CPE11 DATA AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION A receiver is a collection of electronic components and circuits that accepts

LECTURE 1 the transmitted message from the channel and converts it back to a form
The Significance of Human Communication understandable by humans.
Transceivers - Most communication equipment incorporates circuits that both
Communication is the process of exchanging information send and receive.
Two of the main barriers to human communication are Signal attenuation, or degradation, is inevitable no matter what the medium
language and distance.. of transmission.
Noise refers to those random, unpredictable, and undesirable signals, or
Well-known forms of electronic communication, such as the telephone, changes in signals, that mask the desired information content.
radio, TV, and the Internet, have increased our ability to share information. The measure of noise is usually expressed in terms of the signal-to-noise
(S/N) ratio (SNR), which is the signal power divided by the noise power and
Electronic communication systems can be stated numerically or in terms of decibels (dB). Obviously, a very
high SNR is preferred for best performance
All electronic communication systems have a transmitter, a communication Types of Electronic Communication
channel or medium, and a receiver.
Simplex
The simplest way in which electronic communication is conducted is
one-way communications, normally referred to as simplex
communication.

The transmitter is a collection of electronic components and circuits

designed to convert the electrical signal to a signal suitable for transmission
over a given communication medium.
The communication channel is the medium by which the electronic signal
is sent from one place to another.

Many different types of media are used in communication systems,

including wire conductors, fiber-optic cable, and free space.
 Analog and Digital Signals
An analog signal is a smoothly and continuously varying
voltage or current.
A sine wave is a single-frequency analog signal. Voice and
video voltages are analog signals that vary in accordance with
the sound or light variations that are analogous to the
information being transmitted.

Duplex
A duplex communication system is a point-to-point system composed of Digital signals, in contrast to analog signals, do not vary
two or more connected parties or devices that can communicate with one continuously, but change in steps or in discrete increments. Most
another in both directions. digital signals use binary or two-state codes.
a. Full-duplex – simultaneous
b. Half-duplex - one at a time
What is Digital Communication? Digital to Analog Converter - The digital signal extracted from the carrier is
Digital Communication involves the physical transfer of data and then converted again into analog so that the signal can be passed effectively
information through a suitable communication channel. This through the channel or medium.
exchange of information in the form of discrete messages can take Channel - The channel provides a path for the signal and permits the analog
place Point to Point or Point to Multipoint. signal to transmit from the transmitter end to the receiver end.
Digital Demodulator - This is the place from where the data retrieving process
is started at the receiver end. The received signal is demodulated and again
converted from analog to digital. The signal gets rebuild here.
Channel Decoder - The channel decoder does the error corrections post
sequence detection. The distortions which might take place during the
transmission are corrected by adding some additional bits. Addition of these
bits help in the complete recovery of the original signal.
Source Decoder - The resulting signal is again digitized by sampling and
quantizing. This is done to obtain the unadulterated digital output without any
loss of information. The source decoder creates again the source output.
Output Transducer - This is the final block which converts the signal into its
Source – The source consists of an analog signal. For example: A Sound original form (which was at the input of the transmitter). It converts the
signal electrical signal into physical output. For example: Speaker
Input Transducer - This block consists of input transducer which takes a Output Signal - This is the output for which the whole process is done.
physical input and converts it to an electrical signal For example:
Microphone
Analog to Digital Converter - This electrical signal from Input Transducer is
further processed and converted into Digital Signal by Analog to Digital
Converter.
Source Encoder - The source encoder compresses the data into lowest
number of bits. This procedure helps in efficient operation of the
bandwidth. It removes the unnecessary bits.
Channel Encoder - The channel encoder, here the coding is done for error
correction. During the transmission of the signal, due to the sound in the
channel, the signal may get distorted. To avoid this, the channel encoder
adds some unnecessary bits to the transmitted data. These bits are the error
correcting bits.
Digital Modulator - Here the signal which is to be transmitted is modulated
by a carrier. The carrier is used for for effective long distance transmission of
data.
 LECTURE 2

Basics of PCM
The major steps
• Sampling - analog message signal is first sampled
• Quantizing - the amplitude of the sample is approximated to the nearest
set of quantization level
• Encoding - discrete signal is then converted into its binary form for the
transmission of the signal.

Block Diagram of Pulse Code Modulation

It is basically composed of a transmitter, a transmission path and a receiver.

1. The transmitter performs the sampling, quantizing and encoding of
the signal.
2. The transmission path includes regenerative receivers that recover
the signal from the undesired noise effects.
3. The receiver section performs decoding of the coded signal after
regeneration of the signal at the receiver.
Transmission path in a PCM system
A PCM system has a better control over signal distortion introduced
during transmission through the channel than other systems. PCM
achieves low signal distortion by employing regenerative receivers along
the transmission path.

The channel introduces distortion in the signal during transmission. This

distortion is eliminated by the regenerator in order to provide a
distortionless PCM signal. Resultantly, enhancing the transmission ability
of the system.
 Regenerator: A regenerative repeater is placed at the receiving end also so as
to have an exact PCM transmitted signal. Here, also the regenerator works in
a similar manner as that when employed in the transmission path. It
eliminates the channel induced noise and reshapes the pulse.
DAC and Sampler: Digital to analog converter performs the conversion of
digital signal again into its analog form by making use of the sampler. As the
actual message signal was analog thus at the receiver end there is a necessity
to again convert it into its original form.
LPF: The sampler generates analog signal but that is not the original message
signal. Thus, the output of the sampler is fed to the LPF having cutoff
frequency fm. This is sometimes termed as the reconstruction filter that
produces the original message signal.

This pulse train is then utilized by the decision-making device in order to

sample the PCM pulses. This sampling is done at the instant where
maximum SNR canbe achieved. In this way, the decision-making device
generates the
distortionless PCM wave.
Advantages of PCM

• Immune to channel induced noise and distortion.

• Repeaters can be employed along the transmitting channel.
• Encoders allow secured data transmission.
• It ensures uniform transmission quality.
Disadvantages of PCM

• The bandwidth required is high and it is costly.

• It is a complex process as it requires a lot of steps like sampling,
quantizing, encoding and decoding.

Pulse Code Modulations Applications

Pulse code Modulation is used in a lot of devices for transmitting data, such
as:
• It is used in transmitting telephone, TV, and audio signals from the
broadcasting station to the television sets.
• It is used in satellite communication.
 LECTURE 3

What is Modulation?

Modulation is the process of superimposing high-frequency carrier

signals with low-frequency message signals resulting in a modulated
wave.
There are mainly two types of modulation techniques which are:
Analog Modulation
Digital Modulation

Analog Modulation : In Analog Modulation, both carrier and message

signals are analogue waves.
Digital Modulation : In Digital Modulation, only the carrier signal is
analogue and the message signal is in digital form. Types of Digital Modulation techniques

There are mainly three types of DigitalModulation techniques. They are :

• Amplitude Shift Keying
• Frequency Shift Keying
• Phase Shift Keying

Shift Keying means that the amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier wave
is shifted between two or more discrete values rather than varying
continuously like Analog Modulation.
AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING
Frequency Shift Keying
There are two types of FSK, Binary and M-ary. The analog message signal is converted to digital signal using Analog to Digital
Converter. This digital signal is then passed to two multipliers which takes two
In Binary FSK, logic 1 is associated with certain inputs each. A sine wave with frequency f1 is considered as carrier signal for
frequency of carrier wave e.g. 50MHz and logic 0 is logic 1 and a sine wave with frequency f2 is considered as carrier signal for
associated with different frequency other than 50MHz logic 0. These carrier waves are multiplied with the digital message signal.
e.g. 25MHz. When logic 1 present in the digital signal gets multiplied with the carrier
Asin(2πf1t+p) it results in Asin(2πf1t+p) only since the other multiplier gets
logic 0 as input since it is passed through a NOT gate.

When logic 0 present in the digital signal gets multiplied with the carrier
Asin(2πf2t+p) it results in Asin(2πf2t+p) only since the multiplier gets logic 1 as
input since it is passed through a NOT gate. Both this signals are added to
form FSK wave A[sin(2πf1t+p)+sin(2πf2t+p)]. However this FSK wave contains
abrupt changes in frequency which causes unnecessary high bandwidth usage.
Hence this signal is passed through Band Pass Filter which limits the
bandwidth usage.
In M-ary FSK, a group of log2M bits are considered together rather than 1
bit at a time and the frequency is associated with this group of bits. For demodulating, the FSK wave is passed through two multipliers again
where their respective carrier waves are multiplied again. This signal is passed
For example, in 16-ary FSK, a group of 4 bits are considered and are given a through two Band Pass Filters out of which the top BPF allows f1 frequency to
respective frequency. Since there are 16 possible 4 bit binary numbers (24 ), pass if logic is 1 and the bottom allows f2 frequency to pass if logic is 0. The
16 different frequencies are required for modulation. output of both BPF is compared with each other where the output of the
comparator is high if output of BPF1 is greater than output of BPF2 and is low
if output of BPF2 is greater than output of BPF1. Hence a digital signal is
received at the output of the comparator. This digital signal is converted to
analog wave using Digital to Analog Converter.
Phase Shift Keying
There are two types of PSK, Binary and M-ary. The analog message signal is converted to digital signal using Analog to Digital
Converter. This digital signal is then passed to two multipliers which takes two
In Binary PSK, logic 1 is associated with certain phase shift of carrier wave inputs each. A sine wave with phase shift p1 is considered as carrier signal for
e.g. 90° and logic 0 is associated with different phase shift other than 90° logic 1 and a sine wave with phase shift p2 is considered as carrier signal for
e.g. 0°. logic 0. These carrier waves are multiplied with the digital message signal.
When logic 1 present in the digital signal gets multiplied with the carrier
Asin(2πft+p1) it results in Asin(2πft+p1) only since the other multiplier gets
logic 0 as input since it is passed through a NOT gate.

When logic 0 present in the digital signal gets multiplied with the carrier
Asin(2πft+p2) it results in Asin(2πft+p2) only since the multiplier gets logic 1 as
input since it is passed through a NOT gate. Both this signals are added to
form PSK wave A[sin(2πft+p1)+sin(2πft+p2)]. However this PSK wave contains
abrupt changes in phases which causes unnecessary high bandwidth usage.
Hence this signal is passed through Band Pass Filter which limits the
bandwidth usage.

When logic 0 present in the digitalFor demodulating, the PSK wave is passed
through two multipliers again where their respective carrier waves are
multiplied again. This signal is passed through two Band Pass Filters out of
which the top BPF allows the signal with phase shift p1 to pass if logic is 1 and
the bottom allows the signal with phase shift p2 to pass if logic is 0. The
output of both BPF is compared with each other where the output of the
comparator is high if output of BPF1 is greater than output of BPF2 and is low
if output of BPF2 is greater than output of BPF1. Hence a digital signal is
received at the output of the comparator. This digital signal is converted to
analog wave using Digital to Analog Converter. signal gets multiplied with the
carrier Asin(2πft+p2) it results in Asin(2πft+p2) only since the multiplier gets
logic 1 as input since it is passed through a NOT gate. Both this signals are
added to form PSK wave A[sin(2πft+p1)+sin(2πft+p2)]. However this PSK wave
contains abrupt changes in phases which causes unnecessary high bandwidth
usage. Hence this signal is passed through Band Pass Filter which limits the
bandwidth usage.
Applications of Digital Modulation Techniques LECTURE 4
• Military Communication Systems, where security and accuracy of the INFORMATION
signal plays a crucial role. Digital Modulation can provide confidential and
error free communication. Information is organized data which possesses some meaningful application
• Mobile Communication Systems, where the number of users are daily for the receiver. It is the processed data on which actions and decisions are
increasing and Digital Modulation can provide high capacity and less based.
interference. Long distance communication can be easily done with the help In communication system, information is transmitted from source to
of Digital Modulation. destination
• Digital Broadcasting, Digital modulation techniques are used in digital Information is the intelligence/ideas/message in Information Theory
broadcasting standards such as Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), Digital
Video Broadcasting (DVB), and Terrestrial Digital Multimedia Broadcasting Forms of Message - Electrical Signal, Speech/Voice, Picture/Image, Video, Text
(T-DMB) for transmitting audio, video, and data content efficiently.
• Radar Systems, In radar systems, digital modulation techniques like phase Information theory is a mathematical representation of parameters and
modulation (PM) and frequency modulation (FM) are used for transmitting conditions impacting the processing and transmission of information. Claude
radar pulses and modulating radar signals to detect and track objects Shannon
accurately in various applications such as air traffic control, weather
monitoring, and military surveillance.
PROPERTIES OF INFORMATION

Example

Example 2
A Card is selected at random from a deck of playing cards. If you have been
told that it is red in color,
a) How much information have you received?
Total cards = 52
Total red cards = 26
P = 26/52 = ½
I = log2 1/½ = 1 bit
b) How much more information do you needto completely specify the card?
P= 1/26
I = log2 1 / (1/26) = 4.7 bits
 ENTROPY BASICS AND DEFINITION Example
Entropy is a fundamental concept in measuring the quantity of information. The source emits three messages with probabilities
It represents the uncertainty or complexity of information. P1 = 0.7 , P2 = 0.2 and P3 = 0.1 .
INFORMATION Calculate:
1. Source Entropy
2. Maximum Entropy
3. Source Efficiency
4. Redundancy

ENTROPY

ENTROPY SOURCE EFFICIENCY

CODING THEORY
Shannon’s coding theorem is a method of data encoding based on information
entropy, used to represent data efficiently, reducing the required storage
space or transmission bandwidth.
Shannon – Fano Encoding Algorithm
ENTROPY SOURCE REDUNDANCY AND INFORMATION RATE
1. The messages are first written in the order of decreasing probability
2. Divide the messages set into two most equiprobable subset X and Y
3. The message of the 1st set X is given bit 0 and message in the 2nd subset is
given bit 1.
4. The procedure is now applied for each set separately till end.
5. Finally we get the code word for respective symbol
CHANNEL CAPACITY LECTURE 5
Channel Capacity is a measure of the maximum transmission rate of a DATA COMMUNICATION
communication channel. Based on Shannon’s theorem, it explains the Data communication refers to the transmission of digital data between
highest rate at which information can be transmitted error-free under devices over a communication medium. It involves the transfer of data
specific noise conditions. between computers, smartphones, and other electronic devices using various
EXAMPLE technologies and protocols.
EXAMPLES:
• EMAIL
• FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL(FTP)
• SOCIAL MEDIA COMMUNICATION
• CLOUD STORAGE AND SYNCHRONIZATION
• WEB BROWSING
Key Components

Key components of data communications include:

1. Sender: The device that sends the data.
2. Receiver: The device that receives the data.
3. Medium: The channel through which the data travels, which can be wired
(like Ethernet cables) or wireless (like Wi-Fi or cellular networks).
4. Protocol: A set of rules that governs how data is transmitted and received,
ensuring that devices can understand each other (Bluetooth, TCP, IP, HTTP,
DNS )
 History of Data 3. Routers: Connect different networks and direct data between them,
1. Early Beginnings (1830s-1950s) often using IP addresses..
• Telegraph (1837): long-distance communication using Morse code. 4. Switches: Connect multiple devices on a local area network (LAN) and
• Telephone (1876): allowing voice communication over wires. manage data traffic.
2. The Rise of Digital Communication (1950s-1960s) 5. Cables: Include Ethernet cables (e.g., Cat5, Cat6) for data transmission,
• First Computers: ENIAC (1945) were developed, but communication was as well as fiber optic cables for high-speed communication.
limited. 6. Repeaters: Amplify signals to extend the distance over which data can
• Packet Switching (1960s): breaking data into packets for more efficient be transmitted.
transmission. 7. Bridges: Connect two or more network segments, allowing them to
3. The Birth of the Internet (1960s-1980s) function as a single network.
• ARPANET (1969): first packet- switching network, laid the groundwork for 8. Hubs: Basic devices that connect multiple Ethernet devices, making
modern networking. them act as a single network segment (less common now).
• TCP/IP (1970s): Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol WIRELESS
(IP), standardizing data transmission across networks. 1. Wireless Network Interface Cards (Wi-Fi Cards): Enable devices to
4. Commercialization and Expansion (1980s-1990s) connect to wireless networks.
• Emergence of ISPs (1980s): Internet Service Providers allowing public 2. Access Points (APs): Extend the wireless network, allowing more
access to the internet. devices to connect to it.
• World Wide Web (1991): information was shared and accessed online. 3. Routers with Wireless Capability: Direct data between wired and
5. Wireless Communication (1990s- 2000s) wireless devices, often combined with access points.
• Wi-Fi (1997): The IEEE 802.11 standard for wireless networking enabling 4. Cellular Modems: Use cellular networks for data communication, often
wireless data communications. found in mobile hotspots and mobile broadband devices.
• Mobile Data (1990s): 2G mobile networks allowed for data transmission 5. Wireless Range Extenders: Boost the signal strength and extend the
via mobile phones. coverage area of a wireless network.
6. Modern Era (2000s-Present) 6. Antennas: Enhance the range and quality of wireless signals.
• Broadband and Fiber Optics: increased data transmission speeds. 7. Bluetooth Devices: Facilitate short-range wireless communication
• Smartphones and IoT: Internet of Things (IoT) devices connected billions of between devices.
devices globally.
• 5G Networks: enhancing mobile data communication, enabling faster
speeds and lower latency.
Data Communication Devices
WIRED
1. Network Interface Card (NIC): Connects a computer to a wired
network.
2. Modems: Convert digital data from a computer into analog for
transmission over phone lines and vice versa.
 DATA TRANSMISSION 3. Full Duplex - Full-Duplex is the data transmission mode in which the
LECTURE 6 data can flow in both directions at the same time. It is bi-directional in
Data Transmission mode defines the direction of the flow of information nature. It is two-way communication in which both the stations can
between two communication devices. It is also called Data Communication transmit and receive the data simultaneously.
or Directional Mode.
In the Open System Interconnection(OSI) Layer Model, the Physical Layer is
dedicated to data transmission in the network. It mainly decides the
direction of data in which the data needs to travel to reach the receiver
system or node.

The data transmission modes can be characterized in the following three DATA TRANSMISSION MODES
types based on the direction of exchange of information:Business-Consumer 1. Synchronous - The Synchronous transmission mode is a mode of
Relationships communication in which the bits are sent one after another without
1. Simplex - Simplex is the data transmission mode in which the data any start/stop bits or gaps between them.
can flow only in one direction, a sender can only send data but can
not receive it. Similarly, a receiver can only receive data but can not
send it.

2. Asynchronous- The Asynchronous transmission mode is a mode of

communication in which a start and the stop bit is introduced in the
message during transmission. The start and stop bits ensure that the
data is transmitted correctly from the sender to the receiver.
2. Half-Duplex - Half-Duplex is the data transmission mode in which the
data can flow in both directions but in one direction at a time.
 Types based on the number of bits sent Transmission Media in Computer Networks & Its Types
simultaneously in the network:
1. Serial - The Serial data transmission mode is a mode in which the Transmission Media is a communication channel that is used to carry the data
data bits are sent serially one after the other at a time over the from the transmitter to the receiver through the electromagnetic signals. The
transmission channel main function of this is to carry the data in the bits form through the Local
Area Network (LAN).
Types of Transmission Media:

2. Parallel - The Parallel data transmission mode is a mode in which the

data bits are sent parallelly at a time. In other words, there is a
transmission of n-bits at the same time simultaneously.
Guided Media - also known as wired otherwise bounded media. In this type,
the signals can be transmitted directly & restricted in a thin path through
physical links.
1. Twisted Pair Cable It includes two separately protected conductor
wires. Normally, some pairs of cables are packaged jointly in a
protective cover.
a. UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) This UTP cable has the capacity to
block interference.
b. STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) STP cable includes a particular jacket
for blocking outside interference.
Hence, after learning the various transmission modes, we can conclude that 2. Optical Fibre Cable - uses the notion of light reflected through a core
some points need to be considered when selecting a data transmission that is made with plastic or glass. The core is enclosed with less thick
mode: plastic or glass and it is known as the cladding, used for large volume
• Transmission Rate. data transmission.
• The Distance that it covers. Unguided Media - known as unbounded otherwise wireless transmission
• Cost and Ease of Installation. media. It doesn’t require any physical medium to transmit electromagnetic
• The resistance of environmental signals. The main features of this media are less secure, the signal can be
conditions transmitted through air, and applicable for large distances. There are three
types of unguided media which are discussed below.
 1. Radiowaves - are very easy to produce as well as penetrate through
buildings. In this, the transmitting & receiving antennas no need to
align. The frequency range of these waves ranges from 3 kHz to
1GHz.
2. Microwaves - a sightline transmission which means the transmitting
& receiving antennas need to align correctly with each other. The
distance which is covered through the signal can be directly
proportional to the antenna’s height. The frequency range of
microwaves ranges from 1GHz to 300GHz.
3. Infrared Waves
Infrared (IR) waves are used in extremely small distance
communication as they cannot go through obstacles. So it stops
intrusion between systems. The range of frequency of these waves is
300GHz to 400THz.

The following factors must be considered to design the transmission media

like the following:

Bandwidth - The bandwidth mainly refers to the capacity of data-carrying in

a medium otherwise a channel. So, high BW communication channels
mainly support high data rates.

Radiation - The radiation refers to the signal leakage from the medium
because of its unwanted electrical characteristics.

Absorption of Noise - The absorption of noise refers to the vulnerability of

the media to exterior electrical noise. This noise can cause data signal
distortion.

Attenuation - refers to the energy loss when signal broadcasts externally.

The loss of energy amount mainly depends on frequency. Radiation, as well
as physical media characteristics, contributes to attenuation.