International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications

Volume 11-Issue 08, 92 - 99, 2022, ISSN:- 2319 - 7560

DOI: 10.7753/IJSEA1108.1001

A Review of Mineralization of Rare Earth Elements in

Iran

Ali Akbar Aali Aref Shirazi Adel Shirazy

Amirkabir University of Amirkabir University of Amirkabir University of
Technology, Tehran, Iran Technology, Tehran, Iran Technology, Tehran, Iran

Shayan Khakmardan Hamed Nazerian

Amirkabir University of University of Catania, Catania
Technology, Tehran, Iran Italy

Abstract: Due to the increasing progress of modern technology, the increasing use of rare earth elements, the strategic nature of these
elements, and the national need for these elements, the study and exploration of these elements are of great importance. Therefore, to
achieve this goal, rare earth elements in different deposits in Iran were studied. Iran's highest concentration of rare earth elements is in
phosphate and iron-apatite deposits and coal ash, respectively. It can also be noted that these elements are concentrated in bauxite and
copper deposits along with alterations, laterites, and placers, requiring more detailed studies. According to these studies, the
distribution of these elements in different deposits was determined. Also, the high dependence of these elements on different deposits
such as phosphates was determined. Therefore, due to the growing need of the country for these elements, as well as self-sufficiency in
this sector and even the export of these elements, emphasis is placed on further studies in the sectors that are considered promising and
become waste dams. We are going to use it to explore new resources.

Keywords: REE, Mining Engineering, Geochemical Exploration, LREE, HREE

Significant reserves and sources of rare earth elements in the

1. INTRODUCTION world include the Pass Mountains in southern California, the
Rare earth metals include scandium (Sc), yttrium (Y) and
Bayan Obo Reserve in central Mongolia, and Kairona,
elements of the lanthanide group and are divided into two
Sweden. [5]
categories: light (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Sc) and heavy
(Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu, Y) are divided. Some For the first time in Iran, researchers of the Amir Kabir
elements are not rare in abundance, but they cannot be University of Technology have extracted rare earth elements
concentrated due to dispersion in different minerals. Rare and produced metal ewes from the tailings of iron processing
earth elements are also in this category. For this reason, it is plants. Also, extensive and semi-extensive studies with
more challenging to search, explore and extract rare earth geochemical methods and geochemistry and geology on areas
elements than other elements. Rare earth elements, light earth such as magnetite-apatite deposits of Choghart, Chadormelo
rare elements and rare earth elements are abbreviated REE, and Esfordi and phosphorous iron deposits in Central Iran and
LREE and HREE. [1] alterations and laterite and placer and in coal Coal ash,
bauxite deposits, etc. have been done, which are discussed in
In today's world, advanced technologies desperately need
this article. [6-10]
strategic elements such as rare earth elements, Which can be
traced in essential industries such as the production of
permanent magnets, metal alloys, coolants and catalysts.
2. DISCUSSION
It also has many applications in various chemical, According to studies and studies on rare earth elements in
metallurgical, military, aerospace, nuclear, optics and Iran, these elements have been proven in various deposits or
electronics industries, oil extraction and refining, automobile, have exploratory hope. This paper discusses their location in
nanotechnology, etc. Application of these elements in the different deposits and their importance in iron, phosphate,
manufacture of superalloys, oxygen sensors, fluorescent copper and alloy deposits, laterite and placer, along with coal,
lamps, optical fibres, laser synthesis, computer memory and coal ash, and bauxite.[11]
mobile phones, crude oil refining, permanent magnets,
industrial engines for modern cameras and camcorders, 2.1 Rare earth elements with iron deposits
medicine, Dentistry and ... more visible. [2]
(magnetite - apatite)
In general, rare earth elements in terms of origin and origin in Please Iron ores in the world have always been of great
two types of primary mineralisation with intrusive igneous importance for political and economic reasons, so detailed
masses and veins, dykes, pegmatites and secondary studies on these ores and, in particular, the amount and
mineralisation, including dunes and detrital placers and distribution of rare earth elements in them have been done.
lateritic residues and Beach sand is found. Also, most of the Extreme Consumption of Minerals, especially Metals Rare
world's rare earth elements are concentrated in carbonates, earth elements, are generally not formed independently and
which are associated with the last stage of the magmatic are found with base metal deposits, especially iron. The most
series. The three main minerals include these elements, crucial type of iron deposits containing these elements is
monazite, xenotime and anti-archaeite. [3, 4] apatite iron deposits, which also have alternating amounts of

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
Volume 11-Issue 08, 92 - 99, 2022, ISSN:- 2319 - 7560
DOI: 10.7753/IJSEA1108.1001

phosphorus, in other words, rare earth elements with In another study by Shekarian et al. On the Choghart deposit,
phosphorus. They are concentrated in apatite minerals. In the due to the complex geological structure and the effect of grade
Bafgh region, due to the presence of apatite iron deposits, distribution in this deposit, more detailed studies on grade
there are rich sources of rare earth elements. [12-15] zoning and creation of grade distribution models following
geological structures by the method The separation of
According to the studies of Moradkhani et al. (2015), the mineralisation zones from a geological and geochemical point
following results were obtained on the Narigan exploration of view and the relationship between the obtained models and
area, located in the southern part of the mining area of rare rock units were investigated by fractal geostatistical method
Esfordi soil elements and black spot (which has been better to understand the distribution of rare elements by these
identified as rich in these elements). In the Narigan region, the models. The soil in the deposit is to be provided for further
presence of semi-deep granitoid intrusion mass called Narigan studies. For this purpose, they use fractal modelling by the
granite as the source of mineralisation and joint system and carat-number method to separate different mineralisation
fault system and many joints around the mass has created zones and justify the distribution of carat based on lithological
suitable conditions for forming metal veins. From this point of models and geochemical communities. Fractal geometry and
view and studies of the origin of rocks in these areas that are lithology confirmed the relationship between the zones
consistent with each other, there is a possibility of rare earth separated by the grade-number method and the lithological
elements in the Narigan iron mine and the surrounding area. model. Metasomatic and albitofer type and a sub-community
[16] b The name of phosphorus iron type, which is a subset of
In another study in the Bafgh region, on the Choghart mine, phosphate type, exists in the region in which special attention
which is located 13 km northeast of Bafgh and 120 km from can be paid to rare earth elements. [15, 19-21]
Yazd, geologically, the complex that forms the rock inside the In another study by Moghiseh et al. (2014) in the tailings dam
Choghart mine has two completely different facades. : of the Choghart iron plant, in order to pre-concentrate the rare
Geologists have dubbed these quartz- and feldspar-rich rocks earth elements, the reagent sample was removed, and XRF
quartzite, porphyry quartz, granofir, plagiofir, keratofir and analysis was performed on the sample with cerium,
albitofir quartz, and rocks with a high percentage of actinolite lanthanum, neodymium with 120, 98 and 350 ppm of light
of thermolite and feldspar (albite) and alter parts rare elements and yttrium, gadolinium and erbium with 630,
Amphibolitized, which is referred to as amphibolite, 110 and 23 ppm of heavy rare elements showed the highest
amphibole pyroxenite, hornblende and metasomatic with values, respectively. According to the results of minerals
different compounds, we achieved the following results. identified in XRD and the properties of rare earth minerals, a
Choghart iron deposit is considered one of the most crucial series of processing operations were performed on it, which
mineral potentials of iron and rare earth elements in Iran. In have the grade of cerium, lanthanum, neodymium, and
order to identify the rare elements of Choghart ore and yttrium, gadolinium and erbium, respectively, equal to 4.335,
determine their amount, samples from different parts of ore, 4.278, 1010. 8.8, 1907, 322/8, 4.66 ppm and the recovery of
mineral tailings and tailings of processing plants were these elements were 60, 61, 62, 65, 63 and 62%, respectively.
prepared and studied using ICP, XRD light microscope and Fe2O3 grade was 10% in this section. [22]
electron microscope. The results show that apatite and
monazite are other valuable minerals after magnetite and Shirzaei et al. (2014) studied the northern anomaly located 11
hematite. Zones with high phosphorus are also due to the km northwest of the Choghart iron mine, divided into three
increase in these minerals. Analysis of different samples massifs: eastern, central and western due to tectonics. The
shows that the amount of rare elements is strongly related to central massif of this deposit was studied in terms of reserves
the amount of phosphorus, and these two have a high of valuable elements. First, this information was analysed by
correlation of r = 0.987. The amount of rare elements present collecting the information from the central massif. Then by
in the development plan processing tailings is higher than the preparing the information resulting from the excavations and
ore and mine tailings samples. About 97% of the rare drawing the geological profiles of the three-dimensional
elements in the samples are rare earth elements. These model of the central massif of this deposit and the number of
elements include cerium (Ce), lanthanum (La) and rare earth elements stored In this massif, it was evaluated
neodymium (Nd), which even amount to 1205,540,467 ppm, using the software. Finally, the amount of rare earth elements
respectively. Only the amount of yttrium (Y) is significant in stored in the central massif of the anomalous northern deposit
the group of rare earth elements. Most of the rare earth has been compared with several deposits in different
elements are independent minerals of monazite or inclusions continents. [21, 23-25]
or inclusions within apatite. Many rare earth elements have
also been substituted for calcium Ca2 + in the apatite mineral Hazarkhani et al. (2014) investigated the geochemistry of rare
network. [17] earth elements in apatites and magnetites of Choghart iron
deposits after sampling from the study area and chemical
In another survey on the north-northeast side of the Choghart analysis of samples by ICP-MA EMPA and XRF methods,
iron mine to investigate the petrography of rare earth case samples Geochemical analysis was performed. Spider
elements, sampling was systematically performed. To diagrams normalised to chondrite were drawn for all host rock
determine the principal and rare earth elements, thin and types (albitofer), mineral, metasomatic and phosphate. The
polished sections were prepared and studied microscopically results showed that in all types, the enrichment of light rare
after preparing the samples. The results showed that the earth elements is higher than heavy rare earth elements and
primary ore in the northeastern part of the Choghart deposit spider diagrams with Eu negative anomaly, one of the main
contains a large amount of massive magnetite. The sub- characteristics of alkaline ultrabasic magma. The results also
minerals include apatite, pyrite, alkaline amphiboles, showed that the distribution of REE in apatites and magnetites
especially actinolite and thermolite, calcite, talc, quartz, of Choghart iron ores is similar to that of Kirona type iron
monazite and bastnasite. Air ores are found in orthopaedics ores in other parts of the world, and the concentration of these
and yellow matter, with apatite being the main constituent of elements in Choghart depends on the type of concentrating
these elements in the region. [18] mineral which is fluorite apatite. [26]

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
Volume 11-Issue 08, 92 - 99, 2022, ISSN:- 2319 - 7560
DOI: 10.7753/IJSEA1108.1001

In another study by Lak et al. (2013), the Balestan iron ore investigate the scattering pattern of rare earth elements. The
deposit, located 55 km southeast of Urmia city, West formation of this deposit is attributed to the hydrothermal
Azerbaijan province, was studied, and the following results activity associated with quartz monzonite stock monzonite
were obtained for rare earth elements. The mean values of and several granodiorite dykes that have penetrated the
LREEs and HREEs in iron ores are 13.30 and 22.4 ppm, Cretaceous and Eocene sedimentary and volcanic rocks in the
respectively, which are a sign of poor enrichment of these Oligocene to Miocene. In terms of lithography, Cretaceous
elements and require further investigation in other zones, as volcanic rocks have a combination of carbonate and Chile.
well as the presence of negative Ce anomalies. Iron ores According to field observations and microscopic studies
indicate high fluoride content in ores and complexes (Ce (+4) (presence of pyrite, chalcopyrite, colitis, calcite, quartz, clay
with fluoride ligands. [25, 27-30] minerals, plagioclase and chlorite). The main alterations
observed in the massifs from the outside massif were potassic,
In a study conducted by Mirzaei et al. (2016) on the Hassan phyllic, argillic and propylitic, which are indicators of
Salar iron deposit, which is located 29 km south of Saqez, the porphyry copper deposits of the continental margin type.
behaviour of rare earth elements in the alterations of the Geochemical studies show that rare earth elements in all three
region has been studied. The addition or reduction of a alteration zones have undergone both stabilisation and
particular mineral has caused a change in the pattern of leaching processes. The distribution pattern of normalised
behaviour of rare earth elements. During potash alteration, REEs to chondrite implies the differentiation of LREEs from
rare earth elements were almost immobile, but the Eu element HREEs and the occurrence of Eu-negative anomalies during
was sharply reduced. Filic alteration, except for the Eu alteration. The results obtained from geochemical studies
element, increased compared to unaltered rock, while in suggest that the effects of the tetrad, stabilisation in
propylitic alteration, which is more extensive than potassic, Neomorphic mineralised phases, the chemical composition of
rare earth elements decreased sharply. [31, 32] the primary rock, and change in water-to-rock ratio have been
factors that play a valuable role in the distribution, mobility
and enrichment of rare earth elements in The alteration system
2.2 Rare soil elements along with of the region has been played, so in order to explore these
phosphate deposits elements in this deposit, the factors mentioned above should
Esfordi mining area, located 30 km northeast of Bafgh, is one be considered. [36, 37, 40-42]
of the country's essential sources of phosphate ore containing Since metallic and non-metallic mines in South Khorasan
rare earth elements. This deposit contains three rare earth province are suitable for discovering strategic elements such
elements: cerium, lanthanum, and neodymium. According to as rare earth elements, uranium, etc., Shirazi et al. South
the analysis of the control sample with OES-ICP, the amount Khorasan Province; paid. These studies, despite small
of each of these elements is 5510, 2220, and 1980 ppm, investments, can provide a platform for mining to flourish. In
respectively, which indicates the richness of these elements in a case study on a copper deposit of coppersmiths located in
this region. Be. Also, the amount of phosphorus in the control this area, despite the potential of copper metal, it can be
sample is 31.25%, which shows the high correlation of these investigated to discover the ideal storage of yttrium. Yttrium
elements with phosphate mineralisation. [33, 34] may be enough to extract yttrium after extraction and further
In another study by Cheshmeh Sari et al. (2012), the Lar investigation. It is recommended that analyses be performed
phosphate deposit in the southeast of Dehdasht, Kohkiluyeh on mine tailings as well. [43]
and Boyer-Ahmad provinces was investigated. The host rocks
of this deposit are limestones, shales and marls of the Pabdeh
Formation to the Eocene-Oligocene age. Mineralogical 2.4 Rare earth elements (hopeful) along
studies show that these deposits contain calcite, quartz, with alterations
francolite, dolomite, glauconite, illite and pyrite, which are In a geochemical study of rare earth elements in the Shelah
accompanied by secondary minerals such as fluorine apatite, Baran region, two kilometres northeast of Ahar city and in the
kaolinite, crandallite, hematite and goethite. Examination of southeastern part of Qara Dagh batholith, East Azerbaijan
the distribution process of elements in a selected profile province, by Mohammadi et al. (2014), The following results
reveals that elements such as P, REE and U are washed from can be inferred about rare earth elements Appeared. Field
the upper parts of the profile and enriched in the lower parts. observations and petrographic studies show that Eocene
The distribution pattern of normalised REEs to the Australian volcanic igneous rocks in this area with a combination of
Archean (PAAS) shale composition shows poor subtraction of dacite tuff and trachyandesite along with Oligocene intrusive
LREEs from HREEs and negative and weak Ce and Gd igneous rocks with a combination of diorite, quartz
anomalies during phosphating. These features indicate La / Ce monzonite, and granodiorite are altered by hydrothermal
ratios well that changes in the chemistry of aerating solutions fluids and in parts of It is associated with metal
such as pH and weathering intensity are the two main factors mineralisation, especially copper. Alteration zones in the
that affect the mineralogy and distribution and stabilisation of rocks mentioned include phyllite, proplitic, intermediate
REEs U and P in Lar phosphate deposits. Have put. argillic, advanced argillic, siliceous and biotite zones. The
Correlation coefficients between elements suggest that results of calculations of mass changes of elements using the
minerals such as apatite, granite, iron oxides, zircon and clay Isocone method reveal that the development of the advanced
minerals are possible hosts for REEs and U. [35] [36-39] argillic alteration zone associated with Eocene dacite tuffs
with depletion of elements such as Mn, P, V, Cr, Co, As, Sr,
Hf, Zr, Th, K, Si, LREE, C, Ba, Rb, Se, Zn, S, and enrichment
2.3 Rare earth elements along with copper of elements such as Mg, Cr, Na, Al, Ti, Cu, Fe, Pb, HREE, Y,
deposits Ga, Nd, Sn is included. The results of mineralogy and
Songun copper mine, located 130 km northeast of Tabriz, geochemistry of mass changes show that factors such as pH of
northwest of Iran, was studied by Hassanzadeh et al. (2011) to alterating solutions, oxidation potential, differences in the
stability of primary minerals, scanning by metal oxides and

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
Volume 11-Issue 08, 92 - 99, 2022, ISSN:- 2319 - 7560
DOI: 10.7753/IJSEA1108.1001

hydroxides, adsorption, and entry of metal elements by Taghizadeh et al. (2010) explored the Baavaran Kaolin
hypogenic solutions. The system, differences in the degree of Reserve, 35 km northeast of the Middle East, East Azerbaijan
alteration of the primary rock and changes in the ratio of Province. Field evidence and laboratory studies indicate that
water to rock have played an essential role in the degree of this reserve was developed from the alteration and weathering
mobility, distribution and stabilisation of major, partial and of oligomycin dacite rocks. Mineralogically, this reserve
rare earth elements in the advanced argillic alteration zone of includes kaolinite, quartz, illite, cristobalite, muscovite,
the floodplain area. In particular, Y and HREE and orthoclase and goethite. The results of calculations of mass
considering the factors mentioned above, we can hope for changes of elements with the assumption of Al as
exploration in this area and conduct further studies on this immobilised index elements show that the performance of
area. [44-48] alteration processes on dacite rocks during the development of
Baavaran kaolin deposit by leaching of elements such as Rb,
A geochemical study was performed on rare earth elements in enrichment of elements such as Sr, Th, Nb, Hf, Y, Ta, Ga, Pr,
the Mahour Chahkaleh area, 44 km northeast of Nazanz city, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Yb, and Lu, and wash and stabilise elements
Isfahan province. Field observations and mineralogical studies such as Ba, Cs, U, Zr, V, Co, Cr, Ni, Cu, La, Ce, Tb, Dy, Ho,
indicate that the intrusion of the Oligocene granodiorite stock Er, and Tm were associated. The results indicate that factors
into the Eocene andesitic and Thracian andesitic rocks in this such as pH changes of alteration solutions, adsorption,
area has been associated with the development of a significant scanning and concentration by metal oxides, presence in
alteration system and metal mineralisation. Alteration zones in resistant mineral phases, homogeneity of mother rock, the
andesitic and trachyandesitic rocks include three potassic, two overlap of supergene processes on hypogenic processes and
phyllic, three propylitic and four argillic. The distribution stabilisation in neomorphic mineral phases have played a
patterns of normalised REEs to the chondrite reveal that the valuable role in the distribution of rare earth elements in this
differentiation of LREEs from HREEs has been associated reserve. Further geochemical considerations indicate that
with Eu-negative anomalies during the formation of phyllic, zircon, Ti-containing phases, serpentine, and secondary
propylitic, and potassic alteration zones. The argillic and phosphates (monazite, rhabdofan, and xenotime) are the hosts
potassium alteration zones contain the largest and lowest of rare earth elements in this reserve that require further
quantities of REEs, respectively, according to the chemical investigation. [50, 56-59]
analysis findings. Investigation of element enrichment factors
indicates leaching and stabilisation of REEs during the
development of alteration zones. Studies reveal that the high
activity of sulfate coagulants combined with the low pH 2.5 Rare earth elements with laterite and
nature of alteration solutions is the main reason for the placer
depletion of REEs in the potash zone, and the adsorption For The following results were obtained from the geochemical
coupled with the low activity of sulfate coagulants is the study of rare earth elements in the laterite Zan deposit, 25 km
leading cause of REE enrichment in the argillic zone. The southeast of Damavand, Tehran province. This deposit is
results obtained from geochemical studies suggest that the developed as a stratigraphy in the Chilean and sandstone
distribution of REEs in the alteration zones in Mahour basins of the Shemshak (Jurassic) Formation. Mineralogical
Chahkaleh is a function of changes in the physical and findings indicate that the minerals of this deposit include
chemical conditions of the alteration environment, differences diaspora, hematite, goethite, anatase, kaolinite, boehmite,
in the intensity of adsorption and scavenging by metal oxides, siderite, rutile, quartz, titanomagnetite, zircon, and pyrite. The
and the presence in phases. Mineralisation has been resistant. lateritization process in Zan has been accompanied by the
Therefore, further studies on the argylic zone are enrichment of elements such as V, Y, Co, Cr, Ni, Nb, Zr, Fe,
recommended due to enrichment. [49-52] Ti, Al and REEs and the washing and stabilisation of elements
Zonooz kaolin deposit is located 15 km northeast of Marand, such as Ba, Sr, Mn, U and Ca. Combining the results obtained
East Azarbaijan province, which was investigated by Alipour from mineralogical and geochemical studies suggest that
et al. (2010). In field studies (based on physical features such changes in pH of aeration solutions, oxidation potential,
as colour, five distinct types of kaolin, including (1) white, (2) adsorption, presence of organic matter, preferential adsorption
lemon, (3) grey, (4 brown and (5) yellow, were identified in by metal oxides, presence in resistant mineral phases and
this deposit. Field evidence And petrographic studies show stabilisation in neomorphic phases play a valuable role in the
that this deposit is genetically related to trachy andesitic distribution of major, minor, and rare earth elements in the
rocks. According to the mineralogical findings of this deposit, laterite deposit. The correlation coefficients between the
including quartz, kaolinite, montmorillonite, calcite, elements suggest that zircon, rutile, gorsexite and xenotime
pyrophyllite, chlorite, muscovite-illite, dolomite hematite and are the host minerals of REEs in the ores of this deposit. If the
anatase, The study of element enrichment factors shows the grade of these elements in these minerals is high, we can hope
performance of alteration processes on the rocks and, Yb, Tm, for exploration of these elements in this area. [60]
Cu, Hf, Zr, Ba, Rb, V andesitic trachea during the In another case study on Marvast Marvaz place in Yazd in the
development of Xenoz kaolin deposit by washing elements east and west, Morshedi et al. (2017) performed the following
such as Ga, Y, Ni, Cr, Co, Th, Sr, Cs and leaching- results. Data and samples were analysed from 53 wells in the
stabilisation of elements such as, Ta and, Nb, U were eastern area; this anomaly in the south of Yazd city was used
accompanied by enrichment of elements such as Lu. , Ho, Dy, to model and find the potential of rare earth elements. In the
Tb indicate that the physicochemical conditions of the Marvast region, the source rock is black shale monazite,
alteration medium, the relative stability of the primary which is found alternately with limestone and limestone
minerals, and the stabilisation in the mineral phases have sandstones and conglomerates in the form of scattered nodules
played a role in this deposit. Manganese oxides, zircon, in the shales. Examination of the distribution pattern of
anatase, hematite, muscovite-illite, chlorite, cyanite, and in standardised rare earth elements to chondrite values indicates
this deposit are essential morphs in geochemical distribution. high compliance with the standard pattern of monazite. To
Secondary phosphates (monazite, rhabdofan, xenotime) host investigate the geochemical distribution and concentration in
REE in this deposit and can be substantial. [53-55] the region, an interpolation map of the distribution of these

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Volume 11-Issue 08, 92 - 99, 2022, ISSN:- 2319 - 7560
DOI: 10.7753/IJSEA1108.1001

elements was drawn. The most concentrations were related to In another case study by Memar et al. (2016), the following
light, intermediate and heavy elements, respectively. It was results were obtained by examining the coal zones of Iran.
also proved by the intensity coefficient, including the ratio of After sampling from different coal zones (raw coal and
the concentration of rare earth elements to light to heavy. In concentrate and waste from coal processing in coal washing
the next step, data clustering was performed at two levels of factories), the sample was analysed by mass spectrometer
elements and samples, indicating four groups of elements (ICP-MASS) method of fifty-seven elements and the
based on light and weight (atomic and chemical structure) and abundance of some rare elements. Rare and earthy were
four spatial zones based on promising areas, labelled as the treated. Then, by interpreting the data obtained from the
fourth cluster. , Corresponds to the area of anomaly. Finally, analysis of samples, rare and rare elements and determining
the multivariate statistical method of principal component their concentration and enrichment in the country's coal and
analysis was used to model the anomaly. [61] the economics of their extraction were examined. By
reviewing and analysing the results of the analysis, the
Khomrud mine has the highest number of anomalies, with
anomalies in 13 elements. Also, Mazino Tabas thermal coal
2.6 Rare earth elements with coal and coal with anomalies in 9 elements and Central Alborz region
ash (underwater) with anomalies in 8 elements are in the
In recent years, the reduction of familiar sources of rare earth following ranks regarding the number of anomalies in rare
elements in the world, such as carbonatites, has led to the earth elements. [65]
beginning of exploration activities to provide primary sources
of these elements in other fields. Recovery of rare earth
elements from coal reserves as a by-product in many countries 2.7 Reserves with bauxite deposits
can help reduce the current raw material crisis. It can also be Jajarm bauxite deposit (northeast of Iran) is the largest
used to convert polluted coal into clean energy sources.
diaspora bauxite deposit in Iran, which is located as a
Studies have shown that the concentration of these elements
in coal ash is several times that of coal. Rare earth elements in stratiform deposit between Elika and Shemshak formations.
coal ash are divided into three groups: heavy, medium and The bottom-up of this deposit is composed of four parts of
light. Among these, medium and heavy groups are more lower kaolinite, shale bauxite, hard bauxite and upper
critical because their available resources are more limited. kaolinite. Rare soil elements have been studied using
These elements accumulate in coal under four types of correlation coefficients between these elements and other
genetics and are 1- alluvial type, 2- tuff type, 3- infiltration elements. In the normalised chondritic diagrams of rare earth
type, and 4- hydrothermal type. The resulting hydrothermal
reserves are more desirable in terms of grade and storage. By elements in the challenging bauxite section, the elements (Ce)
examining Iran's coal resources and comparing it with other and (Eu), especially the element Ce), show different
countries in the world, Iran is richer in sources of rare earth behaviour compared to other elements and show positive and
elements in coal than China, the United States, etc. Paying somewhat negative anomalies, respectively. Show. This is a
attention to this issue can have a bright future in recovering result of the existence of these elements with different
these elements from coal ash in our country. [62] capacities compared to other rare earth elements in the hard
According to the above points, extracting these elements from bauxite section so that Ce with a capacity of +4 and Eu with a
coal ash, which contains a significant amount of REE, should capacity of +2 have entered the mineral structure. The La / Y
be considered. According to the study, the dissolution of ratio in the hard bauxite section also indicates the acidic
elements in ash in an acidic environment depends on the conditions prevailing in this section of the deposit, due to
content and formation of the ash. However, the amount of
which the rare earth elements may have been partially washed
dissolved elements increases with increasing temperature and
dissolution time. After the dissolution of REE elements in away and settled in the lower sections. [66]
sulfuric acid, these elements' separation methods are the same
as those used for processing common REE ores. [63] Mineralogical and geochemical studies in the Jajarm bauxite
deposit indicate that rare earth elements that have shown a
The following results were obtained in a study on rare earth
positive correlation with phosphorus and iron in the lower
elements in coal conducted by Shahraz et al. (2014). In
addition, the mineralogy was examined using the SEM kaolinite section have been absorbed by hematite and clay
technique. According to the data, the accumulation of some minerals. Nb, V, Cr, rare earth metals and phosphorus. From
trace elements in Iran's coal reserves is much more than that top to bottom, bauxite horizons have an irregular vertical
of China, the United States, and the majority of the world's distribution. Also, a comparison of the content of Jajarm
coal and its Clark quantity. In the commission area, the bauxite with Chinese bauxite deposits shows that the amount
average accumulation of rare elements and the perspective of rare earth elements in Jajarm bauxite is higher. [67]
index were 378.21 g / kg and 0.48 g, respectively. Also, the
value of 16.35 ratio of light to heavy rare elements indicates
enrichment in the group of light rare elements. The origin of
the accumulation of these elements in the coalfield is of
clastogen type and depends on the fall and leaching of
pyroclastic materials, rich in rare light soil elements.
Therefore, these precious metals can be recovered at different 3. CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS
stages of coal deposit development (overburden, coal mining, Considering that in different stages of exploration and
coal combustion and after the completion of coal storage in extraction of a mine, comprehensive information from
these mines). [64] mineralogy and elemental analysis is continuously collected
from different zones, attention and use of this information can

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 International Journal of Science and Engineering Applications
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be of great help in exploring rare earth elements in that area Their Chemical Composition. Open Journal of
and surrounding areas. . In many mines, despite the high Geology, 2022. 12(3): p. 199-214.
percentage of these elements due to lack of study and lack of 9. Shirazy, A., A. Shirazi, and A. Hezarkhani,
Behavioral Analysis of Geochemical Elements in
sufficient information about them, these elements are directed
Mineral Exploration:-Methodology and Case Study.
to tailings dams. 2020: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing.
10. Shirazi, A., A. Hezarkhani, and A.B. Pour, Fusion
Attention to rare earth elements and iron-apatite deposits is of Lineament Factor (LF) Map Analysis and
considered and recommended for more comprehensive studies Multifractal Technique for Massive Sulfide Copper
in various iron mines in Iran. Also, since these elements are Exploration: The Sahlabad Area, East Iran.
associated with phosphates, phosphate can be an excellent Minerals, 2022. 12(5): p. 549.
exploration guide in determining the exact location of these 11. Shirazy, A., A. Shirazi, and A. Hezarkhani,
Advanced Integrated Methods in Mineral
elements.
Exploration. 2022, Germany: LAP Lambert
Academic Publishing.
In bauxite deposits, these elements are absorbed by clay 12. Emsbo, P., et al., Rare earth elements in
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10(2): p. 66-72.
various mines, especially coal mines, can be rich sources of
14. Khakmardan, S., et al., Copper oxide ore leaching
REE, so to study the percentage and amount of storage of ability and cementation behavior, mesgaran deposit
these elements in these mines are recommended as additional in Iran. Open Journal of Geology, 2018. 8(09): p.
studies in this section can be of great help in exploring these 841.
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Exploration Geochemistry Data-Application for Cu
Organic Sulfur Reduction of High Sulfur Coals and
Anomaly Separation Based On Classical and
Modern Statistical Methods in South Khorasan,

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Studies to Determine the Mineralization Zones regions in the Kivi area of Iran. Minerals, 2020.
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2018. 7(9): p. 274-279. Geostatistical studies and anomalous elements
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elements in river waters. Earth and Planetary Geology, 2018. 8(7): p. 697-710.
Science Letters, 1988. 89(1): p. 35-47. 40. Balaram, V., Rare earth elements: A review of
27. Zhou, B., Z. Li, and C. Chen, Global potential of applications, occurrence, exploration, analysis,
rare earth resources and rare earth demand from recycling, and environmental impact. Geoscience
clean technologies. Minerals, 2017. 7(11): p. 203. Frontiers, 2019. 10(4): p. 1285-1303.
28. Hedayat, B., et al., Feasibility of Simultaneous 41. Shirazy, A., M. Ziaii, and A. Hezarkhani,
Application of Fuzzy Neural Network and TOPSIS Geochemical Behavior Investigation Based on K-
Integrated Method in Potential Mapping of Lead means and Artificial Neural Network Prediction for
and Zinc Mineralization in Isfahan-Khomein Copper, in Kivi region, Ardabil province, IRAN.
Metallogeny Zone. Open Journal of Geology, 2022. Iranian Journal of Mining Engineering, 2020.
12(3): p. 215-233. 14(45): p. 96-112.
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Modeling of Phosphorus and Sulfur as Deleterious Geochemical behavior investigation based on k-
Elements of Iron Ore to Be Used in means and artificial neural network prediction for
Geometallurgical Studies, Sheytoor Iron Ore, Iran. titanium and zinc, Kivi region, Iran. Известия
Open Journal of Geology, 2021. 11(11): p. 596-620. Томского политехнического университета.
30. Shirazy, A., et al., Geochemical and geostatistical Инжиниринг георесурсов, 2021. 332(3): p. 113-
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area by k-means clustering method. Open Journal of 43. Liu, P., R. Huang, and Y. Tang, Comprehensive
Geology, 2019. 9(6): p. 306-326. understandings of rare earth element (REE)
31. Parsapoor, A., M. Khalili, and M. Mackizadeh, The speciation in coal fly ashes and implication for REE
behaviour of trace and rare earth elements (REE) extractability. Environmental science & technology,
during hydrothermal alteration in the Rangan area 2019. 53(9): p. 5369-5377.
(Central Iran). Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 44. Cox, C. and J. Kynicky, The rapid evolution of
2009. 34(2): p. 123-134. speculative investment in the REE market before,
32. Ширази, А., А. Хезархани, and А. Ширази, during, and after the rare earth crisis of 2010–2012.
ПРИМЕНЕНИЕ ГЕОФИЗИЧЕСКИХ МЕТОДОВ The Extractive Industries and Society, 2018. 5(1): p.
УДЕЛЬНОГО ЭЛЕКТРИЧЕСКОГО 8-17.
СОПРОТИВЛЕНИЯ И ВЫЗВАННОЙ 45. Shirazi, A., et al., Geostatistics studies and
ПОЛЯРИЗАЦИИ ПРИ ПОИСКЕ МЕДНЫХ РУД, geochemical modeling based on core data, sheytoor
ЮЖНЫЙ ХОРАСАН, ИРАН. OF THE TOMSK iron deposit, Iran. Journal of Geological Resource
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY GEO АSSETS and Engineering, 2018. 6: p. 124-133.
ENGINEERING, 2022: p. 110. 46. Khosravi, V., et al., Hybrid Fuzzy-Analytic
33. Bellanca, A., D. Masetti, and R. Neri, Rare earth Hierarchy Process (AHP) Model for Porphyry
elements in limestone/marlstone couplets from the Copper Prospecting in Simorgh Area, Eastern Lut
Albian-Cenomanian Cismon section (Venetian Block of Iran. Mining, 2022. 2(1): p. 1-12.
region, northern Italy): assessing REE sensitivity to 47. Shirazi, A., et al., Introducing a software for
environmental changes. Chemical geology, 1997. innovative neuro-fuzzy clustering method named
141(3-4): p. 141-152. NFCMR. Global Journal of Computer Sciences:
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resistivity and induced polarization methods for the 48. Shirazi, A. and A. Shirazy, Introducing Geotourism
copper deposit, South Khorasan, Iran. Bulletin of Attractions in Toroud Village, Semnan Province,
the Tomsk Polytechnic University Geo Assets IRAN. International Journal of Science and
Engineering, 2022. 333(3): p. 99-110. Engineering Applications, 2020. 9(16): p. 79-86.
35. Kulczycka, J., et al., Evaluation of the recovery of 49. Sasmaz, A., et al., Major, trace and rare earth
Rare Earth Elements (REE) from phosphogypsum element (REE) geochemistry of different colored
waste–case study of the WIZÓW Chemical Plant fluorites in the Bobrynets region, Ukraine. Ore
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p. 345-354. 50. Doodran, R.J., et al., Minimalization of Ash from
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37. Shirazy, A., et al., Geophysical study: Estimation of Geological Bulletin of Turkey, 2022. 65: p. 42.
deposit depth using gravimetric data and Euler 52. Nazerian, H., et al., Predict the Amount of Cu Using
method (Jalalabad iron mine, kerman province of the Four Ca, Al, P, S Elements by Multiple Linear
Regression Method. International Journal for

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Research in Applied Science and Engineering 61. Manikandan, A., et al., Rare earth element (REE)
Technology (IJRASET), 2021. 9: p. 1088-1092. lanthanum doped zinc oxide (La: ZnO)
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elements onto bacterial cell walls and its antibacterial studies. Journal of Alloys and
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mats. Chemical geology, 2005. 219(1-4): p. 53-67. 62. Piper, D.Z., Rare earth elements in the sedimentary
54. Shirazi, A., A. Hezarkhani, and A. Shirazy, Remote cycle: a summary. Chemical geology, 1974. 14(4):
Sensing Studies for Mapping of Iron Oxide Regions, p. 285-304.
South of Kerman, IRAN. International Journal of 63. Leybourne, M.I. and K.H. Johannesson, Rare earth
Science and Engineering Applications (IJSEA), elements (REE) and yttrium in stream waters,
2018. 7(4): p. 45-51. stream sediments, and Fe–Mn oxyhydroxides:
55. Shirazi, A., A. Shirazy, and J. Karami, Remote fractionation, speciation, and controls over REE+ Y
sensing to identify copper alterations and promising patterns in the surface environment. Geochimica et
regions, Sarbishe, South Khorasan, Iran. Cosmochimica Acta, 2008. 72(24): p. 5962-5983.
International Journal of Geology and Earth 64. Brophy, J.G., A study of rare earth element (REE)–
Sciences, 2018. 4(2): p. 36-52. SiO2 variations in felsic liquids generated by basalt
56. Nothdurft, L.D., G.E. Webb, and B.S. Kamber, fractionation and amphibolite melting: a potential
Rare earth element geochemistry of Late Devonian test for discriminating between the two different
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ancient limestones. Geochimica et Cosmochimica 65. Zedef, V. and A. Doyen, Rare earth element (REE)
Acta, 2004. 68(2): p. 263-283. geochemistry and genetic implications of the
57. Shirazy, A., et al., Investigation of Geochemical Mortas-bauxite deposit (Seydis-ehir/Konya–
Sections in Exploratory Boreholes of Mesgaran Southern Turkey). Chemie der Erde, 2009. 69: p.
Copper Deposit in Iran. International Journal for 143-159.
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58. Shirazy, A., et al., Investigation of Magneto-/Radio- Western Australia. Lithos, 2013. 172: p. 192-213.
Metric Behavior in Order to Identify an Estimator 67. Galhardi, J.A., et al., Bioavailability of trace metals
Model Using K-Means Clustering and Artificial and rare earth elements (REE) from the tropical
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IRAN). Minerals, 2021. 11(12): p. 1304. Environment, 2020. 717: p. 134484.
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Need for Composting of Household Waste at Community

Level

Parnika Gupta
University of Iceland
Reykjavik, Iceland

Abstract: With steeply increasing population and high rate of consumption, the household waste generated is also increasing. Lack of
efficient management of waste, owing to growing pile of garbage leads to increase in heights of landfills, in which more than half of
the waste comes from household and is biodegradable. In USA, around 27% of all solid waste comprising of food scraps and yard
waste ends up in landfills [1]. Similarly, India generates around 62 million tonnes of waste annually with nearly 50% of total waste
being organic and instead of being composted, it ends up in the landfills [2]. Landfills are not only eye soring sights, but they also
amount to third biggest cause of greenhouse gas emissions in India [2]. This calls for need of composting household waste at
community level to tackle the problem at the source of generation. This paper aims at identifying current practices for composting in
India, and identify challenges faced by authorities and individuals while implementing composting initiatives. This paper seeks to find
answers to the posed research questions revolving around composting challenges with a possible suggestion for implementing
composting activities in schools, household complexes and community parks and gardens.

Keywords: community composting; household waste management; composting practices; composting in India; individual
composting; composting by citizens; suggested composting practice

Before getting into these mysterious questions, one should

1. INTRODUCTION first know about composting.
Household waste management is a complex issue in countries
like India and composting practice often seems to be a failure 1.1 What is Composting?
when it occurs at community level even when it needs least Composting is the process of decomposition in a controlled
amount of technology and investment. The quantity of waste environment., i.e., the natural process of breakdown of
generated in households amounts to more than fifty percent of organic waste materials and transform into a biologically
the waste found piled up in the landfills. The quantity of balanced and humic substances that make brilliant soil
household waste keeps on increasing day by day in contrast to alterations [3]. Compost is easier to manage and store, when
the waste management at the landfilling sites. One can even compared to manure and other raw organic materials [3]. In
mistake the landfill site at Delhi, India to be a mountain rather composting, usually the microorganisms help in breaking
than a huge heap of garbage with birds hurling above it. This down of the waste to formulate it into useable form known as
unbelievable ugly sight itself clearly points towards the compost. During composting, processes occur from beginning
systematic failure in waste management both at individual as till end, i.e., till the compost is made as per Figure 1.
well as municipal levels. The landfill site in city like Delhi,
India is just one example. All countries over the globe are
currently facing huge issue with managing waste as the
households continuously generate it. Composting seems like
an effective method for household waste management. The
composting method, if followed at community level, has the
potential to eradicate the problems faced by labors directly
involved in waste management and can also help the citizens
become more aware about the high amount of household
waste generation so that they can make conscious choices
regarding their consumption habits.
This research paper is an attempt towards finding answers to
the following questions:
1. What are the easy methods to implement for
composting at individual levels? Figure 1. Process of composting and various stages [3]

2. Can these methods be used to compost in

community level? Why or why not? 1.2 What are various types of composting
methods?
3. What challenges are faced by individuals while Composting methods can be divided into three main types
composting individually and collectively? depending on the decomposition process involved, i.e.,
4. Can we mitigate these challenges through aerobic composting, anaerobic composting, and
simplification of composting methods? vermicomposting. In aerobic composting method, as the name
suggests, the composting of biodegradable waste occurs with
5. Suggestion for composting methods at community the help of oxygen and the mixture needs regular turning. It
level. produces a little amount of CO2 along with other nutrients

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required by the plants. In anaerobic composting, the process revolution. [5] The first records of solid waste management
happens in absence of oxygen due to which a foul odour is were found in Athens, Greece during 500 BC and the first
generated along with methane gas which is another source of municipal dump was built in Athens for people to dispose off
greenhouse gas emissions like CO2. In both these methods the their solid waste [5]. Greek municipalities started town
composting happens due to bacteria whilst in garbage dumps for discarding food trash, fecal matter, etc. in
vermicomposting, worms break down the biodegradable the 5th century BC [5]. The waste disposal was not treated
waste and produce compost. This method doesn’t produce any like human health hazard until the authorities started to realize
odour. the connection between epidemics like plague with solid
waste disposal methods. When in 1350s, approximately 25
Then depending on the method used for piling the million people were killed in span of five years owing to “The
biodegradable waste, composting methods can also be Black Plague”, that was the time when Britain made a law to
categorized as sheet composting, trench composting, cold-bin clean front yards mandatory but it was not taken seriously [5].
composting, and heap composting. Britain was the first to introduce garbage men for solid waste
1.3 What are the benefits of compost? collection as per historical references [5]. They were called
‘rakers’ because they used to rake up solid waste on weekly
The question about benefits of composting is like asking
basis into a cart [5]. Then in the year 1551, the use of
about benefits of food. But, keeping sarcasm apart, the
packaging was first recorded in Germany [5]. The use of and
compost is not only beneficial for providing nutrients back to
manufacturing of paper spreading from China to medieval
soil, it also is a great way to manage biodegradable waste
Europe, developments in operation and dyeing of wool in 13th
irrespective of its generation sources (restaurants, households,
century, introduction of paper making techniques in England
schools, cafes, industries, hospitals and so on). The compost
in 1310, invention of low-density polyethylene in 1942, etc.
serves as the final missing gear in a complete lifecycle for a
are just a few activities generating huge amount of waste
biodegradable material. Take food for example. The soil we
which added more obstacles [5]. Heaps of waste was also a
use to grow our food in is then returned back its nutrients in
problem for Paris which was then removed by employing 800
the form of compost as a gratitude. It may seem like
carts as they were interfering with the city’s defence [5].
philosophical talk but it’s true and makes sense.
Owing to the plague epidemic, the solid waste management
Composting is eco-friendly and has minimal effects on became of utmost importance in Europe, but not in Asia and
environment, except for the GHG emissions in form of CO2 Africa, in spite of being colonized by Europeans [5].
and CH4 when the process is not properly controlled and
The solid waste management was already taking a backseat
supervised.
owing to lack of laws and interests when the globe was hit
2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND with industrial revolution. As the production and evolution of
During the 1930s, municipal solid waste management and new products started quickly, the manufacturing also
disposal were least priority. There was few or even no formal increased due to industrial revolution [5]. It’s natural that
management present to tackle the issue of waste [4]. Even waste automatically increased as the market capacity
though it has huge public health and environmental increased. Now, the question comes to mind, if there were so
significance, it was not considered such between 1930 to much technological advances, then it might appear that waste
1940. Despite the objectionable elements and attributes, the management would also be efficient. Was the waste
open dump of waste was a common practice for waste management in post-industrial era more efficient as compared
disposal [4]. In some places, it is still practiced. But the to pre-industrial era? Let’s take a look at it. As
discussion about current waste disposal practices will come a industrialization led to new and enhanced products, it also
little later in the paper. consequentially led to change in waste quantity and quality
[5]. All over the globe, ‘waste management’ entered in many
The publications dedicated to solid waste management were municipal acts [5]. This doesn’t mean that implementation of
few until the 1960s, especially when literature for composting waste management acts also dramatically changed for good.
is concerned. Mostly it was found as project reports and In fact, implementation was still inadequate because
articles in obscure journals or periodicals which were quite municipalities were not being supervised by any outside
challenging to acquire. [4] In early 1970s, professional agency, no punishable law for officers in charge of enforcing
disinterest persisted until resource conservation, ecology and the waste management acts, no laws for industries outside
environmental quality started to get public attention [4]. municipalities, to just name a few [5]. The industrial
Farming and Organic gardening were the major areas revolution made manufacturing cheaper which led to
accounting for interest and activities in composting prior to increased consumption and that led to more waste production.
1970s [4].
The United Nations Conference held in Sweden in 1972 on
If one were to look at the change in type of waste by Human Environment was a turning point for waste
comparing pre-industrial and post-industrial era, one could management [5]. Representatives of 113 nations attended
easily notice that the waste generated in pre-industrial era was UN’s first international environmental conference [5].
less toxic, low in quantity and easily biodegradable even
though waste management was a failure in both eras [5]. In In the 20th century, Plague caused widespread havoc in India
Indus valley civilization, people used cotton clothing and the and Vietnam with more than twenty-five thousand deaths.
city of Mohenjo-Daro had houses with garbage chutes and This forced Indian authorities to take extensive measures to
Harappa city had toilets [5]. As the human population started manage solid waste [5]. The world population kept rising with
increasing steeply, around 8000-9000 BC, waste dumps were the coming years and societies started wasting food more than
established away from settlements to keep away wild animals, ever especially in developed worlds [5]. Waste generation
insects, and odours [5]. The Minoans used to cover waste with capabilities can also be linked to financial capacities per
layers of soil and by 2100 BC, cities on the Crete Island had capita for every country. Higher the income per capita, higher
trunk sewers. The transition from nomadic communities consumption and hence, higher waste generation.
towards settlement started initially around Neolithic

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DOI: 10.7753/IJSEA1108.1002

In all this chronological discussion about solid waste foul odours due to decomposition [6]. The innovations like
management, where did composting come in historical Frazer process, Hardy digester, Earp-Thomas digester, Dano
timeline? Composting has been a part of human life since the process, etc. are just a few to name [6]. The list of composting
time of Neolithic period when human beings started settling methods practiced in historical times in India, USA, London,
instead of living a nomadic life. In the process, their habits or everywhere else in the globe is unending and even with
shifted from hunting and gathering towards farming and modifications, one method doesn’t seem to be fulfilling needs
breeding. [6] Waste pits came into common existence. The for everyone depending on the type of waste generated and
first waste pit was made using stones outside the houses in geographical locations even though municipalities have been
Sumerian cities about six thousand years ago [6]. These pits establishing demonstration facilities, waste management
were used to store organic urban waste to be eventually used practices, and policies.
in agricultural fields [6]. In countries like India, China, South
America and Japan, the early civilizations used to utilize
residues from agriculture, animals, and humans as fertilizers
due to intensive agriculture practices [6]. Traces of advanced
systems being developed in Imperial Rome for urban waste
management could be found. Periodic Urban waste collection,
its disposal outside the town and application to agricultural
soils eventually were done to preserve hygiene of the city. [6]
One of the most accurate descriptions for composting could
be found in the manuscripts of the thirteenth century which
reported techniques of recovering fertility in depleted and arid
soils, used by the Templars [6]. These descriptions included
preparation of various materials for obtaining different types
of compost for variety of crops, careful determination of ratios
between wood and animal manure and moisture, reduction of
moisture loss via evaporation by covering windrows with soil
or branches, etc. [6] At the time when terms like soil
chemistry and microbiology were unknown, the accuracy of Figure 2. Innovations for composting methods [6]
these descriptive documents is rather fascinating. This depicts
that the Templars’ understanding of various aspects of soil 3. STATISTICS ABOUT HOUSEHOLD
biology, geology, basic elements of agronomy & soil fertility,
and the art of composting is commendable. [6] Then came the
WASTE AND LANDFILL SITUATION
advances in area of composting during the 20th century. It As per World Bank report, an average person generates 0.74
was in 1933 in India when first major advance was made by kilogram of waste which varies between 0.11 to 4.54
Sir Albert Howard in modern compost history. [6] He with his kilograms. Globally, about two billion tonnes of municipal
workers came up with a process by the name of “Indore solid waste is generated, out of which 33% of total waste is
process” which used animal manure initially but later stacked not even managed safely in the environment. As we move
alternate layers of readily biodegradable materials (like towards 2050, the global waste is expected to grow by 69%.
human faces, straw, garbage, leaves, animal manure, stable
[7] In fact, countries in East Asia and pacific region generates
waste and municipal refuse) on open ground [6]. The height
of pile was kept at a meter and a half or compost was placed about 23% of global waste with European and central Asian
in less than one meter deep specially constructed pits [6]. This countries producing 20%, which makes them major
process used to take minimum six months during which contributor towards globally generated waste [7]. Food and
compost piles was subjected to aerobic decomposition for a green waste amount to largest proportion of globally
short while and anaerobic decomposition for the remaining generated waste and makes about 44% of total value at
time [6]. This Indore process was so widely used in India by international level [7]. 40% of total global waste gets disposed
many that the Indian Council of Agricultural Research even
in landfills, only 19% of total global waste undergoes
changed the name of this process to ‘Bangalore process’ after
some improvements [6]. A significant improvement in this recovery through composting (5.5%) and recycling (13.5%)
process was maintaining aerobic conditions by frequent and 33% of total waste is still dumped openly. This practice of
turning [6]. The results of study conducted by Scott and others open dumping is prevalent more in lower-income nations
before World War II relating to agricultural sanitation in which do not have proper landfills. These statistical data and
northern China revealed problems dealing with composting figures are more than enough to highlight the potential of
human wastes in rural areas [6]. Many researchers were
managing organic waste through composting. [7]
studying the composting process and the effects of various
elements like the type of waste used, time taken for
decomposition, type of decomposition, etc. on the quality of
compost in the twentieth century [6]. The mechanization
efforts were happening in Europe while countries in China,
India and Malaysia were refining the process [6]. The
mechanization of composting led to many innovations, and
these were mainly focusing on aesthetic improvement of
composting process, time reduction for stabilization of
compost and making it more economical. The designing for
enclosed and mechanized processes was being applied in
urban areas primarily. [6] For example, in Italy, the Beccari
process composted material in an enclosed structure to avoid

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Figure 6. Data on Global waste disposal and treatment at

regional level [7]
Figure 3. Statistics on global waste generated, collected, and
dumped [7]
4. LITERATURE REVIEW
There are many composting techniques already used by
people all around the globe from converting their organic
waste matter into useable compost. The process may be
aerobic, anaerobic or vermicomposting. But the technique for
composting involves the modifications performed from
collection of organic waste in certain manner to handling the
various stages (mesophilic, thermophilic, cooling, curing) till
finished compost is formed. There are conventional
composting techniques along with the novel ones.
Conventional ones include Windrow composting, in-vessel
composting, aerated static pile composting to name a few.
Figure 4. Statistics for waste generated, collected, and Windrow composting involves decomposition of piles of
dumped in India [2] waste with aeration and simultaneous turning [8]. These are
economical due to no heavy mechanical tool requirement for
aeration. Depending on the type of waste and equipment used
for flipping, the height of windrow varies. If the tool is small
like a ladle, keeping height smaller makes logical sense while
with a big tool like raking stick, the pile height can be
elevated. In in-vessel composting, as the name suggests, the
organic waste is kept in a closed container or vessel in
controlled conditions. This composting system involves
agitated bags and rotating drums to enhance decomposition
process and boost the rapid composting through mechanical
agitation and instinctive rotation [8]. In vermicomposting, the
biodegradable waste is decomposed with the help of
earthworms of different species like Eisenia foetida, Eudrilus
Figure 5. Statistical data for Global waste composition at eugeniae, and Perionyx excavatus [8].
regional level [7]

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There are various challenges during composting process. First

barrier comes in the form of confused minds of beginners who
have just started composting. For composting household
waste, public motivation is seemed to be low for using barrels
and separating the waste at source [9]. The public also seemed
to be confused over what to separate along with cultural
stigma attached with touching waste [9]. The size of the plots
available for composting pits also restricts the composting
activities. The best way to ensure efficiency in composting
activities lies in separating the household waste at the source
of generation, i.e., segregating the organic waste at home
itself instead of doing it later at a landfill where, by the time
the segregation starts, majority of the waste has gone into
uncontrolled decomposition state which can do more harm to
Figure 7. Composting Process the segregator. This calls for cooperation between households,
waste collector and the composting organization if the
The aerated static pile composting involves decomposition of
composting is being done at a large facility [9]. The waste
organic waste for over a month without any physical activity
collection fee charged from residents also make them
in the pile. For aeration, perforated pipes are used, and the
concerned about the usage of the money and the income
waste piles can be kept in covered, open, windrow, or semi-
generated from the sale of the compost [9]. It has been
covered form. This process is critically dependent on rate of
observed that raising motivation through environmental cause
aeration which produces temperature difference in the pile
or economic incentive is also very difficult to achieve when it
vertically [8]. In aerobic composting, the decomposition
comes to composting household waste [9]. Since the
happens in presence of air at specific temperature and pH
composters do not reap higher profits from composting plants
range as a result of which the micro-organisms convert the
as compared to other businesses, dumping of waste has
organic waste into a bio-fertilizer loaded with nutrients and
become highly unregulated in countries with low-income due
optimization of the aeration rate can help with the odour
to low motivation from municipalities as well [9]. Due to lack
problem [8]. Households usually don’t prefer anaerobic
of necessary capital (like buying or renting land) and
composting due to methane production which leads to a foul
unawareness about the technology, process or potential
odour and also contributes towards greenhouse gas emissions.
markets, the urban poor have also shown least interest in the
On the other hand, vermicomposting and aerobic composting
composting activities [9]. Biodegradable waste, that
seems to be welcomed by households considering the least
decomposes slowly or needs shredding using machinery, often
amount of technology and money involved. But they too have
requires money, time and equipment and this also pose as a
their challenges.
challenge for composting at regional levels [9]. High short-
term costs associated with switching from industrial fertilizers
There is also a technique known as co-composting in which
to bio-fertilizers produced through composting also acts as a
the augmentation of composting is done with the help of a
barrier for farmers [9]. Another major challenge occurs when
mixture of two different waste [8]. It provides a best solution
the composting plants target the employment creation for the
for food waste processing as food waste and waste substrates
poor but the improvement in labour conditions is not
(like wooden chips, rice bran, rice husks, chopped hay,
guaranteed [9]. For example, workers may not get equal
sawdust, wheat straw, and other similar organic waste) can be
respect in society even if they work at composting plant or
combined together to maintain favorable ratio of carbon &
facility due to the stigma attached with touching waste.
nitrogen, moisture, void spaces, and nitrogen content [8].
Increased waste means need for more land for composting as
Even the lower pH of food waste can be managed by addition
composting cannot happen in a day, but the waste generation
of sodium acetate in waste mixture [8]. Co-composting
occurs without any stop. Shortage of land space for
activities can use feedstocks, like poultry litter, pig manure,
community level composting also is an issue in the process. It
etc. as well [8].
is also a challenge to decide the effect certain type of compost
Another novel composting technique is with the help of can have on the soil or plants it is utilized for and this also
arthropods. Arthropods are invertebrate species of animals forms a dilemma and hesitation in people’s mind for using
with an exoskeleton, paired jointed appendages, and a compost. Community level composting calls for proper
segmented body. In this composting method, an essential management of compost bins to ensure hygienic conditions.
arthropod species is enticed at various decomposition stages And since composting is not the only thing on people’s mind,
and all these arthropods complete their life cycle during the various composting initiatives start but are not supervised or
process of composting [8]. These species are helpful for managed properly and this leads to more environmental
boosting the development of consentient species, and hazard near the compost pile. Imagine if the temperature of
arthropods like black soldier fly larvae and millipedes have compost pile doesn’t reach to certain degrees and instead of
been used for composting of a variety of biodegradable waste killing the pathogens naturally, it starts to become a breeding
[8]. ground for infections.

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So, the question arises what can be done to mitigate these

challenges? For beginning, waste segregation is required at
household levels and easy composting activities should be
initiated at community levels and decentralization of waste
management is required. When the waste generation is not
centralized, the waste treatment can also not be successful
through centralization. A lot of interventions are necessary for
increasing composting of waste. Some of them include
policies for waste segregation, bulk waste producers and
responsibility distribution based on amount of waste
generated individually. There is also a need to charge waste
collection fee based on family incomes as it is observed that
the increase in income leads to rise in consumption and
consequentially increase in waste generation. Incentivizing
the poor or low-income groups for composting is also a great
step towards increasing motivation. Educational awareness
campaigns for behavioral changes through schools is also a
good approach.

5. SPECIAL INTERVIEW
A telephonic interview was conducted by author of this paper
in the year 2021 with the purpose of sharing citizen’s
experience of composting process to link the scientific
community and the citizens to start a dialogue needed to
emphasize community-level composting. Refer Figure 8 &
Figure 9 for the details of the interview.
Figure 9. Telephonic Interview Part-B

6. SUGGESTED COMPOSTING
METHOD AT COMMUNITY LEVEL
Figure 10 shows a sample area of a residential complex with a
government building and district park on its side, all situated
in the west district of Delhi, capital of India. This is just taken
as a sample area to put forward an idea for composting at
community level and using the compost for the benefit of the
surroundings. Figure 11 depicts the steps that can be taken to
implement this idea. The idea is to utilize the roofs of the
apartments to install compost bins and every house in the
residential complex contribute their biodegradable kitchen
waste generated every day to these roof bins. Then the process
of composting can take place with residents taking turns for
flipping the waste every once a while till the compost bin is
full and cannot accommodate any more waste. Then the
organic mixture is left to decompose till the final compost is
ready with frequent turning of waste in bin for proper
aeration. Then final compost can then be used with the help of
local gardeners to provide soil nutrients to areas with existing
trees and plants. It can also be used for soil amendment in the
adjoining district park and as biofertilizer for growing new
plants to increase the green patch in the region. This, of
course, cannot happen without proper education, community
proactiveness, coordination between gardeners and residents
and needs to be supervised by any person who has been doing
composting or a person who is a compost expert.

Figure 8. Telephonic Interview Part-A

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Figure 11. Community composting steps

7. DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

Composting has been practiced since ages and being a
biological decomposition process, it has its advantages and
limitations. Considering the data collected by World Bank on
waste generation, composition, disposal, and treatment, it is
clear that organic waste forms a major portion of the waste
and composting organic waste seems to be a good bet for
solving the crisis of increasing piles of waste in landfills. It
becomes clear that every individual can follow composting
methods that require minimum cost, time and technological
investments and still contribute towards waste management
by dealing with waste at the source. Local solutions and
initiatives can help better as compared to a centralized
Figure 10. Community Map for suggested idea approach and composting activities can be modified based on
the region. This also makes people aware of their
consumption habits and helps in bringing behavioral changes.
Incentivizing composting initiatives can also motivate

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communities to cooperate and start composting. Citizen management in India: An operational approach. Habitat
engagement and participation is key in composting and should International, 33(1), 125-130.
be kept in mind while making policies. Composting, even https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2008.05.009
with its list of challenges, has the potential to kill two birds [14] Christian, Z., Silke, D., Almitra, P., & Sharatchandra, H.
with one stone: the problem of waste management and C. (2004). Decentralised composting of urban waste – an
greenhouse emissions from the open dumps or landfills. overview of community and private initiatives in Indian
cities. Waste Management, 24(7), 655-662.
8. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2004.01.003
The author is grateful to the professors and administration at
University of Iceland for providing the opportunity, resources, [15] Cromell, C., & Association, N. G. (2010). Composting
support, and invaluable insights. The author expresses for Dummies. John Wiley & Sons.
gratitude to Mrs. Anita for agreeing to be interviewed. The [16] De Bertoldi, M. (1996). The science of composting (1st
author is also thankful to family, friends and colleagues for ed.). Springer Science & Business Media.
the continuous motivation. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1569-5
9. REFERENCES [17] Diaz, L. F., Savage, G. M., Eggerth, L. L., & Golueke, C.
[1] McCloy, J. (2019). Composting Pros And Cons: Is This G. (1993). Composting and Recycling: Municipal Solid
Effective? Green Coast. Waste (1st ed.). CRC Press.
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CONS/ [18] Drescher, S., & Zurbrügg, C. (2006). Decentralised
[2] Swaminathan, M. (2018). How Can India's Waste Composting: Lessons Learned And Future Potentials For
Problem See a Systemic Change? Economic & Political Meeting The Millennium Development Goals.
Weekly, Vol. 53(16). Collaborative Working Group on Solid Waste
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framework-implementing-solid-waste-management- [19] Guirreri, D., Silvestri, S., Cristoforetti, A., Rama, I.,
india-macro-analysis Giurea, R., Magaril, E., & Rada, E. C. (2020).
[3] Cooperband, L. (2002). The art and science of Composting strategy for developing cities: a case study
composting. Center for Integrated agricultural systems. of Beira, Mozambique. Waste Management and the
Environment X, 1, 69-79.
[4] Golueke, C., & Diaz, L. (1996). Historical review of
composting and its role in municipal waste management. [20] Insam, H., Riddech, N., & Klammer, S. (2002).
In The science of composting (pp. 3-14). Springer. Microbiology of composting. Springer Science &
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[5] Chandrappa, R., & Das, D. B. (2012). Solid waste 08724-4
management: Principles and practice. Springer Science
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(2013). Awareness, attitude and practice of school
[6] Diaz, L., & De Bertoldi, M. (2007). History of students towards household waste management. Journal
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[22] NDTV-Banega Swachh India team. (2019). Fighting
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waste management to 2050. World Bank Publications. crisis-all-about-composting-32044/
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[12] Bruni, C., Akyol, Ç., Cipolletta, G., Eusebi, A. L., [27] Zurbrugg, C. (2002). Decentralised composting in India-
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DOI: 10.7753/IJSEA1108.1003

Characterization of the Drilling Mud Adapted to the

Geological Formations of the Agadem Oil Field, Termit
basin (Southeastern Niger): Case of the Dibella Well

Mahamane Moustapha Sanda Chékaraou Moussa Konaté

Department of Geology Department of Geology
Faculty of Sciences and Techniques Faculty of Sciences and Techniques
Abdou Moumouni University Abdou Moumouni University
Niamey, Niger Niamey, Niger

Abstract: The objective of this study is to characterize the drilling mud adapted to the geological formations of the Agadem oil field
(Niger). During the drilling process, the mud is monitored and adjusted regularly according to the instantaneous logging data. Thus,
the typologies of drilling mud and their physicochemical and rheological properties at the level of each phase of drilling were
determined in the laboratory of the site during the realization of the Dibella well. Two (2) types of mud (Pre-hydrated bentonite (PHB)
and polymer) were used during the drilling of the Dibella well. The PHB mud, used from 0 to 800m depth, is characterized by a
variable density depending on the lithology, a MARSH viscosity of 60 to 75 seconds and a pH between 8 and 9. The polymer mud,
used between 800 and 2680 m, is characterized by an equally variable density, a MARSH viscosity of 55 to 60 seconds, a plastic
viscosity of 10 to 20 mPa.S, a yield point between 2 and 10 Pa, an apparent viscosity of 3 to 5 mPa.S, a Gel strenght (G10’’/G10’) of 1 to
4/2 to 10 Pa and a pH, always between 8 and 9. These parameters, which allowed the Dibella drilling to be carried out in an optimal
way, can be used as a guide for the realization of new wells in the study area.

Keywords: Agadem oil field, Dibella well, Pre-Hydrated Bentonite mud, Polymer mud, Physicochemical and rheological properties.

1. INTRODUCTION rheological properties [5]. Thus, the characteristics of the mud

according to the type of formation crossed during the drilling
The Agadem oil field is an integral part of the Termit basin, of the Dibella well on the Agadem block, were established.
located in the southeastern part of Niger. Important These characteristics can be used as a guide for new drilling
hydrocarbon deposits have been identified in the said basin in the study area.
where the sedimentary thickness would reach more than
4000m. The exploitation of these deposits necessarily 2. GEOLOGICAL CONTEXT
involves drilling. Drilling is a complex activity whose success
The Agadem Oil Block (Figure 1) occupies the hinge part of
depends mainly on the quality of the drilling mud [1,2]. The the Termit Basin, belonging to the large Eastern Niger Basin
choice of the mud is essentially linked to the nature of the (Chad Basin). The Termit is characterized by a graben system
ground to be crossed and the depth to be reached. The controlled by a network of NS, NNW-SSE and NW-SE
objective of this study is to determine the characteristics of the oriented faults [6]. The thickness of the sediments in these
different muds used during the drilling of the Dibella well on trenches can reach more than 4000 m, where significant
the Agadem oil block. Thus, during the execution of the accumulations of hydrocarbons have been demonstrated [7].
The age of the sediments identified in the grabens varies from
drilling, the mud is regularly monitored and adjusted
early Cretaceous to Neogene. The existence of older series
according to the data of the instantaneous logging (parameters (Jurassic-Paleozoic) cannot be excluded [6].
of the drilling machine) [3]. These parameters indicate the
stability or not of the well walls, the water-bearing, porous, Exploration drilling has discovered significant oil and gas
impermeable, clay or sandy zones. When crossing these reserves in the Termit Basin. These reserves are generally
zones, the drilling fluid is adjusted (addition of water, contained in the reservoirs of the Yogou formation in the
bentonite, soda ash or other products) to ensure the safe Agadem block. The lithostratigraphic column below (Table 1)
progress of the drilling [4]. Also, at each stage of modification summarizes the succession of geological formations
of the mud, its characteristics are determined in order to encountered on the Agadem block, their ages, their depths as
elaborate a drilling mud model adapted to the Agadem oil well as their lithological descriptions. This column was
field. The parameters characterizing the mud, determined in established on the basis of the geological data acquired from
the site laboratory, concern the pH, viscosity, density and the wells already drilled and the seismic profiles carried out.

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Figure 1. Location of the Agadem oil block [8]

The sedimentary filling of the Termit basin and its tectonic African and European plates there was first deposition of
evolution are summarized as follows [9]: a thick layer of alternating shale and sandstone "Yogou
Series" in the Campanian and then a thick layer of
➢ An initial rifting phase from the Aptian to the near
massive fluvial sandstones "Madama sandstone" in the
Cenomanian constituted the first filling of the basin with
Maastrichtian and after a complete transient uplift.
fluvio-lacustrine shale.
➢ Paleogene and Neogene tectonic phase :
➢ Another phase called thermal subsidence from the end of
• Tertiary formation consisting of alternating fluvio-
the Cenomanian to the Maastrichtian fills the basin with
lacustrine shales and sand "Sokor Alternations" and then
marine shales associated with striated sandstones and
lacustrine shales "Sokor Shales" during the Paleo-Eocene,
massive fluvial sandstones:
• Lake shales with small proportions of sandstone in the
• Deposition of a thick marine schistose series, slightly
lower part of the "Oligocene Alternation" and "Oligocene
calcareous, called "Donga Clay" then newly defined
Clay",
"Fachi Clay" in relation with the general transgression
• The aeolian sandstones are formed by fluvio-lacustrine
towards the end of the Cretaceous (Cenomanian to
and sandy shale series constituting the "recent formation"
Santonian),
dated from the Pliocene half.
• During the decrease of the marine activity and as a result
of the tectonic phase induced by the collision of the

Table 1. Prognosis of the stratigraphy of the Dibella Well [9].

Age Geological division Approximate depth Lithological description

Unconsolidated sand with

occasional horizons of
Quaternary
shallow lower section clay,
fine to coarse grained sand
and sandstone and gravel.
Recent formation 600
Mainly quartz and some
feldspar occasionally
variegated by clay.
Miocene

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Oligocene Sokor claystone 1256 Claystone

Medium velocity claysttone 1322 Claystone

Paleo-Eocene Sokor sandy alternance 1990 Intercalation of sandstone

and claystone

Cretaceous Madama 2409 Solid sandstone

Yogou 2680 Claystone with sandstone

intercalation

Total depth 2680

3. DIBEILLA WELL MUD PROGRAM

The mud program for the Dibella well is closely related to the
different formations to be drilled, the environmental and
economic constraints and the possibilities of supplying the
products of its preparation on site [8]. To develop this
program (Table 2), data from previously drilled wells in the
Agadem oil field and seismic data were used. Drilling mud is
used in drilling to perform various roles.

3.1 Definition of drilling mud

A drilling fluid or drilling mud is a system composed of
different combinations of liquids (water, oil), gases (air or
natural gas) containing in suspension a solid phase (clay,
cuttings, cements). It’s a non-Newtonian fluid, viscous or Figure 2: Drilling mud circuit [2]
viscoelastic, most often thixotropic.
3.3 Pre-Hydrated-Bentonite (PHB) mud
3.2 Roles of the drilling mud
The PHB mud is planned for phases 1 and 2 of drilling for
Mud plays a crucial role in drilling in general and particularly depths ranging from 0 to 800m. During these phases, the
in oil drilling [1,10]. The drilling mud is in continuous expected formations to be crossed are mainly sand and clay.
circulation throughout the drilling process, both in the well This mud will consolidate the well's surroundings and ensure
and at the surface (Figure 2). It is injected from the inside of the continuity of the drilling in complete safety.
the drill pipe to the tool. Then, it goes up through the annular
space loaded with cuttings formed at the face. At the exit of 3.4 Polymer mud
the shaft, it undergoes various treatments (sieving, dilution, Polymer mud is used during the 3rd drilling phase. This phase
addition of product, etc.) in order to eliminate the transported is crucial because it involves challenges that need to be
cuttings and to readjust its physicochemical and rheological addressed, such as the risk of gas ingress, high pressures on
characteristics in order to ensure its proper functions [11]. In a the hole walls and certain technical failures. At this stage, a
non-exhaustive way, the following roles are recognized for polymer mud system will be prepared, whose characteristics
drilling mud [1,10]: must be regularly checked.
➢ Cleaning of the well,
➢ Keeping the cuttings in suspension, Table 2. Dibeilla well drilling mud program [8]
➢ Sedimentation of cuttings on the surface,
➢ Cooling and lubrication of the tool and the shank train, Hole Depth Mud Mud
➢ Prevention of cavitation and tightening of the well diameter system density
walls, 17 1/2” 0-800m PHB 1.03-1.05
➢ Consolidation and reduction of the permeability of the mud g/cc
well walls, 12 1/4” 800–2680m Polymer 1.05-1.15
➢ Prevention of water, gas and oil spills, mud g/cc
➢ Increased speed of travel,
➢ Tool drive,
➢ Reduction of the apparent weight of the drilling
equipment,
➢ Provide information on the survey.

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4. MATERIALS AND METHODS Pre-hydrated bentonite mud is prepared using water, bentonite
and sodium carbonate (Soda Ash). Other minor products, such
4.1 Drilling mud preparation as caustic soda and LCM (Lost Circulation Materials) are
Several types of mud are needed to carry out drilling on the combined in the mixture.
Agadem block. These drilling are prepared in tanks erected on Bentonite is a viscosifier and Ash soda is used to hydrate the
the site (Figure 3). clays and remove Cu2+ ions. The mixing of these products
must take at least 16 hours before the drilling operation
begins. The dosages of these products are recorded in Table 3
below.

Table 3. The formulation of PHB (Pre-Hydrated Bentonite)

drilling fluid

Chemical Function Dosage (Kg/m3)

Bentonite Viscosifier 60-90

Soda Ash Clay hydration and 2.0-3.0

eliminate Ca2+

4.1.2 Polymer mud preparation products

Figure 3. Mud tank used on the Dibella well site The polymer mud is composed of bentonite and products
controlling the viscosity, density, pH and gel of the drlling
4.1.1 Preparation of the PHB (Pre-Hydrated mud (PAC-L, NPAN, KPAM, XCD, PAC-R and NFC). The
Bentonite) mud dosages of these products and their functions within the mud
are shown in Table 4 below.

Table 4. Formulation of polymer drilling fluid system

Chemical Function Dosage Remarks

(kg/m3)

Bentonite Viscosifier 25-40

PAC-L FL control agent 3-8 Can be replaced by NFC-1 or used together,

total dosage is 3-8 kg/m3

NPAN Thinner/FL controller 3-6 Also can inhibit formation clay dispersing

KPAM Encapulater/Viscosifier 2-6 High molecule weight polymer

XCD Gelling agent 1-3 For choice, increase viscosity

PAC-R Viscosifier/FL 1-3 For choice, increase viscosity

NFC FL control agent 3-8 Replaced PAC-LV

4.2 Monitoring and determination of the possible to know the quantity of Soda Ash to be added
to eliminate them.
physicochemical parameters of the mud
➢ During the drilling process, care must be taken to ensure
4.2.1 Monitoring of the mud physicochemical that the characteristics of the mud allow the
parameters consolidation of the well walls (avoid friction due to
GEL, yield point and plastic viscosity) and control the
The monitoring of the physicochemical parameters is done
infiltration of the drilling fluid (when porosity and
through tests carried out at the site laboratory. On site, it is
permeability are high). These two controls help to
essential to control the characteristics of the drilling mud at
maintain the stability of the well.
regular intervals for any mud system used.
➢ Then, the mud must be cleaned of all the drilled solids
➢ The first check to be made is the determination of the
that could affect the physicochemical parameters
chemical nature of the water (concentration of
(viscosity, density and pH), using specific instruments
magnesium or calcium ions), which will make it

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in the mud circuit (decanter, desander, desilter, ➢ Move the cursor until the flail is horizontal. This
degasser, etc.). horizontality must be checked with the spirit level
located above the knives,
4.2.2 Hydrogen Potential (pH) measurement ➢ Read the density directly on the arm of the flail, at the
The Hydrogen Potential of the drilling mud is measured on right of the cursor position.
site with a pH-meter.

4.2.3 Fluid Viscosity (FV) or MARSH viscosity

Measurement
MARSH viscosity is measured by measuring the time in
seconds that a certain amount of mud takes to flow through
the nozzle of a standard funnel. The mud flows into a
graduated cup. The procedure consists of:
➢ Take the MARSH funnel and close the nozzle with
finger,
➢ Take mud from the gutter and pour it over the funnel
screen until the mud level reaches the surface of the
screen (corresponding to a volume of 1500 cm3),
➢ Hold the funnel by the side handle, start a stopwatch and
let the mud flow into the measuring cup,
➢ Stop the timer when the mud level reaches 946 cm3 (1/4
gallon in the bucket), Figure 5: Density measurement of the mudwith a densimeter
➢ The number of seconds read on the stopwatch represents
the MARSH viscosity of the mud. 4.2.5 Rheological properties tests (PV, YP, AV
and Gel Strenght)
To test the rheological properties of the mud, a sample of
smud is taken and tested in situ at the site laboratory. It is
important to avoid the drop in temperature of the mud, which
can lead to erroneous results. The device used is the "six-
speed viscometer", which as its name indicates, has six speeds
expressed in revolutions per minute (600-300 / 200-100/ 6-3).
The test procedure is as follows:
➢ Pour the mud into the cylinder of the machine.
➢ Make the level of the mud in the cylinder coincide with
that of the six-speed rotor by raising the plate on which
the mud is placed until it reaches the level marker ring
(of the six-speed).
➢ Hold the cylinder containing the mud with the plate
fixing screw.
➢ Run the motor of the machine at high speeds (600-300
rpm) and record the readings on the "six-speed" chart or
counter.
Figure 4. Measurement of mud viscosity using a MARSH ➢ Run the motor at intermediate speeds (200-100 rpm),
Funnel also recording the readings.
➢ Run the motor at low speeds (6-3 rpm), always
4.2.4 Measurement of the density or Volumic
reporting the readings.
Mass (MV) of the mud The velocity ranges and reported values will be used to
The measured density corresponds to the volumic mass. The calculate Plastic Viscosity (PV), Yield Point (YP), Apparent
measurement procedure consists of the following steps: Viscosity (AV) and Gel Strenght (G10’’/G10’) according to the
➢ Fill the cup with measuring mud, following Bingham calculation model:
➢ Put on the cover and drain off the excess mud that PV= (value of 600 rpm) - (value of 300 rpm) in milli-pascal
comes out through the central hole in the cover provided second (mPa.s).
for this purpose, YP = 2(value of 300 rpm) - (value of 600 rpm)/2 in Pascal
➢ Clean with water and dry, taking care to keep the hole in (Pa).
the cover permanently blocked, AV= (values of 600 rpm)/2 in mPa.s.
➢ Place the flail knives in the knife holder on the base, The Gel Strenght is determined in 10 seconds (G10") and 10
minutes (G10') as follows:

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For 10 seconds, the procedure is as follows: [12]. In addition, a very dense mud is required to cross
➢ Run the motor at 600 rpm for 10 seconds and stop. water tables.
➢ Observe a 10-second pause during which the ➢ Fluid viscosity (FV) can be defined as all the
gearshift lever is returned to the low gear level. phenomena of resistance to the movement of a fluid for
➢ Select the speed of 3 rpm and report the maximum a flow with or without turbulence. Viscosity reduces the
value read. freedom of flow of a fluid and dissipates its energy.
➢ Divide the value obtained by two to get the Gel Viscosity is one of the most important parameters of the
strenght in 10 seconds (G10’’). mud because it’s through viscosity that the mud
For 10 minutes: performs the following functions [13]:
➢ The procedure is the same as before, except that the • Sedimentation of fine cuttings on the surface,
pause lasts 10 minutes instead of 10 seconds. • Keeping the cuttings in suspension,
➢ The value read will also be divided by two to get the • Cleaning the well,
Gel strenght in 10 minutes (G10’). • Increasing the speed of travel,
• Cooling and lubrication of the drilling tool and drill
string.
Very low viscosities are a favourable factor for the
penetration of the drilling tool, but they do not favour
the maintenance of cuttings in suspension and their
evacuation on the surface [13]. In addition, when
formations are poorly consolidated, high viscosity is
necessary to better evacuate them. Hence the high
viscosities (60 to 75 seconds) are measured for the
recent formation which is made up of unconsolidated
sand.
➢ The Hydrogen Potential (pH), characterizes the acidity
or basicity of the mud. A mud can be acidic or basic
depending on the nature of the formations or their
Figure 6. Six-speed viscometer [8] content. Thus, as the geological formations of the
Agadem oil field are more or less basic, the pH of the
prepared mud must always be greater than or equal to 7
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION to avoid any acid-base reaction.
Two (2) types of mud were used in this study: the Pre-Hydrate
Bentonite (PHB) and the polymer drilling fluid.
5.2 Characterization of the Polymer
drilling fluid
5.1 Characterization of the PHB drilling The polymer drilling fluid is used between 800 and 2680m
fluid depth, in alternating sandstone and claystone, indurated. The
The PHB drilling fluid is used between 0 and 800m depth, in results of the analyses carried out on this mud are recorded in
unconsolidated sand and clay formations. The results of the Table 6.
analyses carried out on this mud are recorded in Table 6.
Table 6. Polymer drilling fluid properties
Table 5. PHB drilling fluid properties MV FV PV YP AV G10’’/G10’ pH
MV FV PV YP AV G10’’/G10’ pH g/cm3 sec mPa.S Pa mPa.S Pa
g/cm3 sec mPa.S Pa mPa.S Pa As 55- 10-20 2- 3-5 1-4/2-10 8-9
As 60- - - - - 8-9 designed 60 10
designed 75

The polymer mud is characterized by physicochemical

Pre-Hydrated bentonite (PHB) mud is characterized by three properties (density (MV), viscosity (FV) and Hydrogen
(3) physicochemical properties: density (MV), viscosity (FV) Potential (pH)) and rheological properties (Plastic Viscosity
and Hydrogen Potential (pH). (PV), Yield Point (YP), Apparent Viscosity and Gel Strenght
➢ The density is not specified (as designed) because it’s (G10’’/G10’)).
variable at any time of drilling. It’s very sensitive to ➢ The density (density) is not as specified (as designed)
changes in lithology or to the presence of fluids or for polymer mud because it is variable at any time of
pressures in the formations. This mud (PHB) has been drilling for its great sensitivity to changes in lithology,
used for recent, very poorly consolidated formations; presence of fluids or pressures of formations [14]. At
this requires a density high enough to traverse safely great depths, it also allows to control the pressure of the

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formations and gases, the invasion or the overflow of 6. CONCLUSION

fluids in the well. This gives the well a great stability.
➢ The Fluid Viscosity (FV) is relatively low (55 to 60 The characterization of the muds used during the drilling of
seconds) compared to the PHB mud. This is due to the the Dibella well on the Agadem oil field, was carried out
presence of consolidated formations in this portion of through tests carried out in the site laboratory as the drilling
the borehole. progressed. These tests made it possible to determine the
➢ The Plastic Viscosity (PV) of the mud is a state of types of muds adapted to the Agadem oil field as well as their
viscoplasticity corresponding to a perfect solid behavior physicochemical and rheological properties at each stage of
at low stresses and a viscous fluid behavior above a the drilling execution. Thus, two (2) types of mud (Pre-
threshold stress [15]. This property is very useful for the hydrated bentonite and polymer) were used during the drilling
transport and disposal of cuttings [16]. The PV has of the Dibella well. The PHB mud, used from 0 to 800m
medium to high values (10 to 20 mPa.S) in the polymer depth, is characterized by a variable density depending on the
mud. These values are relative to the greater or lesser lithology, a MARSH viscosity of 60 to 75 seconds and a pH
depths of the Dibella well where this mud was used, between 8 and 9. The polymer mud, used between 800 and
since the greater the depth, the higher the value of 2680 m, is characterized by an equally variable density, a
plastic viscosity should be. MARSH viscosity of 55 to 60 seconds, a plastic viscosity of
➢ The Yield Point (YP) or fluid pressure allows the mud 10 to 20 mPa.S, a fluid pressure between 2 and 10 Pa, an
to ensure the stability of the walls of the hole and to apparent viscosity of 3 to 5 mPa.S, a Gel strenght G10’’/G10’ of
fight against the eruption of gas or hydrocarbons in the 1 to 4/2 at 10 Pa and a pH, always between 8 and 9. These
well [12,17]. This is the drilling mud pressure. This parameters, which allowed the Dibella drilling to be carried
pressure must be high enough to fight against the out safely, can be used as a model for other wells in the study
pressures outside the well. At a depth of more than 2000 area.
m, the pressure of the geological formations around the
7. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
well is very high, as is the pressure of the fluids in the
vicinity of the hole. The Yield Point of the polymer mud The authors sincerely thank the General Direction of
reaches 10 Pa at these depths, which is sufficient to hydrocarbons (DGH) of the Ministry of Petroleum of Niger
stabilize the Dibella well. for its contribution in acquiring the data used in this study.
➢ The Apparent Viscosity (AV) or dynamic viscosity of
the mud is a physical quantity that characterizes the
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