Topic: Passive components

2. Capacitors

Capacitors are electronic components that provides a mean of storing electrical energy in the
form of electrical charge producing a potential difference across its plates. Practically capacitors
contains at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a di-electric (insulator) material.

The electrical characteristics of a capacitor is determined by a number of factors, these includes:

i. The di-electric material

ii. Physical size
iii. The value of capacitance (expressed in micro-farads (μF=10-6 F), nano-farads ( nF =
10-9F), or pico-farands (pF = 10-12F).
iv. The voltage rating
v. The accuracy or tolerance
vi. Temperature coefficient of capacitance
vii. Stability of the capacitor
viii. Leakage current flowing in the di-electric when the rated DC voltage is applied

Classification of capacitors

Capacitors are classified into two major categories:

i. Fixed capacitors
ii. Variable capacitors

Fixed capacitors

The Capacitors whose value is fixed while manufacturing and cannot be altered are called Fixed
Capacitors. Fixed capacitors are classified as non-polarized and polarized capacitors.

Non-polarized capacitors can be connected in a circuit, either way without bothering about the
placement of right lead and left lead. These capacitors are also called as Non-Electrolytic
Capacitors e.g ceramic capacitors, film capacitors, air capacitors, vaccum capacitors, glass
capacitors etc
Polarized capacitors have specific positive and negative polarities. While using these capacitors
in circuits, it should always be taken care that they are connected in perfect polarities. The most
commonly used polarized capacitors are electrolytic capacitors. Electrolytic capacitors have
higher capacitance value than other types of capacitors due to their large anode surface and thin
di-electric oxide layer.

Capacitor symbols

Capacitors are classified into three categories: Normal (fixed) capacitors, Electrolytic capacitors
and variable capacitors. The electrolytic capacitors normally have polarities (+ ve and –ve) and
must be connected to the DC voltage supply according to the polarities.

Fig. Capacitor symbols

Capacitor Construction, Parameters and Properties

All capacitors are formed with the same basic structure. Two parallel metal electrode plates are
separated by a non-conductive material called the dielectric. When a voltage exists between
these conductive parallel plates, an electric field is present in the dielectric.
For a parallel plate capacitor, the amount of capacitance C is determined by equation

𝐴
Capacitance 𝐶 = 𝜀 𝑑

Where, 𝜀, is the permittivity of di-electric material, A is the area of the plate, and d is the distance
between the plates.

From the above general formula, it shows that:

i. The larger the plate area (A), the larger the capacitance value
ii. The smaller the distance between the plates (d), the larger the capacitance
iii. The larger the di-electric constant (𝜀 ) the larger the capacitance

Charge/discharge behavior of a capacitor

When a DC voltage is applied to a capacitor connected in series with a resistor, the capacitor
begins to charge at a rate according to the applied voltage, the state of charge relative to its final
value, resistance and its capacitance. The product of resistance and capacitance is referred to as
the time constant (Ʈ) of the circuitry, expressed as 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶. Actually this refers to the time
required to charge a capacitor by 63.2 % of the difference between the final value and the initial
value.

Similarly, the time constant 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 also governs the time to discharge a capacitor
Fig a. charging a capacitor Fig.b. discharging a capacitor
𝑡
The charge (Q) stored on a capacitor at given time is expressed as 𝑄 = 𝐶 × 𝑉 × [1 − 𝑒 −𝑅𝐶 ],
whre C is the capacitance in Farads, V is the Voltage in Volts, t is time in seconds and constant
e = 2.7182818 (natural number).

Identifying capacitors

The value of a ceramic capacitance, polyester film and metallized film will not be directly
indicated on the face of the capacitor like other type of capacitors. The first two numbers
describe the value of the capacitor and the third number is the number of zeros in the multiplier.
When the first two numbers are multiplied with the multiplier, the resulting value is the value of
the capacitor in picofarads.

Example 1
In this case 68 is the digit and 3 is the multiplier. So 68 should be multiplied with 10^3 giving
the value of capacitance as 68000pF or 0.068μF.

Example 2

When any capacitor has 104, 350 printed- It has a multiplier of 4 (Third number of code). 10 is
multiplied by 10×104 =10000, 350V. Then its value is 10×10000= 100000PF = 100nF, or 0.1μF.

Example 3

A capacitor with face value of 474J400, determine its value

47 × 104 = 470000𝑝𝐹, 470nF, 0.47μF.

400V

J = ± 5% (Tolerance)

Applications of capacitors.

i. Coupling and Decoupling – capacitors do not conduct DC currents but conducts AC

currents only. They are often used to separate different voltage levels from each other
by blocking DC voltages, by the process of coupling.
Capacitors are also used to prevent AC passing through a circuit by offering an
alternative path (bypass) to pass through and allows only DC to through the circuit.
This process is known as decoupling.
ii. Filtering – filtering is to remove signals at unwanted frequencies. A resistor-capacitor
(RC) filter can be designed to remove high frequency interference such as noise in
analog signals, or to protect circuitry unwanted AC voltages.
iii. Timing and wave shaping - The manner in which a capacitor charges and discharges
through a resistor can be exploited for various timing purposes, such as introducing a
delay or changing the shape of a waveform. By adjusting the values of the capacitor
and resistor, designers can build timing circuits for controlling the speed of various
functions. e.g light flashing intervals, windshield wiper speeds etc
iv. Oscillators - Together with inductive components, capacitors can be used to build
oscillators for generating accurate sinusoidal signals
v. Energy storage – can be used as a temporally battery
 vi. Power factor correction
vii. Single phase motor starting

Hazards: large capacitors stores charge for a long period, care must be taken in handling such to
avoid electric shock and damages associated circuits.

3. Inductors

Inductors provide a means of storing electrical energy in the form of magnetic field. Like.
Simply an inductor is a wire or coil of a good electric conducting material with few turns (twists)
in it. In practical, every inductor has some resistance internally which we call as ‘Inductive
reactance’. Its unit of measurement is in ohms. Inductance is the phenomenon of an inductor that
opposes the flow of current in the circuit.

The inductance of an inductor is measured in Henry (H) and their electrical characteristics are
controlled by a number of factors, such as:

i. The material of the core

ii. The number of turns – More coils means more inductance
iii. Cross-sectional area of the cores - More area means more inductance
iv. The length of the coil - A short coil means narrower (or overlapping) coils, which
means more inductance.

Inductor symbols
Appliccation of inductors

i. Tuning circuits - Inductors are used in tuning circuits which are used to select the
desired frequency. In a tuned circuit, we have capacitor connected along with the
inductor, either in parallel or series.
ii. Inductive sensors - Inductors are used in proximity sensors which work on the
principle of inductance.
iii. Energy storage - Inductors can store energy for a limited time. The inductors
functions as energy storage devices in switch mode power supplies (generally we use
in our computers).
iv. Induction motors – they are used in induction motors where the principle of
electromagnetism is used.
v. Chokes - the inductors are used to choke the AC current and allows DC current to
pass.
vi. Transformers – transformers uses the principle of inductance, where the inductor
(wire) is wounded to the core as primary and secondary windings.