DMU

College of Agriculture & Natural Resources

Department of Plant Science

FIELD CROPS PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT (PlSc 451)

By: Kelemu Nakachew

For 4th year students

May 2024
1
 Session-1 contents
– Definition and Importance of Field Crops
– Historical Development of Crop Production
– Status and Constraints of Field Crops Production in
Ethiopia
– Population Growth and Food Production
– Measures of Improving Field Crop Production in
Ethiopia
– Food Self-Sufficiency and Food Security
– Crop production as an art, a science and a business
Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1.Definition & importance of field crops

Crop: A plant or a plant product that is produced
artificially or naturally for the benefit/device of
human.
Questions
1) What is Plant?
2) What is Field crops?
3) What is difference between field crop and
horticultural crop?
 Field crops: cultivated plants (other than crops grown
around home) which are grown commercially on a large
scale.
• Field crops are sometimes called agronomic crops.
 Horticultural crops: the word horticulture is derived
from two Greek words
 ‘Horti’ (meaning around home stand) and
 ‘culture’ (meaning growing).
 i.e. horticultural crops means crops gown around the
home stand
 Usually horticultural crops are cultivated around homes
Where as, ‘field crops’ that are grown away from homes,
i.e. in fields.
 The term field crops can be include:
Cereal and legume crops are used as a source of
food
Oil crops are mainly grown for the production of
oil from their seeds.
Forage crops feed for livestock
Fiber crops raw material for textile
industry(clothing, rope etc.)
Beverage crops for production of alcoholic drink
What about horticultural crops?
 The difference between field crops and horticulture crops

No Comparison features Field Horticultural

crops crops

1 Production area Large Small

2 Produces Storable Perishable
3 Production site Rural/outside home Urban/home vicinity
4 Morphology Hard, but herbaceous Succulent, both
herbaceous & woody

5 Water requirement Low High

6 Inputs requirement Low High
7 Harvest stage Often harvested after Harvested at different
matured stages
no Comparison features Field crops Horticultural crops

8 Ultimate consumers Human and animals Human

Consumed processed in
9 Consumption Often consumed fresh
living state or dried

Moisture content of
10 low high
harvested product

11 Calories high low

12 Vitamins and minerals low high

annual annual, biennial,

13 Life cycle
perennial

14 Adaptation limited wide

15 Management extensive intensive

• Crop production:
A systematic and planned activities to produce
different crops for profit or subsistence.
It is a practice of growing and harvesting of
crops.
It is basically a conversion of environmental
inputs like
o Solar energy
o CO2 In to economic products in the form
o H2O and of human or animal food or industrial
Soil nutrients
 Crop production includes:-
– Agronomy
– Soil science
– Entomology
– Pathology
– Microbiology, etc.
 What are the Basic Practices of field crop Production?
1) land preparation
2) Seed selection and sowing/planting
3) Nutrient management
4) Water management
5) Protecting from weeds, insect pests and diseases
6) Harvesting
7) Storage
(We will see in detail these principles on chapter 7)
Importance of Field Crops
 Humans cannot survive without crop plants.
Crops are used for:
a) Food for human and feed for livestock: The most important crops
that feed the world include
 Cereals (wheat, rice, maize, sorghum, barely),
 Roots and Tuber crops (potato),
 Oil crops (linseed, sesame, sunflower, Soya bean),
 Fruit and Vegetable crops.
b) Wood and wood products from crops: Construction, Furniture,
Fuel and Paper.
c) Textiles from fiber producing plants: Plant fibers are used for
clothing and textiles, examples Cotton, Sisal, flax
d)Prevent erosion
e) Aesthetic purpose:
 For great pleasure, relaxation
f) Industry
 Field crops provide raw materials for different industries.
 Drug and Medicine Industry
 Paper Industry
 Perfume Industry
 Beverage Industry
 Bakery Industry
 Sugar Industries
g) Foreign Currency
Some crop products directly or in processed
condition are exported and earned foreign currency.
Such as, rice, jute, wheat, tomato, vegetables etc.
h) Source of oxygen:
Oxygen is released as a by product of photosynthesis
by green plants.
1.2. Historical Development of Crop Production
 Based on Lucy’s archeological finding,
 It is estimated that human exists on the earth for more
than 3 million years
 More than 99% of his existence, human lived on
natural/wild food resources/supplies
 In other words, human had been solely dependent on
nature for more than 99% of his existence on earth
 human has started agriculture, and started to produce his
food for only less than 1% of his existence
 Even after starting agriculture and crop production,
 man used hand cultivation for 10,000 years and his food
demand had been met by expansion of cultivated land =
extensive production system
 In the 19th century, the ever increasing human
population faced a challenge of :-
 getting sufficient arable land and increasing food
demand
 Expansion of cultivated land became nearly impossible,
because of land is a limited resource
 This forced man to find other alternatives to increase
food production for the ever increasing population
 Then human quickly learnt the possibility of increasing
food production through
 increasing the productivity per unit cultivated land
by using high yielding varieties,
applying soil fertilizers at least natural ones,
spraying pesticides, etc.
 This also attributed for the existence of many agricultural
sciences such as
 agronomy
 breeding
 soil science
 weed science
 engineering, etc.
 In the 19th century application of science and technology in crop
production resulted in increasing crop productivity per unit
cultivated land = intensive production system
 What is the difference between extensive and intensive
production system?
Extensive production system Intensive production system

Large farms are cultivated with low inputs Use high level of labor and capital(to
(capital &labor) planting, fertilizing, herbicide application,
harvesting, mechanization, irrigation
system)
Large and inexpensive farming method Small and expensive farming method
Located remotely Located near to market
Per hector out put is small Per hector output is large
It depends on natural soil fertility, climate It needs additional inputs
and water availability
Followed in moderately populated region Followed in densely populated region
 Intensive crop production is commonly found now in
developed countries.
 While developing countries particularly Sub-Saharan Africa,
 dominantly use extensive crop production system
 Thus, the level of agricultural productivity in these days
becomes an indicator of economy development
 Countries having least crop productivity are also least in their
economy development
 The more science and technology is applied, the higher is the
productivity
 The higher productivity, the higher is the economy development
 In order to increase crop productivity, it is necessary to apply
science and technology in crop production widely.
1.3. Status and Constraints of Field Crops Production in the
Ethiopia
 Status of field crops production in Ethiopia
Table 1. Total Area and Production of Grain Crops for Private farmer
holdings, 2019/2020 (2012 E.C.), Meher Season

Crop Total area in % Total production in %

category Hectares Quintals

Cereals 10,478,218.03 81.46 296,726,476.94 88.52

Pulses 1,563,768.72 12.16 30,051,986.62 8.97

Oil crops 820,792.09 6.38 8,421,360.34 2.51

 Within the category of Grain crops,
Cereals are the major food crops both in terms of
area and total production.
 They are produced in larger volume compared with other
crops because they are the principal staple crops.
 Pulses are also crops produced in all the regions of the
country after cereals.
 Oilseeds refer to crops which are also classified within
grain crops category.
 They are grown to flavour the food and earn some
cash for peasant holders in the country.
 Constraints of Field Crops Production in Ethiopia
 Field crop production in Ethiopia faces several constraints, which
can impact agricultural productivity and food security in the
country. Some of the key constraints include:

1. Climate Variability and Weather Extremes:

 Ethiopia's agriculture is highly dependent on rainfall, and climate
variability, including:
– erratic rainfall patterns,
– droughts,
– floods, and
– temperature fluctuations, can adversely affect crop yields and
production stability.
Constraints of field crop production…
2. Limited Access to Irrigation:
 Despite the presence of significant water resources, access to
irrigation infrastructure is limited in many parts of Ethiopia.

 This reliance on rainfed agriculture leaves crops vulnerable to

the effects of drought and water scarcity.

3. Poor Soil Fertility and Degradation: (specially in the

highlands)

 Soil fertility decline due to erosion, nutrient depletion, and

improper land management practices is a significant
constraint to field crop production.

 Without proper soil conservation measures and nutrient

replenishment, crop yields can decline over time.
Constraints of field crop production…

4. Pests and Diseases:

 Field crops in Ethiopia are susceptible to damage from various
pests and diseases, including insects, pathogens, and weeds.

 Inadequate pest management practices, limited access to

effective pesticides, and the spread of pests and diseases due to
climate change exacerbate this constraint.

5. Limited Access to Improved Seeds and Inputs:

 Many smallholder farmers in Ethiopia lack access to high-quality
seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and other agricultural inputs.

 Limited availability, affordability, and accessibility of improved

seeds and inputs constrain productivity and yield potential
 Constraints of field crop production…

6. Land Tenure and Fragmentation

 Land tenure issues, including insecure land rights,
land fragmentation, and land disputes, can hinder
agricultural investment, land consolidation, and the
adoption of modern farming practices.
7. Inadequate Infrastructure and Market Access
 Poor rural infrastructure, including roads,
transportation, storage facilities, and market access,
hampers the timely movement of agricultural inputs
and produce to markets, leading to post-harvest
losses and reduced profitability for farmers.
Constraints of field crop production…
8. Political unrest
 Ethiopia is the country where political unrest occurred for
a long period of time that affected agricultural
productivity and production in the past and at present.
 These situations have resulted
the losses of resources
hunger and poverty
 discouraging private investors in the agricultural
sector
9. Low Agricultural Mechanization
 Predominance of manual labor and traditional farming
methods, limits productivity, efficiency, and scale of field
crop production.
1.4. Population Growth and Food Production
 Currently human population reaches about 7 billion in the
world.
 In spite of worldwide declines in the total fertility rate,
population growth will be continued
 Approximately 99% of this growth will take place in the
less developed areas of the world; Africa, Asia & Latin
America.
 Increasing global population puts pressure on food
production systems.
Population Growth…

As a result of food deficits:

 Nearly 1 billion people do not get enough food to eat

 Over 400 million are chronically malnourished

 Every year 11 million children under the age of five die

from hunger or hunger-related diseases (Lean, Hinrichsen
and Markham, 1990).

 Therefore, continued population growth requires continued

increases in food production.

 How can we increase food production?

Means for increasing food production to
 Generally, technological advancements in agriculture
have helped increase food production to meet growing
demands.

 Even though most Ethiopian farmers follow traditional

crop production system,

They have mechanisms to grow better crop and to

maximize productivity.

 The following measures can be an option to balance

increasing food demand and current food production:
1. Protecting arable land
 For continued productivity arable land must be protected
against
high salinity
poor drainage
soil erosion, and
contamination which can limit yields.
 Some cropping procedures that can maximize arable land
usage for food production are:
i) Sequential cropping
ii) Intercropping
iii) Ratoon cropping
2. Soil conservation practice

3. Prevention of production and post-harvest losses

4. Application of good agronomic activity

5. Managing the population growth

6. Search alternative food sources

1.5. Food self-sufficiency and Food security
 Food security: is defined as “access of enough food for all
people at all times for a health or active life.”
 The food can be local produced and or imported.
 Elements of food security
 for all people
 at all times
 have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and
nutritious food
 to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an
active and healthy life.
 Finally, the phrase “physical and economic access” indicates
that
food security may be assured by producing food or by
obtaining it through the market.
 Food self-sufficiency: is defined as being able to
meet consumption needs from own production
rather than from buying or importing.
 It refers to the ability of a country, region, or
household to meet its food needs from its own
production.
 Usually, food self-sufficiency is defined in terms of
the staple food crops, such as basic cereals and root
crops.
 There is a long-standing debate on whether food self-
sufficiency is a useful strategy to achieve food
security.
 Supporters argue that relying on the market for to meet
food needs is a risky strategy

because of volatility in food prices and possible

interruption in supplies.

 The opposing view is that it is costly for a household (or

country) to focus on food self-sufficiency rather than
producing according to its comparative advantage and
purchasing some of its food requirements from the
market.
2. CROP PRODUCTION AS AN ART, SCIENCE AND
BUSINESS

2.1. Crop Production as an Art

2.2. Crop Production as Science
2.3. Crop production as a Business
Crop Production as an Art

 The art aspect of crop production involves the awareness,

experience, and skill of the farmer in making decisions on:
– when to plant,
– how to manage pests and diseases,
– when to harvest, and
– how to market the crop.
 The art of crop production is older than civilization, and
 its essential features have remained almost unchanged since
the dawn of history.
 These features include
 gathering and preserving the seed of the desired crop plants

 destroying other kinds of vegetation growing on the land

 tilling the soil to form a seedbed,

 planting the seed when the season and weather are right
as shown by past experience,

 destroying weeds,

 protecting the crop from natural enemies; and

 gathering, processing, and storing the products.

 The old art of crop production still predominates in farm
practice throughout the world.

 It embraces knowledge of the way to perform the

operations of the farm in a skillful manner.

 but does not necessarily include an understanding of the

principles underlying the farm practices.

 It involves physical and mental skill.

 Physical skill: It involves the ability and capacity to carry

out the operation in an efficient way for

e.g., handling of farm implements, animals etc., sowing of

seeds, fertilizer and pesticides application etc.
 Mental skill: The farmer is able to take a decision based
on experience, such as:
i. Time and method of ploughing,
ii. Selection of crop and cropping system to suit soil and
climate,
iii. Adopting improved farm practices etc.
Crop production as a science
 As a science, crop production refers to the application of
various scientific principles and techniques to the cultivation
and management of plants for food, fiber, fuel, and other
purposes.
 It utilizes all modern technologies developed on scientific
principles such as

Plant breeding (hybridization, transgenic crop,

biotechnology etc)

Agronomy (protecting/ managing soil and water)

Crop protection (plant pathology, entomology, weed

science)
to maximize crop yields, quality and sustainability
to minimizing the negative impact on the
environment.
For example,
new crops and varieties developed by
hybridization, transgenic crop varieties resistant
to pests and diseases,
hybrids in high fertilizer responsive varieties,
water management
herbicides to control weeds
use of bio-control agents to reduce pest and
diseases etc.
 Crop production as a business
 The business aspects of crop production involve the
management and economic considerations necessary for a
successful farming operation. This includes:

 Market Analysis: Researching market trends, consumer

preferences, and pricing dynamics to make informed
decisions about which crops to grow and when to sell them.

 Cost Management: Budgeting for inputs such as seeds,

fertilizers, pesticides, equipment, labor, and land rent, while
seeking efficiencies to minimize costs and maximize
profitability.
  Risk Management: Assessing and mitigating risks such as crop
failure due to weather, pests, or market fluctuations through
strategies such as insurance, diversification, and hedging.

 Marketing and Sales: Developing marketing strategies to

effectively promote and sell crops, whether through direct
sales to consumers, wholesale markets, or contracts with food
processors and retailers.

 Regulatory Compliance: Adhering to government regulations

related to crop production, food safety, environmental
protection, and labor practices to ensure legal compliance and
maintain public trust.

 In summary, crop production is a multifaceted endeavor that

requires a blend of artistic, scientific, and business skills to
achieve success.
 3. Origin of Cultivated Plants
Session plan
At the end of the lesson, students are able to know about:
 Definition of Center of origin and center of diversity
 The 8 centers of origin of cultivated plants based on Vavilov,
 Ethiopian originated crops?
 Primary and secondary center of origin
 Spread of cultivated plants
 Benefit of conservation biodiversity
 Cause of loss of biodiversity
 Mechanism of Conservation of Crops
 Crop plants classification
1
Centre of Origin
 The centre of origin is a geographical area where the
particular group of organisms first originated on earth.
 It is geographical areas where crop plants have originated.
 A centre of diversity refers to a location where vast genetic
variability for a crop and its wild species are found.
 Many people believed that centre of origin is also centre of
diversity.
 But, the centre of diversity may not represent the centre of
origin of crop plants.
 The Knowledge of origin of crop plants is basic
– To plant breeding in order to locate wild relatives, related
species, and new genes (especially dominant genes, sources
of disease resistance).
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 – To avoid genetic erosion, the loss of germplasm due to the loss
of ecotypes and landraces, loss of habitat (such as rainforests),
and increased urbanization.
– Used by crop protectionist to design biological control.
 All basic cultivated plants are believed to have been derived from
wild species
 However, marked differences are now observed between cultivated
plants and their respective wild relatives as the result of
evolutionary processes.
 Through a long time cultivation, especial care and selection, the
present cultivated plants become different from their wild relatives,
while the evolutionary process is always toward fitting the
environmental conditions where an organism is grown.

3
 General comparisons between cultivated plants and their respective wild
relatives
No Comparison features Cultivated plants Wild species

1 Yield High Low

2 Product quality Desirable Undesirable
3 Morphology Tender Hard
4 Adaptation Low High
5 Resistance Low High

 Extensive expansion of agriculture and extreme deforestation

threatens wild relatives of cultivated plants
 Widely adoption of high yielding varieties also threatens the
existence of low yielding crop varieties
 Both are seriously subjected to genetic erosion and total
disappearance of wild relatives.
4
 Although wild relatives of cultivated plants are low yielder and
their products are less desirable

 They are more resistant to diseases/ insect pests and adaptive to

wider environmental conditions than their cultivated plants

 Low yielding varieties may have similar qualities like that of wild
relatives

 Hence, both wild relatives and low yielding varieties of cultivated

plants must be conserved for future breeding purposes.

5
 In 18th century Russian explorer Vavilov recognized the genetic
diversity of crops from region to region and from country to country

He also further concluded that the region or country where the

greatest diversity of type occurred in each crop plant to be the center
of origin of a crop.

According to Vavilov, there are 8 centers of origin of cultivated plants

1) China
2) India
3) Central Asia
4) Near East
5) Mediterranean Area
6) Ethiopia
7) South Mexico & Central America, and
8) South America
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No Center of origins Basic crops Total
spp.
1 China, Central & Western Soybean, barley, naked oats, millets, bulk 136
wheat, sugarcane
2 India, including Burma & Rice, cotton, cow peas 117
Assam
3 Central Asia Common wheat, cotton, sesame, hemp, 42
pops, lentils
4 Near East, including Asia Minor Some wheats, two-row barley, rye, 83
& Iran common oats, alfalfa, vetch
5 Mediterranean Area Durum, emmer, and spelt wheats, some 84
oats, barley, hops, flax
6 Ethiopia Common six-row barley, durum 38
wheat, grain sorghum, millet, caster
beans, chickpeas, lentils, coffee, tef
7 South Mexico & Central Corn/maize, upland cotton, beans, sweet 49
America potato
8 South America, esp. Peru, White potato, tobacco, peanuts, tomato, 45
Bolivia, and parts of Ecuador some cottons, lupine
7
 Crops centers of origin would be two kinds:

1. Primarily center of origin: where there are both wild relatives &
genetic diversity

 These are original homes of the crop plants which are generally
uncultivated areas like, mountains, hills, river valleys, forests,

 Regions of vast genetic diversity of crop plants.

2. Secondary center of origin:

 Secondary centers of origin are regions where cultivated plants are

taken from primary centers of origin and introduced & further
domesticated or adapted by human populations.

 These regions often have similar environmental conditions to the

primary centers but may also offer unique ecological niches
8
 Secondary centers of origin typically emerge through human migration,
trade, and cultural exchange, as well as deliberate efforts to introduce
and cultivate new crops in different regions.
 Evolution is always in favorable of an organism fitting the
environmental conditions where it is grown.
 For instance, tropical countries are characterized by warm temperature,
short day and largely droughty
 Therefore, crops originated in tropical regions are characterized with
 warm loving,
 short day and
 drought tolerant
 Whereas those crops originated in temperate regions have opposite
features to that of crops originated in tropical areas
 They need cool temperature
 Are long day plants
 Are cool season crops and highly affected by drought
9
 Relationships between crops character and their centers of origin

10
Spread of Cultivated Plants

 Cultivated plants spread from their centers of origin to the rest

world (where they adapt and perform well enough) through
 migrations of man to insure a permanent food supply and
support their culture
 international cooperation and inter-governments agreement
 international convention favoring free accessing germplasm for
research and breeding purposes
 But, beyond the suitability of environmental conditions, socio-
economic aspects also limit the geographical distribution of crops
 For instance, labour intensive tropical crops like coffee sustain to
grow widely in countries where labour is abundant and cheap

11
Domestication: the process of bringing wild species under
human management.
 Over the years, there were both natural and artificial
selections and these led to the evolution of the present
plants.
 Evolution is gradual changes usually with improved
modifications.
 Natural selection is carried out by natural forces (weather
conditions, temperature, light, soil, pests, etc.), while
 artificial one is done by humans.
 The former increased variability of plants in contrast the
latter that reduced variations.

12
 As Darwin stated, variation is a feature of natural
populations.
 Darwin’s theory of evolution through natural selection
can be summed up in three principles that are at the core
of plant breeding.
1. Variation - Variation in morphology, physiology and
behavior exist among individuals in a natural population.
2. Heredity - Offspring resemble their parents more than
they resemble unrelated individuals.
3. Selection - Some individuals in a group are more
capable of surviving and reproducing than others (i.e.,
more fit).
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Major changes under domestication:

 Reduction of shattering and dormancy

 Decreased in toxins or undesirable substances
 Modify tillering, branching, leaf characters
 Increased dwarf and determinate plant types/e.g. rice,
wheat, etc/
 Short life cycle/e.g cotton/
 Increased economic yield/grain and fruit size/
 Shift in sex forms /promoted asexual and bisexual
reproduction, and reduced self incompatibility/
 Decreased in variability /e.g. Pure lines/
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Conserving Crop Biodiversity

 Biodiversity in most simple terms means the diversity of

life.
 The internationally agreed definition as per Convention
on Biological Diversity (CBD) is “the variability among
living organisms from all sources’’ including, terrestrial,
marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
complexes.
 It includes diversity within species and between species
of ecosystem

15
The benefits of conserving biodiversity
1) Biodiversity supports food security and sustained
livelihoods through overall genetic diversity.
– Preserving genetic diversity ensures the continuing existence
of a wide-range of crops that may be able to withstand disease,
and potentially useful bio-chemicals such as those used in
healthcare.
– It also means availability of species for pollination and pest
control.
2) Biodiversity has greatly contributed to modern
medicine and advancements in human health research
and treatment.
– Many modern pharmaceuticals are derived from plant species

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 3) Biodiversity maintains a stable ecosystem
 In an ecosystem all the components are related to one another and
it occurs in a state of dynamic equilibrium.
 This system of checks and balances is of fundamental importance
in an ecosystem which is maintained in a functional state by the
activity of a large number of organisms.
(4) Biodiversity ensures optimum utilization and conservation of
abiotic resources in an ecosystem:
 Tropical regions are having the richest biodiversity in the world,
most of the nutrients are lodged in its biotic community.
 Due to warm and humid conditions decomposition of organic
matter and regeneration of nutrients take place rapidly.
 A wide variety of plants quickly absorb all the nutrients which are
made available to them as a result of mineralization.
 The rich biodiversity in the tropics is sustained largely by recycled
nutrients. 17
 Cause of loss of biodiversity
• Principal causes for the loss of Biodiversity includes
1) Pollution: Living organisms have developed over an
extended period, however they strive to adopt to existence
on a polluted planet.
 Air pollutants such as soot, dust, ammonia, or carbon
dioxide can directly and indirectly influence biodiversity.
 Soil pollution Soil pollution is another factor adversely
affecting biodiversity.
 Soil contaminated with heavy metals greatly impact the
welfare of the microorganisms essential for the sustaining
life of the living organisms.
 The excess of heavy metals present in the soil are not
easily broken down and are accumulated by plants. 18
 The over-use of fertilizers, pesticides and antibiotics
used in agriculture is also very deleterious for the
biodiversity.
 Water pollution: Water pollution had detrimental effect
on biodiversity.
 Chemical fertilizers generally contain nitrogen and
phosphorous sweep away from the soil to the water
bodies lead to eutrophication or excessive plant growth.
 Eutrophication causes the depletion in the oxygen level
which is deleterious for biodiversity.
 Fish and other aquatic animals die because of lack of
dissolved oxygen in water.
 Alike fertilizers, pesticides may also accumulate in water
bodies negatively affect non-flowing water bodies
 Results difficulty in reproducing animals 19
2) Habitat loss: The destruction, degradation and
fragmentation of habitat are the three predominant
categories of habitat loss.
 The habitat destruction is the massive destruction of
the natural habitat of the species that it becomes
incapable of upholding the native ecosystems and the
species.
 This ultimately results in species extinction i.e.,
biodiversity loss.
 cutting the forests for preparing the fields for agricultural use,
 filling the wetlands and mowing fields for creating residential
or commercial sites,
 harvest of the fossil fuels, etc. are all examples of habitat
destruction
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 Activities related to urbanization, and the interruption of
processes related to ecosystem are the predominant
elements of degradation of habitat.

 The erosion, depletion of nutrients and desertification

cause the further loss of the degraded land.

 Habitat fragmentation is another huge issue arisen due

to human developmental activities.

 Human beings for the purpose of development and to

meet the never ending needs split up areas break down
the habitats of the animal and plant species, isolate
animal communities, compressing genetic diversity.

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3) Climate change: The biodiversity and climate change
are strongly associated.

Climate change disturbs ecological systems and species

capability to acclimate and hence the loss in biodiversity
enhances.

4) Invasive species: The introduction of invasive species is

the tremendous threat to biodiversity crisis.

The species, which is not native to the ecosystem,

introduced in the new ecosystem are detrimental as they
effect the ecosystem disproportionately compared to any
other species.

22
 Mechanism of Conservation of Crops
Approaches to Germplasm Conservation
 There are two basic approaches to germplasm conservation
 in situ and ex situ
 These are best considered as complementary rather than
independent systems.
A. In situ conservation:
 This is the preservation of variability in its natural habitat in its
natural state (i.e., on site).
 It is most applicable to conserving wild plants and entails the use
of legal measures to protect the ecosystem from
desecration/damage by humans.
 These protected areas are called by various names (e.g., nature
reserves, wildlife refuges, natural parks).

23
B) Ex situ conservation:
 In contrast to in situ conservation
 ex situ conservation entails planned conservation of targeted
species (not all species).
 Germplasm is conserved not in the natural places of origin but
under supervision of professionals off site in locations called
germplasm or gene banks.
 Plant materials may be in the form of seed or vegetative materials.
 It can be achieved in the following five ways:
 (1) seed gene banks
 (2) plant or field gene banks
 (3) shoot tip gene banks
 (4) cell or organ gene banks and
 (5) DNA gene banks
24
 Chapter - Four

Classification of Crop Plants

1
Objective:
• At the end of this chapter you will be able to:
• Understand about classification of crop bases on:
 botany,
 agronomy,
 duration of life cycle,
 special purpose, and
 zone of origin in which they are grown

2
4.1. Botanical classification
* This is based up on similarity of plant parts like flower, leaf, root structure
* This is the most important way of classification because it determines to what
extent the plants are relatives.
* Field crops are belong “plant kingdom”, which includes plants reproduced by
seeds.
* subdivision of “Angiosperm”, which are characterized by producing seeds with
coats (covered seed)
* The “Angiosperm”, are then divided into two classes, namely,
monocotyledons and the dicotyledons.
* All the grasses, which include the cereals and sugar cane including some
forage crops are monocotyledons.
* The legumes and other plants except the grasses are classified as
dicotyledons.
3
• Most types of field crops may be belongs the following families;
1) Monocotyledons: include the following family
i. Gramineae/poaceae family:
 includes about 3/4 of forages crops and all grain cereals crops.
 Possess long & narrow leaves with parallel veins and fiber roots.
 The flowers are perfect and collected in inflorescence at the top of plant.
 They are annuals, biennials or perennials in life.
The annual crops of this family are wheat, barley, maize, sorghum
etc.
while perennial crops is sugarcane and Napier grass etc.
ii. Liliaceae: includes onion, shallot and garlic.
4
2- Dicotyledons: includes leguminaceae and all other than graminaceae

i. Leguminaceae/fabaceae family:
 Plants possess broad leaves with netted veins and tap root system which
bears nodules.
 Their seeds are borne in pods
 The flowers are buttery- like.
 The seeds have two cotyledons and full of stored food.
 The common annual legumes are horse bean, haricot bean, field peas,
chickpea, cowpea, soybean etc. while perennial legume is alfalfa, Lucerne etc.

5
ii. Some Other botanical families in dicotyledons :

• Cucurbitaceae family: pumpkin, cucumber

• Convolvulaceae family: sweet potato
• Solanceae family: potatoes, pepper, tomato, tobacco
• Asteraceae family: sunflower, safflower, rape seed
• Malvaceae: cotton.
• Linaceae: flax.
• Pedaliaceae: sesame.
Generally, the most important field crop family belongs to the
two botanical families: the grass family and the legume
family.
6
2.2 Agronomic classification
This type of classification of plants is based on a plant’s agricultural use and
their gross similarities.
Cereal crops: These crops are grown for their edible grains rich
in carbohydrate. They include Wheat, Barley, Tef, Maize, Sorghum, F. Millet.
Pulses/grain legumes: These crops are grown for their edible grains rich in
protein. They include Faba bean, Field pea, Cow pea, Soybeans, Lentils.
Root & tuber crops: - These are grown for their enlarged roots or tubers.
Important root and tuber crops are Cassava, Sweet potato, Potato, Yam.

7
 Cont…
Fiber crops: - They grow for their fiber and this includes Cotton, Sisal,
Kenaf.
Oil crops: - These crops are grown for their edible oil. They include
Sesame, Sunflower, Safflower, Rape seeds, Linseed.
Sugar crops: - Grown for their sugar content and includes: Sugar cane
(60% sugar come from this crop in the world), Sugar beet (40% sugar
from this crop).
Drug crops: - These crops are smoked or chewed for their stimulant
effect. They include Tobacco, Chat

8
 Cont…
Beverage crops: - These crops are also sources of stimulants. They
include Coffee, Tea, Cocoa
Vegetable crops: - This group includes Tomatoes, Onions, Cabbages,
Lettuce, Carrot, and Cucumber.
Fruit crops: - This group includes perennial fruit bearing crops. They
include Papaya, Mango, Avocado, and Banana.
Forage crops: - Crops grown as feed for ruminants. They are fed to
the animals either fresh or in dried form, such as hay and silage (e.g.
Alfalfa)

9
2.3. Special purpose classification

• The name of the group is often derived from the purpose for which
the crop is used.

• Many of the crops previously mentioned are well suited for more
than one purpose.

10
Some of the special purpose groups are as follows:
 Cover crops: - These are sown to make a cover or protect the soil.
Example Alfalfa, Vetch, Cow pea, ...
 Green – manure crops: - which are grown to be plowed under to
incorporate into the soil to increase its productivity. Example: lupin

As a rule to be green manure

Legumes are more desirable than non legumes
Fast growing crops
High biomass producing crops are preferred

11
 Special purpose…
 Catch or emergency crops: - crops used as substitutes for staple crops that
have failed on account of unfavorable conditions.
They are quick growing crops. E.g. millet and chickpea
 Soiling crops: - Those crops are cut/harvested green and fed green to cattle
directly from the field at their succulent stage. E.g. Alfalfa, Clover, Grasses,
maize, ...
 Companion crops: - It is an inter-cropping system. e.g. legumes and cereals
 Trap crops: - Planted to attract pests.
 Alley crops: crops are grown in alleys formed by trees or shrubs to increase
soil productivity and reduce soil erosion.
12
 2.4 Classification based on duration of life cycle
Crop plant completes their life cycle after passing through progressive
stages of development during certain period of time;
According to life cycle crops are grouped in to three categories.
I. Annual crops: crops that complete their life cycle within a season or a
year.
Most of field crops are annual in nature; they produce seeds within a
season or year and then they will die.
Example- rice, wheat, barley, maize, Faba bean, sesame, soyabean etc,

13
 Duration…
II) Biennial crops: crop plants that complete their life cycle in two successive
seasons or two consecutive live years.
During the first year they produce leaves and stored food and in the
second year they produce fruits and seeds after which plant dies.
Examples: cabbage, carrot, sugar beet, onion etc
III) Perennial crops: plants that live for three or more growing seasons are
termed perennial crops.
These plants may be seed bearing or no seed bearing.
They may be propagated by seed or by vegetative propagation
Example: sugar cane, Napier grass, ginger and sweet potato or may
produce fruits like citrus groups, mango, avocado etc.
14
 2.5 Classification based on Zone of origin

Based on this, crops can be classified in two groups:

i. Tropical crops: Crops grown only on slight heat and light charge.
All phases of growth flow normally under high temperature regime.
They are not resistant to low temperature.
They are short day plants like maize, rice, cotton, sweet potato.
ii. Temperate crops: They are cold season’s crops and cold resistant
They are long day plants like wheat, barley, oat, field pea, and lentils.

15
Chapter 5: Major Physiology of Crop Plants
 Growth and development are fundamental processes in the life
cycle of crop plants.
 Understanding the mechanisms underlying these processes is
crucial for optimizing agricultural practices and improving
crop yield.
 Growth, differentiation, and development are closely related
events in plants life.
5.1. Growth and Development
 Growth = is an irreversible increase in volume, size or
weight of an organism.
 Which is a quantitative change and normally measurable
 e.g. plant height, size (diameter), weight, dry matter
content, etc. 1
 Cont…
 Growth is a quantitative term, related only to changes in size and
mass.
 For cells, growth is simply an irreversible increase in volume.
 For tissues and organs, growth normally reflects an increase
in both cell number and cell size.
 In plants, growth involves cell division, elongation, and
differentiation.
 Therefore, for example, expansion of a leaf or root is growth.
 Growth is an essential property of plants which helps them gain
nutrients from places which are far from their position.
 Growth helps plants compete with each other and also protect
their important organs.
2
 Cont…
 Differentiation: is the process in which the cells
specialize into morphologically and physiologically
different cells.
 It is the process by which cells acquire metabolic,
structural, and functional properties distinct from those
of their progenitors.
 Mature cells can divide and differentiate again, and this
is known as dedifferentiation.
 This usually occurs in wounded tissues.
 The parenchyma cells are undifferentiated, and thus,
the wound is repaired.
3
Development
 a term which includes all changes that an organism goes
through during its life cycle from germination of the
seed to senescence.
 It involves changes in the form, structure, and function
of plant organs over time.
 It includes processes such as germination, flowering,
and fruit development.
 Development is a qualitative change and not normally
measurable
e.g. colour, shape, differentiation into different plant
parts such as roots, branches, leaves, flowers, fruits,
seeds, etc. 4
 Development is the process of growth and
differentiation of individual cells into tissues, organs
and organisms.
 An ordered change or progress, often towards a higher,
more ordered or more complex state; morphological and
chemical differentiation takes place during the
development.
 Development is an umbrella term, referring to the sum
of all of the changes that a cell, tissue, organ, or
organism goes through in its life cycle.

5
 Development is the process by which structures
originate and mature as a plant grows.
 It is most visibly showed as changes in the form of an
organ or organism, such as
The transition from embryo to seedling,
From a leaf primordium to a fully expanded leaf,
Production of vegetative organs to the production of
floral structures.

6
• Therefore, development is considered a component
or subset of the broader process of growth.
• Development is the sum total of growth and
differentiation.
• It is regulated by extrinsic and intrinsic factors.
• A plant cannot develop if the cells do not grow and
differentiate. Because growth happens at cell,
tissue, organ, and individual/ organism stage.
• Growth is more often viewed as the overarching
process that encompasses various developmental
changes within a plant's life cycle.
7
 Growth of higher flowering plants start from planting
materials (imbibed seeds or cuttings/clones or tissue/cells
in case of tissue culture) through progressive cell
division and expansion.

 Cells enlarge slowly in the apical meristem and more

rapidly in the sub-apical regions.

 Plants produce new tissues and structures throughout

their life from meristems located at the tips of organs, or
between mature tissues.

 Thus, a living plant always has embryonic tissues.

8
 Embryo germinates from its seed or parent plant
 Embryogenesis establishes the basic plant body plan
and forms the meristems that generate additional organs
in the plant.
 It begins to produce additional organs (leaves, stems,
and roots) through the process of organogenesis.
 New roots grow from root meristems located at the tip
of the root, and
 New stems and leaves grow from shoot meristems
located at the tip of the shoot.

9
 Meristems are populations of small, isodiametric cells
that have “embryonic” characteristics.

 Vegetative meristems generate specific portions of the

plant body, and they regenerate themselves.

 In many plants, the root and shoot apical meristems are

capable of indefinite growth.

 Cells derived from meristems become the tissues and

organs that determine the overall size, shape, and
structure of the plant.

10
 The vegetative shoot apical meristem repetitively
generates lateral organs (leaves and lateral buds), as
well as segments of the stem.
 The root and shoot apical meristems are primary
meristems formed during embryogenesis.
 Secondary meristems are initiated during
postembryonic development and include the
vascular cambium
cork cambium
axillary meristems and
secondary root meristems

11
 Growth from any such meristem at the tip of a root or
shoot is termed primary growth
 results in the lengthening of that root or shoot.
 Secondary growth results in widening of a root or shoot
from divisions of cells in a cambium.
 Not all plant cells grow to the same length.
 When cells on one side of a stem grow longer and faster
than cells on the other side, the stem bends to the side of
the slower growing cells as a result.
 This directional growth can occur via a plant's
response to a particular stimulus, such as light
(phototropism), gravity (gravitropism), water,
(hydrotropism), and physical contact
(thigmotropism).
12
 Plants exhibit indeterminate growth where the plant will continue
adding new organs (leaves, stems, roots) as long as it has access to
the necessary resources. ?
 Meristematic tissues consist of three types, based on their location
in the plant.
1. Apical meristems contain meristematic tissue located at the tips
of stems and roots, which enable a plant to extend in length.
2. Lateral meristems facilitate growth in thickness or girth in a
maturing plant.
3. Intercalary (also called basal) meristems occur only in some
monocot such as grasses, at the bases of leaf blades and at nodes
(the areas where leaves attach to a stem).
 It is responsible for elongation growth between nodes.
 allow these plants to continue growing rapidly even after being grazed or
mown.
13
 This tissue enables the monocot leaf blade to increase
in length from the leaf base;
for example, it allows lawn grass leaves to elongate
even after repeated grazing or mowing.
 Meristems contribute to both primary (taller/longer)
and secondary (wider) growth.
 Primary growth is controlled by root apical
meristems or shoot apical meristems, while
 secondary growth is controlled by the two lateral
meristems, called the vascular cambium and the cork
cambium.
 Not all plants exhibit secondary growth.

14
The three Phases of plant growth are:
A) Phase of cell formation or cell division: This is the first
phases of growth that new cells are formed by the division
of meristematic cells.
B) Phase of cell elongation or enlargement: This is the second
phase of growth
– The growth in the size of the cells is due to various factors
such as absorption of water, formation and growth of
vacuoles and the thickening of the cell wall.
C) Phase of cell differentiation or maturation: This is the
final phase of growth when the cell matures physiologically
and morphologically.
– It assumes its final shape, size and structure.
15
 The three phases of growth mentioned above are
characterized by three aspects of growth namely:
 An initial period of growth (growth initiation)
 A period of maximum growth (cell elongation), and
 A period of steady growth maintenance (cell maturation).
Growth Curve
 Studies conducted on growth (in unicellular organisms
and in multicellular organisms) have revealed the
existence of a characteristic pattern.
 This pattern of growth rate resulting in increase of height,
weight, volume, etc have a perfect correlation when
considered in the context of time.
16
The results obtained by the study of growth pattern
when plotted against time graphically would yield what is
known as the growth curve.
The growth curve is always sigmoid or ‘S’ shaped in all
the living organisms without any exception.
The growth is slow initially and then is followed by a
rapid growth rate and finally settles down to a slow rate
or steady rate.
 These three phases of growth can be marked on the
growth curve as lag phase, log (exponential) phase and
the steady state (stationary) phase.

17
The lag phase is characterized by a slow rate of growth
(cell division) followed by
The log phase when there is geometric increase of
growth (cell elongation) to be followed by
Steady state phase (cell maturation) when the curves
flattens out.

18
Growth and development of the crop plant have three
major stages:
vegetative
reproductive, and
grain filling
The vegetative phase: begins at germination
characterized by early formation of tillers and leaves
followed by floral initiation.
The reproductive phase begins with the formation of
the spikelet and ends with pollination of the ovaries in the
spikelets.

19
Grain filling begins after pollination with enlargement of
endosperm and embryo cell numbers for accumulating dry
matter and initial vegetative primordal respectively.
Duration of each phase varies with
 Genotype
 Geographic area
 Agronomic practices, and
 Climatic factors

20
 Factors Influencing Growth and Development:
1. Environmental Factors:
i. Light: Photoperiod, intensity, and quality influence plant
growth and development.
ii. Temperature: Optimal temperature ranges vary among
crop species and affect physiological processes.
iii. Water: Adequate water availability is essential for turgor
pressure maintenance and nutrient transport.
iv. Nutrients: Macronutrients (N, P, K) and micronutrients
influence various metabolic pathways.
2. Genetic Factors:
i. Plant species and cultivars exhibit genetic variability in
growth habits, flowering time, and yield potential.
ii. Breeding efforts focus on selecting traits that enhance
growth, yield, and stress tolerance.
iii. Plant Growth Regulators: such as auxin, cytokinin,
gibberellins, etc. are regulate their growth.
21
5.2 Structure and Functions of Crop Plants

 Understanding the structure and functions of crop plants

provides insights into their physiological processes and
adaptation to environmental conditions.
Tissue Systems:
1. Dermal Tissue: Outer protective layer (epidermis) covering
plant surfaces.
2. Ground Tissue: Bulk of the plant body, involved in
photosynthesis, storage, and support.
3. Vascular Tissue: Facilitates transport of water, nutrients, and
photosynthates throughout the plant.

22
Plant Anatomy:
 Roots: Anchor the plant, absorb water and nutrients
from the soil.
 Stems: Support the plant, transport water, nutrients, and
photosynthates.
 Leaves: Site of photosynthesis, gas exchange, and
transpiration.
 Flowers: Reproductive structures involved in
pollination and seed formation.

23
Physiological Functions:
 Photosynthesis: Conversion of light energy into
chemical energy, producing sugars for plant growth
and development.
 Transpiration: Loss of water vapor from plant
surfaces, regulating water uptake and nutrient
transport.
 Respiration: Release of energy from stored sugars,
supporting metabolic processes and growth.
 Nutrient Uptake: Absorption of essential minerals
from the soil for plant growth and metabolism.
24
Adaptations to Environmental Factors:
 Root Morphology: Different root architectures optimize water
and nutrient uptake in response to soil conditions.
 Leaf Structure: Variation in leaf size, shape, and arrangement
influence light capture and gas exchange.
 Stem Modifications: Succulent stems, thorns, and storage
organs provide adaptations for water storage and defense
against herbivores.
Interactions with Microorganisms:
 Symbiotic Relationships: Mutualistic associations with
rhizobia, mycorrhizae, and endophytes enhance nutrient
acquisition and stress tolerance.
 Pathogen Interactions: Plant-pathogen interactions influence
disease susceptibility and plant defense mechanisms.
25
5.3. GROWTH ANALYSIS
Plant growth analysis is an explanatory, holistic and
integrative approach to interpreting plant form and
function.
Growth analysis is a technique of investigating
growth and yield by use of growth functions.
It is the method of interpreting plant development.
Total crop dry matter is the spatial and temporal
integration of all plant processes.
Therefore, crop dry matter is the most relevant
parameter in the study of crop canopies.

26
Two basic measurements in growth analysis are dry
weight and leaf area, and a large number of parameters
are derived from these measurements.
1. Plant weight: This is usually the oven-dry weight
(kg) but it can be the organic matter of energy content
2. The size of the assimilatory system:
 This is usually the leaf area (m2) but it can be the leaf
protein or chlorophyll content.
A) Leaf area ratio (LAR): The total leaf area of a plant
divided by the dry mass of the entire plant.
 It describes the photosynthetic surface area per unit dry
weight of a plant. 27
 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡
Over any time LAR = 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
– Units = cm2 /g or or m2/kg
 It reflects the leafiness of a plant or amount of leaf area
formed per unit of biomass
 LAR is an indication of the efficiency of a given leaf area to
produce a given plant size.

B). Relative growth rate (RGR)

 Expresses the total plant dry weight increase in a time interval
in relation to the initial weight/dry matter increment per unit
biomass per unit time.

28
The rate of accumulation of new dry mass per unit of
existing dry mass, is a major determinant of plant
competitiveness.
 RGR is an indirect measurement of the rate of
resource gaining, and numerous studies have found that
increasing crop RGR increases weed suppression.
The faster an individual accumulates biomass, the more
carbon is available to increase growth of roots and shoots
for greater access to light and soil nutrients, which in
turn enables greater biomass accumulation.
ln W2 – lnW1
RGR = (unit is g/day)
t2 − t1
Where, where W1 and W2 are plant dry weights at times t1
and t2 respectively. 29
C. Net Assimilation Rate (NAR): is the net gain in total dry matter
per unit leaf area per unit time.
NAR, of a plant or crop at any instant in time t is defined as the
increase of plant material (Kg) per unit of the assimilatory material
(m2) per unit of time:
1 𝑑𝑊
 NAR = . Units = g cm-2 day-1 or g/cm2/day
𝐿𝐴 𝑑𝑡
Where, LA=leaf area, dW/dt is the change in dry weight per unit time
 NAR measures the accumulation of plant dry weight per unit leaf
area per unit time i.e (g cm-2 week-1).
 The objective of measuring NAR is to determine the efficiency of
plant leaves in dry matter production.
 It is a measure of efficiency of production.
 Estimate of net carbon gain i.e. photosynthetic carbon gain minus
the respiratory losses.
 This is what actually forms the crop yield. 30
D. Leaf Area Index (LAI)
 It is widely used to describe the photosynthetic and
transpiration surface of plant canopies.
 LAI can be simply defined as the amount of leaf
surface area per unit ground area, and
 The value of LAI should be optimum at the maximum
ground cover area at which crop canopy receives
maximum solar radiation, and
 Hence it directly affects Total Dry Matter
Accumulation.
 LAI is the major factor determining the amount of light
intercepted by the plant canopy. 31
 In cereals, LAI determines biomass accumulation.

 However, an optimum LAI is sometimes a better goal

depending on the variety of cereal, as increasing LAI may
not increase photosynthesis,

 Due to shading, but does contribute to increased

respiration.

 That is as LAI increases, yield will decrease.

 Methods to measure LAI
 Direct methods can be in situ or destructive.
 Destructive methods involve removing leaves from the
plant to make direct measurements

32
 In order to directly calculate LAI we must use the
following formula:
LAI = Leaf area (m2)/ Ground area (m2) = m2/m2
 LAI= Length x width x k (0.75) x no. of leaves per
plant/Ground area of the plant.
 Indirect methods can be done using digital plant canopy
analysis: which is the most accurate analysis of leaf area
index uses photography from either below or above the
canopy to measure LAI.
 The hand-held CI-110 Plant Canopy Analyzer uses a
hemispherical lens to take photos from beneath the canopy
and automatically makes calculations for the user to
measure LAI and Photosynthetically Active Radiation
(PAR) levels.
33
E. Crop Growth Rate (CGR)
 It is a measure of how fast a crop is growing over a specific period
of time.
 The CGR explains the dry matter accumulated per unit land area
per unit time (g m-2 day-1)
 Defined as the increase of dry matter in grams per unit area per
unit time.
 CGR measures the efficiency of production of a total field of
plants over a given soil area.

34
Chapter 6: Factors Affecting Crops Production

Plant growth is complex process and influenced by extrinsic and intrinsic

factors.
1. Environmental factors (Physical and Biological factors)
2. Socio-economic factors
3. Management factors (cultural practices)
4. Genetic factor/Crop
The first three factors (E, S & M) are external factors and the last (G) is
internal factor.

1
Environmental Factors Affecting Crop Production

A) Physical environmental factors

B) Biological Factors
1. Climatic factor
• Moisture (water) supply, • Weeds
• Light
• Temperature • Insect pests
• Humidity • Plant disease
• Wind
2. Soil factor
• Soil pH
• Texture
• Structure
• Soil fertility
• Soil moisture
2
6.1. Climatic factor
Environment: is defined as the aggregate of all the external conditions
(physical, chemical and biological) and it affects the life and development
of plants.
Weather: the day to day interaction of temperature, humidity, wind
velocity, atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, sunshine duration,
precipitation and others at local place.
Weather describes the short-term (e.g. hourly, daily, or weekly) variations
in meteorological factors with in a local area.
Climate : The average weather conditions of a place over a period of 35-
40 years (too longer than weather).
The success or failure of the cropping season is determined by the
intensity of the climatic factors.
3
A. Moisture (precipitation/rain fall)
Water is absolutely essential for plant life.
Plants use more water than any other substances they absorb.
Constitute 70 to 95 of total fresh weight of plants
Universal solvent
Chemical reaction (hydrolysis, respiration, transpiration)
Dissolves essential nutrients
Cell turgidity and
Raw material for photosynthesis etc.

4
 Moisture …
Plants can be classified according to the amount of water they require for
normal growth:
1) Xerophytes – require little water. Example most desert plants like
cactus, pineapple
2) Mesophytes- require moderate amount of weather. Cereals, legumes
3) Hydrophytes- require large amount of water. Example , rice
Xerophytes have high water use efficiency than mesophytes and
hydrophytes.
Water use efficiency is defined as the amount of carbon assimilated as
biomass or grain produced per unit of water used by the crop.

5
 Moisture …
Amount of water required by the plant varies depending on:
Transpiration ratio: the amount of water transpired in relation to the
amount of dry matter produced (directly)
Plant population (directly)
Fertilizer application (directly)
Stages of growth (directly)
Seedlings generally have less efficient water utilization than mature plants
Photosynthesis (directly)
Water use is high when the photosynthesis rate is high.
Relative humidity (inversely)
Over all plant health (directly)
Plants that are infected by any of the pathogen have greatly reduced water use
6
Precipitation

Precipitation is the process by which condensed water vapor from the

atmosphere falls to the earth’s surface reaching in different forms inducing
rain, snow and ice.
Rainfall is the most important forms of precipitation in crop production.
Part of the rain water percolates below the root zone of the plants and
part of the rain water flows away over the soil surface as run-off.
This deep percolation water and run-off water cannot be used by the
plants.
In other words, part of the rainfall is not effective.
The remaining part is stored in the root zone and can be used by the
plants. This remaining part is the so-called effective rainfall.
7
The effectiveness of rainfall (RF) in crop production depends on three
of its characteristics:-
Quantity = how much in volume?
Distribution =area coverage and
Duration = for how long?
The amount of water only is not value unless it is distributed
throughout the life of the crop at all place is ensured.
RF is of most value to crop productivity when it falls at these critical
periods in the plant growth and development.
For most crops this time occurs around seedling and flowering time.

8
Crop growth stage in relation to moisture requirement

9
Table 1. Agricultural crop production regions may be described on the basis of annual
precipitation/rainfall
Annual RF Crop Cultural strategy for success
region
< 250 mm Arid Production is dependent on supplemental water
through irrigation
250-700 mm Semi- Production methods that conserve water; moisture
arid conserving practices; irrigation often needed

700-1000 mm Semi- Shortage of natural precipitation does not limit crop

humid production in this region.
>1000 mm Humid Moisture deficit is not a problem but diseases is
common problem 10
B. Light / Solar Radiation
This is refers to the radiant energy from the sun
Light affects water uptake, enzymatic activity, respiration,
photosynthesis, flower initiation and fruits ripening and others directly
or indirectly.
Effectiveness of solar radiation on crop productivity depends on:
the angle at which it strikes the earth,
the cloud cover, and
the interception by plants.
Three aspects of light which importantly affect crop production are
intensity (quantity), quality (spectral distribution or wavelength) and
duration (day length).
11
 i. Light Intensity:
• Light intensity refers its quantity or brightness and measured by foot candle.
• Foot candle is a light produced by a standard candle.
• 100-200 FC is minimum requirements to support the growth of most plants.
• 10,000 FC is maximum intensity of light that plants can use in photosynthesis
under average field condition.
• Based on light intensity crops can be grouped:
1) Sun plants: reach saturation at light intensities of 5000 or more FC.
Examples, most crop plants
2) Shade plants: reach saturation at about 500 FC.
Example: coffee under forests.
12
ii. Light Quality
• Refers to the wavelength of light.
• Plant pigments associated with photosynthesis have different absorption
spectra.
• They absorb different wave length of light.
• Leaf chlorophyll absorbs radiation efficiently at 400-500 nanometers
(blue) and 650-750 nm (red).
• These ranges is most important for photosynthesis and called as
photosynthesis active radiation (PAR).
• However, in practice, light quality can’t be manipulated under field
conditions.

13
15
iii. Light Duration

• The duration of light is measured by the hours of sunshine in 24 hours.

• The duration of exposure to light periods (day-length and photoperiod)
influence crop growth and development.
• The relative length of daily light and dark periods has a profound
influence on flowering, tuber formation and seed germination.
• Crop plants have been classified on the basis of their photoperiodic
requirements for floral initiation into three groups.

16
1. Long day plants (short night): are those which develop and produce
flower normally when photoperiod is greater than a critical minimum
(> 12 hrs. of light illumination).
For example wheat, barely, sugar beet, oat.
2. Short day plants (long night): are those which develop and produce
flower normally when photoperiod is less than a critical maximum (<
12 hrs. of light illumination).
For examples maize, rice, sugar cane, soya bean.
3. Day neutral plants: the flowering development of such plants are not
affected by photoperiod e.g. tomato, cucumber.
Most tropical crops are short day plants (requiring long –nights for
flowering) and those of higher altitudes are generally long-day plants.
17
C. Temperature
The measure of intensity of heat energy is called ‘temperature’.
Growth and development are directly affected by temperature.
Each crop has its own approximate temperature range, i.e. its minimum,
optimum and maximum temperature limit.
These maximum, minimum and optimum temperature ranges are known as
cardinal temperature.
The cardinal temperature ranges for
cool season crops are maximum 30-38 0C, and optimum 25-30 0C,
minimum 0-5 0C; and
warm season crops maximum 45-50 0, optimum 30-38 0C and minimum
15-20 0C .
18
 Temperature…
• Most crops make their best development between 15 and 32oC.
• All the biochemical processes increase with increasing temperature up to
a certain level beyond which and below a minimum temperature these
activities are reduced.
• Temperature directly influences photosynthesis, respiration, cell wall
permeability, nutrient and water absorption, transpiration, enzyme
activity and protein coagulation.

19
• Effect of high temperature
inhabits starch synthesis,
affect shoot growth,
pollen malfunction resulting to reduced yield,
desiccation and change in enzymatic structures and function,
• Effect of low temperature
Pollen sterility,
flower and pollen blasting (premature dropping of flow end fruit),
and
burning of leaves.
20
• Based on their temperature response (adaptation) crops may be
classified as:-
1. Cool season crop – damaged by hot weather. For examples wheat
barely , potato, oat
2. Warm season crop- killed by temperature below freezing. For
examples sorghum, cotton, rice, maize.
• The relationship between temperature and crop management shows
that the crop producers can do little or no alter temperature,
however, it is possible by adjust planting date (frost free period ) and
cultivar selection like early mature cultivars for areas with short
growing seasons.

21
D. Humidity
• Humidity is refers to the water vapor content of the atmosphere/air.
Relative humidity is the ratio between the amount of water vapor in the air
and water vapor required for saturation at a particular temperature and
pressure.
e.g. When the water vapor required for saturation of a parcel of air is 50g and the
actual amount of water vapor present is 40 g. the relative humidity is how
much?
Relative humidity (RH)=Water vapor present in the air *100
Water vapor required for saturation
• RH=(40/50)*100 =80%
• When RH is 80 percent, it means that there is a deficit of 20 % water vapor for
saturation.
• To fill this deficit evaporation from the soil and transpiration from the plants
is necessary.
22
 Humidity…
• A saturated atmosphere that causes fog, dew, or rain has a theoretical
relative humidity of 100%.
• The effect of humidity on crops is that the occurrence of high
humidity over long periods combined with high temperature favors
the rapid development and spread of fungal disease on crops and
mold on stored produce.
• Evapotranspiration increases with increase in temperature and
decrease in R.H thus relative humidity has considerable effect on
water requirement of crops.

23
E. Wind
• Wind is movement of air in a horizontal direction.
• It originates either over the oceans or from deserts.
• The effect of wind on plant growth and development are both
physiologically and mechanically.
a) Mechanical damages: wind causes soil erosion. The strong wind in
association with rain can cause lodging, stock breakage and grain
shedding of crops.
b) Physiological damages: affect water balance. Hot dry winds may also
affect photosynthesis and hence productivity, affect stomata closure
and reduced rate of gaseous exchange.
Provision of windbreaks in exposed areas can minimize the adverse
effects of high wind speed (Reddy 1999).
24
6.2. Soil Environment
* Soil is a living body consists of weathered rocks, organic mater, water and living
organisms.
* It is a natural medium for plant growth.
* Soil provides physical anchorage to plants and act as store house for water and
nutrients needed.
* The Following are the soil requirements for crop production:
1. Suitability for using cultural implements in crop production
2. Resistance to erosion and management
3. Adequate soil moisture storage to meet normal crop requirements under natural
rainfall or irrigation,
4. Optimum aeration in the root zone depth for efficient root system development,
5. Availability of sufficient nutrients for normal yields, and
6. Freedom from adverse chemical soil conditions 25
Some of the soil factors that affecting plant growth:

a. Soil Reaction /pH/:

It defines as the soil acidity or alkalinity based on the hydrogen ion
concentration of the soil and is measured in pH meter.
On the pH scale, a value of 7.0 indicates a neutral reaction, all value below
7.0 indicate acidity while all values above 7.0 indicate alkalinity.
Directly pH can affects growth of crop’s root meristem.
Indirectly pH affects crop growth and yield since it affects availability other
essential nutrients, availability and activity of soil beneficial micro
organisms.

26
 Effect of soil pH …
Most agricultural soils have a pH of between ………..5.0-8.5
The optimum pH rang for most plants is …………….…6.5-7.0
Most plant nutrients are available with pH values…..5.5-7.5
Low pH also interferes with availability of other plant nutrients
A soil with low pH is injurious to plants due high toxicity of Fe and Al.
A pH range which is favorable for microbial activity is 6.6-7.3.
Most N-fixing bacteria are not very active in strong acid soils.
Bacteria that decompose soil organic matter and thus release nitrogen
and other nutrients for plant use also hindered by strong acidity.

27
b. Soil texture

 defined as the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in the soil.

• The soil particles on diameter basis:

Sand ranges 2.00-0.05 mm,
 Silt ranges 0.05-0.002 mm and
Clay below 0.002 mm.
 An agricultural soils typically consists of a combination of all the three particles is
called a loam.

 Soil texture is very important in crop production.

 Fine textured soils (clay soils) generally have poor drainage and are prone to
waterlogging.
29
 Soil texture…

 Poor- drained soils have low microbial activity but clay soils have high water-
holding capacity, high cation exchange capacity (CEC) and the ability of soil to
attract and hold cations is high.
 Thus, clay soils have high nutritional status as compared to sandy soils, which
are coarse-textured have low CEC.
• Clay soils are further described as heavy soils.
• Because it becomes
 Very hard when dry, and
 Sticky and poorly aerated when wet and so difficult to till.
• They hinder root development and thus are not suitable for root crop
production.
30
 c. Soil structure:

It is the manner in which individual particles are arranged to form soil
aggregate.
Soil structures can be destroyed through soil compaction using heavy
machinery, farm animals, vehicles, and raindrops.
Soil structure can be improved through, for example the addition of
organic matter.
Poor soil aggregation is partly the cause of poor drainage and poor water
holding capacity.
shape, size and strength of aggregates determine pore structure, and
how easily air, water, and roots move through soil.
31
d. Soil fertility:

• soil fertility is the ability of the soil to hold essential soil nutrients.
e. Soil constituents:
• Even though the proportion will vary from one soil to another, a typical
mineral soil by volume consists of
Air (25%),
Water (25%),
Mineral (45%) and
Organic matter (5%)
• Aeration of soil is absolutely essential for the absorption of water by roots
• Oxygen is required by the germinating seed for metabolism
• O2 is also required for respiration of roots and micro organisms.
32
f. Soil depth:

 insufficient soil depth for adequate root development is the most obvious
physical property that can affect crop yield.
 There is a positive linear relationship between the effective rooting depth
and yield of a crop.
 Soils can be
Very shallow (less than 25 cm),
Shallow (25 cm-50 cm),
 Moderately deep (50 cm-90 cm),
Deep (90cm-150 cm) and
Very deep (more than 150 cm).

33
 g. Soil moisture:
• Essentially all of the water used by plants is supplied by the soil.
• Depending on the amount of water and its availability to plants soil
moisture is declassified as
1) Saturated soil: refers to soil’s water content when practically all pore
spaces are field with water. The soil cannot retain additional water until
water is drained out from some of these pores. Saturated soil promotes
anaerobic condition.
2) Field capacity: the amount of water remaining in the soil after being
saturated and then freely drained.
3) Permanent wilting point: - the amount of water in the soil at which
plants will wilt and not recover when placed in humid atmosphere.
34
Soil moisture level

35
6.3. Biological Factors

Agricultural pests are one of the most limiting factors of crop

production in Ethiopia.
A pest is any organism which harms human or his property.

Agricultural pests include insects, weeds and disease.

It estimated that insect pests, disease and weed reduce half (50%) of
the food produced in the world at the time of growing, transporting
and storing of crops.
Insect pest and diseases account about 35 % yield reduction.

36
6.3.1. Weeds
 Weeds are defined as any plants growing where human does not want them.
 Weeds encompass all types of undesirable plants, such as trees, bushes, broad-
leaved plants, grasses sedges, aquatic plants, and parasitic flowering plants.
 The following types of weed damage have been found:
 Compete with crop for essential plant nutrients, moisture and light
 Create harvest problem
 Reduced quantity and quality of plant and animals products
 Serve as alternative host for diseases causing agents and insects
 Losses from increased cost of production.
 Reduced land value and limited crop choice.
 Reduction of yield
37
• Only in some ways may weeds be beneficial:

Weeds reduce soil and nutrient losses from erosion and leaching when the
land is bare of crops.

Weeds provide feed and cover for wild life and

Weeds add organic matter in to the soil.

Weed control methods

I. Preventive methods: land preparation, seed cleaning, field sanitation, proper
quarantine and regulation of contaminated crop seeds.

II. Crop competition: to be competitive or smoother crop, the crop must be vigorous
and fast growing.

III. Physical: hand-weeding, tillage, mowing, burning, hoeing, flooding, and mulching
38
IV. Biological methods:
a. Using natural enemy (fungus or insects ,vertebrates)
b. Using resistance species (allelopathy )

V. Chemical methods: controlling of weeds using herbicides (weed killer).

• Herbicides may be classified on different bases:

Based on Nature of damage

Non selective herbicides: kill all plants when applied at adequate rates
e.g. Gram axon
Selective herbicides: kill or stunt weeds in a germinations or growing crop without
harming the crop. e.g. 2, 4-D
39
Based on Time of application herbicides may be

Pre emergence- systemic herbicides e.g. soil- acting herbicides

 Post emergence – selective herbicides e.g. sprays of 2, 4-D in cereals.

• It is very important to know which wed flora or weed species occur in a

given area in order to establish appropriate weed control program.

• Important weed species of cultivated land in Ethiopia are Amaranthus,

Cuscuta, Cyperus species, Digitaria, Avena, Orobanche, Striga hermonthica
etc.

40
Amaranthus weed

41
Cuscuta weed

42
Cyperus

43
Digitaria spp.

44
Striga hermonthica

45
Orobanche

46
Avena fatua and cynodont dactaylon

47
 6.3.2. Insect pests
• Insecta (insects) are arthropods that have small size, three body
regions (head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs of legs, a pair of antenne
and they feed by mandibles.

• Most insects are beneficial, others are considered as the most common
crop pests.

a. Beneficial insects: Pollinators (e.g. Bees, wasps),

Parasitoids (e.g.Tricograma on stalk borer), and
Predators (e.g. Lady Bird beetle on aphids).

b. Harmful insects:
Field pests (e.g. army worm)
Storage pests-(weevils, flour moths)
Vectors (leaf hopper, aphids). 48
 insect pests…
The major economic insect pests in Ethiopia are
African boll worm,
cereal stem borer,
Red teff worm,
sorghum chafer,
wello bush cricket,
Aphids,
Army worm,
weevils,
flour moths etc.
49
6.3.3. Plant disease
 Disease is harmful deviation from the normal function of
physiological process of an organism.
 Crop diseases causes yield reduction.
 Plant disease may be classified into two categories on the basis of
causal agent:
a. Abiotic (noninfectious) disease: caused by environmental factor and
thus not infectious. E.g. abnormal levels of growth requirement (high,
low or extreme).
b. Biotic (Infectious) disease: caused by pathogen and can be
transmitted. The organisms are fungus, bacteria, nematodes and
viruses, parasitic higher plants.
50
 Disease…

 The interaction between the causal organism (Pathogen), host and

certain factors within the environment and these factors form what is
called the Disease triangle.
 Disease will occur only when the pathogen interacts with a susceptible
host under favorable conditions.
 The presence of a pathogen alone is not sufficient to cause disease.

51
 Plant disease…

 The most serious crop diseases in Ethiopia e.g.

Rust
Smut
Leaf blight
Root rot
powdery mildew
Damping off. etc.

53
 Plant disease…
Control measure: Exclusion of pathogen (quarantine), Eradication of pathogen, Use of
resistance variety, and protecting susceptible host; uses these various methods either
separately or in combination (Integration).

Integrated Pest Management

 is a pest management strategy that utilizes all suitable techniques and methods in as
compatible manner as possible, and maintains the pest population level below those
causing economic injury (Dent, 1991).

 The economic injury level is the lowest population density that will cause economic
damage.

 The ultimate objective of IPM is to reduce dependence on chemical control as the

main input for crop protection.

54
6.4. Socio-economic factors affecting crop production are:
consumption preference
 living standard
transportation
 income level/source of income
 level of development
marketing mainly market access and price
 labour availability
technical/economical feasibility and affordability, etc.

55
• End of chapter six

56
Self-check

I) Write true if statement is correct and false if statement is incorrect.

1) Soil influences plant growth by affecting the activity of beneficial
microorganisms and availability of nutrients.
2) Most tropical crops requires short day for flowering and seed
germination.
II) Give short answer
3) Based on amount of water they require crop plants divided in to -----
----? And what are those?
4) List and discuss major factors that affects crop growth and
development.

57
 Chapter 7: Cropping System and
Agronomic Practices

Cropping system is defined as the scheduling and

cultivation of various crops within the farm enterprise
in a given agricultural year.

1
7.1. Types of cropping system
7.1.1 Shifting cultivation
In this system, farm does not have a permanent
location of farming,
A piece of land is cleared, farmed for a few years and
then abandoned in preference for a new site,
While new site is being farmed, natural vegetation is
allowed to grow on the previous land.
Shifting cultivation in the tropics is characterized
with in variably a low level of input technology and
managements are manually using simple hand tools
requiring high manual energy.

2
7.1.2. Mono cropping /sole cropping
• Mono cropping is the agricultural practice of growing a
single crop year after year on the same land, in the
absence of rotation through other crops
• Sole cropping: - growing one crop variety alone in pure
stand at normal density.
Advantages of mono cropping
 Encourages specialization in the techniques of
production
Disadvantages of mono cropping
 The practice carries within the risk : Natural hazard,
build up pest and disease, in balance in nutrient removal
from the soil 3
 7.1.3. Multiple cropping/Poly cropping
• The practice of growing two or more crops on the same
pieces of land within a year is called multiple cropping.
• It is intensification of cropping both in time and space
dimensions
• i.e. more number of crops are sown within a given period
of time on same pieces of land.
• It includes:-mixed cropping and inter cropping
• Intercropping is a type of multiple cropping system where
two or more crops with different growth requirements
are grown together simultaneously on the same piece of
land.
4
There are basic spatial arrangements which are used in
intercropping

i. Row intercropping - growing two or more crops at the

same time with at least one crop planted in rows.
ii. Strip intercropping - is when two or more crops are
grown side by side in strips, wide enough to permit
independent cultivations but close enough for crops to
interact.
iii. Relay intercropping - planting a second crop into a
standing crop at a time when the standing crop is at its
reproductive stage but before harvesting.
 For example, sowing of cucurbits in maturing potato
crop.
5
Row intercropping of maize/soybean

6
Strip intercropping of maize and paper

7
Strip intercropping of maize and soybean

8
Relay intercropping of wheat/soybean

9
 Table 4.Difference between inter cropping and mixed cropping
Inter cropping Mixed Cropping

Objective is to utilize the space left Objective is to get at least one crop
between main crops under any hazard
More emphasis is given to the main crops All crops are given equal emphasis ; there is
and subsidizing crops are grown at the cost no main or subsidiary crop
of main cops

No competition between crops In all combination there is competition

One crop is long duration and the other Almost the same duration
is short duration
Crops are sown without affecting the sown without considering the population of
population of main crop when sown as sole either
crop
10
Sowing time may be same or different It is same for all crops
7.1.4. Alley cropping

• It entails growing food crops between hedge row

of planted shrubs and trees, preferably legumes,

• the hedges are pruned periodically during the

crops growth to provide the biomass and prevent
the shading to the crops,
• Hence alley cropping can be conveniently
considered as a form of hedge row intercropping.

11
Figure A. Distance between trees Figure B. Six rows of a crop
& crop between trees

12
 7.1.5. Crop rotation:
 It is the sequence of certain number of crops in definite
order on the same pieces of land over affixed period of
time. Advantages
• For balancing nutrient removal from the soil E.g crops
like maize, yam and cassava are exhaustion, Vegetables
such as tomato, ground nut are relatively less demanding
• The different plant species is able to extract nutrients at
different soil depth
– Difference in the development of the root system
– Rotate deep rooted crops with those having shallow
root system.
13
• Reduce the incidence of disease by preventing
pathogens form completing their life cycle

• Improvement in soil structure with reduction in

erosion.

• Diversification of marketable row materials

7.1.6. Fallow cropping: Leaving the land free of crops

for some times and cultivating for the other time.

14
 7.2. AGRONOMIC PRACTICES OF CROP
PRODUCTION
• Site selection
• Land preparation
• Sowing /planting
• Fertilizer application
• Harvesting
• Storage

15
7.2.1. Site selection

 If there is a chance to select crop fields, the following

criteria are used for the selection of crop sites:
i. Environment (climate, soil and pests) suitability to
targeted crops
ii. Market availability/accessibility
iii. Availability of social services such as transportation,
electricity, health and communication services, etc.
iv. Availability of cheap labour, and
v. Availability of water (for drink and/or irrigation)

16
7.2.2 Land preparation
 Land preparation includes series of different practices
including
 Land clearing
– Clearing of existing vegetation so as to make cultivation
and other farm operations easy.
– It can be done manually or mechanically.
 Plowing
• Breaking the soil to loosen it for easy penetration of
roots, soil aeration, water percolation and create a
suitable medium for microbial activities within the soil.
 Disking
– Done after plowing to further break up clods of soil,
smooth the seedbed, and incorporate crop residues. 17
 Harrowing-it is shallower than disking.
• It is the act of breaking up the large clods or particles
of soil resulting from ploughing into a fine particles.
• Harrowing mixes the soil together and destroys weed
seeds.
 Leveling -making level
 Ridging for planting: This is the process of making ridges.
• Ridges increase crop yield by promoting moisture
retention and easy root penetration into the soil
 Cultivating (inter-tillage) after crop emergence from the soil.

 Technically, the whole range of land preparation and soil

cultivation is known as tillage.

18
 7.2.3 Tillage

• Tillage is the manual or mechanized manipulation of the

soil to provide a medium for proper crop establishment
and growth.
• There are several purposes of tillage, the major ones are:
1. Land leveling: Land is leveled for several purposes.
2. Seed bed preparation: For proper germination to occur,
the seed must make good contact with the soil to be able
imbibe moisture.
3. Incorporating organic matter and soil amendments:
Stubble left after crop harvesting can be mixed to
improve its physical characteristics.
19
• Fertilizer, organic and inorganic, and soil amendments
such as lime, may be added to the soil during
preparation prior to seeding.
3. Weed control: Weeds compete with crop plants for
growth factors and may harbor diseases and insect
pests. Weeds are controlled at various stages in crop
production.
4. Improve soil physical conditions: Tillage can be used
to break up the hard pan for root growth and
development
5. Erosion control: Tillage Provide a rough soil surface
to impede the actions of the agents of soil erosion
(conservation tillage).
6. Shaping the soil: To create raised beds for planting or
to create furrows for irrigation.
20
 Type of tillage
• There are two basic groups of tillage according to the
degree of soil stirring.
A. Conventional tillage.
 The tillage system that leaves less than 15% of the soil
covered with plant residue by clearing or remove the
remain plant materials on the soil surface.
 There are two types/ steps of tillage operation:
i. Primary tillage. The mechanical manipulation of the soil
that produces a rough finish unsuitable for seeding;
usually precedes secondary tillage.
ii. Secondary tillage. The mechanical manipulation of the
soil that produces a finer tilth for preparing a seedbed;
usually follows primary tillage.
21
• Advantages of conventional tillage
Even though tillage may cause compaction, it is the most
convent method of managing soil compaction when it
occurs.
It is easier to apply fertilizers and perform the agronomic
operations when the land is clean.
The lack of crop residue on the soil surface reduces the
opportunity for overwintering / over summering of pests.
• Disadvantages of conventional tillage
Creates soil erosion
Soil compaction. Creating a plow pan due to excessive
and repeated use of primary tillage implements at the
same depth places pressure on the soil.
Soil organic matter loss. Soil organic matter decreases
over time.
It is expensive 22
B. Conservation tillage
 Refers to a range of reduced tillage practices that aim to
minimize soil disturbance while still achieving adequate
seedbed preparation.
 The chief goals of this tillage practices are to reduce soil
erosion and conserve moisture.
 There are different types of conservation tillage practices
that vary in the degree of soil disturbance and the amount
of crop residue on the soil surface like no tillage, mulch,
strip, minimum tillage and ridge tillage.
 Minimum tillage can be defined as a method aimed at
reducing tillage frequency as little as possible while still
achieving a good seedbed, rapid germination, satisfactory
crop stand and favorable growing conditions (Arnon,1972).
23
24
• Advantages of conservation tillage:
– Reduces soil erosion from wind and water.
– Reduces soil compaction.
– Soil infiltration and moisture conservation is high
because of a large amount of crop residue.
– Reduce cost of tillage.
– Moderation soil temperature.
– Increase soil organic matter over prolonged periods
of no tillage.

25
 Disadvantages of minimum tillage:
 Dependence on chemicals. Drastically reduced soil stirring
means chemical are depended upon in no-till operations
for weed control.
 Higher risk of insect pests and pathogens in early crop
establishment because of soil-borne pathogen and soil
surface insects.
 The higher soil moisture increases the chance of leaching
of water–soluble bases and then tends towards acidity
over time.
 Crop residue impedes the application of fertilizer.
 High levels of herbicide use increase the opportunities for
the development of herbicide resistance. And also new
weed problem may emerge under conservation tillage.
26
 7.2.4 Planting material (seed) and seed quality
• Seed is the living link between parents and its progeny.
• Biologically, seed is a ripe, fertilized ovule and a unit of
reproduction of flowering plants.
• Agronomically, a seed, seed material or propagule is the
living organ of crop used for propagation; it can be any part
of the crop from which a new crop will grow.
• It may be described as a plant embryo in dominant state
surrounded by food supply and seed coat.
• A good crop stand and establishment depends on the
quality of seed planted and the condition under which the
seed was planted.

27
 Characteristics of Quality seed
 A good quality seed should possess the following
characteristics:
 Seed must be true to its type i.e., genetically pure, free
from admixtures and should belong to the proper variety
or strain of the crop
 Seed should be pure, viable, and vigorous and have high
yielding potential.
 Seed should be of adaptable crop variety or hybrid fitting
into the cropping system
 It should be free from seed borne diseases , insects and
insect eggs,
 Seed should be free from noxious, objectionable or
satellite weed seeds,
28
Quality seed…
 They should be materially well-developed, large,
plump, bold, uniform in size, shape, colour with
proper test weight,
 Seed should be as fresh as possible or of the proper
age.
 Seed should contain optimum amount of moisture
(8-12%).
 Seed should have high germination percentage
(more than 85%).

29
 Seed rate
• Seed rate is the quantity/amount of seed required for sowing
or planting in a unit area.
• Over seeding causes intense competition among plants
whereas under seeding results in underutilization of
resources and reduce crop productivity.
• The seed rate of a crop depends up on spacing, seed size,
seed weight, germination percentage and purity percentage.
• Actual seeding rate is determine with the following formula:
= Rate based on 100% purity and viability
Purity and viability percentage of a seed at hand

30
 Example:
• For instance, find the actual seeding rate of a seed whose
purity and viability are 90% and 70%, respectively, and
the recommended seeding rate of the crop at its 100%
purity and viability is 10 Kg per hectare?

• Actual seeding rate = 10 Kg = 10 Kg = 10 Kg = 16 Kg

90% x 70% 0.90 x 0.70 0.63
Exercise:
Find the actual seeding rate of a crop whose recommended
seed rate at its 100% purity and viability is 100 Kg per
hectare. The purity and viability of the seed at hand are
85% and 80%, respectively? 31
 Sowing
• Sowing is the placing of a specific quantity of seeds in the
soil for germination and growth while planting is the
placing of plant propagules (may be seedlings, cuttings,
rhizomes, clones, tubers etc.) in the soil to grow as plants.
Methods of Sowing
• Seeds are sown either directly in the main field or in
nursery bed, where seedlings are raised and transplanted
in the main field at appropriate age of the seedlings.
• In direct seeding the crops are grown by sowing the seed
directly in the main field.
• Direct seeding may be by broadcasting and row planting/
drilling.
32
Direct seeding
1. Broadcasting - Broad casting is the random scattering or
spreading of the seeds on the soil, which may or may not be
incorporated into the soil.
 Broadcasting of seeds may be done by hand, mechanical
spreader or aeroplane.
 Broadcasting is the easy, quick and cheap method of
seeding.
 The difficulties observed in broadcasting are uneven
distribution, improper placement of seeds and less soil
cover and compaction.
 there is no uniformity of germination, seedling vigour
and establishment.
 It is mostly suited for closely spaced and small seeded
crops.
33
2. Row planting - it entails more accurate spacing between
seeds in a row and between rows. It is a patterned
(structured) distribution. Row sowing/planting includes
dibbling and drilling methods.
 (a) Dibbling - It is the placing of seeds in a hole or pit made
at a predetermined spacing and depth with a dibbler or
planter or very often by hand.
 Dibbling is laborious, time consuming and expensive
compared to broadcasting, but it requires less seeds and,
gives rapid and uniform germination with good seedling
vigour.
 This method is more appropriate relatively for larger sized
crops like faba bean and maize.
34
(b) Drilling –
 It is a practice of dropping seeds in a definite depth,
covered with soil and compacted.
 There is no plant to plant spacing in this case.
 Seeds are drilled continuously or at regular intervals in
rows.
 It requires more time, energy and cost, but maintains
uniform population per unit area.
 Rows are set according to the requirements. This
method is more appropriate for small sized crops like
tef, wheat, milate.
35
 Depth of seeding
• Depth of sowing is another factor affecting proper seed
germination and good plant stand.
• It is, therefore essential to sow the seeds of different crops
at proper depth.
• The optimum depths of sowing of different crops depend
up on:
1. Seed size- Crops having bigger size sown at deeper depth
while smaller seeds sown at shallower depth.
2. Soil moisture content- In relatively dry weather seeds
sown deeply to contact with moist soil.
3. Soil type- Seed placement in heavy (clay) soils should be
shallow and deep in light (sandy) soils. The optimum
depth of sowing of most of the common cultivated crops
generally ranges 3-5 cm.
36
 7.2.5 Fertility use and Management
 Fertilizers are materials either natural or industrially
manufactured, containing nutrients essential for the
normal growth and development of plants.
 Plant nutrients are essentially supplied through manures
and fertilizers.
 Industrially manufactured chemicals fertilizes have
containing higher amount of plant nutrient which are
released quickly when applied in soil as compered to
manure.
 Manures are organic in nature and applied in large
quantity and low nutrient content which releases nutrient
slowly.
37
Type of fertilizes
I. Organic Fertilizers
 They are animal or plant origin and contain more than
one nutrient element.
 It supplies a particular nutrient or combination of
nutrients.
 Nutrient content is low per volume.
 Can be grouped as follows:
a. Bulky organic manures e.g. farmyard manure,
compost sludge, green manure
b. Concentrated organic manure e.g. oil cakes, poultry
dung, urine, bone meal etc.
c. Biofertilizer e.g. Rhizobium, Blue green algae.
38
 Some advantages of organic fertilizer as compared to
inorganic fertilizer:
• Effective for longer period of time
 because the nutrients are released slowly as the organic
matter (OM) decomposes.
• Improve the water holding capacity of the soil due to the
presence of OM.
• Contain OM.
• Organic matter is important for the following reasons
(1) Contain micronutrients,
(2) Acts as a storehouse of nutrients,
(3) Provides energy for soil micro-organism activity,
(4) Stabilizes structure and improves tilth and
(5) Provides surface protection and thus increases infiltration.
39
II. Inorganic commercial Fertilizers
 They are artificial and contain single or few nutrient.
 Easley available when applied
 Nutrient content is high per volume.
• Examples of inorganic/commercial fertilizer:
Urea-(NH2)2CO
DAP-(NH4)2HPO4,
NPS, NPSB, NPSBz,
Orga,
TSP, SSP, etc.

40
Materials used in fertilizer mixtures
 Plant nutrient suppliers
 Conditioners
 Neutralizers of residual acidity
 Filler

41
Plant nutrient suppliers
• These are straight or complex fertilizers added to
supply the plant nutrients mentioned in the grade and
are the primary ingredients of fertilizer mixtures.
A. Straight fertilizer
• When fertilizer contain only one primary plant nutrient,
it is known as straight fertilizer.
• They are also termed as incomplete or special
fertilizers. e.g. a).
a. Nitrogenous fertilizer, (CO (NH2)2)
b. Phosphoric fertilizer and
c. Potash fertilizer. 42
B) Complex fertilizers:
• The commercial fertilizers containing at least two or
more of the primary essential nutrients,
– when such fertilizers contain only two of the
primary nutrients, they are designated as incomplete
complex fertilizers.
• While those containing all the three primary nutrients
are called as complete complex fertilizers.
C) Mixed fertilizers:
• A mechanical mixture of two or more straight fertilizer
materials is referred as mixed fertilizer or fertilizer
mixture.

43
• Conditioners – low-grade organic materials that are
added at the rate of about 40-kg per tone to prepare
mixed fertilizers in good drilling condition.
• Neutralizers of residual acidity – if the nitrogenous
fertilizers used in the mixture are acidic in nature, a
basic material such as dolomitic limestone is added
to counteract the acidity.
 Such a material is known as a neutralizer of
residual acidity
• Filler– the make-weight material added to a fertilizer
mixture.
• The common filler materials are sand, soil, ash, and
other waste products.
44
Fertilizer rate
• Fertilizer rate indicates the amount of fertilizer to be added.
• Rate of fertilizer application depends upon the following:-
a/ Crop types
b/ Soil fertility level
C/ Growth stage
d/ Moisture status
e/Cropping system adopted, etc.
a) Crop type
 Different kinds of crops require different amount of
nutrients.
• The leguminous crops require less N than cereals.
• Improved cultivars, particularly when they are high
yielding, normally respond more to increased fertilizer does
relative to un improved local cultivars 45
 b) Soil fertility level
 More fertile soils require less nutrients to produce a good
crop and
 frequent cultivation makes the soil to decline the fertility
through times.
 Large application of fertilizes can be profitable on soils
that have a high productive potential but which are low in
fertility
c/ Growth stage:-
 At earlier and midst age nutrient requirement is more
than the later stages of crop growth.

46
d/ Moisture status:-
 If soil moisture status is good then response of
fertilizer application is more fertilizer can be
applied as compared to rain fed or dry land
condition.
e/ Cropping system Adopted: -
 The combination of crop in the intercropping or
in rotation also decides fertilizer level.

47
 Calculation of fertilizer rate
• All nutrients are expressed in percentage;
• The percentage of nutrient can be obtained using the
fertilizer formula and chemical atomic weight.
Percentage of nutrient = Nutrient content X 100
Total wt of fertilizer
• For example urea has a formula of (NH2)2CO. the
molecular weight is 60.056 hence the percentage of N
calculated as follows;
2N X 100 = 28.014g X100 = 46.6%
H4N2CO 60.056
48
The total nitrogen is usually expressed in its
elemental form (N),
Phosphorous in terms of available P or available
phosphoric acid (P2O5) and
Potassium as water-soluble K or water soluble
potash (K2O) and
Sulfur as elemental S.

49
• The oxide form of P and K converted to P and K
based on atomic weight of P, K and O are
% P X 2.29 = % P2O5 or %P2O5 X 0.44 = %P
% K X 1.2 = % K2O or % K2O X 0.83 = %K.
• Thus an 8-16-16 labeled fertilizer contain
8% total N,
16% available P2O5 (7% available P) and
16 % water soluble K2O (13% water soluble K).
• DAP 18-46-0 i.e.
18% total N,
46% available P2O5 and
0 water soluble K2O.

50
• To know the amount of fertilizer to be added to the soil
we should have information about
The fertilizer analysis including form of nutrient
tagged on the sac/container and
Soil nutrient requirement.
• Example: Calculate required amount of DAP and Urea
to satisfy crop need which requires 60 kg Nitrogen (N)
and 40 kg Phosphorous pentoxide (P2O5).
• Hint: fertilizer analysis

51
Step 1: First calculate amount of P2O5 found in DAP; because
P2O5 has single source only in DAP,
100Kg DAP = 46 Kg P2O5
X kg DAP = 40 Kg P2O5
X = 100Kg DAP × 40 Kg P2O5 = 87 Kg DAP (to get 40 Kg P2O5)

Step 2: Calculate amount of Nitrogen found in 87 Kg DAP,

100Kg DAP= 18 Kg N
87 Kg DAP = X Kg N
X = 18 Kg N × 87 Kg DAP = 15.5 kg N
100Kg DAP
The remaining 44.5kg N will be from Urea.

52
• Exercise: Calculate required amount of DAP and Urea
to satisfy crop need which requires 100 kg Nitrogen (N)
and 80 kg Phosphorous pent oxide (P2O5).
• Hint: use the above fertilizer analysis

53
Nutrient content of Blended Fertilizers

Fertilize N% P2O5% S% B% Zn%

r type

NPS 18.9 37.8 7 - -

NPSB 18.9 37.8 7 0.1 -
NPSZnB 16.9 33.8 7.3 0.67 2.23

54
 Fertilizer application methods
• In addition to applying fertilizers in proper time
there are other aspects that should be considered
to get maximum benefit from fertilizers:
Different soils react differently with fertilizer
application.
Similarly, the N, P, K requirements of different crops
are different and
Even for a single a crop the nutrient requirements
are not the same at different stages of growth.

55
• Fertilizers are applied by different methods mainly
for 3 purposes:-
1. To make the nutrients easily available to crops
2. To reduce fertilizer losses and
3. For ease of application.
• The time and method of fertilizer application vary
in relation to
1. The nature of fertilizer
2. Soil type and
3.The differences in nutrient requirement and
nature of field crops.

56
Application of solid fertilizers
 Broadcasting
Basal application: application at sowing of seed
Top dressing: application after crop emergence
 Placement
Plough sole placement
Deep placement
Localized placement
• Drilling and side dressing
 Band placement
• Hill and row placement
 Pellet application
57
1) Broadcasting
• It refers to spreading fertilizers all over the field.
• Suitable for crops with dense stand.
• It may or may not be incorporated into soil.
• The lowest fertilizer efficiency obtained.
• There are two types of broadcasting methods for fertilizer
application depending on the time of application.
• They are:
i. Basal application (broadcasting at planting )
• The fertilizer is broadcasted just before planting, at the
time of plowing.
• Phosphoric and potassic fertilizer and half of
nitrogenous fertilizer as per recommended dose for a
particular crop is applied by broadcasting during
planting. (Why?) 58
 Disadvantages of broadcasting
 Nutrients cannot be fully utilized by plant roots.
 The weed growth is stimulated all over the field.
 Nutrients are fixed in the soil as they come in contact
with a large mass of soil.

59
ii. Top dressing
• The method of application of fertilizer in the standing
crops is known as top dressing.
• The objective of this method is to provide the nutrients,
mainly nitrogen, in readily available form, for the
growth of plants.
• Topdressing of phosphate and potassic fertilizers is
ordinarily done on
 Pastureland and
 In orchards or
 Only on fruit trees growing in between
agricultural crops.
60
2) Placement
• Placement is -Fertilizers are placed in the soil
furrows formed at the desired depth.
To supply plant nutrients
To crop before sowing or
In the standing crop
• It is a method of placing fertilizer in the soil
before sowing or after sowing the crops.

61
• Placement of fertilizers is normally recommended
 When the quantity of fertilizers to apply is small
 Development of the root system is poor
 Soil have a low level of fertility and
 To apply usually phosphatic and potassic fertilizer.
• The most common methods of placement are as
follows:
i) Plough sole placement
• The fertilizer is placed in a continuous band on the
bottom of the furrow during the process of
ploughing.
• Each band is covered as the next furrow is turned.
• By this method, fertilizer is placed in moist soil
where it can become more available to growing
plants during dry seasons.
62
ii) Deep placement
• Fertilizers or manures are placed at the bottom of the top
soil at a depth of 10-12 cm, especially in the puddle rice
soil.
• In this method, fertilizers like Ammonium Sulphate and
Urea, is placed in the reduction zone as in paddy fields.
• This method ensures better distribution of fertilizer in
the root zone soil and prevents loss of nutrients by run-
off.
iii) Localized placement
• It refers to the application of fertilizers into the soil close
to the seed or plant in order to supply the nutrients in
adequate amounts to the roots of growing plants.
63
• The common methods to place fertilizers close to the seed
or plant are as follows:
a) Drilling
• In this method, the fertilizer is applied at the time of
sowing by means of a seed-cum-fertilizer drill.
• This places fertilizer and the seed in the same row but at
different depths.
b) Side dressing
• It refers to the spread of fertilizer in between the rows and
around the plants.
• The common methods of side-dressing are
 Placement of nitrogenous fertilizers by hand in between
the rows of crops like maize, sugarcane, cotton etc., to
apply additional doses of nitrogen to the growing crops
and
 Placement of fertilizers around the trees like mango,
apple, grapes, papaya etc. 64
3) Band placement
• In this method, fertilizer is placed in band which may be
continuous or discontinuous to the side of seedling,
 about 5cms away from it and either at level with the
seed, above the seed level or below the seed level.
• There are two types of band placement:
a) Hill placement:
• When the plants are spaced 3 ft. or more on both sides,
fertilizers are placed close to the plant in bands on one or
both sides of the plants.
• The length and depth of the band and its distance from
plant varies with
The crop and
The amount of fertilizer.
65
b) Row placement:-
• When the seeds or plants are sown close together
in a row
• The fertilizer is put in continuous band on one or
both sides of the one or both sides of the row by
hand or a seed drill.
• It is practiced for sugarcane, potato, maize,
tobacco, cereals and vegetable crops.

66
4) Pellet application
• It refers to the placement of nitrogenous fertilizer
in the form of pellet 2.5 to 5 cm deep between the
rows of the paddy crop.
Advantages of placement of fertilizers
i. When the fertilizer is placed, there is minimum
contact between the soil and the fertilizer, and thus
fixation of nutrients is greatly reduced.
ii. The weeds all over the field cannot make use of
the fertilizers.
iii. Residual response of fertilizers is usually higher.
iv. Utilization of fertilizers by the plants is higher.
v. Loss of nitrogen by leaching is reduced.
vi. Being immobile, phosphates are better utilized
when placed. 67
Common methods of applying liquid fertilizers
 Starter solutions
 Foliar application
 Fertigation
 Injection in to soils
 Aerial application

68
a) Starter solutions
• It refers to the application solutions of fertilizers,
• Generally consisting of N, P2O5, K2O in the ratio
of 1:2:1and1:1:2 are applied to young vegetable
plants at the time of transplanting.
• Starter solution helps in rapid establishment
and quick growth of seedlings.
The disadvantages of starter solutions are
(i) Extra labor is required, and
(ii)The fixation of phosphate is higher.

69
B) Foliar application
• It refers to the spraying of fertilizer solutions
containing one or more nutrients on the foliage of
growing plants.
• Several nutrient elements are readily absorbed by
leaves when they are dissolved in water and
sprayed on them.
• The concentration of the spray solution has to
be controlled, otherwise serious damage may
result due to scorching of the leaves.

70
• Important when root of plants damaged low root
uptake.
• Foliar application is effective for the application
of minor nutrients like iron, copper, boron, zinc
and manganese.
• Sometimes insecticides are also applied along
with fertilizers.

71
c) Fertigation (Application through irrigation water)
• It refers to the application of water soluble
fertilizers through irrigation water.
• The nutrients are thus carried into the soil in
solution.
• Generally nitrogenous fertilizers are applied
through irrigation water.
• This save the application cost and allows the
utilization of relatively inexpensive waters.

72
d) Injection into soil/Point injectors
 A narrow cylindrical tube (injector) penetrate
the soil and allow liquid fertilizers to be inserted
at depth yet avoid greatest root damages.
• For application of P and K fertilizers down into
soil when roots grow.
• A pointed stick or lode is used to poke a hole in
soil and fertilizer is poured into hole and covered
immediately to prevent loss of ammonia.
• It is used for fruit tree, vines, shrub and tomato.

73
 e) Aerial application.
• In areas where ground application is not
practicable, the fertilizer solutions are applied
by aircraft
• particularly in hilly areas, in forest lands, in
grass lands or in sugarcane fields etc.

74
7.2.6. Harvesting
 For successful and efficient harvesting of a crop, it is
desirable to know:-
When to harvest?
How to harvest?
How to minimize loss during harvest?
 When to harvest (maturity of the crop)
• For food crops, maturity refers to the stage of
development at which a crop is most desirable to the
consumer.
• Generally, the market and botanical maturity are
identical in cereal crops but for vegetable crops they are
not.
 What is physiological maturity?
75
 Maturity symptoms for some crops
• Wheat:- yellowing of spikelet
• Barley:- loss of green color from glumes/peduncle
• Maize:- black layer in the placental regions of the
grain
• Sorghum:- yellow colored ears with hard grains
• Finger millet:- brown colored ears with hard grains
• Tef:- yellowish of the vegetative part
• Pluses:- brown colored pods with hard seeds inside
pods
• Groundnut:- pods turn dark from light color; dark
colored patches inside the shell; kernels red or pink;
on pressing the kernels, oil is observed on fingers
76
How to harvest
Generally they are two types of harvesting.
– Hand harvesting
– Mechanical harvesting
Harvest losses
It can be due to
– Harvesting techniques
– Harvesting time

77
7.2.7. Storage

After harvest, products will go directly to:-

– Consumption
– Markets
– Commercial storage
– On-farm storage
Crops are stored from a few hours to several
years depending on:-
– Type of crop
– Storage condition
– Purpose of storage
78
 In general, we can group the storage structures in to
two:
1. Structure which requires refrigeration
Refrigerated storage
Controlled atmosphere storage
2. Traditional storage without refrigeration
Earthen pots, baskets, sacks, bags
Underground storage
Shelf life of a crop during storage depends:
initial quality of the crop
storage stability
external conditions
79
 Reasons for storage include:

To balance periods of plenty against periods of

scarcity
To make the products available the whole year
round
To use for coming seeding
Delay marketing of a crop until prizes rise

80
81
 Chapter 8. Crop improvement methods
 Crop improvement is a process in which crops are
genetically modified to meet the requirement of humans.
 Crop improvement has been always a part of human
development, as the population depends on crops to
fulfill their need for food and medicines
 It includes several prospects such as
– increased tolerance of the crops toward biotic and abiotic
stresses
– increased nutritional value, and
– increased yield.
 Crop improvement is also needed to fill the gap between
the demand and supply of plant-based products, as the
global population is continuously increasing along with
decreases in total cultivable area due to urbanization.
Crop improvement methods
1. Plant Introduction:
 It can be defined as the “process of introducing plants
from their growing locality to a new locality.
 It consists of taking a genotype or group of genotypes into
a new environment where they have not been grown
before.
 The introduction may involve introducing new varieties
of the crop already grown in the area, wild relatives of the
crop species or a totally new crop species for the area.
 It can be done within the country or from other countries
of continents.
 It is the easiest or most common method of crop
improvement.
Plant introduction may be of two types.
1. Primary Introduction
 When the introduced crop or variety is well suited to the
new environment, it is directly grown or cultivated with
out any alteration in the original genotype.
2. Secondary Introduction
 The introduced variety may not be suitable for direct
cultivation and can be subjected to selection to isolate a
superior variety suitable for a particular area.
 The introduced variety may also be hybridized with local
variety to transfer one or two characters from it to local
variety.
 Introduction consists of various steps:-
1. Procurement: The new germplasm is procured through NBPGR
2. Quarantine: All introduced material is thoroughly inspected for
contamination with diseases, weeds and insects.
3. Cataloging: All the plant material which is introduced is given
an entry number and information regarding agency, place of
origin, adaptation etc and is well documented.
4. Evaluation: The plant material is sent to sub stations of the
bureau and evaluated with respect to various characters to assess
the potential of new introductions.
5. Acclimatization: It is the process that leads to the adaptation of a
variety to a new environment.
6. Multiplication and distribution: Plant material which is
introduced is to be multiplied and further tested at various
locations.
The process of plant introduction is the successful
compliance of two important aspects viz.,
domestication and acclimatization.
Domestication is the process of bringing of a wild
species under cultivation by making them changed in
behaviour suitable for new environment.
Acclimatization is the ability of a crop to become
adapted to a new climatic and edaphic condition.
 It is the adaptation or adjustment of an individual plant or
a population of plants under the changed climate for a
number of generations
 Thus, it is a sort of natural selection operating into the
introduced plant material.
Some important facts about the acclimatization are:
i. Genetic variability must be present in the introduced
material for acclimatization to occur.
ii. Due to better genetic recombination, cross pollinated
species have better acclimatization capacity than self-
pollinated crops.
iii. Annual crop has better acclimatization capacity than
perennial crop because in annuals each generation would
produce new gene recombination every year.
iv. If the period of acclimatization is very long, the
mutation also plays an important role in acclimatization.
2. Mutation Breeding:
 A sudden heritable change in a characteristic of an
organism is called mutation
 function of mutations with the aid of mutagens is called
mutagenesis.
 It is a method that uses physical radiation or chemical
means to induce spontaneous genetic variation in plants
to develop new crop varieties.
 In this method, gamma rays and X-rays are the most
commonly used physical mutagens,
 While EMS (ethyl methane sulphonate), EI (ethylene
imine) and sodium azide are the most commonly used
chemical mutagens.
3. Polyploidy:
 An organism or individual having more than two basic
monoploid sets of chromosomes is called polyploid
(Gr. Polys = many + aploos = one fold + eidos – form)
and such condition is called polyploidy.
 Polyploidy is two types – autopolypoidy and
allopolyploidy.
 Polyploids which originate by multiplication of the
chromosomes of a single species are known as
autopolyploids or autoploids
 Autopolyploids are generally larger in size, have larger
cells, stomata, pollen grains and seeds.
 Some of our crops are autopolyploids e.g., potato,
coffee, sweet potato, ground nut, alfa alfa, banana etc.
 Autopolyploids are produced spontaneously by gamma
irradiation, tissue culture with treatment of the
chemicals.
 A polyploid organism, which originates by combining
complete chromosomes sets from two or three species
is known as alloploid and the condition is known as
allopolyploidy.
 Some important natural allopolyploid crops are wheat,
cotton, tobacco, mustard, oat etc.
The role of polyploidy in crop improvement
Gene buffering: Slower response to selection but more
adaptive potential.
Dosage effect: additive effect of the alleles increases the
number of phenotypes.
Increased allele diversity and heterozygosis: more
possible allele combinations and opportunities for
breeding.
Novel phenotypic variation: genome interactions and
changes in gene expression in new synthesized
allopolyploids.
Polyploidy and its effects
 It is estimated that 70% of the flowering plants has
polyploidy in their history
 Increased cell size in some organs.
 Changes in shape and texture of organs.
 Greater ability to colonize new habitats than diploid
ancestors.
 Reduction infertility and seed production
4. Tissue Culture:
 The growth of tissues of living organism in a suitable
culture medium (in vitro) is called tissue culture.
 Plant tissue culture refers to growth of plant tissues in a
suitable culture medium.
 The plant part which is used in regeneration is called
explants.
 It has several useful applications in crop improvement
For example
 development of haploids
 embryo rescue generation of variability
 selection of disease resistance
 selection for salinity and metal toxicity resistance
 selection for drought resistance
 micro propagation
 preservation of germplasm
 somatic hybridization etc.
5. Genetic Engineering:
Isolation, introduction and expression of foreign DNA in
plants and animals is called genetic engineering.
It involves introduction of a gene by the techniques of
recombinant DNA technology and genetic transformation.
It provides an exciting tool to improve specific traits of
inbreeds provided a transgene is available for this purpose
Many transgenes have been shown to generate resistance
to fungal diseases (e.g. Vacuolar’chitinase, (β-1, 3-
glucanase, groundnut stilbene synthase etc.)
Insect resistant transgenic varieties of maize, soybean,
cotton etc.
expressing this gene are being cultivated in U.S. A.
In India, efforts are being made to develop aphid resistant
transgenic brassicas by expressing in them protease
inhibitor genes from wheat etc..