GAS EXCHANGE

Gas exchange system: Subtopic Page no.

Mammals Anatomy of the lungs 1-2
Histology of the airways 3-5
Properties of alveoli as a gas exchange surface 6-7
Histology of the lungs 8-9
Ventilation in the lungs 10-11
Spirometry 12-14
Key terms and definitions 15

Fish Anatomy and properties of the gills 16-17

The countercurrent mechanism for gas exchange in fish 17-18
Ventilation in bony fish 18

Insects Anatomy and features of the tracheal system 20-21

Gas exchange in tracheoles 22
Ventilation in the tracheal system 22-23

Comparative study of the gas exchange systems in mammals, fish and insects 24

Use the letter codes to colour in the

structures and their corresponding names
in the same colour.

Name: ___________________
Robin Set: _____
E 13
Aditya 1
MAMMALIAM GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEM

The structure of the lungs: Label the structures below (use the image on p.1 as a guide)

tracheae
Bronchi

Bronchioles

Intracoastal
muscles

Diaphom

Nasal cavity

oesophagus
cartilage
trachea

Bronchioles

Bronchus Intercostal
Ribes
heart
lung

Dighhan
abdominal

2
 Elasticfibres Smooth
muscle
Histology of the Airways:
Longitudinal section of trachea / bronchi

mucus
movementofmucus

larynne L
BEE

Goblets

Trachea ligation

Hyalinecartilage

chondrocytes

Transverse section of trachea / bronchi

Smoothmuscle

Hylinering
of cartilage

epics

perichondrium

Transverse section of a bronchiole:

cilifiindia
Smooth muscle
Elasticfibres

Imitoneide

Alveolar wall
3
infants ask.eu
macrophage exist in lining
aids exhalation
 Es
É
É

É
i

s
É
É

É
É

4
I
É

if
very important feature in
alveoli for exhalation

É
of

j
is
see
É É
if

s x x

I s

s x

5
The properties of alveoli as a gas exchange surface:

1. Large surface area: 2. Permeable

3. Steep concentration gradient maintained:

Respiratory gas: Conc. grad maintained:

Ventilation Fish
Inhalation increases pen ones or
Alveoli -> Blood
concentration of 02
in a Bc maintaining

a low concentration
in the alveoli
in to blood for
maintaining a
2 high honcertretion sccharge
in alveoli
forExchange
En halation Blood dying Blood -> Alveoli
decreases contain this gas in
in a is g
CO2 copilots ction
maintaining
in to dwn a
histast in
maintaining a low
concentration i anti
Oy for scenonge phage

6
4. Short diffusion distance:

No

5. Moist:

7
Using a light microscope to examine lung tissue STUDENT

Introduction

Histology is the study of tissues and organs using microscopy. Linking histological observations of lung tissue to your
knowledge of the theory of lung function is a great way to consolidate your understanding. It is also a good
opportunity to practise and demonstrate the microscopy and scientific drawing skills that form part of your A Level
practical endorsement.

Aim

To study the microscopic structure of the mammalian lung and relate structure to function.

Equipment

 Light microscope with x10 and x40 objective lenses and an eyepiece graticule
 Stage micrometer
 Pre-prepared slides of sections of mammalian lung tissue

Procedure

In lung slides under the microscope you should be able to see the ends of the smallest bronchioles opening into alveolar
ducts. These ducts then open into numerous alveolar sacs which then open into the smallest structures, the alveoli.

Owing to the presence of numerous alveolar sacs and alveoli, lung tissue is spongy in appearance. The walls of the
alveoli are very thin. There are also numerous tiny blood capillaries, which are very difficult to observe unless they have
been injected with coloured dye.

A number of tubular structures cut in a variety of planes are also seen in a thin section. You will see branches of the
pulmonary blood vessels. It is hard to tell which are arterioles and which are venuoles because the arteriole walls are
much thinner than arteriole walls in the rest of the body, so that there is little difference between the two types of
blood vessels in lung tissue. These blood vessels can be recognised because they contain large numbers of red blood
cells (erythrocytes).

You will also see large numbers of bronchioles. These have thin walls with two layers of cells, and no red blood cells
inside. If you look carefully you may be able to see bronchioles connected to alveolar sacs.

1. Using the information above and

the diagram to the right identify the
following structures on your slide:

blood vessels,
bronchioles,
alveolar sacs
and alveoli

8
 2. Use the stage micrometer to calibrate the eyepiece graticule with the x40 objective.

3. Calculate the diameter of 3 typical alveoli from your slide and calculate the mean diameter:

Questions:

1. Using a calibrated eyepiece graticule the mean diameter of an alveolus was calculated to be 170 µm. Do you
think this sounds too small, too large or about right? What is the reasoning behind your answer? Hint: even
before you have completed your own detailed measurements, how do you know roughly how large an
alveolus must be based on your knowledge and what you can see in your specimen?

2. Why is it difficult to see blood capillaries?

3. Why are bronchioles so numerous? Why are capillaries so numerous?

4. Why are lung arterioles relatively thin-walled?

5. Explain how the features of lung structure seen on these slides account for efficient gas exchange in the
lungs.

9
Ventilation in the lungs: involves the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles

Inhalation Eninddies
Process of ventilation:

ins ex 11am

lowered up
flatters

introit odes
dates done
content relax
up out
down in
increased demesa
demand
atrophic and
in atmosphere out
Stand
sand

intend
Internal intercostal
are related
muscles __________
unless...

Inspiration inhalation air is toed

out eg
10
Espirdies Emotion
duringcoughing
Inhalation is an active process because...
the muscles of the diagram and external intercostal muscles contract
The chest is raised up agonist
Exhalation is a passive process because... gravity
The muscles ofdiaphran and intercostal muscles
the are relaxed
Gravity helps bring to chart down
Elastic recoil of alveoli facilitates the
expulsion of air

Maximumbreath in
a

Inspiratoryreserve
volume vital
Fidel
volume
capacity
7
41
Expiratory
reservevolume
_Maimum breakout
Residual air this air is newspelled

Important terms w.r.t. breathing and lung volume:

The volume of air in each normal breath at ________ ≈

Tidal volume
Called this because:
rest 0.6dm
The air
goes out using the
same as it went in
path
The maximum volume of air that can be breathed in and out
vital
capacity
Air that can’t be expelled from the lungs (Why does this exist?)
Resichard the rings of cartilage maintains the airways open
at all times therefore some air cannot be spelled
Air In
Total lung volume lungs never completing collapse
vital capacity Residual air
How many breaths are taken – usually in a minute
Beatting rate
Rate of oxygen The rate at which an organism
consumption
uses up oncyges
The volume of oxygen used in a minute
or oxygen uptake
Measured in
dm min or cm min
11
SPIROMETRY:

This is the
volume of air in
IIRV
the spirometer
=> opposite of
Him a vitality
what would be aiom breathout V
in the lungs

1.50mL 15423.5dm
UC
RV 35
TLV 1.5 LU RA VC
FAT 5dm
12
 devear vitalcapacity

low vital capacity

ais S
12born t

850 cm
4 7am
850_ t
i i
ft it

Saseby feature
Dis infect month price
monitor oxygen 102 levels
check person's respiratoryhealth

13
 1.375

80

The data shows that the women who is 36 weeks

t
pregnant have a resin oz uptake of
0 017 dm s

which is four to re uptake of a

mea or
women at rest This may suggest that being pregnant
reduces the rate of O2 uptake
How the data shows that to oh rata of
O2 uptake ha only reduced by 14 not 201 for
a
pregnant
women Also the data doesn't speity
wether the Coomer who was pregnat
was at rest which can affect the
validity
14
Match the following terms to the definitions to revise the mammalian gas exchange system

15
 GAS EXCHANGE IN BONY FISH Bugles

Into fppfertilum mouth

mouth value

Gillfilaments

Gills

filament Lamela
pg any

Filament
and lamellae
stopsfoodenteringgills

operate
value

lamella
capillarynetwork
flow through the Shot
lamellae and vein
These are t
go sichegesugar
Artery
Occurs in water => is affected by its properties:
flow through the
Property Water

It
Air
filaments
Oxygen content o 201
Oxygen diffusion rate slow Fox
Viscosity LowColors easily g
High
As fish are ectotherms they have a lower requirement for oxygen as they do not need to maintain their body temperature constantly high
through a higher rate of metabolism (=> respiration). Nevertheless, fish must pass large volumes of water over their respiratory surface
compared to the volume of air in terrestrial organisms to obtain the relatively small quantity of oxygen from water.

16
 Features of gills for efficient gas exchange

1.
filaments with lots of lamellae Large SA

2. Thin wall of lamellar one layer of Squamous

epithelia one layer
shot distuion partway
of endothelial squamous epithelia
3. Richbloodsupply
high court gradient
4. Counter-current system:
Blood flows in the _______________ direction in the lamellae to water flow.
opposite
Lamella

IF Blood ran in parallel direction to flow of water:

A countercurrent system: Blood flows in the opposite direction to water:

was
I
t
1
Eta

blood
I diffusion

Entry Entry
point of point of
water 17 water
Countercurrent system means:

≈ _____%
80 of oxygen is extracted from the water
(as opposed to ____%
50 for parallel system)
As ______________
concentration ______________ is maintained all along the capillary
gradient
=> Diffusion of gases occurs all along the capillary.

Ventilation in bony fish

While swimming:
mouth and operculum are open
there is conti was glow of water gills
on the
When stationary:
water is pumped our gills

Choose the correct term for each statement: Choose the correct term for each statement:

inspiration expiration
Mouth is open/closed : Mouth is open/closed :

floor of buccal cavity is raised / lowered.

=> Volume of Buccal cavity increases / decreases

00
floor of buccal cavity is raised / lowered.

=> Volume in buccal cavity increases / decreases.

O
pressure increases / decreases.

water is drawn in due to diffusion / pressure

O
Pressure increases / decreases.

Operculum is open / closed.

8 080
gradient.
Water flows over gill lamellae / fins
Operculum (covering of gills) is open / closed.
and out of mouth / operculum due to pressure /
The cavity is filled with water / air. diffusion gradient.

Operculum moves outwards while closed which

O Maximum gas exchange occurs between water
increases the volume / pressure and helps pull in and blood flowing through the gills because of
more water. O the parallel / countercurrent mechanism.
O
18
 GH lamellae

They have flatted discs canted lamellae

which in crosses SA for gas ecchange
They have good blood supty to the gills
which maintains a
steep concentration gradient
Also then is a short diffusion distance

Bone is a tissue became it has four types

of cells
Gills are described as organs because it has
tissues
Many dipset type of
19
 GAS EXCHANGE IN INSECTS

Insects covered
cuticle
bodies or
by exoskeleton made
from chitin and a
waxy
toreduce waterloss
Pores called spiracles allow entry of gases

Tracheote
gas exchange
spiracle surfacefluidgilledatrest
facheal

Tracheoles
air gilledduring
exercise

spiracle
Tracheal system of
the insect

Tracheal system of an insect:

Trachea Targcheder Tracheae trgh.gov

mate
Trachedes supplying Respiring muscle
every musclejibe cells all cells connected
respiring cell win to a tracheae
oxygen graniteair

Main trachea
spiracles Scoskeleton cubicle
Branching of tracheae
spiracle
Tracheae
Mair trachea containsChiti
keepairways
open

Spiracles
20
Route of oxygen from atmosphere to cells:

Air -> ______________-> _________________-> _____________________________->

Spiracle main trachea Branching of tracheal
_____________________________________-> _______________________________
Trachea respiring tells
Structure Features

Spiracle outside
opening of tracheae to the

Adult insects usuallyhave 20 on underside

of
body 10 on each side
can be openedand closed
by sphincter muscles

Are lined with fire has

Tracheae

Cary air through tu body

Run both into and the
4 7 5 10
body of a insect along
Ibis or lined
14 9 Impermeable to oxygen and cabondinide

fans narrower and narrower

Branching
Tracheole
tubes until tracheoles are reached
minute tubes o p o 8pm in diameter

I ti Each a
single very elongated Ill

13 17 No chitin preset test very permeable to

gases
speed
is in
throughout
direct contact
the insect
with a
every cell
tracheae
Each tracheae is filled with trocheola
Shid
Oxygen is not transported in haemolymph

21
 The delivery of oxygen to respiring cells from the tracheoles fuildIlledat
At rest:

Oxygen dissolves in the tracheolar fluid and diffuses into the cell.

Airgilled
When active:
sarin
award

Put the processes in the correct order 4p

1
B A lack of Oz leads to anaerobic respiration in the cell

2 Lactic in cells
D acid acids repining as anaerobic
respiration proceeds
3
F The lactic acid lowers y of the respiring cells

4
The Y of Cle ell become lower than that
A of
torched shid
5
C bid drains a tracheae to respiring
F from
tells
6
G the fluid takes dissolved oxygen with it

7
É The tracheae becomes air filled increasing
diffusion of oxygen
Ventilation

Insects have a number of adaptation to bring about ventilation in their respiratory system by
movement:

1. Movement of wings

Epindetion a pesce
q
Movement of wings
Changes the volume
the body cavity
of
repressive
change in A
tracheal
2.
pressure gradient
enabled for 22

ventilation
 2. Selective opening and closing of Spiracles

Inspiration Expiration
Body cavity decreases
Body County in volume spiracles
increases in volume
in abdomen
Spiracles is the thorax open closed
in th o are
open
i
in abdomen closed Air leaves system
Air enters system via via abdominal
there is spiracles
3. Airsacs:
spiracles

Present in
flying insects
Air sacs have this expandable
walls act as
reservoirs
of air
23 To aid ventilation
Ct bellows
during flight
 Lungs Gills Tracheae
ma tracheae everyrespiring
lamellae onmanygill cell is in contactwith
sacs containingnumerous filaments a tracheae
alveoli with alarge
one cell lagerof minds Gas sochange sugar is
squamousepitheliaand on tracheae and respiringcell
an layer of endomena surface membranes
Water enters mouth and leaves operculum
Tidal air air enters and leaves by changes in unidirectionally by changes in volume and Selective opening and closing of the spiracles to
lung volume and pressure due to muscular pressure in the buccal and a opercular move air through tracheae while ying, using air
contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal cavities sacs as bellows for additional ventilation of air.
muscles.
24

ventilation and buildup of lactic acid draws air

Ventilation and blood ow Ventilation and countercurrent mechanism into tracheoles.

Spirals of chitin
C-shaped rings of cartilage None

yes No, oxygen is not transported

Yes
Answer the following questions on fish and insect gas exchange systems:

Answers:

a A gill filament
B lanallea

b Counter current as the rich wax

oxygen
flows in the opposite diction of
the

derogygndad blood inverse in cnet.ch'm Ledin

25
Answer the following questions on the mammalian and comparative gas exchange systems:

E
to compare crimes wit
didnt size
Alwon

I 9 am 1 6 8661
deemed
youOn
A Tepid
o as

x6 300

Oz is absorbed
26
Answers:

concentration is required for the distension

A steep gradient
of gasses through members A peeper concentration
gradient means
faster diffusion
blood u carried red bloodcells inside
away by
Oxygenated
the
Coppilines which a
carbably happening ma i
king a steep
concentration gradient

37911

more
Murders can respie

This in seas A for gas such age

27
Answers to p.14:

Answers to p.19:

Answers to p.25-26:

28
Answers to p.9:
1. Using a calibrated eyepiece graticule the mean diameter of an alveolus was calculated to be 170 µm. Do you think this sounds too small, too large or
about right? What is the reasoning behind your answer? Hint: even before you have completed your own detailed measurements, how do you know
roughly how large an alveolus must be based on your knowledge and what you can see in your specimen?

This is about right. Students could make several points to support this.

Many will, very sensibly, relate it to their own measurements. It’s very unlikely their own mean will be exactly 170 µm so we are looking for students
realising, and explaining, that their results lend credence to the 170 µm figure if they are reasonably close. The concept of ‘order of magnitude’ is
useful here. In explaining why a result of their own (e.g. 250 µm) supports the 170 µm figure students could comment on: naturally occurring
variability; the nature of sampling (an answer further supported by reference to the standard deviation of the mean they have calculated, or even
simply the range within their sample would be worth additional credit); possible differences between their sample and the way it was prepared and
the sample used to derive the 170 µm figure including: different species, different age, healthy or diseased tissue, different fixation causing different
degree of shrinking, inflated or deflated at the point of fixation.

Alternatively or additionally students could make several valid points about ‘sanity checking’ the 170 µm figure by a combination of knowledge and
observation. For example: knowing that erythrocytes are approximately 7 µm in diameter allows us to get a visual impression of scale either by
finding an erythrocyte for direct comparison or by realising that the diameter of the lumen of the capillaries will be about the same; bearing in mind
that alveolar diameter will change significantly during the breathing cycle adds to the uncertainty of any estimate; knowing that the diffusion distance
from air to blood is very short (of the order of just 1 µm) is another way of getting a sanity check on the scale of what is being viewed.

2. Why is it difficult to see blood capillaries? The capillaries have a small diameter and very thin walls (the endothelial cells are flattened (and hence
unstained)) meaning there is very little material that will take up stain. The lumen is likely to be empty and is itself very narrow. The capillaries
therefore are small, low contrast and unobtrusive in these specimens.

3. Why are bronchioles so numerous? Why are capillaries so numerous? Numerous bronchioles are necessary to achieve effective ventilation – allowing
air to get to and from all the alveoli. Numerous capillaries are necessary to achieve effective perfusion – allowing blood to flow adjacent to every one
of the alveoli. Matching ventilation and perfusion makes an efficient gas exchange system.

4. Why are lung arterioles relatively thin-walled? The blood pressure on the arterial side of the pulmonary circulation is lower than on the arterial side
of the systemic circulation. Therefore thinner arteriole walls are adequate to withstand and maintain this pressure. In addition there is no need in
pulmonary arterioles’ walls for smooth muscle to allow vasoconstriction since all areas of both lungs will always remain fully perfused.

5. Explain how the features of lung structure seen on these slides account for efficient gas exchange in the lungs. Concepts to include: thin walls of
alveoli and capillaries (short diffusion distance); large number of alveoli and capillaries (large total surface area) (matching ventilation and perfusion);
large numbers of arterioles and bronchioles (maintaining a steep concentration gradient through effective perfusion and ventilation respectively).

Answers to p.15

Answers to p.27

29
Learning Goals: Exchange surfaces (Kerboodle p154-171)

MAMMALIAN GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEM

3.1.1c: the structures and functions of the components of the mammalian gaseous exchange system

1. Draw and label a diagram of the human gaseous exchange system. (F)
2. Describe the structure of the nasal cavity, the trachea, the bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.
For each explain how its structure makes it adapted for its function.
3. Explain how the ciliated epithelial cells and goblet cells of the trachea and bronchi work
together to protect the lungs.
4. Describe the importance of elastic fibres and lung surfactant in the function of alveoli.
5. Explain how the mammalian gaseous exchange system is adapted to be an efficient exchange
surface. (F)

3.1.1d: the mechanism of ventilation in mammals

1. Define the terms “breathing”, “ventilation” and “gas exchange”. (F)

2. Draw and label a diagram showing the arrangement of the structures involved in breathing.
3. Define the terms “inspiration”, “expiration”, “active process”, and “passive process”.
4. Describe the process of inspiration linking the action of muscles, to the movement of
structures, the change in pressure within the lungs and the direction of airflow. (F)
5. Describe the process of normal expiration linking the action of muscles, to the movement of
structures, the change in pressure within the lungs and the direction of airflow. (F)
6. Describe how the process of forced expiration is different from normal expiration and
suggest when it might be used.

3.1.1e: the relationship between vital capacity, tidal volume, breathing rate and oxygen uptake

1. State 3 pieces of equipment used to measure the functioning of the lungs. For each outline
how they work.
2. Label a diagram of a spirometer and annotate with the function of each component. (F)
3. Describe how a spirometer measures change in lung volume and explain why it cannot measure
absolute lung volume.
4. Define the terms “tidal volume”, “vital capacity”, “inspiratory reserve volume”, “expiratory
reserve volume”, “residual volume”, “total lung capacity”, “breathing rate”, and “ventilation
rate”. (F)
5. Label a graph of lung volume during breathing with “tidal volume”, “vital capacity”, “inspiratory
reserve volume”, “expiratory reserve volume”, “residual volume”, and “total lung capacity”. (F)
6. Explain how a spirometer trace is different to a graph of the changes in lung volume during
breathing.
7. Explain how to calculate breathing rate and tidal volume from spirometer trace.
8. Write an equation to link ventilation rate with breathing rate and tidal volume. (F)
9. Describe how a spirometer trace would differ during exercise as compared to the trace
before exercise started.
10. Describe how tidal volume and breathing rate link to oxygen uptake and explain the importance
of the change in tidal volume and breathing rate during exercise.
3.1.1f: the mechanisms of ventilation and gas exchange in bony fish and insects:

30
FISH GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEM

1. Describe the advantages of, and challenges faced by, gas exchange systems operating in water
rather than air.
2. Define the terms “operculum”, “buccal cavity”, “opercular valve”, “gill arch”, “gill filament”, “gill
plate”, and “gill lamellae”.
3. Label and annotate a diagram showing the features of the gas exchange system in bony fish.
(F)
4. Describe the mechanism of ventilation in bony fish.
5. Describe the adaptations that make the bony fish gas exchange system an efficient exchange
surface. (F)
6. Define the terms “countercurrent exchange system” and “parallel exchange system”.
7. Draw a diagram to show how a much higher oxygen saturation of the blood can be achieved by
a countercurrent exchange system as compared to a parallel exchange system. (F)
8. Draw a table to compare mammalian, insect and bony fish gas exchange systems.

INSECT GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEM

9. Define the terms “exoskeleton”, “spiracle”, “tracheae”, “tracheoles” and “tracheal fluid”.
10. Outline the structure of the insect gas exchange system and describe the way oxygen reaches
the body cells. (F)
11. Explain why insects will tend to keep spiracles closed when oxygen demands are very low.
12. Describe the adaptations of the insect gas exchange system that make it an efficient
exchange surface. (F)
13. Describe how activity changes the volume of tracheal fluid in the tracheoles, and explain the
value of this occurring.
14. Describe two adaptations that insects with very high energy demands have to increase the
efficiency of their gas exchange system.

DISSECTION AND HISTOLOGY OF GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEMS:

3.1.1g: the dissection, examination and drawing of the gaseous exchange system of a bony fish and/or
insect trachea

1. Label and annotate photographs and drawings of a dissection of the gaseous exchange system
of a bony fish.
2. Label and annotate photographs and drawings of a dissection of the gaseous exchange system
of an insect.

3.1.1h: the examination of microscope slides to show the histology of exchange surfaces

1. Label (and annotate with adaptations for gas exchange) photomicrographs of alveolar tissue,
tracheae and tracheoles of insects, and gill filaments and lamellae of bony fish. (F)
2. Describe the features of a gas exchange system that become apparent under microscopic
examination that aren’t easily seen when observing the whole organ system.

31
32