil)
 Seed yield:2-3 q/ha
 Test weight:2-6 g/1000 seeds

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 OAT
Botanical name: Avena sativa Family: Poaceae/Graminae

Origin: Europe
Important countries: USA, USSR, Canada, Poland, France, Germany, UK

Salient features
Resembles wheat crop
 Grown in winter season under irrigation (North India)
 Winter cereal crop (annual)
 Kent variety – dual type variety (forage and grain)
 It is sub-erect annual growing to 1-1.5 m height, producing 5-8 tillers with narrow drooping
leaves.
 Inflorescence loose, much branched panicle
 Excellent growth habit and recovers fast after harvesting.
 Mainly cultivated in North and North Eastern states of India
 Requires long and cool season for its growth
 Quality of the fodder is very good
 Used as both green fodder and hay
Climatic requirement
 For germination 4-15°C (mini)
 Tolerates slight acidic & salinity pH up 8.5
 It can tolerate 20-27°C (maximum)
Soil: Fertile, well drained, loamy to clay loam soil. Tolerates slight acidity and salinity, pH upto 8.5

Varieties
Single cut varieties
a) Kent (Karnataka), b) OS-6 (Karnataka), c) OS-7, d) JHO-822, e) UPO-212
Double cut varieties: Kent
Multi-cut varieties: JHO-851 (entire country), JHO-861, UPO-94, PO-3,
JHO-99-1 (Recent variety) – entire country
Season: South India – Early (October – November), North India – Late (October – December)
Sowing: Drill sowing is normal practice.
Spacing : 22.5 to 30 cm row to row for fodder oat.
Seed rate: Small seeded type -75-80 kg/ha, for bold seeded-100-125 kg/a
Manures and fertilizer (Irrigated)
FYM - 10 t/ha (25 t/ha all India)
N- 110 kg/ha, P2O5- 75 kg/ha, K2O - 50 kg/ha
Fertilizer management
For single cut -50 % N and 100 % PK as basal. Remaining 50 % N after 4 weeks as topdressing
For multi cuts -50 % N and 100 % P and K as basal dose, top dressing-25 % N at 21 to 25 DAS &
25 % N at 50 DAS

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Irrigation: Critical stages - a) Crown root initiation, b) Boot leaf stage

Harvesting: Harvest the crop at 50% flowering or dough stage

First cut – 60 to 65 DAS
Subsequent cuts – 30 to 35 DAS

Yield: Green fodder yield 40-45 t/ha (Mg/ha)

Proximate composition: Quality wise the oat is superior compared to other cereals
Crude protein 6-10 %, Crude fibre- 30-35 %

Crop mixtures: Oat+ Chinese cabbage/ Japanese rape/Turnip/ Lucerne/berseem.

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 HYBRID NAPIER GRASS
Botanical name: Pennisetum spp. Family: Poaceae/Graminae

The name Napier grass was given in Honour of Col. Napier of the Rhodesion Dept. of
Agriculture who was responsible for its development.
Salient features
1. It resembles bajra crop
2. It is a sterile hybrid. Hence propagated through rooted slips/stem cuttings
3. Perennial grass suited to irrigated conditions
4. Highly responsive to fertilizers and irrigation
5. Do not tolerate shade
6. Grass can be planted in block plantation, along the irrigation channels or on field bunds.

Development of grass (Hybridization)

Crosses involved
i) Napier (Elephant) grass x Bajra
(Pennisetum perpureum) (Pennisetum typhoides)
Pennisetum americanum
ii) Pennisetum perpureum Pennisetum americanum
(Napier grass)
Hybrid Napier grass (Hybrid Pennisetum grass)
Different names of Hybrid Pennisetum grass (Universal name)
i) Giant elephant grass
ii) Napier – Bajra hybrid
iii) Hybrid Napier / Giant Napier
iv) Babla Hybrid Napier
v) Bana grass (S. Africa)
vi) Pusa giant Napier
Geographical distribution
First produced in South Africa (Zimbabwe) and was released as Bana grass and introduced to
India in 1912 as Napier grass. The hybridization work was first started in Coimbatore (1953) and then
later on in IARI during 1961. IARI first released the hybrid as PUSA GIANT NAPIER and then
breeding started in Pakistan and Hawaii. However, in initial stages it was restricted to India, Pakistan
and Sri Lanka. Later on spread to other countries.
Environment
 Grows throughout the year in tropical temperature (15-31°C)
 Light showers alternated with bright sunshine are congenial for the grass
 Water logging and low temperatures are not preferred
 Peak period of growth is during summer and rainy seasons. During winter, grass remains
dormant.
 Soils: loamy and sandy soils are preferred over heavy soils.
 The grass doesn’t thrive well in acidic and alkaline soils (5-8 pH optimum).

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Plant characteristics
 Compared to Napier grass, the hybrid Pennisetum grass has numerous tillers and fast
regeneration capacity.
 Less persistent hair
 Less sharp leaf edges
 It is sterile

Agronomy / cultivation practices

Land preparation
Since, the grass is perennial, it needs deep, thorough, weed free and compact seed bed.
Varieties
 PUSA giant Napier
 Annapurna – 1 (APBN-1): University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad
 DHN-6 (Dharwad Hybrid Napier-6): University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad and IGFRI.
 NB-21 (popular)
 IGFRI-3, IGFRI-7
 CO-1, CO-2, CO-3, CO-4, CO-5
 Yashwant (RBN-9) (Maharashtra)
University of Agricultural Sciences, Bengaluru- BH -18, BH-16, PBN-16, PBN-18
Planting: Since the grass is sterile, vegetative means of propagation through rooted slips or stem
cuttings is being practiced (three nodes are used).Cuttings from moderately matured stem of three
months o1d and lower 2/3 portion is preferred.
The selected cutting with 3 nodes should be stuck in the soil with two nodes inside and one
above the soil. Lower nodes produce both roots and shoots. Whereas, upper nodes produce only
shoots.
Planting season-throughout the year except winter, onset of SW monsoon is best.
Planting density
90 cm x 60 cm (20,000 rooted slips/ha) (UAS Dharwad)
60 cm x 60 cm (27,800/ha), 50 cm x 50 cm (National)
Crop mixture/mixed cropping
Barley, oat, berseem, Chinese cabbage, Japanese rape are grown as intercrops during winter in
North India and cowpea, cluster bean during summer.
Mixed cropping
Centrosema, Siratro and Calapogonium (legume climbers) are planted at the base of the grass
clump after first harvest.
Manures and fertilizers
 Organic manures- 20 t ha-l
 Inorganic fertilizers - 180 : 120 : 50kg NPK ha-1 year-1
Basal dose (depends on no. of cuts)
25-30 kg N and 100% P2O5 and 100% K2O at the onset of monsoon as basal dose, then
after every cut one installment of 25-30 kg N is top-dressed.
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Irrigation- After every cut/ harvest irrigation is must. However, subsequently at an interval of 10-15
days, irrigation is provided. During rainy season proper drainage is to be provided.
Weed management- Repeated inter cultivation will take care of the weeds. However, 2,4-D at the rate
of 1 kg a.i./ha is recommended as post emergence to manage the broad leaved weeds.
Harvesting- First cut will be ready at 70-80 days after planting and subsequent cuts at an interval of
40-50 days (flowering stage).
 If grass is fed at early stage, Oxalate toxicity (Ca-binding) is observed.
 6-8 cuts are obtained in a year in South India whereas 4-5 cuts in North India.
Method of harvesting: In order to encourage quicker re-growth. 10-15 cm stubbles are maintained and
first cut after winter is taken close to the ground to remove dead and decayed tillers once in a year.
Once in 2-3 years, the grass stand is burnt to encourage fresh growth.
Yield: The yield varieties according to management practices and soil condition.
Under irrigation: 1 st year 75-80 Mg (tonnes) green fodder ha-1 and in subsequent years, the yield can
be expected to the tune of 175-200 tonnes green fodder/year/ha.
Nutritional status (Proximate composition)
 Crude protein – 6-10 % (whole plant on dry weight basis) up to 10.2
 Crude fibre - 28-30%
 Total ash - 16%
 Fat - 2.3%
 Nitrogen free extract (soluble portion carbohydrate) i.e., NFE - 47.5%
 Ca-0.7 to 2%
 Phosphorus - 0.4%

Toxicity of the grass

In early stages (before flowering) Oxalate toxicity is noticed due to genetic nature of one of the
parents i.e., Napier grass.

Utility of fodder
Mainly used as green fodder under cut and carry system. In some cases hay can be prepared
during summer.

Pest and diseases

No major pest and diseases occur. However, Helminthosporium leaf spot occurs during
summer.

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 GUINEA GRASS (Shade loving grass /Colonial grass)
Botanical name: Panicum maximum Family: Poaceae/Graminae

Oldest introduced grass in India (1793) in 1744, it was taken to Jamaica from Guinea for feeding
birds

Plant characteristics
 Grass is having lactogenic effect
 The grass is a tall, densely tufted perennial, with numerous shoots arising from the short stout
rhizomes.
 A full grown plant attains a height of 1.8 to 2.7 m under favourable conditions.
 Culms are erect, glabrous (non-hairy), nodes densely hairy, leaf blades are about 60 cm long.
 The inflorescence is an open panicle, about 30 cm long.
 Extended flowering and seed setting.
 Root system is deep, dense and fibrous (i.e., why grass is drought tolerant)
 Perennial suited to both irrigated and rainfed ecosystems.

Salient features
 Grass suits under orchards or forestry trees because of shade tolerance ability.
 Suited to both rainfed and irrigated conditions
 It is having lactogenic effect
 Propagated through seeds, rooted slips and stem cuttings.
 Grass is having good persistency (5-6 years) and under ordinary winter conditions grass remain
dormant.
 Can be grown on field bunds and irrigation channels.

Origin and distribution: This grass is native of tropical Africa: Introduced in our country in 1793. It is
one of the oldest introduced grasses in our country (S & C America, West Indies, SE Asia, India,
Srilanka, Australia, New Guinea and Hawai islands, Philippines).
Climate and soils: The grass thrives best in warm moist climates with annual rainfall of 600-1000 mm.
Tolerates drought fairly well but susceptible to forst: Frost burns the plant tips and leaves rapidly
lose their succulence and stems become hard and dry. Optimum temperature range is 15-38°C.

Soils: Adopted to wide range of soils except water logged and acidic soils.Can tolerate medium
salinity. Fertile well drained medium loamy soils are most suitable.
A genetically highly variable species: Depending on agronomic characters like habit, height, stem
thickness, degree of branching etc. they may be identified into three distinct types.
i. Large or medium types suitable for soilage and grazing
ii. Small or low growing types mainly suitable for grazing
iii. Grazing type

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Varieties: The following are some of the commercial varieties of large or medium types.
1) Queensland common: East African Origin. It is a well-tillered bunchy type grows to 150 cm
height. Stem nodes are hairy with finer leaf sheath and blades.
2) Riversdale: is a selection from 9 C made by South Johnstone Research Station at Riversdale
(UASD developed Nandini variety): Suits both to rainfed and irrigated situations and palatable.
3) Makueni: Drought resistant one. Grows to a height of 1 m and light green in colour.
4) Gatton panic: Is a medium type variety. Easily distinguished from Queensland guinea, as the
stem nodes are smooth, leaves green. Resistant to grazing (high persistency) and creates less
management problems.
5) Hamil: Very tall variety of guinea grass. Robust, smooth, erect that grows to 3 to 3.5 m height.
Foliage is dark green than Riversdale and Makueni and stem nodes are free of exposed hairs.
Well accepted by animals. (UASD developed Samruddhi variety for irrigated situation). Seeds
very freely, palatable
6) Colonial guinea: Highly palatable type but less productive than other guinea grass varieties.
Very tall variety growing upto 3 m. Practically hairless and thick fleshy stems. Well accepted
by cattle. The foliage is blue green and flowers later than other varieties due to long growing
season. Very drought resistant.
7) Embu (Kenya): It is distinct creeping/ grazing type
Small types: Green panic or slender guinea var. (trichoglume). This is a French grass which
has an ascending habit, crown expanding by short horizontal stems. It shows drought resistance
and survives well in situations where Rhodes grass dries completely. Leaves are fine and soft
and stems are slender. Has a good (unique) regenerative capacity and most responsive to
improved fertility.
Season: In South India under irrigation conditions all months are suitable except winter i.e., in
December-January. Under rainfed condition it is sown/planted during June-August.
In North India, Mid Feb-August is favourable under irrigated conditions.

Land preparation: The land is prepared by giving 1-2 ploughings, followed by 3 to 4 harrowings,
requires deep, thorough, weed free compact seed bed.
Seeds and Sowing: propagated by seed, rooted slips and stem cuttings. In summer, root stocks are
safer than stem cuttings. Seeds may be broad casted in the nursery bed and seedlings transplanted in
the field with the break of the monsoon.
Straw mulching can improve the establishment.4-10 kg seed/ha under direct seeding or broad casting
2-3 kg/ha or for nursery transplanting, 40,000-45,000 stem cuttings/ha. or 66,000 rooted slips are
sufficient

Spacing: 50 cm x 30 cm or 90 cm x 45 cm (National)
South India: Spacing is 60 x 60 cm (28000 rooted slips/ha) – UAS Dharwad
Seeds have to be stored for more than six months before sowing for breaking dormancy. Plant
the rooted slips to a depth of 3 cm on the side of the ridge or sow the seeds on the marked lines
or raise seed in nursery and transplant 20-25 days after germination.

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Manures & fertilizers: The grass responds well to manuring. To ensure higher yields a basal dose of
10(rainfed)-20(irrigated) t FYM/ha or compost after the second ploughing should be incorporated. The
recommended doses of nitrogen 50 kg, phosphorus 50 kg and potassium 40 kg/ha should be applied in
band prior to the sowing. Repeat the basal application once in a year for sustained higher yields. Top
dressing of nitrogen @ 25 kg/ha after each cut.
UAS Dharwad: 150:75:50 kg NPK/ha/year (Irrigated) and 100:50:25 kg NPK/ha/year (Rainfed)
Irrigation: Irrigate immediately after sowing and give light irrigation (before and after) and thereafter
can be irrigated at 10-15 days interval.

Weed control: Repeated intercultivation

2-4 D @ 1 kg a.i./ha as Post emergence to control broad leaf weeds (5-6 weeks after planting)

Harvesting & Yield: The first cut can be taken by 60-70 Days after planting.Subsequently at an
interval of 40-45days. The average green fodder production is about 125-150 t/ha/yr in 7-8 cuttings
(irrigated).75-100 t/ha/year (rainfed).The yield however, declines with age and it is advisable to
replant the field with fresh slips every fifth year.The replanting can be done in the standing field of
guinea grass in between the rows and the old plants removed after the new plants get established.The
fodder supply can thus be maintained at an uniform level.
Nutritive value: Crude protein: 7.7%, crude fibre: 37.2%
Fat 1.7%, Ether extract: 39.4%, Total ash (mineral matter): 13.9%
Toxicities
Generally guinea grass is free from any toxicity. However, heavy N fertilization causes nitrate toxicity
in young plants. Small levels of HCN % also noticed Panicum sp. contain Hepatotoxins which may
cause secondary photo sensitization. Animal with white skin or with white patches usually suffer from
the disease.
Remedy: Affected animal may be given chlorophyll free diet and kept in darkness for a few days till
recovery.
Major cropping systems
Legumes should be grown along with guinea or rotated
Australia – Centro and Stylo, Desmodium
North India – Berseem, Senji, peas
South India – Cowpea, guar or rice bean, lucerne. Under humid-red soil conditions, guinea grass is
grown under coconut garden.

Seed production
Problems
1) Difficulty in maturity
2) Extended flowering period
3) Seed shattering
4) More bird damage
5) Seed requires post harvest maturation (seed dormancy)
6) Seed yield is less (2.5-3.0 q/ha/years)
Varieties suited: Guinea makueni, Punjab hybrid-1

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 PARAGRASS

Botanical name: Brachiaria mutica Family: Poaceae/Graminae

Different names: Water grass, Buffalo grass, Mauritius signal grass, Angola grass, California grass.

Plant characteristics: This grass is a coarse trailing perennial, rooting at the nodes with ascending
flowering stems even upto 2.5m high. Stem is erect, leafy, hollow, succulent and glabrous with hairy
nodes and leaves. Leaf blades dark green, 25-30 cm long, inflorescence “Panicle” (Thick hairy stems
and slightly hairy leaves).
Salient features
 Grass suits well to wet lands (waterlogged and moist/marshy/ swampy condition)
 Spreading in nature (Runners)
 It will not tolerate shade
 Stands can be maintained for 10 years
 Sensitive to low temperature
 More palatable when it is young
 Suits well for pastures on large scale
 Not suitable for hay making
 Yields higher under sewage water conditions

Origin and distribution

Though it is a native of tropical Africa and tropical South America (Brazil), it is widely
distributed as a fodder grass in tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world, because of ease of
propagation and competitive vigour.
It grows well on moist soils (a water loving grass) and withstand prolonged flooding or water
logging, but makes little growth during dry weather. More suited for water inundated condition and
sewage farms. Hence, adopted to all the rice growing countries of the world.
In India, the grass was introduced from Sri Lanka during 1894 (in Poona).
Climate and soil
Requires hot humid climate. It cannot grow in arid & semi-arid environments. Grows well in
areas with annual rainfall of 1000-1500 mm. Optimum temperature range is around 15-38°C. Can
tolerate water logging and most suitable for marshy areas. Comes up well under sewage water, but
sensitive to cold (<15°C) and frost. Semi-aquatic grass grows well in rice growing areas of world.
Tolerant to saline and sodic soils and used for reclamation of saline soils than any other grass.

Land preparation
It needs thorough land preparation, plough the field 4-6 times followed by harrowing.Then
made intro ridges and furrows.

Season: In irrigated condition, throughout the year it can be sown except winter months. Suitable time
for kharif is June-July or the onset of spring. In rabi conditions growth is very poor. Summer: As it is
water loving crop. Summer crop cultivation is rare phenomenon.
Seeds and sowing
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 Propagated by seed, rooted slips and runners/ stem cutting. Seed setting is poor and has
dormancy. Hence, mostly propagated by rooted slips and runners. In summer, rooted slips are safer
than runners. Seed rate: 2.5-3.0 kg/ha. Transplanting method: 40,000-50,000 rooted slips/ha
(1,10,000/ha, 20-25 cm rows – UAS Dharwad) or 2-4 q/ha planting material is required. Spacing is 50
cm x 50 cm. planting should be done to a depth of 3 cm on the side of the ridge. Broadcasting of setts
can be practiced in pastures in prepared wet land.
Manures and fertilizers
Apply 25 t/ha of FYM or compost after the second ploughing (UASD – 10 t/ha-1). The
recommended nitrogen (120 kg/ha/yr), phosphorus (60 kg/ha/yr) and potassium (40 kg/ha/yr). Should
be applied in band prior to the sowing N management is based on number of cuts. Top dressing of
nitrogen @ 20 kg/ha after each harvest.
Irrigation
Irrigate immediately after sowing and give light irrigation on the 3 rd day and thereafter can be
irrigated as and when depending upon the requirement of crop.The field should be moist rather than
wet.
Weeding
Hand weeding or hoeing and weeding on the 30th day should be practiced. Gap fill to maintain
population. Subsequent weeding may be carried out preferably after each harvest. Earth up once after
three cuts and removal of dried tillers simultaneously.
Harvesting and yield
The crop is ready for the first cut in three months after the planting and subsequent cutting can
be taken at an interval of the 30-35 days. Para grass is reported to have yielded 275 t/ha/yr. Delayed
harvest leads to hollow stem, hairyness leading to low palatability.
Green fodder yield (t/ha/year) Ordinary water Sewage water
First year 40-50 50-60
Subsequent year 90-100 125-150

Uses/utility and toxicity

It can be used for green / soiling and should be grazed rotationally as it will not withstand heavy
grazing. The grass is free from any toxicity, but oxalate toxicity is rarely noticed in some species.
Nutritive value
Crude protein: 6.9% fat: 0.9%, Fibre: 35.5%, NFE: 46.1% (soluble part of carbohydrates), Total ash
(mineral matter): 10.7%
Crop mixture
There is less chance for mixed cropping as para grass is vigourous and spreading in nature.
However, Centrosema, Pueraria, Berseem, Desmodium can be grown.

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 FORAGE CONSERVATION

Feeding green fodder to live stock improves their health, productivity and reduce the cost on
concentrated feed but it is possible to feed, green fodder throughout the year only if irrigation facility is
there. Wherever the irrigation facility is not available the surplus green fodder can be conserved in the
following ways to feed during the lean period of fodder availability. The important conservation
methods are:
1. Silage
2. Hay
3. Haylage
4. Wastelage
1. Silage
Carbohydrate rich fodder crops (cereals and grasses) can be used for silage making. The crops
can be harvested during milky stage or 50% flowering stage when the moisture content is between 65
and 75 per cent. They are cut into one to two inch pieces. The cut fodder is filled in the soils after
pressing (anaerobic) and covering air tight. After three weeks of anaerobic fermentation the silage will
be ready.
Suitable crops for silage: Fodder maize, fodder sorghum, fodder bajra and perennial grasses are best
suited crops. The legume fodder crops (lucerne, beans, etc.,) should not exceed the 20 per cent of the
total quantity.
Stage of harvest of crops for silage making: Crops are harvested at milky stage / 50 % flowering
stage with moisture content of 65-75 per cent. Silage prepared from plants without ear heads or cobs
will be of low quality.
Types of silos
i. Pit silo: These are underground pits made in low water table areas.
ii. Trench silo (surface level): These are prepared in different sizes with normally three to nine
meters width and 25 to 75 meters length.
iii. Tower silo: Above ground silos normally found in western countries though. They are initially
costly, very good quality silage cane be prepared.
Filling of the silo pit: The chopped green fodder should be filled faster and the filling process should
be completed within six to eight days after proper pressing at regular intervals irrespective of size of the
silo the pit should be closed air tight with the help of polyethylene sheet or two to three can thick mud.
Additives used during silage making: If the fodder quality is less for every ton the of green fodder,
one kg salt and up to 10 kg molasses can be used during silage making.
Minimum period required for silage: After covering of the pit, it takes minimum of three weeks to
produce good silage.
Qualities of good silage
- Golden yellow colour.
- Strong acidic smell.
- Fruity smell.
Under improper anaerobic conditions dark brown coloured silage with tobacco smell and fungal
growth are observed.

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 Opening of the pit and feeding: Open the pit from one end and collect the silage layer wise. Once
opened the pit, the silage should be fed every day by feeding l0 kg silage per day per animal. Never
close the opened pit again till the silage is exhausted.
Storage period of the silage: If the pit is not opened and if water & air is not allowed into the pit, the
silage can be preserved up to one year without spoilage.
Feeding silage for the first time: Animals require some time to adjust to silage smell and later on they
consume in required quantity, milch animals should be fed with silage after milking to avoid imparting
of odeur to the milk.
Quantity of silage available from circular pit silo (tonnes)
Silo pit Silo pit depth (feet)
diameter (feet) 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
10 9 12 15 18 22 25 28 31
12 13 18 22 27 31 36 40 45
14 18 24 30 3 43 49 55 61
16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
18 30 40 50 61 71 81 91 101
20 37 50 62 75 88 100 113 125

Advantages of silage making

 During shortage of green fodder silage will be more useful to milking animals.
 Silage making is not dependent on climate and under proper conservation it retains all the
nutrients for longer period.
 Thick stemmed fodder crops are best suited for silage making.
 The silage quality can be enhanced with the additives.
 Silage improves the digestibility of the fodder.
 Silage making reduces the risk involved like in the hay making.

2. Hay (dried green fodder): Hay is a conserved fodder prepared from drying of green fodder
harvested at 50 per cent flowering stage and reducing the moisture from 65-85 per cent to l5-20 per
cent with reduced carotene loss.
Suitable crops for hay making: Thin stemmed cereals, legumes and good quality grasses are best
suited.
Period required for hay making: Complete the drying process within two to three days to maintain
nutritional quality.

Qualities of good hay

l. Hay should have soft green leaves and soft stem.
2. It should be free from fungus.
3. Hay should not contain more than 20 per cent moisture.

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3. Haylage
Silage made from low moisture (40-50%) cereal fodder crops under anaerobic condition is
called haylage.
Crops with less moisture due to low rainfall and green fodder after removal of grains are used
for haylage making.
4. Wastelage: It is the process of preservation organic waste (veg. waste, slaughter house waste,
organic waste of any industry) under anaerobic conditions at moisture content of 65-75%.

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 Annexure I

TERMINOLOGIES

Adsali sugarcane: Sugarcane which takes 18 months for harvesting, usually planted in June-July.
After-intercultivation: Harrowing, rolling, tilling and other cultivations carried out in a field after the
crop has emerged.
Arrowing: The flowering in sugarcane is referred as arrowing
Agrostology: Branch of Agricultural Science which deals with study of grasses, their classification,
management and utilization.
Boot stage: Growth stage of grasses at the time the head is enclosed by the sheath of the uppermost
(flag) leaf.
Botting: State of plant growth indicated by swelling of the flag leaves.
Brix: The percentage of total solids in sugarcane juice, read from brix hydrometer.
Bt cotton: It is genetically modified cotton crop that expresses an insecticidal protein whose gene has
been derived from a soil bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis, commonly referred as Bt.
Crop cafeteria: It is the demonstration of identified efficient crops/varieties in an agro-climatical
zone/region offering an opportunity to the farmer to choose a suitable crop/crop combination with
available resources and requirements
Crop production: It is concerned with the exploitation of plant morphological and physiological
responses within a soil and atmospheric environment to produce a high yield per unit area of land
Crop productivity: Economic yield or production of plant product of economic importance, expressed
in standard units per unit area.
Cane sugar: A type of storage sugar(sucrose) present in sugarcane, sugarbeet, ripe fruits etc.
Cost of cultivation: Total expenditure involved in raising a crop, including rental value of the land
Cotton boll: The fruit of cotton plant
Cotton bale: A pressed bale in ginning and pressing factory which weighs about 170 kg of lint.
Crop logging: Foliar diagnosis comparing the nutrients status of comparable leaves of high and low
yielding crop plants. It is developed by H.F.Clement in sugarcane.
Curing: It is drying process whereby most of the moisture in the harvested tobacco leaf is removed.
Desuckering: Removal of suckers is called as desuckering. e.g.Tobacco
Detrashing: Removal of unwanted bottom dry and green leaves at regular intervals in sugarcane
Defoliant/defoliator: A chemical preparation intended for causing leaves to drop from crop plants such
as cotton, soybean, tomoto etc. usually to reduce excessive vegetative growth or facilitate harvest.
Delinter: A machine used to remove residual lint (fuzz) from cotton seed
Earthing up: The process of putting the earth/soil just near the base of the stems of certain crops like
sugarcane, cassava, papaya, banana etc. to give support to the plants
Eksali sugarcane: Sugarcane which takes 12 months for harvesting, usually planted in December-
February.
Epigeal germination: A type of germination in some seeds, where the cotytedons are seen to be
pushed above the surface by rapid elongation of the hypocotyl. E.g. Beans, cotton, castor, sunflower,
pumpkin, gourds, mustard, onion
Field crops: Herbaceous plants grown on cultivated fields or crop plants grown on a vast scale

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Fire curing: A process of curing tobacco, specially for tobacco, used for chewing purposes. In this
process, leaves are wilted for a few hours in the field, tied into bundles and hung on a rod in a smoke
hut then smoked for 12 hours by burning
Forage (Broad term): Edible part of the plant other than separated grains that provide feed to the
livestock or can be harvested for feeding animals.
The term forage is used broadly to mean all plant material that are eaten by herbivorous
animals. It includes fodder crops, pastures, crop residues such as, straw, stover, husk and foliage of
certain trees and shrubs.
Fodder: Defined as any plant that is cut before being fed to animals in green state or after
conversion to hay or silage such as guinea grass, para grass and fodder maize.
Ginning: Process of separating the cotton fibres from cotton seeds.
Ginning percentage: The weight of cotton lint obtained from seed cotton expressed in terms of
percentage of seed cotton /percentage of lint obtained from 100 units of seed cotton by weight.
Gossypol: A phenolic pigment in cotton seed that is toxic to some animals.
Hay: (Dried green fodder) Fodder conserved in dry form by reducing the moisture content to <15%.
This prevents the rapid development of biological processes to build up the heat.
Haylage: (Low moisture silage) Silage made from low moisture (40-50%) cereal fodder crops under
anaerobic condition is called haylage.
Hypogeal germination: A type of germination in some seeds, where the cotytedons are seen to be
pushed below the surface by rapid elongation of the hypoctotyl. E.g. Rice, groundnut, horsegram,
greengram, maize, gram, lentil, wheat, barley etc.
Nipping: Removal of tips of the young branches of plant when its is 2-4 week old is known as nipping.
Pasture: A grazed plant community usually of several species of diverse botanical types. It includes
grasses, shrubs, legumes and trees.
Priming: Harvesting of matured leaves of the tobacco from stalk as they ripen, beginning at the bottom
and progressing upward.
Primary Index (PI): Term used to denote total sugar (sucrose+reducing sugar) in the sugarcane leaf
sheath on dry weight basis. As the ripening starts, PI should be 10-11%.
Polarimeter: It is an equipment used for measuring ‘Pol’ reading for computing the reducing and non-
reducing sugars in sugarcane juice.
Propping and wrapping: The operation of tying the leaves together using the bottom dry and green
leaves of sugarcane is called propping. Usually the trash without removing from the cane is twisted to
form a sort of rope and cane stalks are tied together. This is known as trash-twist propping. Propping
can be eitherS done for each row or two rows can be brought together and tied.
Ratoning/ratoon cropping: The cultivation of an additional crop from the re-growth of stubbles of
previous main crop after its harvest, thereby avoiding reseeding/replanting such as sugarcane, sorghum,
rice, fodder grasses etc.
Rabbing: Process of burning of trashes, weeds or any organic refuse on the soil surface during nursery
bed preparation for tobacco. It burns established weeds, stubble's, weeds-seeds and kills the insect-pests
found on the surface-soil.
Retting: Process of extraction of fibres from the stem of plant by immersing in water for certain period.
E.g. Linseed and jute
Sett: Stem cuttings or sections of the stalks or stem pices of stalk are used as planting material.

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Silage: Process of preservation or conservation of green fodder under anaerobic conditions in the green
form is called ‘Ensiling’ and conserved fodders called ‘Silage’. It is highly palatable, slightly laxative
and easily digestible
Soilage: Forage cut green and fed to livestock while it is in fresh form.
Thinning: Removing of extra plants from thickly populated crop stand with an idea to maintain
optimum plant population.
Topping/Decapitation: Removal of terminal bud with or without some of the small top leaves just
before/after the emergence of flower head. Usually 15-20 cm from upper most leaf removed.
Wastelage: It is the process of preservation of organic waste (veg. waste, slaughter house waste,
organic waste of any industry) under anaerobic conditions at moisture content of 65-75%.

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 Annexure II
Crops and their special operations

Crop Special operation

Chick pea Nipping
Cotton Topping (Nipping) and Ginning
Sugarcane Earthing up, Detrashing, Propping, Wrapping, Arrowing and Ratooning
Tobacco Topping(Decapitation), Rabbing, Desuckering, Priming and Curing
Linseed Retting
Safflower Nipping

Institutes

Sl. No. Institute

1 ICRISAT-International Crops Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics, Hyderabad
Mandate crops - Sorghum, Bajra, Finger millet, Pigeon pea, Chick pea and Groundnut
2 ICARDA- International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Beirut, Lebanon
Mandate crops - Barley, Lentil, Feba bean, Wheat , Chick pea and Grass pea
3 CIMMYT - Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maizy Trigo,Mexico
[International Maize and Wheat Improvement center] Mandate crops - Maize and Wheat
4 International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi (Kenya)
5 International Institute of Sugar Beet Research (IIRB), Brussels (Belgium)
6 ICAR- Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal
7 ICAR- Indian Institute of Millets Research, Hyderabad
8 ICAR-Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur
9 ICAR- Indian Institute of Oilseeds Research, Hyderabad
10 ICAR-Central Institute of Cotton Research, Nagpur
11 ICAR-Central Institute of Research on Cotton Technology, Mumbai
12 ICAR-Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore
13 ICAR-Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research, Lucknow
14 ICAR-Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundry
15 ICAR-Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres, Barrackpore
16 ICAR-National Institute of Research on Jute & Allied Fibre Technology, Kolkata
17 ICAR-Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi
18 ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut
19 ICAR- Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru
20 ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal
21 ICAR – Indian Grassland Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi
22 ICAR- National Institute of Animal Nutrient and Physiology, Bengaluru
23 Spices Board India, Kotchi
24 ICAR-Directorate of Weed Research, Jabalpur
25 ICAR- AICRP on Wheat & Barley Improvement Project, Karnal
26 ICAR- AICRP Sorghum, Hyderabad
27 ICAR- AICRP on Chickpea, Kanpur
28 ICAR- AICRP on Linseed, Kanpur
29 ICAR- AICRP on Sunflower, Safflower, Castor, Hyderabad
30 ICAR- AICRP on Rapeseed & Mustard, Bharatpur
31 ICAR- AICRP on Cotton, Coimbatore
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 32 ICAR- AICRP on Sugarcane, Lucknow
33 ICAR- AICRP on Forage Crops, Jhansi
34 ICAR- AICRP on Water Management Research, Bhubaneshwar
35 ICAR-AICRP on Utilization of Animal Energy (UAE), Bhopal (MP)
36 ICAR-AICRP on Improvement of Feed Resources and Nutrient Utilization in Raising Animal
Production, Bengaluru
37 All India Network Project on Tobacco, Rajahmundry
38 All India Network Project on Jute and Allied Fibres, Barrackpore
39 Technology Mission on Cotton (CICR, Nagpur)
40 Technology Mission on Jute (CRIJAF, Barrackpore)

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