6 India-Soil Resources

Types
og Concepts
of
soil-Alluvial, Black, Red and
texture, minerals and crops associated. Laterite-Distribution, Composition and
Soil Erosion-Causes, Prevention and Conservation. Chharacteristics, Such as o

Soil is avaluable natural resource. It is

the
uppermost layer of the Earth's crust, whichthinis take about 600 to
2.5 cm thick layer of1000 years to
composed of organic and
The soil is formed by theinorganic matter.
the soil.
The total thickness of soil
on the
form dbu
disintegration of rocks and weathering and Earth is never
more than one Surface
of the
The soil is a living system andthe organic matter. The process of soil formation metre
acts as a medium
for plant growth.
The fertility of the soil
on the nature of the
climatic conditions, parent rock, relieflargely depend,
production of the various determines the
Soil may be defined as theagricultural crops.
activities of man.
The chemical
natural vegetation an features.
material, which contains the finely broken
mineral
rock
matter
parent rocks. composition
depends upon the
soluble form that will support the in The relief and
climate control the
plants. growth of of the weathering of rocks. effectivenece
The process of soil
very complicated and formation (Pedogenesis)
is
time consuming. It may The natural
humus to it. vegetation enriches the soil by adding
There are four
the soil, which are as main ingredients in
1. Minerals are a under:
part
the soils. The main of rocks which form
minerals arecalcium,
Ohorizon
phosphorus,
have some sodium and potassium. They
Ahorlzon
specific quality deficiency of
which can impair
2. Organic the soil fertility.
matter is a
Infiltration derived from the roots ofplant material
(leaching)
B horizon
the rotten leaves of the the grasses and
matter makes the soil more trees. The organic
3. Air is filled in fertile.
the space
C horizon
soil particles. Air helps in between the
the plants. the growth of
4. Soil
Parent materíal
moisture is mainly in the form of
Fig. 6.1 Soil
vapour. Its shortage
retards the growth
Horizons and Profiles of plants but its
excess can promote the
leaching of the soil.
100 ICSE Geography 10
The process of soil formation
passes through many stages. As in India are distinctly different
the soil develops. it forms layers, from one another. In ancient
which are called the horizons. times, the soils were classified
These horizons make up the soil as Urvara (fertile) and Usara
profile. In a mature soil, four (sterile). Today. the indian soils
distinct horizons can be seen. Horizon A can be divided into two groups,
These are called the horizon A. such as:
B, C and D, from the top layer 1. The Residual Soils are
downwards. Horizon B formed by the disintegration
and decomposition of rocks
1 Horizon A is the layer, which 'in situ', i.e., directly from
is also called the top soil, the bedrocks. The residual
This layer has most of the soils are also known as the
minerals and organic matter SHorizon C sedentary soils, which
needed for the growth of include the black, the red
plants. and the laterite soils.
2. Horizon B is below the top 2. The Transported Soils
soil, which is also called the are formed due to the

subsoil. This layer has enough depositional work of

the wind and the rivers.
minerals, but less organic Horizon D
matter. The subsoil may The various agents of
have some living organisms. erosion bring broken rock
Horizons A and B form the sediments and deposit them
true soil. in the river valleys, flood
3, Horizon C is below the plains and the delta regions.
subsoil, which has partly Fig. 6.2 Soil Horizons These soils are deep and
fertile and include the
weathered rocks. The rocks are actually alluvial soils.
producing new soil, but this layer is not The first scientific classification of the soils in India
affected by the biological processes. was made in 1893, which grouped the Indian soils
A. Horizon D is below the Horizon C and has into alluvial, black, red and laterite soils. Later on,
unbroken solid rocks. Horizon D is at the base the committee appointed by the Indian Council
of the soil profile. of Agricultural Research (1CAR) divided the
Indian soils broadly into the following groups.
The soils have different particles of varying size
and shapes. The finest soil is called the colloidal 1, The alluvial soils
clay, while the other soils are clay, silt, sand and 2. The black soils
gravel, depending upon the size of the particles. 3. The red soil
The mixing of these particles leads to the formation 4. The laterite soils
of loams. Most of the Indian soils are found in 5. The mountain soils
the form of loams. The scientists who study the 6. The desert soils
formation, structure, texture, composition, etc., of
the soils, are called the Pedologists. In this chapter, we will study about the
alluvial, black, red and laterite soils.
TYPES OF SOILS
India has a large variety of soils due to the varied The Alluvial Soils
conditions of geology, relief features, climatic The alluvial soils are the most important group
conditions and vegetation. The various types of soils of fertile soils in India. They cover about 45 per

India-Soil Resources 101

 PAKISTAN
N CHINA
TIBET

AL BHUTAN

BANGLADESH
Tropic of Cancer

A New Moore
(India)
MYANMAR

4RABI4N
SEA
BAY 0F BENGAL

Andaman

Lakshadweep(India) Alluvial Soils

Red Soils
&
&
Black Soils Nicoba
Laterite Soils ar
300 km
SRI
LANKA
Mountain Soils
Desert Soils Islands (In
IND IAN 0CE AN
Map 6.1 India - Major Types of Soils
cent of the total land area of the
country. These respective valleys and flood plains. Most of the
soils support amajor part of India's population. alluvial soils in India are of the transported origin.
The alluvial soils are mainly derived from the rock
sediments brought down by the rivers from the The alluvial soils are found mostly in the
mountains or silt left by the retreating sea waves. Plains of India and in the deltas of the
Northern
Mahanadi,
the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri rivers
The Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra along the eastern coast of India. The coastal areas
rivers along with their numerous tributaries have in Gujarat also have some deposits of alluvial soils.
originated from the Himalaya mountain ranges. According to the age, the alluvial soils are of two
These rivers have deposited a large amount of types-The Bhangar Soils and the Khadar Soils.
sand, silt and clay (called the alluvium) in their

102 ICSE Geography 10

 The Bhangar and the Khadar Soils 3. Their porocity and texture
provide good
older alluvium is called the Bhangar, while
he newer deposits of alluvium is called the drainage. these soils are best
4. Due to softness and fertility.
khadar.
suited for irrigation.
Rhangar is mostly found on the higher side of 5. The alluvial soil. due to its
softness and
the Northern Plains, while the Khadar is found
porocity is easily tillable.
at the lower levels. near the flood plains and alluvial
the delta regions. 6. The chemical composition makes the world.
Soils as the mnost fertile soils in the
The Bhangar soils are less fertile than the
7. These soils are best suited for growin8 rice.
Khadar soils, as the Khadar soils are renewed oilseeds.
wheat, sugarcane, cotton, jute, maize,
every year during the floods. fruits and vegetables.
The Bhangar soils are light grey in colour, 8. The coarse alluvial soils with bigger particles
while the Khadar soils are yellowish in colour. are found where the rivers enter the plains.
The Bhangar soils have lime nodules (called Such soils are found in Duars, Chos and Terai.
the kankar). The Khadar soils have deposits of 9. The alluvial soils in dry areas are more
sand, silt and clay. alkaline.
Bhangar soils have a Coarse texture, while the
Khadar soils have a fine texture. The Black Soils
The black soil is also called the regur or the black
(Sea the Box) cotton soil, as it is the most suitable soil for
The alluvial soils have the folIlowing growing cotton. It cOvers about 16 per cent of the
characteristics: land area of the country. The black soil has been
1 The alluvial soils have aweak profile, as they formed due to the denudation of the parent
are not yet fully mature. rocks (igneous lava rocks) at the place of its
2. They are rich in potash, phosphoric acid and origin. Thus, the black soil is the residual soil.
alkalies., but poor in nitrogen.

PAKISTAN CHINA
PAKISTAN
CHINA

NEP NE P
TIBET TIBET

BHUTAN
AL BHUTAN

BANGLADESH BANGLADESH
Tropic of Cancer Tropic of Cancer

MYANMAR MYANMAR
New Moore i Nee MOore
(India)

4RABIAN |ARABIAN
BAY OF BENGAL BAY OF BENG4L
SEA SEA

Andaman Andaman &

&
Nicobar

islandsIs SRI
SRI
INDIAN LANKA OCEA N
INDIA N LANKA OCEAN

Map 6.2 India- Area Under Alluvial Soils Map 6.3 India-Area Under Black Soils

India-Soil Resources 103

 The black soil is
Trap, which is a mostly found in the Deccan 6. Due to their high
and low rainfall. Itsregion of high temperature retaining moisture, fertility and
concentration is mostly in the black soilscapacity for
Maharashtra.
parts of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh.
used for growing are widely
cotton, wheat, jowar
linseed, tobacco, pulses,
Nadu. TheTelangana, Karnataka,
black colour Gujarat and Tamil
is due to the 7. Where
irrigation
fruits and vegetables
facilities are available, rice
mature soil.crystalline
schists and gneisses. It is a and sugarcane are
8. In any part of the widely grown.
year, the black soil have
The black soils have the some moisture stored in the subsoil.
characteristics: following 9. The black soils are
very
1. The black soil
can retain moisture due to its valleys and lowlands, but infertile in the river
the uplands, the
clayey nature and has a fine texture. fertility is comparatively low.
2. When wet in the
rainy season, it swells and The Red Soils
becomes sticky. It is difficult to plough
soil as the plough gets stuck in the the wet The red soils are the second largest soil
mud.
about 18 per cent group
3. When the soil is dry, in India, which cover
wide
its surface, often about 10 cracks develop on total land area of the country. These of the
cm to 15 cm wide
from Tamil Nadu in the south to soils extend
and about one metre deep.
4. The black soils are rich in the north and from the Bundelkhand in
lime, calcium, potash, upto Rajmahal hills in the east
etc. and are poor in nitrogen. Kachchh in the west. They surround the black
phosphorus and soils on the south, east and the north.
organic matter (especially humus).
5. The black soil has various tints of
black colour Most of the red soils
or even amixture of red and black have been formed due to
(chestnut weathering of the ancient
brown) may be found. crystalline and metamorphic
rocks. These soils are found in Tamil Nadu,
parts of

PAKISTAN
CHIN A
HAET
NEP AL BHUTAN

BANGLADESH.
Trooic of Cancer

MYANMAR
New Moore t
(India)

ARABLAN
SEA BAY OF BENGAL

SAI

INDIAN LANKA 0CEA N

Map 6.4 India-Area Under Red Soils

Fig. 6.3 Black Soil

104 ICSE Geography 10

 Karnataka. South-east Maharashtra. Telangana, Andhra
Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh. Chhattisgarh, Odisha and
Chotanagpur in Jharkhand. The red colour is due to
the ferric oxides. The surface soils are red, while the
horizon belowis yeliowish in colour.
PAKISTAN CHI NA

The red soils have the following

characteristics: NEp AL AHTAN

The red soils are poor in lime, magnesia. OANGLADESH

phosphates, nitrogen and humus.

MIANMAA
2 The chemical composition includes non-soluble
iron, aluminium, organic matter, magnesium,
potash and alkalis. RA B14N
3. They are friable structures and porous, with
the absence of kankar, etc.
4 Their texture varies from sand to clays: the
majority being loams.
5, On the uplands, the red soils are thin, poor,
sandy and stony, but in the lower areas, they
are deep, rich and fertile. SRI
LANKA
INDIAN
6. Red soils are suited for dry farming and are
generally formed in the areas of less rainfall. Map 6.5 India-Areas under Laterite Soils
7. They respond to fertilisers and need irrigation
for farming. seasonal rainfall. These soils are formed under the
8. The main crops grOwn in the red soils are conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall
bajra, ragi. tobacco, groundnuts, wheat, with alternate wet and dry periods. Such climatic
oilseeds. pulses, potatoes, sugarcane, etc. conditions promote leaching of the soil.
9. The red soils in many areas are shallow, loose
and well aerated. The laterite soils cover about 4 per cent of the
total land area. These are well developed on
The Laterite Soils the summits of Western and Eastern Ghats, the
The name of the laterite soil has been derived fromn Rajmahal Hills, the Vindhyas, the Satpuras and
the Latin word 'Later meaning brick. These are the the Malwa plateau. They also occur at the lower
typical soils of tropical areas and are characterised by valleys in south Maharashtra, Kerala, Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Telangana. West Bengal,
Jharkhand, Assam and Meghalaya.
The laterite soils have the following
characteristics:
1. The red colour is due to the presence of iron
oxide. Actually. on the top, it is yellowish-grey
and on the below, it is red.
2. The soils are poor in lime and silica and rich
in oxides of iron and aluminium. They are also
deficient in magnesia and nitrogen.
3. Due to intensive leaching they lack
fertility.
but when manured and irrigated, they are fit
Fig. 6.5 Building Materials from Laterite Soils for plantation crops.

India-Soil Resources IOS

 4 These soils are soft and friable and have a deforestation, overgrazing. faulty method; of
cOarse texture, They cannot retain moisture. agriculture, diversion of natural drainage course,.
5. Due to the leaching of the alkalis, the laterite wrong orientation of roads and railways, etr
soils are acidic in nature. Embankment and bridges also cause soil erosion
6. The crops can be grown after manuring. Actually. the soil erosion is a problem created by
The plantation crops are tea, coffee, rubber, man and also faced by man himself.
coconut, etc.
7. In the low-lying areas the main crops are rice, The worst affected partsof India are the badlande
sugarcane, millets, cashewnuts, etc. of Chambal and Yamuna rivers, western Himalavas
8. In some areas. the laterite soils support scrub, the Chota Nagpur plateau. Tapi-Sabarmati valley
forests and pastures. in Gujarat, the regur soil area of Maharashtra and
9. The soils provide valuable building materials. the dry areas of Rajasthan., Gujarat and Haryana
The soil can be easily cut with a spade, but In coastal areas, the tidal waves dash along the
they harden like iron when exposed to air. coasts and cause heavy damage to the soil.

SOIL EROSION IN INDIA Much of the soil erosion in our country is mainly
Soil erosion is the gradual removal of the top soil due to the faulty methods of agriculture, such a
cover by natural agencies, such as moving water, shifting cultivation. practised in the North-easter
wind, etc., and also by various animal and human states and Odisha.
activities. Soil erosion in India is a serious problem,
which is affecting the agricultural production. Effects of Soil Erosion
There are many adverse effects of soil erosion in
The natural agencies, water and wind are constantly India, such as:
causing soil erosion. During heavy rains, water 1. Soil erosion of the top fertile layer reduces
removes a lot of soil. When the top soil is carried the fertility of the soil and thus, results in low
away by water or wind, it is called sheet erosion. agricultural production.
Sometimes. the rainwater form finger-shaped groves 2. There is loss of minerals from the soils due to
in the soil. This is called as rill erosion. When flooding and leaching.
deep gullies change into ravines, it is called gully 3. It causes extention of the arid lands due to
erosion. Wind erosion becomes more effective, drying of vegetation.
when the soil is dry and without plant cover. 4. The soil erosion can cause a decrease in soil
moisture and also lowering of the ground
Apart from natural factors, some human activities water-table.
are also responsible for soil erosion, such as 5. The frequency of landslides increases.
6. There is a general shortage of forests due
loss of vegetal cover.
7. The river and canal beds get silted and their
water-holding capacity becomes less.
8. Increase in anti-5Ocial activities, such as the
ravines provide hideouts for criminals.

SOIL CONSERVATION
The conservation of soils in India should include all
those measures which can help in reducing the soil
erosion and its exhaustion. Actually, over a period
of time, it has assumed an alarming position. The
following methods should be adopted for the
Fig. 6.6 Soil Erosion conservation of soils in India:

106 ICSE Geography 10

 Chang1ng Agricultural Practices
hould bringabout changes in our agricultural
practicestosave the «oils from losing their
Someofthe modifications can be as fertility.
follows:
1. Crop Rotation: The farmers in our
normallysow and produce the country
same crop
every year in the same field. The soil loses
certain minerals and thus, the soil
infertile. In crop rotation, different
becomes
crops are
sOwn on a piece of land, every year. This
can conserve the soil fertility. as different
crops need different minerals from the soil.
Ry rotating crops n successive years, the soil
tertility will be naturally maintained
Contour Ploughing: lf ploughing is done by
following the natural contours of the hillks Fig. 6.8 Inter-cropping
then it can possibly break the flow of water
down the hill. This will reduce the formation
4. Terracing and Contour Bunding: It is one
of oullies along the slopes and thus, prevent
of the oldest methods of soil conservation in
Ioss of the fertile soil. In this method. the India. Terracing involves cutting the hill slopes
plants will absorb more water and erosion is into terraces, which have a horizontal top and
reduced.
a steep slope on the sides. The construction of
3. Strip Cropping: In this method, the field banks along the contours contour bunding.
is divided into strips which are parallel to This can check the flow of water and also
one another. Different cropS can be grown increase the absorption by soil, and thus, reduce
in different strips. These cropS will ripe at soil erosion.
different times and are also harvested at 5. Cover Cropping: In the plantations. the
different intervals. Thus, at no point of time, trees normally bear fruits after 3 to 5 years of
the field will be exposed to the agents of soil Sowing. The area between the growing trees
erosion. The tall crops will also act as wind can be kept covered by some crops to protect
breaker. the soil, Many times, vegetables are grown to
have extra income.
6. Shelter Belts: The rows of trees are planted
along the margins of the fields, to break the
speed of winds andalso restrict the movement
of the sand-dunes in the arid and the semi-arid
regions.
Afforestation
The area under the forests should be increased by
planting more trees in rows. This can reduce the
speed of the wind. Indiscriminate cutting of trees
should be banned by law. This is the best way to
Conserve soils.

Overgrazing
Overgrazing by cattle, sheep and goats in the
Fig. 6.7 Contour Ploughing forests must be checked to reduce soil erosion. The

India-Soil Resources 107

 free movement of animals in the fields for grazing 2. Reduce waterlogging in the fields by
actually breaks the soil by their hoofs, which can the surface drainage. extending
cause soil erosion. This should be restricted. 3. Develop shelter belts in the arid and
arid regions for breaking the speedtheofsemi-
the
Shifting Cultivation winds.
The tribals should be persuaded by the community 4. The use of chemical fertilisers and
and the government to avoid or reduce the manures should be increased. organic
practice of shifting cultivation. The tribals must 5. The use of cow dung and
vegetation far
adopt settled farming to help in the conservation manuring should be encouraged.
of soils. The arrangements can be done for their 6. Level up the ravines and plant
permanent settlements. trees in such areas.
soil binding
Apart from preventing the misuse of soil, we can 7 Cement the floors and sides of the
canals to
possibly help in preserving the fertility of the reduce loss of water through seepage.
soil by adopting some of the following measures: 8. Adopt new techniques of
1. Construct dams across the tributary streams to 9. Use sustainable
farming.
gypsum to reclaim the land under the
control floods and thus, reduce soil erosion. alkaline soils.

Quick Review
Soil is the thin uppermost layer of the Earth's crust, which is composed of organic and inorganic matter.
" The soil is formed by the weathering and disintegration of rocks and the organic matter.
The process of soil formation largely depends on the nature of parent rocks, relief features, climatic
conditions, nahur)
vegetation, etc.
4+ As the soil develops, it forms horizons (layers) which make up the soil prohle.
f The soils have particles such as clay, slt, sand and gravel of varying size and shapes.
In ancient times, the soils were classified as Urvara (fertile) and Usara (sterile).
+ The residual soils are formed by the disintegration and decomposition of rocks in situ, i.e.,
directly from the bed.
+ The transported soils are formed due to the depositional work of the wind and the rivers.
4 The alluvial soils are derived from rock sediments brought down by the
rivers from the mountains or silt left by t
retreat1ng sea waves.
The alluvial soils are found in the northern plains of India and the deltas of rivers
along the eastern coast of India.
The older alluvium is called the bhangar, while the newer deposits of alluvium is called the
khadar.
The alluvial soils are rich in potash, phosphoric acid and alkalis, but are poor in
nitrogen.
The black soils, mostly residual, are found in the Deccan Trap.
The black colour is mainly due to the crystalline schists and gneisses.
The black soils are rich in lime, calcium, potash, and are poor in
nitrogen, phosphorus and organic matter.
4 The red soils are found in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
t The red colour of the soil is due to
Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, etc.
ferric oxides. They are poor in lime, magnesia,
They are suited for dry farming and are formed in the areas of less phosphates, etc.
rainfall.
In many areas, the crops grown are millets,
groundnuts, oilseeds, pulses, sugarcane, tobacco, etc.
t The laterite soils are formed under high
temperatures and heavy rainfall which can promote leaching.
The laterite soils are poor in lime and silica but are rich in
oxides of iron and aluminium.

108 ICSE Geography 10

 They Inckfertility. but when manured and irrigatel, they are fit for plnntation crops.
latentesoils Can be cut by aspade, but generally, they harden like iron when exposed to air.
The
Soil
crosonin India is aserious problcm, which is adversely
affecting the ngricultural production. agriculture.
Muchof soil erosion in our country is mainly due to faulty methods of agriculture, such
the as shifing
soil.
4 methods should be adopted, not only for the preventingthe misuse of
Vanous conservation of soils but also

EXERCISES
A.
Answer the following questions briefly:
1. Why does the texture of alluvial soils differ from region to region?
2. Name two differences between the alluvial and the black soils India.
3. Mentiontwo similarities between the red and the laterite soils.
4What are the transported soils?
E Name various changes to be done in farming for reducing the soil erosion.
6 Differentiate between in situ soils and transported soils,.
7 How is the laterite soil formed?
g Name the states where red soil is found.
a Why is the laterite soil not suitable for the cultivation of crops?
10 How does re-afforestation help in soil conservation?

R Give geographical reasons for each of the following:

1, Afforestation helps in reducing soil erosion.
2. Black soils are not leached.
2 Khadar is more fertile than the bhangar.
4. The soils must be conserved.
5. Different regions in Indía have different types of soils.
6. Black soils are mostly found in the Deccan Trap.
7. The laterite soils are not suitable for cultivation.
8. The red soils are red in colour.
9. The soil erosion are mainly due to human activities.
10. The sol erosion bywind is common in the arid regions.

C. Explain the following terms:

1. Pedogenesis 2. Organic matter 3. Humus 4. Soil profile
5. Pedologist 6. Loams 7. Leaching 8. Shelter belts

D. Answer the following questions:

1. Name the factors on which the process of soil formation depends.
2. What are the main features in the horizons of the soil profile?
3. What leads to the formation of loams?
4. Distinguish between the residual soils and the transported soils.

India-Soil Resources 109

 5. How do the Bhangar soils difer from the Khadar soils?
6. Name theareas or regions where the alluvial soils are found.
7. Which cash and food crops can be grown in alluvial soils?
8. Give three main features of the alluvial soils.
9. How do the red soils differ from the laterite soils in India?
10, Give three main characteristics of the black cotton soils.
11. What is soil erosion?
12. What are the adverse effects of soil erosion?

13. What changes can be made in the agricultural practices to protect the fertility of soils.
14. Distinguish between strip cropping and contour ploughing?
15. How can we prevent the misuse of soils?

E. Structured questions: " Critical thinking

" Remembering
1, With reference to black soils in India, answer the following questions: Analysis
a. Name two important crops which grow this soil.
b. Give one chemical property of black soil. DLI
PRO
c. Why do the black soils retain moisture?
questions:
2. With reference to the laterite soils in India, answer the following
a. Mention two main disadvantages of this type of soils.
b. Name two cash crops which can be grown in low-lying area.
questions:
3. With reference to soil in India, answer the following
a. What is the impact of soil moisture?
b. What is mainly studied by the pedologists?
erosion and gully erosion?
c. What is the difference between sheet
erosion of the soil fertility?
d. How can contour bunding reduce
and write the names of the following: " Map
F. Map work: On the outline map of India, mark
1. Deccan Trap
2. Two states having red soils
mainly due to shifting agriculture
3. Two areas where soil erosion is
soils
4. The areas having the alluvial

110 ICSE Geography 10