Chapter

10 Plate Tectonics
Chapter Outline
● Continental Drift
1
Wegener’s Hypothesis
Sea-Floor Spreading
Paleomagnetism
Wegener Redeemed

● The Theory of Plate

2
Tectonics
How Continents Move
Tectonic Plates
Types of Plate Boundaries
Causes of Plate Motion

● The Changing
3
Continents
Reshaping Earth’s Crust
Effects of Continental
Change
The Supercontinent Cycle

Why It Matters
Huge, moving slabs of rock called tectonic
plates constantly reshape Earth’s surface. For
example, the island of Iceland is being torn
where two tectonic plates are moving apart.
Iceland is one of the few places where this
process can be seen on land.

256 Chapter 10
Inquiry Lab 15 min

Reconstructing
Landmasses
Draw a map of a large landmass on a
piece of paper. Use colored pencils or
markers to show geological features,
such as mountain ranges and types of
rock at the surface. Using scissors, cut
your map into irregular pieces. Trade map
pieces with another group, and then
reconstruct the other group’s landmass.
Questions to Get You Started
1. What features of the interiors of the
pieces did you use to put the
pieces back together?
2. What features of
the edges of the
pieces did you
use for your
reconstruction?

257
 These reading tools will help you learn the material in this chapter.

Word Parts Fact, Hypothesis,

Prefixes Many scientific words are made
or Theory?
up of word parts that come from Latin and Recognizing Facts, Hypotheses, and
Greek. You can figure out the meanings of Theories A fact is a statement about the
unfamiliar science terms by looking at their world that is based on observation. A
word parts. hypothesis is a possible explanation that
The words Pangaea and Panthalassa can be tested. A scientific theory is a model
contain the prefix pan-. Pan- comes from a or explanation that ties together many
Greek word meaning “all.” The root words hypotheses and observations.
gaea and thalassa come from Greek words
meaning “land” and “ocean.” Pangaea Your Turn Make a table like the one
means “all lands,” and Panthalassa means shown below. List statements of fact,
“all oceans.” hypotheses, and theories from Sections 1
and 2. Identify the type of statement, and
Your Turn Prefixes found in this chapter write any language from the text that
include paleo-, di-, trans-, and pan-. As you signals the type of statement.
read this chapter, make a table like the one
started below. List words or terms that contain FACT,
prefixes and give the meaning of each prefix. STATEMENT HYPOTHESIS, KEY WORDS
OR THEORY
WORD OR TERM PREFIX MEANING hypothesis “proposed a
hypothesis…”
paleomagetism paleo-
fact “scientists found
divergent boundary di-
that…”
theory “lead to a theory
called _________”

FoldNotes
Three-Panel Flip Chart FoldNotes are a boundary.” Open the appropriate flap to
fun way to help you learn and remember take notes about each type of boundary
ideas that you encounter as you read. discussed in Section 2 and make a sketch.
FoldNotes help you organize concepts and
see the “big picture.”
Transfo
Conve ry

bounda
bound

Your Turn Follow the instructions in

Divergent
boundary

Appendix A for making a three-panel flip

rgent
a

rm
ry

chart. Label the first panel “Divergent

boundary,” the second “Convergent
boundary,” and the third “Transform

For more information on how to use these and other tools, see Appendix A.

258 Chapter 10 Plate Tectonics

 SECTION

1 Continental Drift
Key Ideass Key Terms Why It Matters
❯ Summarize Wegener’s hypothesis of continental continental drift Evidence for continental
drift. mid-ocean ridge drift was found in Earth’s
❯ Describe the process of sea-floor spreading. natural magnetism. This
sea-floor spreading magnetism not only
❯ Identify how paleomagnetism provides support paleomagnetism supports scientists’ hypo-
for the idea of sea-floor spreading. theses, it also protects us
❯ Explain how sea-floor spreading provides a all from the dangers of
mechanism for continental drift. solar radiation.

O ne of the most exciting theories in Earth science began with

observations made more than 400 years ago. As early explorers
sailed the oceans of the world, they brought back information
about new continents and their coastlines. Mapmakers used this
information to chart the new discoveries and to make the first reli-
able world maps.
As people studied the maps, they were impressed by the simi-
larity of the continental coastlines on either side of the Atlantic
Ocean. The continents looked as though they would fit together
like parts of a giant jigsaw puzzle. The east coast of South America,
for example, seemed to fit perfectly into the west coast of Africa, as
shown in Figure 1. continental drift the
hypothesis that a single large
landmass broke up into smaller
Wegener’s Hypothesis landmasses to form the
continents, which then drifted
In 1912, a German scientist named Alfred Wegener (VAY guh
to their present locations
nuhr) proposed a hypothesis that is now called continental drift.
Wegener hypothesized that the continents once formed part of a
single landmass called a supercontinent.
According to Wegener, this supercon-
tinent began breaking up into smaller
continents during the Mesozoic Era
(about 200 million years ago). Over
millions of years, these continents
drifted to their present locations.
Wegener speculated that the crum-
pling of the crust in places may have
produced mountain ranges such as
the Andes on the western coast of
South America.

Figure 1 Early explorers noticed that

the coastlines of Africa and South America
could fit together like puzzle pieces. Can
you identify any other continents that
could fit together like puzzle pieces?
Section 1 Continental Drift 259
Figure 2 Fossils of Mesosaurus,
such as the one shown below,
were found in both South
America and western Africa.
Mountain chains of similar ages
also exist on different conti-
nents, as shown in the map
EUROPE
at right. NORTH
AMERICA
AME ASIA
ATLANTIC
OCEAN

AFRICA

SOUTH
AMERICA INDIAN
PACIFIC
P
PA OCEAN
OCEAN
O

Fossil Evidence
In addition to seeing the similarities in the coastlines of the
continents, Wegener found other evidence to support his hypoth-
esis. He reasoned that if the continents had once been joined,
fossils of the same plants and animals should be found in areas
www.scilinks.org
that had once been connected. Wegener knew that identical fossils
Topic: Continental Drift of Mesosaurus, a small, extinct land reptile, had been found in both
Code: HQX0351 South America and western Africa. Mesosaurus, a fossil of which is
shown in Figure 2, lived 270 million years ago (during the
Paleozoic Era). Wegener knew that it was unlikely these reptiles
had swum across the Atlantic Ocean. He also saw no evidence
that land bridges had once connected the continents. So, he con-
cluded that South America and Africa had been joined at one time
in the past.

Evidence from Rock Formations

Geologic evidence also supported Wegener’s hypothesis of
continental drift. The ages and types of rocks in the coastal regions
of widely separated areas, such as western Africa and eastern
South America, matched closely. Mountain chains that ended at
the coastline of one continent seemed to continue on other conti-
nents across the ocean, as shown in Figure 2. The Appalachian
Mountains, for example, extend northward along the eastern coast
of North America, and mountains of similar age and structure are
found in Greenland, Scotland, and northern Europe. If the conti-
nents are assembled into a model supercontinent, the mountains of
similar age fit together in continuous chains.

260 Chapter 10 Plate Tectonics

Climatic Evidence
Changes in climatic patterns provided more evidence that the
continents have not always been located where they are now.
Geologists discovered layers of debris from ancient glaciers in Three-Panel Flip Chart
southern Africa and South America. Today, those areas have cli- Make a three-panel flip chart.
mates that are too warm for glaciers to form. Other fossil evidence— Label the panels “Fossil evi-
such as the plant fossil shown in Figure 3—indicated that tropical dence,” “Evidence from rock
formations,” and “Climatic
or subtropical swamps covered areas that now have much colder evidence.” Open the appropri-
climates. Wegener suggested that if the continents were once joined ate flap to take notes about
and positioned differently, evidence of climatic differences would evidence
be easy to explain. Wegener used
to support his
Missing Mechanisms hypothesis.
Despite the evidence that supported the hypothesis of continen-
tal drift, Wegener’s ideas were strongly opposed. Other scientists of
the time rejected the mechanism proposed by Wegener to explain
how the continents moved. Wegener suggested that the continents
plowed through the rock of the ocean floor. However, this idea was
shown to be physically impossible. Wegener spent the rest of his
Academic Vocabulary
life searching for a mechanism that would gain scientific consensus.
mechanism (MEK uh NIZ uhm) any
Unfortunately, Wegener died in 1930 before he identified a plausi- system or means by which something
ble explanation. gets done

Why did many scientists reject Wegener’s

hypothesis of continental drift? (See Appendix G for answers to
Reading Checks.)

Figure 3 The climate of Antarctica was not always as harsh

and cold as it is today. When the plant that became this fossil
lived, the climate of Antarctica was warm and tropical.

Section 1 Continental Drift 261

 Mid-Ocean Ridges
The evidence that Wegener needed to sup-
port his hypothesis was discovered nearly two
decades after his death. The evidence lay on the
ocean floor. In 1947, a group of scientists set out
to map the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The Mid-Atlantic
Ridge is part of a system of mid-ocean ridges,
which are undersea mountain ranges through
the center of which run steep, narrow valleys. A
special feature of mid-ocean ridges is shown in
Figure 4. While studying the Mid-Atlantic Ridge,
scientists noticed two surprising trends. First,
Figure 4 Black smokers are they noticed that the sediment that covers the sea
vents on the sea floor that form floor is thinner closer to a ridge than it is farther from the ridge.
as hot, mineral-rich water rushes This evidence suggests that sediment has been settling on the sea
from the hot rock at mid-ocean floor farther from the ridge for a longer time than it has been set-
ridges and mixes with the
surrounding cold ocean water.
tling near the ridge. Scientists then examined the remains of tiny
This photo was taken from a ocean organisms found in the sediment to date the sediment.
submersible. The distribution of these organisms showed that the closer the
sediment is to a ridge, the younger the sediment is. This evidence
indicates that rocks closer to the ridge are younger than rocks far-
ther from the ridge, as shown in Figure 5.
mid-ocean ridge a long, Second, scientists learned that the ocean floor is very young.
undersea mountain chain that While rocks on land are as much as 4 billion years old, none of the
has a steep, narrow valley at its
center, that forms as magma oceanic rocks are more than 200 million years old. Radiometric
rises from the asthenosphere, dating also showed evidence that sea-floor rocks closer to a mid-
and that creates new oceanic ocean ridge are younger than sea-floor rocks farther from a ridge.
lithosphere (sea floor) as
tectonic plates move apart

Figure 5 Rocks closer to a Mid-ocean ridge

mid-ocean ridge are younger Rift
than rocks farther from the
Sediment
ridge. In addition, rocks closer
to the ridge are covered with
less sediment, which indicates
that sediment has had less
time to settle on them.
Oceanic crust

Magma
LITHOSPHERE

ASTHENOSPHERE

262 Chapter 10 Plate Tectonics

Sea-Floor Spreading
In the late 1950s, a geologist named Harry Hess suggested a
new hypothesis. He proposed that the valley at the center of the
ridge was a crack, or rift, in Earth’s crust. At this rift, molten rock, or
magma, from deep inside Earth rises to fill the crack. As the ocean
floor moves away from the ridge, rising magma cools and solidifies
to form new rock that replaces the ocean floor. This process is shown
in Figure 6. During this process, named sea-floor spreading by sea-floor spreading the
geologist Robert Dietz, new ocean lithosphere forms as magma process by which new oceanic
lithosphere (sea floor) forms
rises to Earth’s surface and solidifies at a mid-ocean ridge. Hess when magma rises to Earth’s
suggested that if the ocean floor is moving, the continents might be surface at mid-ocean ridges and
moving, too. Hess thought that sea-floor spreading was the mecha- solidifies, as older, existing sea
nism that Wegener had failed to find. floor moves away from the ridge
Still, Hess’s ideas were only hypotheses. More evidence for paleomagnetism the study of
the alignment of magnetic
sea-floor spreading would come years later, in the mid-1960s. This minerals in rock, specifically as it
evidence would be discovered through paleomagnetism, the study relates to the reversal of Earth’s
of the magnetic properties of rocks. magnetic poles; also the
magnetic properties that rock
How does new sea floor form? acquires during formation

Newly formed
oceanic lithosphere
Older lithosphere

Newest lithosphere
Oldest lithosphere

Figure 6 As the ocean floor spreads

Newest lithosphere apart at a mid-ocean ridge, magma
Oldest lithosphere rises to fill the rift and then cools to
form new rock. As this process is
repeated over millions of years, new
sea floor forms.

Section 1 Continental Drift 263

 Paleomagnetism
If you have ever used a compass to determine direc-
North North
geomagnetic geographic
tion, you know that Earth acts as a giant magnet. Earth
pole pole has north and south geomagnetic poles, as shown in
Figure 7. The compass needle aligns with the field of
magnetic force that extends from one pole to the other.
As magma solidifies to form rock, iron-rich minerals
in the magma align with Earth’s magnetic field in the
same way that a compass needle does. When the rock
hardens, the magnetic orientation of the minerals becomes
Magnetic
permanent. This residual magnetism of rock is called
field lines paleomagnetism.

Magnetic Reversals
Figure 7 Earth acts as a giant
Geologic evidence shows that Earth’s magnetic field has
magnet because of currents in not always pointed north, as it does now. Scientists have
Earth’s core. discovered rocks whose magnetic orientations point opposite to
Earth’s current magnetic field. Scientists have dated rocks of different
magnetic polarities. All rocks with magnetic fields that point north, or
normal polarity, are classified in the same time intervals. All rocks with
magnetic fields that point south, or reversed polarity, also fall into
specific time intervals. When scientists placed these periods of normal
and reverse polarity in chronological order, they discovered a pattern
of alternating normal and reversed polarity in the rocks. Scientists
used this pattern to create the geomagnetic reversal time scale.

Why It Matters

Our Own Space Shield

Earth’s magnetic field is not just an interesting topic for
scientists. It makes life on Earth possible. Earth’s magnetic field
acts like a giant space shield, protecting our planet from the
solar wind — electrically charged particles that stream away
from the sun in all directions. Even with Earth’s magnetic field
in place, temporary increases in the strength of the solar wind
can disrupt telecommunications systems and disable electric
power grids. Without the magnetic field, Earth’s atmosphere
would be gradually swept away into the depths of space.
The solar wind moves along
Earth’s magnetic field toward the
poles, so auroras are commonly
A
Auroras, commonly seen at high latitudes.
kknown as the northern
aand southern lights, are a
sign that Earth’s protective
si
space shield is working.
sp
UNDERSTANDING CONCEPTS
What could happen to our
atmosphere if Earth had no
magnetic field?

264
Magnetic Symmetry
As scientists were learning about the age of the sea floor, they Quick Lab 10 min
also were finding puzzling magnetic patterns on the ocean floor.
The scientists used the geomagnetic reversal time scale to help Making Magnets
them unravel the mystery of these magnetic patterns.
Procedure
Scientists noticed that the striped magnetic pattern on one side
1 Slide one end of a bar
of a mid-ocean ridge is a mirror image of the striped pattern on the magnet down the side of a
other side of the ridge. These patterns are shown in Figure 8. When 5 inch iron nail 10 times.
drawn on maps of the ocean floor, these patterns show alternating Always slide the magnet in
bands of normal and reversed polarity that match the geomagnetic the same direction.
reversal time scale. Scientists suggested that as new sea floor forms 2 Hold the nail over a small
at a mid-ocean ridge, the new sea floor records reversals in Earth’s pile of steel paper clips.
magnetic field. Record what happens.
By matching the magnetic patterns on each side of a mid-ocean 3 Slide the bar magnet back
ridge to the geomagnetic reversal time scale, scientists could assign and forth 10 times down
the side of the nail. Repeat
ages to the sea-floor rocks. The scientists found that the ages of step 2.
sea-floor rocks were also symmetrical. The youngest rocks were at
the center, and older rocks were farther away on either side of the Analysis
ridge. The only place on the sea floor that new rock forms is at the 1. What was the effect of
rift in a mid-ocean ridge. Thus, the patterns indicate that new rock sliding the magnet down
forms at the center of a ridge and then moves away from the center the nail in one direction? in
in opposite directions. Thus, the symmetry of magnetic patterns— different directions?
and the symmetry of ages of sea-floor rocks—supports Hess’s idea 2. How does this lab demon-
of sea-floor spreading. strate the idea of polarity?

How are magnetic patterns in sea-floor rock

evidence of sea-floor spreading?

Reversed polarity
Rift
Normal polarity

Keyword: HQXTECF8

Figure 8 The stripes in the sea floor

shown here illustrate Earth’s alternating
magnetic field. Dark stripes represent
normal polarity, while lighter stripes
represent reversed polarity. What is the
polarity of the rocks closest to the rift?
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
Age of sea floor (in millions of years)

Section 1 Continental Drift 265

Figure 9 Scientists collected
samples of these sedimentary rocks
in California and used the mag-
netic properties of the samples to
date the rocks by using the
geomagnetic reversal time scale.

Wegener Redeemed
Another group of scientists discovered that the reversal pat-
terns seen in rocks on the sea floor also appeared in rocks on land,
such as those shown in Figure 9. The reversals in the land rocks
matched the geomagnetic reversal time scale. Because the same
pattern occurs in rocks of the same ages on both land and the sea
floor, scientists became confident that magnetic patterns show
changes over time. Thus, the idea of sea-floor spreading gained
further favor in the scientific community.
Scientists reasoned that sea-floor spreading provides a way for
the continents to move over Earth’s surface. Continents are carried
by the widening sea floor in much the same way that objects are
carried by a conveyor belt. The molten rock from a rift cools, hard-
ens, and then moves away in opposite directions on both sides of
the ridge. Here, at last, was the mechanism that verified Wegener’s
hypothesis of continental drift.

Section 1 Review
Key Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Describe the observation that first led to 7. Making Inferences How does evidence that
Wegener’s hypothesis of continental drift. rocks farther from a ridge are older than rocks
2. Summarize the evidence that supports
closer to the ridge support the idea of
Wegener’s hypothesis. spreading?

3. Compare sea-floor spreading with the formation 8. Analyzing Ideas Explain how sea-floor spread-
of mid-ocean ridges. ing provides an explanation for how continents
move over Earth’s surface.
4. Explain how scientists know that Earth’s mag-
netic poles have reversed many times during Concept Mapping
Earth’s history. 9. Use the following terms to create a concept
5. Identify how magnetic symmetry can be used as map: continental drift, paleomagnetism, fossils,
evidence of sea-floor spreading. climate, sea-floor spreading, geologic evidence,
supercontinent, and mid-ocean ridge.
6. Explain how scientists date sea-floor rocks.

266 Chapter 10 Plate Tectonics

 SECTION

2 The Theory of Plate Tectonics

Key
ey
y Ideas
deass Key
ey
y Terms
e s Why
y Itt Matters
atte s
❯ Summarize the theory of plate tectonics. plate tectonics Plate tectonics is not just a
❯ Identify and describe the three types of plate lithosphere scientific theory. Because
boundaries. asthenosphere of plate tectonics, you are
❯ List and describe three causes of plate able to enjoy the use of a
divergent boundary cell phone, MP3 player, or
movement.
convergent boundary any number of other
transform boundary electronic devices.

B y the 1960s, evidence supporting continental drift and sea-floor

spreading led to the development of a theory called plate tectonics.
Plate tectonics is the theory that explains why and how continents
move and is the study of the formation of features in Earth’s crust.

How Continents Move

Earth’s crust and the rigid, upper part of the mantle form a
layer of Earth called the lithosphere. The lithosphere forms the
thin outer shell of Earth. It is broken into several blocks, called
tectonic plates, that ride on a deformable layer of the mantle called
the asthenosphere in much the same way that blocks of wood float plate tectonics the theory that
explains how large pieces of the
on water. The asthenosphere (as THEN uh sfir) is a layer of lithosphere, called plates, move
“plastic” rock just below the lithosphere. Plastic rock is a solid, not and change shape
a liquid, but it is so hot that it flows very slowly, like putty does. lithosphere the solid, outer
Figure 1 shows what tectonic plates may look like. layer of Earth that consists of
Earth’s crust is classified into two types—oceanic crust and the crust and the rigid upper
part of the mantle
continental crust. Oceanic crust is dense and is made of rock that is
asthenosphere the solid,
rich in iron and magnesium. Continental crust has a low density plastic layer of the mantle
and is made of rock that is rich in silica. Tectonic plates can include beneath the lithosphere
continental crust, oceanic crust, or both. The crust is carried along
on the moving tectonic plates in the same way that passengers are
carried by a bus.

South
American
plate

Figure 1 Tectonic
plates fit together on
Earth’s surface like
Nazca plate
three-dimensional puzzle
Pacific plate pieces.

267
Antarctic
plate
 Tectonic Plates
Scientists have identified 15 major tectonic plates and many
smaller plates. While plates are often bordered by major surface
features, such as mountain ranges or deep trenches in the oceans,
the boundaries of the plates are not always easy to identify. As
The
he R
Rate
ate of Plate shown in Figure 2, the familiar outlines of the continents and
Movement Tectonic oceans often do not match the outlines of plate boundaries. Some
plates move slowly on Earth’s plate boundaries are located within continents far from mountain
surface. The rate of plate ranges.
movement can be calculated
by using the following
Earthquakes
equation:
Scientists identify plate boundaries primarily by studying data
distance
rate ⫽ from earthquakes. When tectonic plates move, sudden shifts can
time
occur along their boundaries. These sudden movements are called
In kilometers, how far would a earthquakes. Frequent earthquakes in a given zone are evidence that
plate that moves 4 cm per
two or more plates may meet in that area.
year move in 2 million years?

Volcanoes
The locations of volcanoes can also help to identify the loca-
tions of plate boundaries. Some volcanoes form when plate motions
generate magma that erupts on Earth’s surface. For example, the
Pacific Ring of Fire is a zone of active volcanoes that encircles the
Pacific Ocean. This zone is also one of Earth’s major earthquake
zones. The characteristics of this zone indicate that the Pacific
Figure 2 Tectonic plates may
contain both oceanic and Ocean is surrounded by plate boundaries.
continental crust. Notice that How do scientists identify locations of plate
the boundaries of plates do not
boundaries?
always match the outlines of
continents.

Eurasian plate
North American
Juan de Fuca plate plate

Phillipine plate Arabian plate

Indian Caribbean plate
plate Cocos plate
Pacific plate
African plate

Nazca plate South American

plate
Australian
plate

Scotia plate
Antarctic
plate

268 Chapter 10 Plate Tectonics

 Rift

Mid-ocean ridge

Oceanic crust

Continental crust

Figure 3 At divergent boundaries

boundaries, plates
separate. A divergent boundary exists in the Red
Sea between the Arabian Peninsula and Africa.

Types of Plate Boundaries

Some of the most dramatic changes in Earth’s crust, such as
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, happen along plate bounda-
ries. Plate boundaries may be in the middle of an ocean basin,
around the edges of continents, or even within continents. There
are three types of plate boundaries. These plate boundaries are:
divergent boundaries, convergent boundaries, and transform
boundaries. Each type of plate boundary is associated with a char-
acteristic type of geologic activity.

Divergent Boundaries
The way that plates move relative to each other determines
how the plate boundary affects Earth’s surface. At a divergent divergent boundary the
boundary, two plates move away from each other. A divergent boundary between tectonic
plates that are moving away
boundary is illustrated in Figure 3. from each other
At divergent boundaries, magma from the asthenosphere rises
to the surface as the plates move apart. The magma then cools to
form new oceanic lithosphere. The newly formed rock at the ridge
is warm and light. This warm, light rock sits higher than the
surrounding sea floor because it is less dense. This rock forms
undersea mountain ranges known as mid-ocean ridges. Along the
center of a mid-ocean ridge is a rift valley, a narrow valley that
forms where the plates separate.
Most divergent boundaries are located on the ocean floor.
However, rift valleys may also form where continents are sepa-
rated by plate movement. For example, the Red Sea occupies a
huge rift valley formed by the separation of the African plate and
the Arabian plate, as shown in Figure 3.

Section 2 The Theory of Plate Tectonics 269

 Convergent Boundaries
As plates pull apart at one boundary, they push into neighbor-
convergent boundary the ing plates at other boundaries. Convergent boundaries are plate
boundary between tectonic boundaries that form where two plates collide.
plates that are colliding
Three types of collisions can happen at convergent bound-
aries. One type happens when oceanic lithosphere collides with
continental lithosphere, as shown in Figure 4. Because oceanic
lithosphere is denser, it subducts, or sinks, under the less dense
continental lithosphere. The region along a plate boundary where
one plate moves under another plate is called a subduction zone.
Deep-ocean trenches form at subduction zones. As the oceanic
plate subducts, it heats up and releases fluids into the mantle
Prefixes
The term convergent boundary above it. The addition of these fluids causes material in the over-
contains the prefix con-. Give lying mantle to melt to form magma. The magma rises to the
the definition of the term and surface and forms volcanic mountains.
the prefix. A second type of collision happens when two plates made of
continental lithosphere collide. In this type of collision, neither
plate subducts because neither plate is dense enough to subduct
under the other plate. Instead, the colliding edges crumple and
thicken, which causes uplift that forms large mountain ranges. The
Himalaya Mountains formed in this type of collision.
The third type of collision happens between two plates that are
made of oceanic lithosphere. One plate subducts under the other
plate, and a deep-ocean trench forms. Fluids released from the
subducted plate cause mantle rock to melt and form magma. The
magma rises to the surface to form an island arc, which is a chain of
volcanic islands. Japan is an example of an island arc.
Figure 4 Plates collide at Describe the three types of collisions that
convergent boundaries. The happen at convergent boundaries.
islands of Japan are formed by
the subduction of the Pacific
plate and the Philippine plate
under the Eurasian plate.
Ocean trench

Active volcano

Magma

S u bd
u c tio
n zon
e

270 Chapter 10 Plate Tectonics

Pacific plate North American plate

Asthenosphere

Figure 5 Plates slide past each

other at transform boundaries.
Transform Boundaries The course of the stream in the
photo changed because the
The boundary at which two plates slide past each other hori- plates moved past each other at
zontally, as shown in Figure 5, is called a transform boundary. the San Andreas Fault in
However, the plate edges usually do not slide along smoothly. California.
Instead, they scrape against each other in a series of sudden spurts
of motion that are felt as earthquakes. Unlike other types of bound-
aries, transform boundaries do not produce magma. The San
Andreas Fault in California is a major transform boundary between transform boundary the
the North American plate and the Pacific plate. boundary between tectonic
plates that are sliding past each
Transform motion also occurs along mid-ocean ridges. Short other horizontally
segments of a mid-ocean ridge are connected by transform bound-
aries called fracture zones.
Table 1 summarizes the three types of plate boundaries. The
table also describes how each type of plate boundary changes
Earth’s surface and includes examples of each type of plate
boundary.

Table 1 Plate Boundary Summary

Type of boundary Description Example
Divergent plates moving away from each other to North American and Eurasian plates at
form rifts and mid-ocean ridges the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Convergent plates moving toward each other and South American and Nazca plates at the
colliding to form ocean trenches, Chilean trench along the west coast of
mountain ranges, volcanoes, and island South America
arcs

Transform plates sliding past each other while North American and Pacific plates at the
moving in opposite directions San Andreas Fault in California

Section 2 The Theory of Plate Tectonics 271

 Causes of Plate Motion
The movement of tectonic plates is part of the mantle convec-
tion system. Convection is the movement of heated material due
Academic Vocabulary to differences in density that are caused by differences in
process (PROH ses) a set of steps, temperatures. This process can be modeled by boiling water in a
events, or changes
pot on a stove. As the water at the bottom of the pot is heated, it
expands and becomes less dense than the cooler water above it.
The cooler, denser water sinks, and the warmer water rises to the
surface to create a cycle called a convection cell.

Mantle Convection
Scientists think that Earth is also a convecting system. Energy
generated by Earth’s core and radioactivity within the mantle heat
mantle material. This heated material rises through the cooler,
denser material around it. As the hot material rises, the cooler,
denser material flows away from the hot material and sinks into
the mantle to replace the rising material. As the mantle material
moves, the overlying tectonic plates move along with it, as shown
in Figure 6.
Convection currents and the resulting movement of tectonic
plates can explain many aspects of plate movement. But scientists
have identified two specific mechanisms of convection that help to
drive the process of plate motion.
Figure 6 Scientists think that
tectonic plates are part of a
convection system. How is the
rising of hot material related to
the location of divergent
boundaries? Divergent boundary
Convergent boundary Convergent boundary

Rising hot material

Convection cell
Sinking cold material

MESOSPHERE

OUTER CORE
272
Ridge Push
Newly formed rock at a mid-ocean Cooling, sliding lithosphere
ridge is warmer and less dense than older
rock nearby. The warmer, less dense rock
is elevated above nearby rock, and older,
denser rock slopes downward away from
the ridge. As the newer, warmer rock
cools and becomes denser, it begins to
slide down the slope between the litho-
sphere and the asthenosphere.
As the cooling rock slides down the
slope of the ridge, it exerts force on the Resulting
rest of the plate. This force is called ridge plate motion
push. This force pushes the rest of the Figure 7 As the cooling
plate away from the mid-ocean ridge. lithosphere slides down the
Ridge push is illustrated in Figure 7. slope formed by the elevation
Scientists think that ridge push may help to drive plate motions. of the mid-ocean ridge, it
However, most scientists agree that ridge push is not the main pushes on the rest of the plate.
This process contributes to the
driving force of plate motion. So, scientists looked to convergent
movement of the entire plate.
boundaries for other clues about forces that drive plate motion.
How may density differences in the rock at a
mid-ocean ridge help to drive plate motion?

Quick Lab 30 min

Tectonic Plate Boundaries

Procedure
1 Using a ruler, draw two 7 cm ⫻ 12 cm rect-
angles on a piece of paper. Cut them out with
scissors.
2 Use a rolling pin to flatten two different-
colored pieces of clay to about 0.5 cm thick.
3 Use a plastic knife to cut each piece of clay
into a 7 cm ⫻ 12 cm rectangle. Place a paper
rectangle on each piece of clay. blocks meet. Slide one clay model forward 7 cm
4 Place the two clay models side by side on a flat and the other model backward about 7 cm.
surface, paper side down.
5 Place one hand on each piece of clay, and Analysis
slowly push the blocks together until the edges 1. What type of plate boundary are you modeling
begin to buckle and rise off the surface of the in step 5?
table. 2. What type of plate boundary are you modeling
6 Turn the clay models around so that the in step 7?
unbuckled edges are touching each other. 3. How do you think the processes you modeled
7 Place one hand on each clay model. Apply in this activity might affect the appearance of
slight pressure toward the plane where the two Earth’s surface?

Section 2 The Theory of Plate Tectonics 273

 Direction of plate motion

Figure 8 The leading edge of the

subducting plate pulls the rest of the
subducting plate into the astheno-
sphere in a process called slab pull.
Resulting
plate motion

Sinking due to density

Slab Pull
Where plates pull away from each other at mid-ocean ridges,
magma from the asthenosphere rises to the surface. The magma then
cools to form new lithosphere. As the lithosphere moves away from
the mid-ocean ridge, the lithosphere cools and becomes denser.
Where the lithosphere is dense enough, it begins to subduct into the
www.scilinks.org asthenosphere. As the leading edge of the plate sinks, it pulls the rest
Topic: Plate Tectonics of the plate along behind it, as shown in Figure 8. The force exerted
Code: HQX1171 by the sinking plate is called slab pull. In general, plates that are
subducting move faster than plates that are not subducting. This
evidence indicates that the downward pull of the subducting litho-
sphere is a strong driving force for tectonic plate motion.
All three mechanisms of Earth’s convecting system—movement
as part of a convection cell, ridge push, and slab pull—work together
to drive plate motions. These mechanisms form a system that makes
Earth’s tectonic plates move constantly.

Section 2 Review
Key Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Summarize the theory of plate tectonics. 7. Making Inferences How do convergent bound-
2. Explain why most earthquakes and volcanoes
aries add material to Earth’s surface?
happen along plate boundaries. 8. Determining Cause and Effect Explain how
3. Identify and describe the three major types of
the outward transfer of energy as heat from
plate boundaries. inside Earth drives the movement of tectonic
plates.
4. Compare the changes in Earth’s surface that
happen at a convergent boundary with those Concept Mapping
that happen at a divergent boundary. 9. Use the following terms to create a concept map:
5. Describe the role of convection currents in plate tectonic plate, divergent, convergent, convection,
movement. transform, ridge push, slab pull, subduction zone,
and mid-ocean ridge.
6. Describe how ridge push and slab pull contrib-
ute to the movement of tectonic plates.

274 Chapter 10 Plate Tectonics

 SECTION

3 The Changing Continents

Key
ey
y Ideas
deass Key
ey
y Terms
e s Why
y Itt Matters
atte s
❯ Identify how movements of tectonic plates rifting Global warming is a big
change Earth’s surface. terrane concern in today’s world.
❯ Summarize how movements of tectonic plates supercontinent cycle
But movements of Earth’s
have influenced climates and life on Earth. tectonic plates have had
Pangaea an effect on climates
❯ Describe the supercontinent cycle.
Panthalassa both past and present.

T he continents did not always have the same shapes that they
have today. And geologic evidence indicates that they will not
remain the same shapes forever. In fact, the continents are always
changing. Slow movements of tectonic plates change the sizes and
shapes of the continents over millions of years.

Reshaping Earth’s Crust

All the continents that exist today contain large areas of stable
rock, called cratons, that are older than 540 million years. Rocks
within the cratons that have been exposed at Earth’s surface are
called shields. Cratons represent ancient cores around which the
modern continents formed.

Rifting and Continental Breakup

One way that continents change shape is by breaking apart.
Rifting is the process by which a continent breaks apart. New, rifting the process by which
smaller continents may form as a result of this process. The reason Earth’s crust breaks apart; can
occur within continental crust or
that continents rift is not entirely known. Because continental oceanic crust
crust is thick and has a high silica content, continental crust acts as
an insulator. This insulating property prevents heat in Earth’s
interior from escaping. Scientists
think that as heat from the mantle
builds up beneath the continent,
continental lithosphere becomes
thinner and begins to weaken.
Eventually, a rift forms in this
zone of weakness, and the conti-
nent begins to break apart, as
shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 The East African Rift Valley

formed as Africa began rifting about
30 million years ago.

275
 Terranes and Continental Growth
Continents change not only by breaking apart but also by gain-
ing material. Most continents consist of cratons surrounded by a
terrane a piece of lithosphere patchwork of terranes. A terrane is a piece of lithosphere that has
that has a unique geologic a unique geologic history that differs from the histories of the
history and that may be part of
a larger piece of lithosphere,
surrounding lithosphere. A terrane can be identified by three char-
such as a continent acteristics. First, a terrane contains rock and fossils that differ from
the rock and fossils of neighboring terranes. Second, there are
major faults at the boundaries of a terrane. Third, the magnetic
properties of a terrane generally do not match those of neighboring
terranes.
Terranes become part of a continent at convergent boundaries.
When a tectonic plate carrying a terrane subducts under a plate
made of continental crust, the terrane is scraped off the subducting
plate, as shown in Figure 2. The terrane then becomes part of the
continent. Some terranes may form mountains, while other ter-
ranes simply add to the surface area of a continent. The process in
which a terrane becomes part of a continent is called accretion (uh
KREE shuhn).
A variety of materials can form terranes. Terranes may be small
volcanic islands or underwater volcanoes called seamounts. Small
coral islands, or atolls, that form on top of seamounts can also
become terranes. And large chunks of continental crust can be ter-
ranes. When large terranes and continents collide, major mountain
chains often form. For example, the Himalaya Mountains formed
when India began colliding with Asia about 50 million years ago
(during the Cenozoic Era).
Describe the process of accretion.

Figure 2 As oceanic crust subducts, a terrane is scraped off

the ocean floor and becomes part of the continental crust.
What would you expect to happen to sediments on the sea
Terrane A
floor when the plate they are on subducts?
Terrane A Terrane B
Terrane B

As the oceanic plate subducts, terranes are When the terrane reaches the subduction
carried closer to the continent. zone, the terrane is scraped off the
subducting plate and added to the edge
of the continent.

276 Chapter 10 Plate Tectonics

 30°°E 40°°E 50°°E
TANZANIA
10°°S Figure 3 Madagascar separated
INDIAN OCEAN from Africa about 165 million years
ago and separated from India about
MALAWI
COMOROS 88 million years ago. This separation
isolated the plants and animals on
ZAMBIA MOZAMBIQUE the island of Madagascar. As a result,
unique species of plants and animals

l
evolved on Madagascar. These

ne
species, such as the fossa (below),

an
AFRICA are found nowhere else on Earth.

Ch
MADAGASCAR

ue
ZIMBABWE
20°°S

iq
mb
za
Mo

SWAZILAND

Effects of Continental Change

Modern climates are a result of past movements
of tectonic plates. A continent’s location in relation
to the equator and the poles affects the continent’s
overall climate. A continent’s climate is also affected
by the continent’s location in relation to oceans and other
continents. Mountain ranges affect air flow and wind patterns
around the globe. Mountains also affect the amount of moisture
that reaches certain parts of a continent. When continents move,
the flow of air and moisture around the globe changes and causes
climates to change.

Changes in Climate
Geologic evidence shows that ice once covered most of Earth’s
continental surfaces. Even the Sahara in Africa, one of the hottest
places on Earth today, was once covered by a thick ice sheet. This
ice sheet formed about 450 million years ago when all of the conti-
nents were close together and were located near the South Pole. As
the continents began to drift around the globe, however, global
temperatures changed and much of the ice sheet melted.

Changes in Life
As continents rift or as mountains form, populations of
organisms are separated. When populations are separated, new
species may evolve from existing species. Sometimes, isolation
protects organisms from competitors and predators, and may
allow the organisms to evolve into unique organisms, as shown
in Figure 3.
Section 3 The Changing Continents 277
 The Supercontinent Cycle
Using evidence from many scientific fields, scientists can
construct a general picture of continental change throughout
time. Scientists think that, at several times in the past, the conti-
nents were arranged into large landmasses called supercontinents.
These supercontinents broke apart to form smaller continents
that moved around the globe. Eventually, the smaller continents
joined again to form another supercontinent. When the last
supercontinent broke apart, the modern continents formed. A
new supercontinent is likely to form in the future. The process
by which supercontinents form and break apart over time is
supercontinent cycle the pro- called the supercontinent cycle and is shown in Figure 4.
cess by which supercontinents
form and break apart over
millions of years Why Supercontinents Form
Pangaea the supercontinent The movement of plates toward convergent boundaries even-
that formed 300 million years tually causes continents to collide. Because continental litho-
ago and that began to break up
200 million years ago sphere does not subduct, the convergent boundary between two
Panthalassa the single, large continents becomes inactive, and a new convergent boundary
ocean that covered Earth’s forms. Over time, all the continents collide to form a super-
surface during the time the continent. Then, heat from Earth’s interior builds up under the
supercontinent Pangaea existed supercontinent, and rifts form in the supercontinent. The super-
continent breaks apart, and plates carrying separate continents
move around the globe.

Formation of Pangaea
The supercontinent Pangaea (pan JEE uh) formed about 300 mil-
lion years ago (during the Paleozoic Era). As the continents
Figure 4 Over millions of
collided to form Pangaea, mountains formed. The Appalachian
years, supercontinents form and
break apart in a cycle known as Mountains of eastern North America and the Ural
the supercontinent cycle. Mountains of Russia formed during these collisions. A
body of water called the Tethys Sea cut into the
eastern edge of Pangaea. The single, large
ocean that surrounded Pangaea was called
Siberia
Panthalassa.

North America Antarctica

Europe
South
America
P

Africa
Europe
A

North
N

Panthalassa America Tethys

G

Sea
About 450 million years ago Earth’s continents
A

were separated, as they are today.

Africa Australia
E

South India
America
A

Antarctica

225 million to 200 million years ago Pangaea had

formed and was beginning to break apart.

278 Chapter 10 Plate Tectonics

Breakup of Pangaea
About 200 million years ago (during the Mesozoic Era), Pangaea
began to break into two continents—Laurasia and Gondwanaland. A
large rift split the supercontinent from east to west. Then, Laurasia
began to drift northward and rotate slowly, and a new rift formed.
This rift separated Laurasia into the continents of North America
and Eurasia, and eventually formed the North Atlantic Ocean. The
rotation of Laurasia also caused the Tethys Sea to shrink, leaving a
remnant that eventually became the Mediterranean Sea.
As Laurasia began to break apart, Gondwanaland also broke
into two continents. One of these continents broke apart to become
the continents of South America and Africa. About 150 million
www.scilinks.org
years ago (during the Mesozoic Era), a rift between Africa and Topic: Pangaea
South America opened to form the South Atlantic Ocean. The other Code: HQX1105
continent separated to form India, Australia, and Antarctica. As
India broke away from Australia and Antarctica, it started moving
northward toward Eurasia. About 50 million years ago (during the
Cenozoic Era), India collided with Eurasia, and the Himalaya
Mountains began to form.

The Modern Continents

Slowly, the continents moved into their present positions. As
the continents drifted, they collided with terranes and other conti-
nents. These collisions welded new crust onto the continents and
uplifted the land. Mountain ranges, such as the Rocky Mountains,
the Andes, and the Alps, formed. Tectonic plate motion also caused
new oceans to open up and caused others to close.
What modern continents formed
from Gondwanaland?

North Europe
America
Asia

Africa India
South
North America
America Asia
U R A S I A
L A
Europe Australia

Tethys Antarctica
GO

Africa Sea
South
ND

America 70 million to 50 million years ago

India
WA

The continents were moving toward their

NA

Australia current positions. The current positions of

A
L

ND the continents are shown here in red.

Antarctica

160 million to 140 million years ago

Pangaea split into two continents: Laurasia to
the north and Gondwanaland to the south.

Section 3 The Changing Continents 279

 Geography of the Future
As tectonic plates continue to move, Earth’s geography will
change dramatically. If plate movements continue at current rates,
in about 150 million years, Africa will collide with Eurasia, and the
Mediterranean Sea will close. New subduction zones will form off
Recognizing Facts, the east coast of North and South America after North America
Hypotheses, and
Theories
collides with Eurasia. North and South America will then move
Make a three-column table. In east across the Atlantic Ocean. The Atlantic Ocean will close as
the first column, list state- North and South America collide with Africa.
ments from this page and the In North America, Mexico’s Baja Peninsula and the part of
preceding page about the California that is west of the San Andreas Fault will move to where
past and future positions of Alaska is today. If this plate movement occurs as predicted, Los
continents. In the second
column, identify whether each
Angeles will be located north of San Francisco’s current location.
is a fact, hypothesis, or theory. Scientists predict that, in 250 million years, the continents will
In the third column, write any come together again to form a new supercontinent, as shown in
language from the text that Figure 5.
signals which type of state-
ment each is.

Academic Vocabulary Europe

predict (pree DIKT) to tell in advance Africa

North Asia
America

South
America

Figure 5 Scientists predict that

movements of tectonic plates will cause Australia
a supercontinent to form in the future. Antarctica

Section 3 Review
Key Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Identify how rifting and accretion change the 8. Identifying Relationships The interior parts
shapes of continents. of continents generally have drier climates than
2. Describe why a terrane has a different geologic
coastal areas do. How does this fact explain the
history from that of the surrounding area. evidence that the climate on Pangaea was drier
than many modern climates?
3. Summarize how continental rifting may lead to
changes in plants and animals. 9. Determining Cause and Effect Explain how
mountains on land can be composed of rocks
4. Describe the supercontinent cycle. that contain fossils of marine animals.
5. Explain how the theory of plate tectonics relates
to the formation and breakup of Pangaea.
Concept Mapping
10. Use the following terms to create a concept map:
6. Compare Pangaea and Gondwanaland. supercontinent, rifting, atoll, continent, terrane,
7. List three changes in geography that are likely to seamount, accretion, and Pangaea.
happen in the future.

280 Chapter 10 Plate Tectonics

Why It Matters

Copper from Plate Margins

You can find copper almost everywhere around you—in
electronics, air conditioners, coins, and cookware. You
depend on copper every time you log onto the Internet or Deposits of minerals
use a cell phone. Copper even makes up the outer skin of rich in copper and
the Statue of Liberty! other metals build
Most of the copper that is mined up around
hydrothermal vents
today formed at ancient tectonic plate
at divergent
margins. Some of this copper formed
boundaries.
at hydrothermal vents along divergent
plate boundaries. As superheated
The word’s largest
seawater rises through hydrothermal
copper deposits
vents, it deposits metal-rich minerals formed at convergent
that had been dissolved in it. More margins. Open-pit
than half of the world’s copper, mines such as this
however, comes from areas that one are used when
were once subduction zones. Hot ore is near the
fluids rising from subduction zones surface.
can become enriched with metals.
Then, the fluids deposit the metals
in fractures in the crust. Underground mines
When geologists look for are used to extract
copper, they identify ancient plate ore far below Earth’s
boundaries to help them target surface.
likely search areas.

The mineral chal-

copyrite consists of
copper and iron
combined with
sulfur. It is a
common copper ore.

Copper nugget

UNDERSTANDING CONCEPTS
Why do geologists look for
ancient plate margins when they
are searching for large bodies of
copper ore?
ONLINE RESEARCH
Research a copper mine. What
geologic processes formed the
ore being mined there?

281
 Making Models Lab 90 min

Sea-Floor Spreading
What You’ll Do The places on Earth’s surface where plates pull apart have many names.
❯ Model the formation of sea They are called divergent boundaries, mid-ocean ridges, and spreading
floor. centers. The term spreading center refers to the fact that sea-floor
spreading happens at these locations. In this lab, you will model the
❯ Identify how magnetic
formation of new sea floor at a divergent boundary. You will also model
patterns are caused by
the formation of magnetic patterns on the sea floor.
sea-floor spreading.

What You’ll Need

marker Procedure
paper, unlined 1 Cut two identical st
strips of unlined paper, each 7 cm wide and
ruler, metric 30 cm long.
scissors or utility knife
shoebox 2 Cut a slit 8 cm long in the center of the bottom of a shoebox.
3 Lay the strips of paper together on top of each other and end-to-
Safety end so that the ends line up. Push one end of the strips through the
slit in the shoe box, so that a few centimeters of both strips stick out
of the slit.
4 Place the shoe box flat on a table, open side down, and make sure
the ends of the paper strips are sticking up.

Step 3

282
 Step 6

5 Separate the strips, and hold one strip in each hand. Pull the strips
apart. Then, push the strips down against the shoe box.
6 Use a marker to mark across the paper strips where they exit the
box. One swipe with the marker should mark both strips.
7 Pull the strips evenly until about 2 cm have been pulled through
the slit.
8 Mark the strips with the marker again.
9 Repeat steps 7 and 8, but vary the length of paper that you pull
from the slit. Continue this process until both strips are pulled out of
the box.

Analysis
1. Evaluating Mo
1 Models How does this activity model sea-floor
spreading?
2. Analyzing Models What do the marker stripes in this model
represent?
3. Analyzing Methods If each 2 cm on the paper is equal to
3 million years, how could you use your model to determine the
age of certain points on the sea floor?
4. Applying Conclusions Suppose that you are given paper strips
with marks already drawn on them. How would you use the paper
strips to reconstruct the way in which the sea floor formed?

Extension
Making Models DesDesign a model that shows what happens at a
convergent boundary and what happens at a transform boundary.
Present these models to the class.

Chapter 10 Making Models Lab 283

Locations of 75ºW 60ºW 45ºW 30ºW

Earthquakes in
South America 0º

SOUTH
AMERICA
15ºS

30ºS
Earthquake Depth (km)
0
25 PACIFIC
75 OCEAN
ATLANTIC
150 OCEAN

45ºS
300

600

Map Skills Activity

This map shows the locations and depths of earth- 4. Inferring Relationships The locations of
quakes that registered magnitudes greater than 5 earthquakes and plate boundaries are related.
and that happened in South America over a recent Where would you expect to find a major plate
one-year span. Use the map to answer the questions boundary?
below. 5. Identifying Trends In what part of South
1. Using a Key How many earthquakes America do most deep earthquakes happen?
happened at a depth greater than 300 km? What relationships do you see between the
locations of shallow earthquakes and deep
2. Analyzing Data Deep earthquakes are earth-
earthquakes in South America?
quakes that happen at a depth greater than
300 km. Which earthquakes happen more fre- 6. Analyzing Relationships Most deep earth-
quently: deep earthquakes or shallow earthquakes? quakes happen where subducting plates move
deep into the mantle. What type of plate
3. Making Comparisons How does the earth-
boundary is indicated by the earthquake activity
quake activity on the eastern edge of South
in South America? Explain your answer.
America differ from the earthquake activity on
the western edge?

284 Chapter 10 Plate Tectonics

 10
Chapter Summary
Keyword: HQXTECS

Key Ideas Key Terms

Section 1 Continental Drift

❯ Fossil, rock, and climatic evidence supports Wegener’s continental drift, p. 259
hypothesis of continental drift. However, Wegener could not mid-ocean ridge, p. 262
explain the mechanism by which the continents move. sea-floor spreading,
❯ New ocean floor is constantly being produced through p. 263
sea-floor spreading, which creates mid-ocean ridges and paleomagnetism, p. 263
changes the topography of the sea floor.
❯ The magnetic properties of the rock of the ocean floor show
that new lithosphere forms at a mid-ocean ridge and then
moves away.
❯ Sea-floor spreading provides evidence that tectonic plates
move and change.

Section 2 The Theory of Plate Tectonics

❯ The theory of plate tectonics proposes that changes in Earth’s plate tectonics, p. 267
crust are caused by the very slow movement of large tectonic lithosphere, p. 267
plates. Earthquakes, volcanoes, and young mountain ranges asthenosphere, p. 267
tend to be located in belts along the boundaries between
tectonic plates. divergent boundary,
p. 269
❯ Tectonic plates meet at three types of boundaries— convergent boundary,
divergent, convergent, and transform. The geologic activity p. 270
that occurs along the three types of plate boundaries differs
transform boundary,
according to the way plates move relative to each other. p. 271
❯ Tectonic plates are part of a convecting system that is driven
by differences in density and heat.

Section 3 The Changing Continents

❯ Continents grow through the accretion of terranes. rifting, p. 275
Continents break apart through rifting. terrane, p. 276
❯ Movements of tectonic plates have altered climates on supercontinent cycle,
continents and have created conditions that lead to changes p. 278
in plants and animals. Pangaea, p. 278
❯ Continents collide to form supercontinents and then break Panthalassa, p. 278
apart in a cycle called the supercontinent cycle. Earth’s
tectonic plates continue to move, and, in the future, the
continents will likely be in a different configuration.

Chapter 10 Summary 285

Chapter
10 Review
1. Three-Panel Flip Chart Make a three- 13. Scientists think that the upwelling of mantle
panel flip chart. Label the first panel “Crust,” material at mid-ocean ridges is caused by the
the second “Lithosphere,” and the third motion of tectonic plates and comes from
“Asthenosphere.” Under the appropriate a. the lithosphere. c. the asthenosphere.
flap, list the location and b. terranes. d. rift valleys.
characteristics of each of 14. The layer of plastic rock that underlies the
these layers. tectonic plates is the
a. lithosphere. c. oceanic crust.
USING KEY TERMS b. asthenosphere. d. terrane.
15. The region along tectonic plate boundaries
Use each of the following terms in a separate
where one plate moves beneath another is
sentence.
called a
2. sea-floor spreading a. rift valley.
3. convection b. transform boundary.
4. divergent boundary c. subduction zone.
d. convergent boundary.
5. terrane
16. Two plates grind past each other at a
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings a. transform boundary.
of the terms differ. b. convergent boundary.
6. convergent boundary and subduction zone c. subduction zone.
7. continental drift and plate tectonics d. divergent boundary.

8. ridge push and slab pull 17. Convection occurs because heated material
becomes
9. Pangaea and Panthalassa a. less dense and rises.
b. denser and rises.
UNDERSTANDING KEY IDEAS c. denser and sinks.
d. less dense and sinks.
10. Support for Wegener’s hypothesis of contin-
ental drift includes evidence of changes in
a. climatic patterns. SHORT ANSWER
b. Panthalassa. 18. Explain the role of technology in the
c. terranes. progression from the hypothesis of continental
d. subduction. drift to the theory of plate tectonics.
11. New ocean floor is constantly being produced 19. Summarize how the continents moved from
through the process known as being part of Pangaea to their current
a. subduction. locations.
b. continental drift.
c. sea-floor spreading. 20. Why do most earthquakes and volcanoes
d. terranes. happen at or near plate boundaries?

12. An underwater mountain chain that formed by 21. Explain the following statement: “Because of
sea-floor spreading is called a sea-floor spreading, the ocean floor is
a. divergent boundary. constantly renewing itself.”
b. subduction zone. 22. Describe how rocks that form at a mid-ocean
c. mid-ocean ridge. ridge become magnetized.
d. convergent boundary. 23. How might continental rifting influence the
evolution of plants and animals?

286 Chapter 10 Plate Tectonics

 CRITICAL THINKING WRITING SKILLS
24. Making Comparisons How are tectonic 31. Writing Persuasively Imagine that you are
plates like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle? Alfred Wegener. Write a persuasive essay to
25. Making Inferences If Alfred Wegener had explain your idea of continental drift. Use only
found identical fossil remains of plants and evidence originally used by Wegener to
animals that had lived no more than 10 million support his hypothesis.
years ago in both eastern Brazil and western 32. Communicating Main Ideas Explain how
Africa, what might he have concluded about the research of Wegener, Hess, and others led
the breakup of Pangaea? to the theory of plate tectonics.
26. Identifying Relationships Assume that the
total surface area of Earth is not changing. If INTERPRETING GRAPHICS
new material is being added to Earth’s crust at
one boundary, what would you expect to be The graph below shows the relationship between
happening at another boundary? the age of sea-floor rocks and the depth of the sea
floor beneath the ocean surface. Use the graph to
27. Making Predictions About 150 million years
answer the questions that follow.
from now, the continents will have drifted to
new locations. How might these changes affect Ocean Depth vs. Sea-Floor Age
life on Earth? 2

North Pacific
CONCEPT MAPPING 3 South Pacific
Depth (km)

28. Use the following terms to create a concept

map: asthenosphere, lithosphere, divergent
4
boundary, convergent boundary, transform
boundary, subduction zone, mid-ocean ridge,
plates, convection, continental drift, theory of 5
plate tectonics, and sea-floor spreading.

6
MATH SKILLS 0 20 40 60 80
Age (in millions of years)
29. Making Calculations The coasts of Africa
and South America began rifting about
150 million years ago. Today, the coast of 33. How old is the sea floor at a depth of 4 km?
South America is about 6,660 km from the 34. Approximately how deep is the sea floor when
coast of Africa. Using the equation velocity = it is 55 million years old?
distance ÷ time, determine how fast the 35. What can you infer about the age of very deep
continents moved apart, in millimeters sea floor from the data in the graph?
per year.
36. The ridge in the South Pacific Ocean is
30. Using Equations Assume that scientists know spreading faster than the ridge in the North
the rate at which the North American and Pacific Ocean. If this graph showed the depth
Eurasian plates are moving away from each of the sea floor in relation to the distance from
other. If t = time, d = distance, and v = the ridge, how would graphs for the North
velocity, what equation can they use to Pacific and South Pacific ridges differ?
determine when North America separated
from Eurasia during the breakup of Pangaea?

Chapter 10 Review 287

 Chapter
10 Standardized Test Prep
Understanding Concepts Reading Skills
Directions (1–4): For each question, write on a Directions (7–9): Read the passage below. Then,
separate sheet of paper the letter of the correct answer the questions.
answer.
1. Which of the following factors is most The Himalaya Mountains
important when determining the type of The Himalaya Mountains are a range of
collision that forms when two lithospheric mountains that is 2,400 km long and that arcs
plates collide? across Pakistan, India, Tibet, Nepal, Sikkim, and
A. the density of each plate Bhutan. The Himalaya Mountains are the highest
B. the size of each plate mountains on Earth. Fourteen mountains in this
C. the paleomagnetism of the rock range, including Mount Everest, rise to heights
D. the length of the boundary of more than 8,000 m above sea level. Mount
Everest, the tallest above-water mountain on
2. At locations where sea-floor spreading occurs,
Earth, stands 8,850 m tall.
rock is moved away from a mid-ocean ridge.
The formation of the Himalaya Mountains
What replaces the rock as it moves away?
began about 50 million years ago. A tectonic
F. molten rock
plate carrying the Indian subcontinent collided
G. older rock
with the Eurasian plate. The Indian plate was
H. continental crust
denser than the Eurasian plate. This difference in
I. compacted sediment
density caused the uplifting of the Eurasian plate
3. Which of the following was a weakness of and the subsequent formation of the Himalaya
Wegener’s hypothesis of continental drift when Mountains. This process continues today. The
he first proposed it? Indian plate continues to push under the
A. an absence of fossil evidence Eurasian plate. New measurements show that
B. unsupported climatic evidence Mount Everest is moving to the northeast by as
C. unrelated continent features much as 10 cm per year.
D. a lack of proven mechanisms
7. According to the passage, what geologic
4. Which of the following statements describes a process formed the Himalaya Mountains?
specific type of continental growth? A. divergence
F. Continents change not only by gaining B. continental rifting
material but also by losing material. C. strike-slip faulting
G. Terranes become part of a continent at D. convergence
convergent boundaries.
8. Which of the following statements is a fact,
H. Ocean sediments move onto land because
according to the passage?
of sea-floor spreading.
F. The 14 tallest mountains on Earth are
I. Rifting adds new rock to a continent and
located in the Himalaya Mountains.
causes the continent to become wider.
G. The Himalaya Mountains are the longest
Directions (5–6): For each question, write a short mountain chain on Earth.
response. H. The Himalaya Mountains are located within
5. What is the name of the process by which six countries.
Earth’s crust breaks apart? I. The Himalaya Mountains had completely
formed by 50 million years ago.
6. What is the name of the layer of plastic rock
directly below the lithosphere? 9. Part of which plate was subducted along the
fault that formed the Himalaya Mountains?
A. the Indian plate
B. the Eurasian plate
C. both plates
D. neither plate

288 Chapter 10 Plate Tectonics

Interpreting Graphics
Directions (10–13): For each question below, record the correct answer on a
separate sheet of paper.
The map below shows the locations of Earth’s major tectonic-plate boundaries.
Use this map to answer questions 10 and 11.

Earth’s Tectonic Plates

Eurasian
plate Eurasian
North plate
American
Juan de Fuca plate
plate
Indian
plate
African
Pacific Nazca South plate
plate plate American
Australian plate
plate

Antarctic plate Antarctic plate

10. What type of boundary is found between the Pacific plate and the
Nazca plate?
F. convergent H. transform
G. divergent I. subduction
11. What type of boundary is found between the South American plate and
the African plate? What surface features are most often found at
boundaries of this type?
The graphic below shows a cross-section of Earth with two tectonic-plate
boundaries. Use this graphic to answer questions 12 and 13.

Plate Boundaries
D E

Continent
Ocean
Ocean floor
C
floor
B
A

Asthenosphere
F

12. What type of plate interaction is indicated by the letter E?

A. continental rifting C. divergence
B. sea-floor spreading D. subduction
If you become short on
13. Describe how a transform boundary differs from the boundaries shown by time, quickly scan the
letters D and E in terms of plate movement and magmatic activity. unanswered questions to
see which questions are
easiest to answer.

Chapter 10 Standardized Test Prep 289