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 BRIEF CONTENTS
To the Instructor xx
To the Student: Learning from Discovering Psychology xlviii

SECTION 1 INTRODUCING PSYCHOLOGY

CHAPTER 1 Introduction and Research Methods 1

SECTION 2 PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL PROCESSES

CHAPTER 2 Neuroscience and Behavior 40
CHAPTER 3 Sensation and Perception 84
CHAPTER 4 Consciousness and Its Variations 132

SECTION 3 BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES

CHAPTER 5 Learning 180
CHAPTER 6 Memory 226
CHAPTER 7 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence 270
CHAPTER 8 Motivation and Emotion 312

SECTION 4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SELF

CHAPTER 9 Lifespan Development 356
CHAPTER 10 Personality 412

SECTION 5 THE PERSON IN SOCIAL CONTEXT

CHAPTER 11 Social Psychology 452

SECTION 6 PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS, DISORDERS, AND TREATMENT

CHAPTER 12 Stress, Health, and Coping 496
CHAPTER 13 Psychological Disorders 532
CHAPTER 14 Therapies 584

APPENDIX A Statistics: Understanding Data A-1

APPENDIX B Industrial/Organizational Psychology B-1
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Name Index NI-1
Subject Index SI-1

vii
 CONTENTS
xx To the Instructor
xlviii To the Student: Learning from Discovering Psychology

1
Introduction and Research Methods
lii PROLOGUE:The First Exam
2 Introduction: What Is Psychology?
Psychology’s Origins: The Influence of Philosophy and Physiology 3 ■ Wilhelm
Wundt: The Founder of Psychology 4 ■ Edward B. Titchener: Structuralism 4
■ William James: Functionalism 5 ■ Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis 7 ■ John

B. Watson: Behaviorism 8 ■ Carl Rogers: Humanistic Psychology 9

9 Contemporary Psychology
David Engelhardt/age fotostock Major Perspectives in Psychology 10 ■ Specialty Areas in Psychology 14

15 The Scientific Method

12 cuLture and human Behavior The Steps in the Scientific Method: Systematically Seeking Answers 16
What Is Cross-Cultural Psychology? ■ Building Theories: Integrating the Findings from Many Studies 19
20 science versus Pseudoscience
What Is a Pseudoscience? 21 Descriptive Research
31 criticaL thinKing Naturalistic Observation: The Science of People- and Animal-Watching 22 ■ Case
How to Think Like a Scientist Studies: Details, Details, Details 22 ■ Surveys: (A) Always (B) Sometimes
32 focus on neuroscience
(C) Never (D) Huh? 23 ■ Correlational Studies: Looking at Relationships and
Psychological Research Using Brain Making Predictions: Can Eating Curly Fries Make You Smarter? 24
Imaging
26 Experimental Research
Experimental Design: Studying the Effects of Testing 26 ■ Experimental
Controls 28 ■ Limitations of Experiments and Variations in Experimental Design 29

34 Ethics in Psychological Research

35 Closing Thoughts
35 Psych for your Life Successful Study Techniques
37 chaPter review: Key PeoPLe and Key terms
38 concePt maP

2
Neuroscience and Behavior
40 Asha’s Story
PROLOGUE:

Alfred Pasieka/Science Source 42 Introduction: Neuroscience and Behavior

viii
 Content s ix

54 in focus
43 The Neuron: The Basic Unit of Communication
Traumatic Brain Injury: From Characteristics of the Neuron 43 ■ Glial Cells 44 ■ Communication Within
Concussions to Chronic Traumatic the Neuron: The Action Potential 45 ■ Communication Between Neurons:
Encephalopathy Bridging the Gap 47 ■ Neurotransmitters and Their Effects 49 ■ How Drugs
61 science versus Pseudoscience Affect Synaptic Transmission 51
Phrenology: The Bumpy Road to
Scientific Progress 53 The Nervous System and the Endocrine System:
62 focus on neuroscience Communication Throughout the Body
Mapping the Pathways of the Brain
The Central Nervous System 53 ■ The Peripheral Nervous System 55
63 focus on neuroscience ■ The Endocrine System 58
Juggling and Brain Plasticity
72 criticaL thinKing 60 A Guided Tour of the Brain
“His” and “Her” Brains?
The Dynamic Brain: Plasticity and Neurogenesis 62 ■ The Brainstem:
77 science versus Pseudoscience Hindbrain and Midbrain Structures 65 ■ The Forebrain 66
Brain Myths
71 Specialization in the Cerebral Hemispheres
Language and the Left Hemisphere: The Early Work of Broca and Wernicke 73
■ Cutting the Corpus Callosum: The Split Brain 74

78 Closing Thoughts
79 Psych for your Life Maximizing Your Brain’s Potential
81 chaPter review: Key PeoPLe and Key terms
82 concePt maP

3
Sensation and Perception
84 PROLOGUE:Learning to See
Shahril KHMD/Shutterstock
86 Introduction: What Are Sensation and Perception?
Basic Principles of Sensation 87

89 science versus Pseudoscience 90 Vision: From Light to Sight

Subliminal Perception What We See: The Nature of Light 90 ■ How We See: The Human Visual
95 focus on neuroscience System 91 ■ Processing Visual Information 93 ■ Color Vision 94
Vision, Experience, and the Brain
103 in focus 98 Hearing: From Vibration to Sound
Do Pheromones Influence Human What We Hear: The Nature of Sound 98 ■ How We Hear: The Path of
Behavior? Sound 99
112 criticaL thinKing
ESP: Can Perception Occur Without 102 The Chemical and Body Senses: Smell,
Sensation?
Taste, Touch, and Position
115 cuLture and human Behavior
Ways of Seeing: Culture and Top-Down
How We Smell (Don’t Answer That!) 103 ■ Taste 105 ■ The Skin and Body
Processes Senses 106
122 in focus
The Dress That Broke the Internet
110 Perception
The Perception of Shape: What Is It? 112 ■ Depth Perception: How Far Away
126 cuLture and human Behavior
Culture and the Müller-Lyer Illusion: Is It? 117 ■ The Perception of Motion: Where Is It Going? 120 ■ Perceptual
The Carpentered-World Hypothesis Constancies 121
x Contents

123 Perceptual Illusions

The Müller-Lyer Illusion 123 ■ The Moon Illusion 124

125 The Effects of Experience on Perceptual Interpretations

127 Closing Thoughts
127 Psych for your Life Strategies to Control Pain
129 chaPter review: Key PeoPLe and Key terms
130 concePt maP

4
Consciousness and Its Variations
132 PROLOGUE:A Knife in the Dark
134 Introduction: Consciousness: Experiencing the “Private I”
Attention: The Mind’s Spotlight 135 ■ The Perils of Multitasking 137

137 Biological and Environmental “Clocks” That Regulate

Consciousness
The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: The Body’s Clock 138

Alexandr79/Shutterstock 139 Sleep

The Dawn of Modern Sleep Research 140 ■ The Onset of Sleep and
Hypnagogic Hallucinations 140 ■ The First 90 Minutes of Sleep and
141 in focus Beyond 141 ■ Why Do We Sleep? 144
What You Really Want to Know About
Sleep 147 Dreams and Mental Activity During Sleep
146 focus on neuroscience Dream Themes and Imagery 148 ■ The Significance of Dreams 149
The Sleep-Deprived Emotional Brain
148 focus on neuroscience 152 Sleep Disorders
The Dreaming Brain Insomnia 153 ■ Obstructive Sleep Apnea: Blocked Breathing During
152 in focus Sleep 153 ■ Narcolepsy: Blurring the Boundaries Between Sleep and
What You Really Want to Know About Wakefulness 153 ■ The Parasomnias: Undesired Arousal or Actions During
Dreams Sleep 154
158 criticaL thinKing
Is Hypnosis a Special State of 156 Hypnosis
Consciousness?
Effects of Hypnosis 156 ■ Explaining Hypnosis: Consciousness Divided? 157
163 focus on neuroscience
Meditation and the Brain 160 Meditation
166 focus on neuroscience Scientific Studies of the Effects of Meditation 161
The Addicted Brain: Diminishing
Rewards
164 Psychoactive Drugs
173 focus on neuroscience
Common Effects of Psychoactive Drugs 164 ■ The Depressants: Alcohol,
How Methamphetamines Erode the
Barbiturates, Inhalants, and Tranquilizers 165 ■ The Opioids: From Poppies
Brain
to Demerol 169 ■ The Stimulants: Caffeine, Nicotine, Amphetamines, and
Cocaine 170 ■ Psychedelic Drugs: Mescaline, LSD, and Marijuana 173
■ Designer “Club” Drugs: Ecstasy and the Dissociative Anesthetic Drugs 174

175 Closing Thoughts

 Content s xi

176 Psych for your Life Overcoming Insomnia

177 chaPter review: Key PeoPLe and Key terms
178 concePt maP

5
Learning
180 PROLOGUE:The Killer Attic
182 Introduction: What Is Learning?
183 Classical Conditioning: Associating Stimuli
Principles of Classical Conditioning 183 ■ Factors That Affect
Conditioning 184 ■ From Pavlov to Watson: The Founding of Behaviorism 187
■ Conditioned Emotional Reactions 188 ■ Other Classically Conditioned

Responses 191

Juha Saastamoinen/Shutterstock 192 Contemporary Views of Classical Conditioning

Cognitive Aspects of Classical Conditioning: Reliable Signals 192
■ Evolutionary Aspects of Classical Conditioning: Biological Predispositions
190 in focus to Learn 193
Watson, Classical Conditioning,
and Advertising
196 Operant Conditioning: Associating Behaviors
195 in focus
Evolution, Biological Preparedness, and
and Consequences
Conditioned Fears: What Gives You the Thorndike and the Law of Effect 197 ■ B.F. Skinner and the Search for
Creeps? “Order in Behavior” 197 ■ Reinforcement: Increasing Future Behavior 198
■ Punishment: Using Aversive Consequences to Decrease Behavior 200
202 in focus
Changing the Behavior of Others: ■ Discriminative Stimuli: Setting the Occasion for Responding 203 ■ Shaping

Alternatives to Punishment and Maintaining Behavior 205 ■ Applications of Operant Conditioning 209
204 criticaL thinKing
Is Human Freedom Just an Illusion? 209 Contemporary Views of Operant Conditioning
217 focus on neuroscience Cognitive Aspects of Operant Conditioning: Rats! I Thought You Had the
Mirror Neurons: Imitation in the Brain Map! 209 ■ Learned Helplessness: Expectations of Failure and Learning to
219 criticaL thinKing Quit 211 ■ Operant Conditioning and Biological Predispositions: Misbehaving
Does Exposure to Media Violence Cause Chickens 213
Aggressive Behavior?
214 Observational Learning: Imitating the Actions of Others
Applications of Observational Learning 217

221 Closing Thoughts

221 Using Learning Principles
Psych for your Life
to Improve Your Self-Control
223 chaPter review: Key PeoPLe and Key terms
224 concePt maP
xii Contents

6
Memory
226 PROLOGUE:The Drowning
228 Introduction: What Is Memory?
The Stage Model of Memory 228 ■ Sensory Memory: Fleeting Impressions
of the World 229 ■ Short-Term, Working Memory: The Workshop of
Consciousness 231 ■ Long-Term Memory 234

238 Retrieval: Getting Information from Long-Term Memory

The Importance of Retrieval Cues 239 ■ The Encoding Specificity
Principle 241 ■ Flashbulb Memories: Vivid Events, Accurate Memories? 241
Kornev Andrii/Shutterstock

242 Forgetting: When Retrieval Fails

Hermann Ebbinghaus: The Forgetting Curve 243 ■ Why Do We Forget? 244
237 cuLture and human Behavior
Culture’s Effects on Early Memories 248 Imperfect Memories: Errors, Distortions,
246 in focus
Déjà Vu Experiences: An Illusion of
and False Memories
Memory? Forming False Memories: From the Plausible to the Impossible 251
254 criticaL thinKing
The Memory Wars: Recovered or False 256 The Search for the Biological Basis of Memory
Memories? The Search for the Elusive Memory Trace 256 ■ The Role of Neurons in
258 focus on neuroscience Long-Term Memory 257 ■ Processing Memories in the Brain: Clues from
Assembling Memories: Echoes and Amnesia 259
Reflections of Perception
264 focus on neuroscience 265 Closing Thoughts
Mapping Brain Changes in Alzheimer’s
Disease
265 Psych for your Life Ten Steps to Boost Your Memory
267 chaPter review: Key PeoPLe and Key terms
268 concePt maP

7
Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
270 PROLOGUE:The Movie Moment
273 Introduction: Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
The Building Blocks of Thought: Mental Imagery and Concepts 273

277 Solving Problems and Making Decisions

Problem-Solving Strategies 277 ■ Obstacles to Solving Problems: Thinking
Outside the Box 280 ■ Decision-Making Strategies 281 ■ Decisions Involving
Uncertainty: Estimating the Probability of Events 282

284 Language and Thought

The Characteristics of Language 285 ■ The Bilingual Mind: Are Two
Leoray Francis/hemis.fr/Getty Images
Languages Better Than One? 288 ■ Animal Communication and Cognition 288
 Content s xiii

274 focus on neuroscience

290 Measuring Intelligence
Seeing Faces and Places in the Mind’s The Development of Intelligence Tests 290 ■ Principles of Test Construction:
Eye What Makes a Good Test? 294
284 criticaL thinKing
The Persistence of Unwarranted 295 The Nature of Intelligence
Beliefs Theories of Intelligence 295 ■ The Roles of Genetics and Environment
286 cuLture and human Behavior in Determining Intelligence 300 ■ Cross-Cultural Studies of Group
The Effect of Language on Perception Discrimination and IQ Differences 305
293 in focus
Does a High IQ Score Predict Success 307 Closing Thoughts
in Life?
298 in focus
308 Psych for your Life A Workshop on Creativity
Neurodiversity: Beyond IQ 309 chaPter review: Key PeoPLe and Key terms
304 cuLture and human Behavior
310 concePt maP
Performing with a Threat in the
Air: How Stereotypes Undermine

8
Performance

Motivation and Emotion

312 PROLOGUE:One Step, One Breath
314 Introduction: Motivation and Emotion
Instinct Theories: Inborn Behaviors as Motivators 315 ■ Drive Theories:
Biological Needs as Motivators 315 ■ Incentive Motivation: Goal Objects as
Motivators 316 ■ Arousal Theory: Optimal Stimulation as a Motivator 316
■ Humanistic Theory: Human Potential as a Motivator 317

317 Hunger and Eating

Energy Homeostasis: Calories Consumed = Calories Expended 318
■ Short-Term Signals That Regulate Eating 318 ■ Long-Term Signals That

Regulate Body Weight 319 ■ Excess Weight and Obesity 321

324 Human Sexuality

First Things First: The Stages of Human Sexual Response 324 ■ What
Dmitry Bodyaev/Shutterstock
Motivates Sexual Behavior? 326 ■ Sexual Orientation: The Elusive Search
for an Explanation 327

322 criticaL thinKing 331 Psychological Needs as Motivators

Has Evolution Programmed Us to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 331 ■ Deci and Ryan’s Self-Determination
Overeat?
Theory 333 ■ Competence and Achievement Motivation 334
324 focus on neuroscience
Dopamine Receptors and Obesity 335 Emotion
339 in focus The Functions of Emotion 336 ■ The Subjective Experience of Emotion 337
Detecting Lies ■ The Neuroscience of Emotion 338 ■ The Expression of Emotion: Making Faces 343
342 focus on neuroscience
Emotions and the Brain 346 Theories of Emotion: Explaining Emotion
344 criticaL thinKing The James–Lange Theory of Emotion: Do You Run Because You’re Afraid?
Emotion in Nonhuman Animals: Or Are You Afraid Because You Run? 347 ■ Cognitive Theories of Emotion 350
Laughing Rats, Silly Elephants, and
Smiling Dolphins?
351 Closing Thoughts
351 Psych for your Life Turning Your Goals into Reality
xiv Contents

353 chaPter review: Key PeoPLe and Key terms

354 concePt maP

9
Lifespan Development
356 PROLOGUE:People Are People
358 Introduction: People Are People
360 Genetic Contributions to Development
Your Unique Genotype 361 ■ From Genotype to Phenotype 361
TFoxFoto/Shutterstock

363 Prenatal Development

The Germinal and Embryonic Periods 363 ■ Prenatal Brain Development 364
368 cuLture and human Behavior ■ The Fetal Period 365
Where Does the Baby Sleep?
372 science versus Pseudoscience 365 Development During Infancy and Childhood
Can a DVD Program Your Baby to Be a Physical Development 366 ■ Social and Personality Development 367
Genius? ■ Language Development 371 ■ Gender Development: Blue Bears and Pink
388 focus on neuroscience Bunnies 374 ■ Cognitive Development 380
The Adolescent Brain: A Work in
Progress 386 Adolescence
397 in focus Physical and Sexual Development 386 ■ Social Development 390
Hooking Up on Campus ■ Identity Formation: Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development 391
401 criticaL thinKing ■ The Development of Moral Reasoning 393
The Effects of Child Care on
Attachment and Development
396 Adult Development
404 focus on neuroscience Emerging Adulthood 396 ■ Physical Changes in Adulthood 398
Boosting the Aging Brain ■ Social Development in Adulthood 399

402 Late Adulthood and Aging

Cognitive Changes 403 ■ Social Development 405

405 The Final Chapter: Dying and Death

406 Closing Thoughts
407 Psych for your Life Raising Psychologically Healthy
Children
409 chaPter review: Key PeoPLe and Key terms
410 concePt maP

10
Personality
412 PROLOGUE:The Secret Twin
OKcamera/Shutterstock 414 Introduction: What Is Personality?
 Content s xv

430 criticaL thinKing

415 The Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality
Freud Versus Rogers on Human Nature The Life of Sigmund Freud 416 ■ Freud’s Dynamic Theory of Personality 417
440 focus on neuroscience
■ Personality Development: The Psychosexual Stages 421 ■ The Neo-
The Neuroscience of Personality: Brain Freudians: Freud’s Descendants and Dissenters 424 ■ Evaluating Freud and
Structure and the Big Five the Psychoanalytic Perspective on Personality 427
443 science versus Pseudoscience
Graphology: The “Write” Way to Assess 428 The Humanistic Perspective on Personality
Personality? The Emergence of the “Third Force” 429 ■ Carl Rogers: On Becoming a
Person 429 ■ Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective on Personality 432

432 The Social Cognitive Perspective on Personality

Albert Bandura and Social Cognitive Theory 433 ■ Evaluating the Social
Cognitive Perspective on Personality 434

435 The Trait Perspective on Personality

Surface Traits and Source Traits 436 ■ Two Representative Trait Theories:
Raymond Cattell and Hans Eysenck 436 ■ Sixteen Are Too Many, Three Are
Too Few: The Five-Factor Model 438 ■ Personality Traits and Behavioral
Genetics: Just a Chip Off the Old Block? 439 ■ Evaluating the Trait
Perspective on Personality 441

442 Assessing Personality: Psychological Tests

Projective Tests: Like Seeing Things in the Clouds 442 ■ Self-Report
Inventories: Does Anyone Have an Eraser? 444

447 Closing Thoughts

447 Possible Selves:
Psych for your Life
Imagine the Possibilities
449 chaPter review: Key PeoPLe and Key terms
450 concePt maP

11
Social Psychology
452 PROLOGUE:The “Homeless” Man
454 Introduction: What Is Social Psychology?
454 Person Perception: Forming Impressions
of Other People
Social Categorization: Using Mental Shortcuts in Person Perception 456

458 Attribution: Explaining Behavior

The Self-Serving Bias: Using Explanations to Meet Our Needs 460
Art by: Distort & Mustart http://g.reenvillain.com

461 The Social Psychology of Attitudes

The Effect of Attitudes on Behavior 462 ■ The Effect of Behavior on
Attitudes: Fried Grasshoppers for Lunch?! 462
xvi Contents

458 focus on neuroscience

465 Understanding Prejudice
Brain Reward When Making Eye From Stereotypes to Prejudice: In-Groups and Out-Groups 466
Contact with Attractive People ■ Overcoming Prejudice 470
460 cuLture and human Behavior
Explaining Failure and Murder: Culture 471 Conformity: Following the Crowd
and Attributional Biases Factors Influencing Conformity 473 ■ Culture and Conformity 473
463 in focus
Interpersonal Attraction and Liking 474 Obedience: Just Following Orders
480 criticaL thinKing Milgram’s Original Obedience Experiment 474 ■ The Results of Milgram’s
Abuse at Abu Ghraib: Why Do Ordinary Original Experiment 476 ■ Making Sense of Milgram’s Findings: Multiple
People Commit Evil Acts? Influences 476 ■ Conditions That Undermine Obedience: Variations on a
Theme 477 ■ Asch, Milgram, and the Real World: Implications of the Classic
Social Influence Studies 479

482 Altruism and Aggression: Helping and Hurting Behavior

Factors That Increase the Likelihood of Bystanders Helping 484 ■ Factors
That Decrease the Likelihood of Bystanders Helping 485 ■ Aggression:
Hurting Behavior 486

490 Closing Thoughts

491 Psych for your Life The Persuasion Game
493 chaPter review: Key PeoPLe and Key terms
494 concePt maP

12
Stress, Health, and Coping
496 PROLOGUE:Fire and Ash
499 Introduction: Stress and Health Psychology
Sources of Stress 501

507 Physical Effects of Stress: The Mind–Body Connection

Stress and the Endocrine System 507 ■ Stress, Chromosomes, and Aging:
Jenn Huls/Shutterstock The Telomere Story 509 ■ Stress and the Immune System 511

513 Individual Factors That Influence the Response to Stress

Psychological Factors 514 ■ Social Factors: A Little Help From Your
506 cuLture and human Behavior
The Stress of Adapting to a New Friends 519
Culture
512 focus on neuroscience
522 Coping: How People Deal with Stress
The Mysterious Placebo Effect Problem-Focused Coping Strategies: Changing the Stressor 523 ■ Emotion-
518 criticaL thinKing
Focused Coping Strategies: Changing Your Reaction to the Stressor 523
■ Culture and Coping Strategies 526
Do Personality Factors Cause Disease?
521 in focus
Providing Effective Social Support
527 Closing Thoughts
525 in focus 527 Psych for your Life Minimizing the Effects of Stress
Gender Differences in Responding to
Stress: “Tend-and-Befriend” or “Fight- 529 chaPter review: Key PeoPLe and Key terms
or-Flight”?
530 concePt maP
 Content s xvii

13
Psychological Disorders
532 PROLOGUE:“I’m Flying! I’ve Escaped!”
534 Introduction: Understanding Psychological Disorders
What Is a Psychological Disorder? 535 ■ The Prevalence of Psychological
Disorders: A 50–50 Chance? 538

NorGal/Shutterstock 541 Fear and Trembling: Anxiety Disorders, Posttraumatic

Stress Disorder, and Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder
Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Worrying About Anything and Everything 541
536 criticaL thinKing ■ Panic Attacks and Panic Disorders: Sudden Episodes of Extreme Anxiety 542
Are People with a Mental Illness as ■ The Phobias: Fear and Loathing 543 ■ Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and
Violent as the Media Portray Them? Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder: Anxiety and Intrusive Thoughts 546
556 criticaL thinKing
Does Smoking Cause Major Depressive 550 Depressive and Bipolar Disorders: Disordered Moods
Disorder and Other Psychological
Disorders? and Emotions
560 cuLture and human Behavior
Major Depressive Disorder: More Than Ordinary Sadness 550 ■ Bipolar
Culture-Bound Syndromes Disorder: An Emotional Roller Coaster 552 ■ Explaining Depressive
Disorders and Bipolar Disorders 554
570 focus on neuroscience
The Hallucinating Brain
558 Eating Disorders: Anorexia, Bulimia,
577 focus on neuroscience
Schizophrenia: A Wildfire in the Brain and Binge-Eating Disorder
562 Personality Disorders: Maladaptive Traits
Antisocial Personality Disorder: Violating the Rights of Others—Without Guilt or
Remorse 563 ■ Borderline Personality Disorder: Chaos and Emptiness 565

566 The Dissociative Disorders: Fragmentation of the Self

Dissociative Amnesia and Dissociative Fugue: Forgetting and Wandering 567
■ Dissociative Identity Disorder: Multiple Personalities 567

569 Schizophrenia: A Different Reality

Symptoms of Schizophrenia 570 ■ Schizophrenia Symptoms and Culture 572
■ The Prevalence and Course of Schizophrenia 573
■ Explaining Schizophrenia 573

579 Closing Thoughts

579 Psych for your Life Understanding and Helping to Prevent
Suicide
581 chaPter review: Key PeoPLe and Key terms
582 concePt maP
xviii Contents

14
Therapies
584 PROLOGUE:“A Clear Sense of Being Heard . . .”
586 Introduction: Psychotherapy and Biomedical Therapy
588 Psychoanalytic Therapy
Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis 588 ■ Short-Term Dynamic Therapies 589

Humanistic Therapy
R. Gina Santa Maria/Shutterstock
590
Carl Rogers and Client-Centered Therapy 591
596 in focus
Using Virtual Reality to Treat Phobia
593 Behavior Therapy
and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Techniques Based on Classical Conditioning 594 ■ Techniques Based on
Operant Conditioning 597
606 in focus
Increasing Access: Meeting the Need
for Mental Health Care 599 Cognitive Therapies
613 cuLture and human Behavior Albert Ellis and Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy 599 ■ Aaron Beck and
Cultural Values and Psychotherapy Cognitive Therapy 601 ■ Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy and Mindfulness-
621 focus on neuroscience
Based Therapies 603
Psychotherapy and the Brain
622 criticaL thinKing
605 Group and Family Therapy
Do Antidepressants Work Better Than Group Therapy 605 ■ Family and Couple Therapy 608
Placebos?
609 Evaluating the Effectiveness of Psychotherapy
Is One Form of Psychotherapy Superior? 610 ■ What Factors Contribute to
Effective Psychotherapy? 611

614 Biomedical Therapies

Antipsychotic Medications 614 ■ Antianxiety Medications 617 ■ Lithium 618
■ Antidepressant Medications 619 ■ Electroconvulsive Therapy 622

625 Closing Thoughts

625 Psych for your Life What to Expect in Psychotherapy
627 chaPter review: Key PeoPLe and Key terms
628 concePt maP

APPENDIX A
Statistics: Understanding Data
A-1 PROLOGUE:The Tables Are Turned: A Psychologist
Becomes a Research Participant
A-2 Descriptive Statistics
Frequency Distribution A-2 ■ Measures of Central Tendency A-4 ■ Measures
of Variability A-5 ■ z Scores and the Normal Curve A-7 ■ Correlation A-8
 Content s xix

A-10 Inferential Statistics

A-12 Endnote
A-13 aPPendix review: Key terms
A-14 concePt maP

APPENDIX B
B-10 in focus Industrial/Organizational Psychology
Servant Leadership: When It’s Not All
About You B-1 What Is Industrial/Organizational Psychology?
B-11 in focus B-3 History of I/O Psychology
Name, Title, Generation
B-3 Industrial (Personnel) Psychology
Job Analysis B-3 ■ A Closer Look at Personnel Selection B-4

B-7 Organizational Behavior

Job Satisfaction B-7 ■ Leadership B-8

B-10 Workplace Trends and Issues

Workforce Diversity: Recruiting and Retaining Diverse Talent B-11 ■ Telework
and Telecommuting: The Best Retention Tool B-12 ■ Internet Recruiting:
Using the Web to Recruit Top Talent B-12 ■ Work–Life Balance: Engaging and
Retaining Employees with Families B-12

B-13 Employment Settings, Type of Training, Earnings,

and Employment Outlook
B-15 aPPendix review: Key terms
B-16 concePt maP

G-1 Glossary

R-1 References
NI-1 Name Index
SI-1 Subject Index
 TO THE INSTRUCTOR
Welcome to the seventh edition of Discovering Psychology!
We’ve been gratified by the enthusiastic response to the six previous editions of
Discovering Psychology. We’ve especially enjoyed the e-mails and letters we’ve received
from students who felt that our book was speaking directly to them. Students and fac-
ulty alike have told us how much they appreciated Discovering Psychology’s distinctive
voice, its inviting learning environment, the engaging writing style, and the clarity
of its explanations—qualities we’ve maintained in the seventh edition.
But as you’ll quickly see, this new edition is marked by exciting new changes: a
fresh new look, a stronger and more explicit emphasis on scientific literacy, a digital
experience that is more tightly integrated for both students and instructors, and—
most important—a new co-author! More about these features later.
Before we wrote the first word of the first edition, we had a clear vision for this
book: Combine the scientific authority of psychology with a narrative that engages
students and relates to their lives. Drawing from decades (yes, it really has been decades)
of teaching experience, we’ve written a book that weaves cutting-edge psychological
science with real-life stories that draw students of all kinds into the narrative.
While there is much that is new, this edition of Discovering Psychology ref lects our
continued commitment to the goals that have guided us as teachers and authors.
Once again, we invite you to explore every page of the new edition of Discovering
Psychology, so you can see firsthand how we:
• Communicate both the scientific rigor and the personal relevance of psychology
• Encourage and model critical and scientific thinking
• Show how classic psychological studies help set the stage for today’s research
• Clearly explain psychological concepts and the relationships among them
• Present controversial topics in an impartial and evenhanded fashion
• Expand students’ awareness of cultural and gender influences
• Create a student-friendly, personal learning environment
• Provide an effective pedagogical system that helps students develop more effective
learning strategies

What’s New in the Seventh Edition:

Big Changes!
We began the revision process with the thoughtful recommendations and feedback we
received from hundreds of faculty using the text, from reviewers, from colleagues, and
from students. We also had face-to-face dialogues with our own students as well as
groups of students across the country. As you’ll quickly see, the seventh edition marks
a major step in the evolution of Discovering Psychology. We’ll begin by summarizing the
biggest changes to this edition—starting with the most important: a new co-author!

Introducing . . . Susan Nolan

We are very excited and pleased to introduce Susan A. Nolan as our new co-author.
When the time came to search for a new collaborator, we looked for someone who
was an accomplished researcher, a dedicated teacher, and an engaging writer with a
passion for communicating psychological science to a broad audience. A commitment
to gender equality and cultural sensitivity, and, of course, a good sense of humor were
also requirements, as were energy and enthusiasm. We found that rare individual in
Susan A. Nolan, Professor of Psychology at Seton Hall University.

xx
 To the Instructor xxi

Susan made several valuable contributions to the sixth edition of Discovering Psychology,
and the success of that collaboration prompted our decision to make her a full co-
author with this new edition. Ref lecting her expertise in clinical, personality, and
social psychology, and her background in gender, culture, and diversity studies, Susan
revised Chapter 7, Thinking, Language, and Intelligence; Chapter 9, Lifespan Devel-
opment; Chapter 10, Personality; Chapter 11, Social Psychology; Chapter 12, Stress,
Health, and Coping; Chapter 13, Psychological Disorders; and Chapter 14, Therapies.
And, she participated fully in our text-wide decisions about design, photographs, art,
and content. Beyond the text, she’s been fully involved in the development of some
exciting new digital resources for the new edition. But more on that below.

New Emphasis on Scientific Literacy

As psychology instructors well know, students come to psychology with many pre-
conceived ideas, some absorbed from popular culture, about the human mind and
behavior. These notions are often inaccurate. Complicating matters is the fact that
for many students, introductory psychology may be their first college-level science
course—meaning that students sometimes have only the vaguest notion of the nature of
scientific methodology and evidence. Thus, one important goal for introductory psy-
chology is to teach students how to distinguish fact from opinion, and research-based,
empirical findings from something heard from friends or encountered on the Internet.
The importance of this objective is reinforced by the 2013 revision of the APA Guide-
lines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major. Scientific Literacy and Critical Thinking
is identified as one of its five key goals. Psychology educators agree that the skills students
learn in psychology can be as important as the content. Scientific literacy and critical think-
ing skills can help students in a variety of careers, a variety of majors, and can help ensure
that students become critical consumers of scientific information in the world around them.
Since the first edition, a hallmark of Discovering Psychology and its sister publication,
Psychology, has always been their emphasis on critical and scientific thinking. Psychology
was the first introductory psychology textbook to formally discuss and define pseu-
dosciences and to distinguish pseudoscience from science. Our trademark Science
Versus Pseudoscience boxes, which take a critical look at the evidence for and against
phenomena as diverse as graphology, educational videos for infants, and ESP research
have proved very popular among instructors and students alike.
In this new edition, we decided to make the scientific literacy theme even more
explicit. These new features are described below.

New Think Like a Scientist Model and Immersive

Learning Activities
To help students develop their scientific thinking skills and become critical consumers of
information, a unique feature of the seventh edition is a set of Think Like a Scientist Im-
mersive Learning Activities found in LaunchPad. Developed for Psychology and Discovering
Psychology by co-authors Susan Nolan and Sandy Hockenbury, each activity provides stu-
dents with the opportunity to apply their critical thinking and scientific thinking skills.
These active learning exercises combine video, audio, text, games, and assessment to help
students master scientific literacy skills they will use well beyond the introductory course.
In these activities, students are invited to critically explore questions they encounter in
everyday life, such as “Can you learn to tell when someone is lying?” and “Are some
people ‘left-brained’ and some people ‘right-brained’?”
These activities employ the four-step model introduced in the new Critical Think-
ing box “How to Think Like a Scientist” in Chapter 1. These four steps include:
1. Identify the Claim
2. Evaluate the Evidence
3. Consider Alternative Explanations
4. Consider the Source of the Research or Claim
xxii To the Instructor

The Think Like a Scientist Immersive Learning Activities are designed to teach and
develop a skill set that will persist long after the final exam grades are recorded. We
hope to develop a set of transferable skills that can be applied to analyzing dubious
claims in any subject area—from advertisements to politics. We think students will
enjoy completing these activities, and that instructors will value them. The seventh
edition of Discovering Psychology includes the following Think Like a Scientist Immer-
sive Learning Activities:
• Contagious Online Emotions (Chapter 1)
• The Right Brain Versus the Left Brain (Chapter 2)
• ESP (Chapter 3)
think Like a scientist • Multitasking (Chapter 4)
Can you be classified as right-brained or
• Positive and Negative Reinforcement (Chapter 5)
left-brained? Go to LaunchPad: Resources
to Think Like a Scientist about The Right • Eyewitness Testimony (Chapter 6)
Brain Versus the Left Brain. • Brain Exercises (Chapter 7)
• Lie Detection (Chapter 8)
• Learning Environments (Chapter 9)
• Employment-Related Personality Tests (Chapter 10)
• Online Dating (Chapter 11)
• Coping with Stress (Chapter 12)
• Tracking Mental Illness Online (Chapter 13)
• Ketamine (Chapter 14)

New Myth or Science? Feature

Students often come to the introductory psychology course with misperceptions about
psychological science. Our new Myth or Science? feature will help dispel some of these
popular but erroneous beliefs.
Each chapter begins with a list of “Is It True?” questions that ref lect popular
myths about human behavior. These statements were tested with market research to
see what percentage of students actually endorsed them. In some cases, agreement
reached astonishing levels. For example, in one survey, more than 85% of students
agreed that “the right brain is creative and intuitive, and the left brain is analytic and
logical” and that “some people are left-brained and some people are right-brained.”
MY T H SCIENCE More than 70% of students agreed that “f lashbulb memories are more accurate
than normal memories” and that “most psychologists agree with Freud’s personal-
Is it true that multitasking is an ity theory.” And, more than 90% of surveyed students agreed that “dying people go
efficient way to get things done?
through five predictable stages.” Even frequently debunked statements like “you only
use 10% of your brain” received a high rate of agreement.
After being posed at the beginning of the chapter, each question is answered in the
body of the chapter. A margin note signals the student to find the explanation and
indicates whether the statement is “myth” or “science.”

New Data Presentation Program

Our new co-author Susan Nolan brought her expertise in data analysis and presentation
to the fully revised graphic art program. We’ve redesigned our graphs more closely in line
with graphing expert Edward Tufte’s (1997) guidelines for clear, consistent data visualiza-
tions. Graphs are simpler than in previous editions. Most now use fewer colors per graph,
and fewer and lighter background gridlines, to allow the representations of data—the
bars, for example—to emerge as the most important element. We have used plain bar
graphs whenever possible, starting the y axes at 0. When the variable is a percentage, we
extended the y axis to 100% whenever possible. We hope that the simpler, more stream-
lined graphs will allow students to more readily “see” and accurately interpret data.
 To the Instructor xxiii

New Research Methods Section in Chapter 1

Introductory chapters have a reputation for being dry and boring. Instructors,
though, know that there are few alternatives: history and methods need to be taught
before plunging into content-heavy chapters. For this edition, the section on research
methods has been completely rewritten to highlight psychological science on the topic of
student success. New research examples—such as the impact of social media on well-
being, the effect of multitasking on studying, the testing effect, and measures of
student well-being—were chosen for their relevance to today’s students’ lives.
The new end-of-chapter application, Psych for Your Life: Successful Study Tech-
niques, provides six research-based strategies to maximize student success. In other
words, rather than waiting for the Learning or Memory chapters to introduce study
skills tips, we’ve incorporated these important findings right into Chapter 1—and
used them to demonstrate the relevance of psychological research in students’ every-
day lives and academic success. Along with demonstrating to students how psycho-
logical research can be used to improve everyday life, the new application gives them
a solid foundation of research-based study skills and tips.

All-New Digitally Integrated Package

Today’s college students are digital natives. They are accustomed to going online to seek
answers and to connect with friends, fellow students, and their instructors. Past editions
of Discovering Psychology provided a wealth of online resources for students, but the new
seventh edition marks a step to a new level of digital integration with LaunchPad.
LaunchPad, our new course space, combines an interactive e-Book with high-quality
multimedia content and ready-made assessment options, including LearningCurve adap-
tive quizzing. Pre-built, curated units are easy to assign or adapt with your own material,
such as readings, videos, quizzes, discussion groups, and more. LaunchPad also provides
access to Gradebook, which offers a window into your students’ performance—either in-
dividually or as a whole. While a streamlined interface helps students focus on what’s due
next, social commenting tools let them engage, make connections, and learn from each
other. Use LaunchPad on its own or integrate it with your school’s learning management
system so your class is always on the same page.

The Latest Psychological Science

As was the case with previous editions, we have extensively updated every chapter with
the latest research. We have pored over dozens of journals and clicked through thousands
of Web sites to learn about the latest in psychological science. As a result, this new edi-

Michael J. Minardi/Getty Images

tion features scores of new topics. Just to highlight a few additions, the seventh edition
includes brand-new sections on scientific thinking and factors contributing to college
success (Chapter 1); traumatic brain injury and concussion (Chapter 2); evolutionary and
interactionist theories of gender development (Chapter 9), transgender identity (Chap-
ter 9); aggression and violence (Chapter 11); and a critical look at the effectiveness of
antidepressants compared to placebo treatments (Chapter 14). And, there are four new
prologues (Chapters 1, 8, 9, and 13).
In addition, we have significantly updated coverage of neuroscience and expanded
our coverage of culture, gender, and diversity throughout the text. DSM-5 terminol- Dave Duerson Hockey players Derek
ogy and criteria have been fully integrated into the new edition. Boogaard and Bob Probert. Football
players John Grimsley, Chris Henry,
As of our last count, there are over 1,000 new references in the seventh edition of and Junior Seau. Wrestler Chris Benoit.
Discovering Psychology, more than half of which are from 2013, 2014, or 2015. These What do these men have in common?
new citations ref lect the many new and updated topics and discussions in the seventh Like Dave Duerson and dozens of other
edition of Discovering Psychology. From the effects of social media and multitasking on former NFL players, all are professional
student success to the latest discoveries about oxytocin, aggression, stress and telo- athletes whose brains, after their deaths,
displayed telltale signs of chronic trau-
meres, or the effectiveness of meditation in controlling pain and improving attention, matic encephalopathy, or CTE (Gavett &
our goal is to present students with interesting, clear explanations of psychological others, 2011; Tartaglia & others, 2014).
science. Later in this preface, you’ll find a list of the updates by chapter.
xxiv To the Instructor

New Design, New Photos

Created with today’s media-savvy students in mind, the clean, modern, new look of
Discovering Psychology showcases the book’s cutting-edge content and student-friendly
style. Carefully chosen photographs—more than 50 percent of them new—apply
psychological concepts and research to real-world situations. Accompanied by information-
rich captions that expand upon the text, vivid and diverse photographs help make
psychology concepts come alive, demonstrating psychology’s relevance to today’s students.

Connections to the American Psychological Association’s

Guidelines for the Undergraduate Psychology Major
The American Psychological Association has developed the APA Guidelines for the Under-
graduate Psychology Major: Version 2.0 to provide “optimal expectations for performance” by
undergraduate psychology students. The APA Guidelines include five broad goals, which
are summarized below. This table shows how Hockenbury, Nolan, and Hockenbury’s
Discovering Psychology, Seventh Edition, helps instructors and students achieve these goals.

Goal 1: Knowledge Base in Psychology

APA Learning Objectives: 1.3—Describe applications of psychology
1.1— Describe key concepts, principles, and overarching themes in • Psych for Your Life end-of-chapter sections (see full list of titles on
psychology page xli) show students how they can apply psychological principles
• Discovering Psychology covers the full range of psychology’s subject to improve their own lives
areas: history of the field, biological psychology, experimental and • “Specialty Areas in Psychology” in Chapter 1, Introduction and
cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, Research Methods
personality and clinical psychology • Appendix B, Industrial/Organizational Psychology
• Chapter 1, Introduction and Research Methods, provides an overview of
the history and the scope of contemporary psychological science
1.2—Develop a working knowledge of psychology’s content domains
• Discovering Psychology provides a comprehensive, up-to-date
survey of the full range of psychology’s subject areas
• Thousands of research citations, with more than 500 from research
no older than 2013
• In Focus and Focus on Neuroscience boxes provide in-depth looks
at particular topics
• Chapter 1, Introduction and Research Methods
Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking
APA Learning Objectives: 2.3—Engage in innovative and integrative thinking and problem solving
2.1—Use scientific reasoning to interpret psychological phenomena • “Solving Problems and Making Decisions” in Chapter 7, Thinking,
• Chapter 1, Introduction and Research Methods, especially the “How Language, and Intelligence
to Think Like a Scientist” model introduced on page 31 and discus- • Psych for Your Life feature “A Workshop on Creativity”
sion of pseudoscience characteristics on pages 20–21. • Think Like a Scientist Immersive Learning Activities, accessible on
• Critical Thinking boxes (see full list of titles on page xxxvi) LaunchPad
• Science Versus Pseudoscience boxes (see full list of titles on • PsychSim 6.0, Concept Practice, Video Activities, and Labs, acces-
pages xxxv–xxxvi) sible on LaunchPad
• Myth or Science feature (see description on page xxii) 2.4—Interpret, design, and conduct basic psychological research
• Think Like a Scientist Immersive Learning Activities, accessible on LaunchPad • Chapter 1, Introduction and Research Methods, describes the range
• Focus on Neuroscience boxes (see full list on pages xxxix and xli) of psychological research strategies, including examples related to
• PsychSim 6.0, Concept Practice, Video Activities, and Labs, acces- student success
sible on LaunchPad • Appendix A, Statistics: Understanding Data
2.2—Demonstrate psychology information literacy 2.5—Incorporate sociocultural factors in scientific inquiry
• Chapter 1, Introduction and Research Methods • Multiple chapters include the impact of sociocultural factors on
• Appendix A, Statistics: Understanding Data behavior and psychological processes, especially Chapter 9, Lifespan
• Box on “Psychological Research Using Brain Imaging” (pages 32–33) Development; Chapter 11, Social Psychology; Chapter 12, Stress,
explains the utility and limitations of brain-imaging research Health and Coping; Chapter 13, Psychological Disorders; and Chapter 14,
• Focus on Neuroscience boxes show students how to evaluate Therapies.
research findings based on brain-imaging techniques • Culture and Human Behavior boxes (see full list of titles on
• Science versus Pseudoscience boxes teach students how to critically pages xxxvii and xxxix)
evaluate media claims • See list of cultural coverage topics integrated within the main nar-
• Think Like a Scientist Immersive Learning Activities, accessible on rative on pages xxxvii–xxxviii
LaunchPad • See list of gender coverage topics integrated within the main narra-
• PsychSim 6.0, Concept Practice, Video Activities, and Labs, acces- tive on page xl
sible on LaunchPad
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
FOOTNOTES:

[25] See Buchanan on the Economy of Fuel and Management of Heat,

especially as it relates to heating and drying by means of Steam.
[26] See Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopædia, article Steam-drying
Machine.
[27] The following are the words in which Watt makes this remarkable
announcement to Priestley:—
"Let us now consider what obviously happens in the deflagration of the
inflammable (hydrogen) and dephlogisticated air (oxygen). These two
kinds of air unite with violence; they become red hot, and upon
cooling, totally disappear. When the vessel is cooled, a quantity of
water is found in it equal to the weight of the air employed. This
water is then the only remaining product of the process; and water,
light, and heat are all the products.
"Are we not then authorised to conclude, that water is composed of
dephlogisticated air (oxygen) and phlogiston (hydrogen), deprived of
part of their latent or elementary heat; that dephlogisticated or pure
air (oxygen) is composed of water deprived of its phlogiston
(hydrogen), and united to elementary heat and light; and that the
latter are contained in it in a latent state, so as not to be sensible to
the thermometer or to the eye; and if light be only a modification of
heat, or a circumstance attending it, or a component part of the
inflammable air (hydrogen), then pure or dephlogisticated air
(oxygen) is composed of water deprived of its phlogiston (hydrogen),
and united to elementary heat."
[28] Those who desire to investigate this controversy more in detail will
find very full information on the subject in the Translation of Arago's
Eloge, with notes and appendix by J. P. Muirhead, Esq. Murray,
London, 1839.
[29] An account of this remarkable apparatus, accompanied by an
engraving made from a drawing supplied by Watt, was communicated
by Sir John Robison to the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal in 1820.
See vol. iii, p. 60.
 CHAP. XI.

LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES ON RAILWAYS.

[Pg321]

TOC INX

NON-CONDENSING ENGINES.—LEUPOLD'S ENGINE.-TREVETHICK AND VIVIAN.—EFFECTS

OF RAILWAY TRANSPORT.—HISTORY OF THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.—BLENKINSOP.—
MESSRS. CHAPMAN.—WALKING ENGINE.—MR. STEPHENSON'S ENGINES AT
KILLINGWORTH.—LIVERPOOL AND MANCHESTER RAILWAY.—EXPERIMENTAL TRIAL.—
THE ROCKET.—THE SANSPAREIL.—THE NOVELTY.—SUBSEQUENT IMPROVEMENTS IN
THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.—LARDNER'S EXPERIMENTS IN 1832.—ADOPTION OF
BRASS TUBES.—MR. BOOTH'S REPORT.—DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE MOST
IMPROVED LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.—POWER OF LOCOMOTIVE ENGINES.—
EVAPORATION OF BOILERS.—LARDNER'S EXPERIMENTS IN 1838.—RESISTANCE TO
RAILWAY TRAINS.—RESTRICTIONS ON GRADIENTS.—COMPENSATING EFFECT OF
GRADIENTS.—EXPERIMENT WITH THE HECLA.—METHODS OF SURMOUNTING STEEP
INCLINATIONS.

(180.)

In the various modifications of the steam engine which we have

hitherto considered, the pressure introduced on one side of the piston
derives its efficacy either wholly or partially from the vacuum
produced by condensation on the other side. This always requires a
condensing apparatus, and a constant and abundant supply of cold
water. An engine of this kind must therefore necessarily have
considerable dimensions and weight, and is inapplicable to uses in
which a small and light machine only is admissible. If the condensing
apparatus be dispensed with, the piston will always be resisted by a
force equal to the atmospheric [Pg322] pressure, and the only part of the
steam pressure which will be available as a moving power, is that part
by which it exceeds the pressure of the atmosphere. Hence, in
engines which do not work by condensation, steam of a much higher
pressure than that of the atmosphere is indispensably necessary, and
such engines are therefore called high-pressure engines.
 We are not, however, to understand that every engine, in which
steam is used of a pressure exceeding that of the atmosphere, is what
is meant by an high-pressure engine; for in the ordinary engines in
common use, constructed on Watt's principle, the safety-valve is
loaded with from 3 to 5 lbs. on the square inch; and in Woolf's
engines, the steam is produced under a pressure of 40 lbs. on the
square inch. These would therefore be more properly called
condensing engines than low-pressure engines; a term quite
inapplicable to those of Woolf. In fact, by high-pressure engines is
meant engines in which no vacuum is produced, and, therefore, in
which the piston works against a pressure equal to that of the
atmosphere.
In these engines the whole of the condensing apparatus, viz. the
cold-water cistern, condenser, air-pump, cold-water pump, &c., are
dispensed with, and nothing is retained except the boiler, cylinder,
piston, and valves. Consequently, such an engine is small, light, and
cheap. It is portable also, and may be moved, if necessary, along with
its load, and is therefore well adapted to locomotive purposes.

(181.)

High-pressure engines were one of the earliest forms of the steam

engine. The contrivance, which is obscurely described in the article
already quoted (7.), from the Century of Inventions, is a high-pressure
engine; for the power there alluded to is the elastic force of steam
working against the atmospheric pressure. Newcomen, in 1705,
applied the working-beam, cylinder, and piston to the atmospheric
engine; and Leupold, about 1720, combined the working-beam and
cylinder with the high-pressure principle, and produced the earliest
high-pressure engine worked by a cylinder and piston. The following is
a description of Leupold's engine:— [Pg323]
 Fig. 82.

A (fig. 82.) is the boiler, with the furnace beneath it; C C are two
cylinders with solid pistons P P′, connected with the working-beams B
B′, to which are attached the pump-rods R R′, of two forcing pumps F
F′, which communicate with a great force-pipe S; G is a four-way cock
(66.) already described. In the position in which it stands in the figure,
the steam issues from below the piston P into the atmosphere, and
the piston is descending by its own weight; steam from the boiler is at
the same time pressing up the piston P′, with a force equal to the
difference between the pressure of the steam and that of the
atmosphere. Thus the piston R of the forcing-pump is being drawn up,
and the piston P′ is forcing the piston R′ down, and thereby driving
water into the force-pipe [Pg324] S. On the arrival of the piston P at the
bottom of the cylinder C, and P′ at the top of the cylinder C′, the
position of the cock is changed as represented in fig. 83. The steam,
which has just pressed up the piston P′, is allowed to escape into the
atmosphere, while the steam, passing from the boiler below the piston
P, presses it up, and thus P ascends by the steam pressure, and P′
descends by its own weight. By these means the piston R is forced
down, driving before it the water in the pump-cylinder into the force-
pipe S, and the piston R′ is drawn up to allow the other pump-cylinder
to be re-filled; and so the process is continued.
A valve is placed in the bottom of the force-pipes, to
prevent the water which has been driven into it from
returning. This valve opens upwards; and,
consequently, the weight of the water pressing upon it
only keeps it more effectually closed. On each descent
of the piston, the pressure transmitted to the valve
acting upwards being greater than the weight of the
Fig. 83. water resting upon it, forces it open, and an increased
quantity of water is introduced.

(182.)

From the date of the improvement of Watt until the commencement

of the present century, non-condensing engines were altogether
neglected in these countries. In the year 1802, Messrs. Trevethick and
Vivian constructed the first non-condensing engine of this kind which
was ever brought into extensive practical use in this kingdom. A
section of this machine, made by a vertical plane, is represented in
fig. 84.
The boiler A B is a cylinder with flat circular ends. The fire-place is
constructed in the following manner:—A tube enters the cylindrical
boiler at one end; and, proceeding onwards near the other extremity,
is turned and recurved, so as to be carried back parallel to the
direction in which it entered. It is thus conducted out of the boiler, at
another part of the same end at which it entered. One of the ends of
this tube communicates with the chimney E, which is carried upwards
as represented in the figure. The other mouth is furnished [Pg325] with a
door; and in it is placed the grate, which is formed of horizontal bars,
dividing the tube into two parts; the upper part forming the fire-place,
and the lower the ash-pit. The fuel is maintained in a state of
combustion, on the bars, in that part of the tube represented at C D;
and the flame is carried by the draught of the chimney round the
curved flue, and issues at E into the chimney. The flame is thus
conducted through the water, so as to expose the latter to as much
heat as possible.

Fig. 84.

A section of the cylinder is represented at F, immersed in the boiler,

except a few inches of the upper end, where the four-way cock G is
placed for regulating the admission of the steam. A tube is
represented at H, which leads from this four-way cock into the
chimney; so that the waste steam, after working the piston, is carried
off through this tube, and passes into the chimney. The upper end of
the piston-rod is furnished with a cross-bar, which is placed in a
direction at right angles to the length of the boiler, and also to the
 piston-rod. This bar is guided in its motion by sliding on two iron
[Pg326]

perpendicular rods fixed to the sides of the boiler, and parallel to each
other. To the ends of this cross-bar are joined two connecting rods,
the lower ends of which work two cranks fixed on an axis extending
across and beneath the boiler, and immediately under the centre of
the cylinder. This axis is sustained in bearings formed in the legs
which support the boiler, and upon its extremity is fixed the fly-wheel
as represented at B. A large-toothed wheel is placed on this axis;
which, being turned with the cranked axle, communicates motion to
other wheels; and through them, to any machinery which the engine
may be applied to move.
As the four-way cock is represented in the figure, the
steam passes from the boiler through the curved passage
G above the piston, while the steam below the piston is
carried off through a tube which does not appear in the
figure, by which it is conducted to the tube H, and thence
to the chimney. The steam, therefore, which passes above
the piston presses it downwards; while the pressure
upwards does not exceed that of the atmosphere. The
piston will therefore descend with a force depending on
Fig. 85. the excess of the pressure of the steam produced in the
boiler above the atmospheric pressure. When the piston
has arrived at the bottom of the cylinder, the cock is made to assume
the position represented in fig. 85. This effect is produced by the
motion of the piston-rod. The steam now passes from above the
piston, through the tube H, into the chimney, while the steam from
the boiler is conducted through another tube below the piston. The
pressure above the piston, in this case, does not exceed that of the
atmosphere; while the pressure below it will be that of the steam in
the boiler. The piston will therefore ascend with the difference of these
pressures. On the arrival of the piston at the top of the cylinder, the
four-way cock is again turned to the position represented in fig. 85.,
and the piston again descends; and in the same manner the process
is continued. A safety-valve is placed on the boiler at V, loaded with a
weight W, proportionate [Pg327] to the strength of the steam with which
it is proposed to work.
In the engines now described, this valve was frequently loaded at
the rate of from 60 to 80 lbs. on the square inch. As the boilers of
high-pressure engines were considered more liable to accidents from
bursting than those in which steam of a lower pressure was used,
greater precautions were taken against such effects. A second safety-
valve was provided, which was not left in the power of the engine-
man. By this means he had a power to diminish the pressure of the
steam, but could not increase it beyond the limit determined by the
valve which was removed from his interference. The greatest cause of
danger, however, arose from the water in the boiler being consumed
by evaporation faster than it was supplied; and therefore falling below
the level of the tube containing the furnace. To guard against
accidents arising from this circumstance, a hole was bored in the
boiler, at a certain depth, below which the water should not be
allowed to fall; and in this hole a plug of metal was soldered with
lead, or with some other metal, which would fuse at that temperature
which would expose the boiler to danger. Thus, in the event of the
water being exhausted, so that its level would fall below the plug, the
heat of the furnace would immediately melt the solder, and the plug
would fall out, affording a vent for the steam, without allowing the
boiler to burst. The mercurial steam-gauge, already described, was
also used as an additional security. When the force of the steam
exceeded the length of the column of mercury which the tube would
contain, the mercury would be blown out, and the tube would give
vent to the steam. The water by which the boiler was replenished was
forced into it by a pump worked by the engine. In order to economise
the heat, this water was contained in a tube T, which surrounded the
pipe H. As the waste steam, after working the piston, passed off
through H, it imparted a portion of its heat to the water contained in
the tube T, which was thus warmed to a certain temperature before it
was forced into the boiler by the pump. Thus a part of the heat, which
was originally [Pg328] carried from the boiler in the form of steam, was
returned again to the boiler with the water with which it was fed.
 It is evident that engines constructed in this manner may be applied
to all the purposes to which the condensing engines are applicable.

(183.)

Two years after the date of the patent of this engine, its inventor
constructed a machine of the same kind for the purpose of moving
carriages on railroads; and applied it successfully, in the year 1804, on
the railroad at Merthyr Tydvil, in South Wales. It was in principle the
same as that already described. The cylinder however was in a
horizontal position, the piston-rod working in the direction of the line
of road: the extremity of the piston-rod, by means of a connecting
rod, worked cranks placed on the axletree, on which were fixed two
cogged wheels: these worked in others, by which their motion was
communicated finally to cogged wheels fixed on the axle of the hind
wheels of the carriage, by which this axle was kept in a state of
revolution. The hind wheels being fixed on the axletree, and turning
with it, were caused likewise to revolve; and so long as the weight of
the carriage did not exceed that which the friction of the road was
capable of propelling, the carriage would thus be moved forwards. On
this axle was placed a fly-wheel to continue the rotatory motion at the
termination of each stroke. The fore wheels are described as being
capable of turning like the fore wheels of a carriage, so as to guide
the vehicle. The projectors appear to have contemplated, in the first
instance, the use of this carriage on common roads; but that notion
seems to have been abandoned, and its use was only adopted on the
railroad before mentioned. On the occasion of its first trial, it drew
after it as many carriages as contained ten tons of iron a distance of
nine miles; which stage it performed without any fresh supply of
water, and travelled at the rate of five miles an hour.

(184.)

Capital and skill have of late years been directed with extraordinary
energy to the improvement of inland transport; and this important
instrument of national wealth and civilisation has received a
proportionate impulse. Effects are now witnessed, which, had they
been narrated a few years [Pg329] since, could only have been admitted
into the pages of fiction or volumes of romance. Who could have
credited the possibility of a ponderous engine of iron, loaded with
some hundred passengers, in a train of carriages of corresponding
magnitude, and a large quantity of water and coal, taking flight from
Manchester and arriving at Liverpool, a distance of above thirty miles,
in little more than an hour? And yet this is a matter of daily and
almost hourly occurrence. The rapidity of transport thus attained is
not less wonderful than the weights transported. Its capabilities in this
respect far transcend the exigencies even of the two greatest
commercial marts in Great Britain. Loads, varying from fifty to one
hundred and fifty tons, are transported at the average rate of fifteen
miles an hour; and in one instance we have seen a load—we should
rather say a cargo—of waggons, conveying merchandise to the
amount of two hundred and thirty tons gross, transported from
Liverpool to Manchester at the average rate of twelve miles an hour.
The astonishment with which such performances must be viewed,
might be qualified, if the art of transport by steam on railways had
been matured, and had attained that full state of perfection which
such an art is always capable of receiving from long experience, aided
by great scientific knowledge, and the unbounded application of
capital. But such is not the present case. The art of constructing
locomotive engines, so far from having attained a state of maturity,
has not even emerged from its infancy. So complete was the
ignorance of its powers which prevailed, even among engineers,
previous to the opening of the Liverpool railway, that the transport of
heavy goods was regarded as the chief object of the undertaking, and
its principal source of revenue. The incredible speed of transport,
effected even in the very first experiments in 1830, burst upon the
public, and on the scientific world, with all the effect of a new and
unlooked-for phenomenon. On the unfortunate occasion which
deprived this country of Mr. Huskisson, the wounded body of that
statesman was transported a distance of about fifteen miles in twenty-
five minutes, being at the rate of thirty-six miles an hour. The revenue
of the road arising from passengers since its opening, [Pg330] has,
contrary to all that was foreseen, been nearly double that which has
been derived from merchandise. So great was the want of experience
in the construction of engines, that the company was at first ignorant
whether they should adopt large steam engines fixed at different
stations on the line, to pull the carriages from station to station, or
travelling engines to drag the loads the entire distance. Having
decided on the latter, they have, even to the present moment,
laboured under the disadvantage of the want of that knowledge which
experience alone can give. The engines have been constantly varied in
their weight and proportions, in their magnitude and form, as the
experience of each successive month has indicated. As defects
became manifest they were remedied; improvements suggested were
adopted; and each year produced engines of such increased power
and efficiency, that their predecessors were abandoned, not because
they were worn out, but because they had been outstripped in the
rapid march of improvement. Add to this, that only one species of
travelling engine has been effectively tried; the capabilities of others
remain still to be developed; and even that form of engine which has
received the advantage of a course of experiments on so grand a
scale to carry it towards perfection, is far short of this point, and still
has defects, many of which, it is obvious, time and experience will
remove.
If, then, the locomotive engine, subject thus to all the imperfections
inseparable from a novel contrivance—with the restrictions on the free
application of skill and capital, arising from the nature of the
monopolies granted to railway companies—with the disadvantage of
very limited experience, the great parent of practical improvement,
having been submitted to experiments hitherto only on a limited scale,
and confined almost to one form of machine;—if, under such
disadvantages, such effects have been produced as are now daily
witnessed by the public, what may not be looked for from this
extraordinary power when the enterprise of the country shall be more
unfettered—when greater fields of experience are opened—when
time, ingenuity, and capital have removed or diminished existing
imperfections, and have brought to light new and more powerful
principles? This is not mere speculation [Pg331] on abstract possibilities,
but refers to what is in actual progress. The points of greatest wealth
and population—the centres of largest capital and most active industry
throughout the country—will soon be connected by lines of railway;
and various experiments are proposed, with more or less prospect of
success, for the application of steam engines on stone roads where
the intercourse is not sufficient to render railways profitable.
The important commercial and political effects attending such
increased facility and speed in the transport of persons and goods, are
too obvious to require any very extended notice here. A part of the
price (and in many cases a considerable part) of every article of
necessity or luxury, consists of the cost of transporting it from the
producer to the consumer; and consequently every abatement or
saving in this cost must produce a corresponding reduction in the
price of every article transported; that is to say, of every thing which
is necessary for the subsistence of the poor, or for the enjoyment of
the rich—of every comfort, and of every luxury of life. The benefit of
this will extend, not to the consumer only, but to the producer: by
lowering the expense of transport of the produce, whether of the soil
or of the loom, a less quantity of that produce will be spent in
bringing the remainder to market, and consequently a greater surplus
will reward the labour of the producer. The benefit of this will be felt
even more by the agriculturist than by the manufacturer; because the
proportional cost of transport of the produce of the soil is greater than
that of manufactures. If two hundred quarters of corn be necessary to
raise four hundred, and one hundred more be required to bring the
four hundred to market, then the net surplus will be one hundred. But
if by the use of steam carriages the same quantity can be brought to
market with an expenditure of fifty quarters, then the net surplus will
be increased from one hundred to one hundred and fifty quarters; and
either the profit of the farmer, or the rent of the landlord, must be
increased by the same amount.
But the agriculturist would not merely be benefited by an increased
return from the soil already under cultivation. Any [Pg332] reduction in
the cost of transporting the produce to market would call into
cultivation tracts of inferior fertility, the returns from which would not
at present repay the cost of cultivation and transport. Thus land would
become productive which is now waste, and an effect would be
produced equivalent to adding so much fertile soil to the present
extent of the country. It is well known, that land of a given degree of
fertility will yield increased produce by the increased application of
capital and labour. By a reduction in the cost of transport, a saving will
be made which may enable the agriculturist to apply to tracts already
under cultivation the capital thus saved, and thereby increase their
actual production. Not only, therefore, would such an effect be
attended with an increased extent of cultivated land, but also with an
increased degree of cultivation in that which is already productive.
It has been said, that in Great Britain there are above a million of
horses engaged in various ways in the transport of passengers and
goods, and that to transport each horse requires as much land as
would, upon an average, support eight men. If this quantity of animal
power were displaced by steam engines, and the means of transport
drawn from the bowels of the earth, instead of being raised upon its
surface, then, supposing the above calculation correct, as much land
would become available for the support of human beings as would
suffice for an additional population of eight millions; or, what amounts
to the same, would increase the means of support of the present
population by about one third of the present available means. The
land which now supports horses for transport would then support
men, or produce corn for food.
The objection that a quantity of land exists in the country capable
of supporting horses alone, and that such land would be thrown out of
cultivation, scarcely deserves notice here. The existence of any
considerable quantity of such land is extremely doubtful. What is the
soil which will feed a horse and not feed oxen or sheep, or produce
food for man? But even if it be admitted that there exists in the
country a small portion of such land, that portion cannot exceed, nor
indeed equal, what would be sufficient for the number of horses [Pg333]
which must after all continue to be employed for the purposes of
pleasure, and in a variety of cases where steam must necessarily be
inapplicable. It is to be remembered, also, that the displacing of
horses in one extensive occupation, by diminishing their price must
necessarily increase the demand for them in others.
The reduction in the cost of transport of manufactured articles, by
lowering their price in the market, will stimulate their consumption.
This observation applies of course not only to home but to foreign
markets. In the latter we already in many branches of manufactures
command a monopoly. The reduced price which we shall attain by
cheapness and facility of transport will still further extend and increase
our advantages. The necessary consequence will be, an increased
demand for manufacturing population; and this increased population
again reacting on the agricultural interests, will form an increased
market for that species of produce. So interwoven and complicated
are the fibres which form the texture of the highly civilised and
artificial community in which we live, that an effect produced on any
one point is instantly transmitted to the most remote and apparently
unconnected parts of the system.
The two advantages of increased cheapness and speed, besides
extending the amount of existing traffic, call into existence new
objects of commercial intercourse. For the same reason that the
reduced cost of transport, as we have shown, calls new soils into
cultivation, it also calls into existence new markets for manufactured
and agricultural produce. The great speed of transit which has been
proved to be practicable, must open a commerce between distant
points in various articles, the nature of which does not permit them to
be preserved so as to be fit for use beyond a certain time. Such are,
for example, many species of vegetable and animal food, which at
present are confined to markets at a very limited distance from the
grower or feeder. The truth of this observation is manifested by the
effects which have followed the intercourse by steam on the Irish
Channel. The western towns of England have become markets for a
prodigious quantity of Irish produce, which it had been previously
[Pg334] impossible to export. If animal food be transported alive from

the grower to the consumer, the distance of the market is limited by

the power of the animal to travel, and the cost of its support on the
road. It is only particular species of cattle which bear to be carried to
market on common roads and by horse carriages. But the peculiar
nature of a railway, the magnitude and weight of the loads which may
be transported on it, and the prodigious speed which may be attained,
render the transport of cattle, of every species, to almost any
distance, both easy and cheap. In process of time, when the railway
system becomes extended, the metropolis and populous towns will
therefore become markets, not as at present to districts within limited
distances of them, but to the whole country.
The moral and political consequences of so great a change in the
powers of transition of persons and intelligence from place to place
are not easily calculated. The concentration of mind and exertion
which a great metropolis always exhibits, will be extended in a
considerable degree to the whole realm. The same effect will be
produced as if all distances were lessened in the proportion in which
the speed and cheapness of transit are increased. Towns at present
removed some stages from the metropolis, will become its suburbs;
others, now at a day's journey, will be removed to its immediate
vicinity; business will be carried on with as much ease between them
and the metropolis, as it is now between distant points of the
metropolis itself. Let those who discard speculations like these as wild
and improbable, recur to the state of public opinion, at no very remote
period, on the subject of steam navigation. Within the memory of
persons who have not yet passed the meridian of life, the possibility of
traversing by the steam engine the channels and seas that surround
and intersect these islands, was regarded as the dream of enthusiasts.
Nautical men and men of science rejected such speculations with
equal incredulity, and with little less than scorn for the understanding
of those who could for a moment entertain them. Yet we have
witnessed steam engines traversing not these channels and seas
alone, but sweeping the face of the waters round every coast in
Europe. The [Pg335] seas which interpose between our Asiatic dominions
and Egypt, and those which separate our own shores from our West
Indian possessions, have offered an equally ineffectual barrier to its
powers, and the establishment of a regular steam communication
between the capitals of the Old and New World has ceased to be a
question of practicability, having become merely one of commercial
profit. If steam be not used as the only means of connecting the most
distant points of our planet, it is not because it is inadequate to the
accomplishment of that end, but because the supply of the material,
from which at the present moment it derives its powers, is restricted
by local and accidental circumstances.[30]
We propose in the present chapter to lay before our readers some
account of the means whereby the effects above referred to have
been produced; of the manner and degree in which the public have
availed themselves of these means; and of the improvements of which
they seem to us to be susceptible.

(185.)

It is a singular fact, that in the history of this invention considerable

time and great ingenuity were vainly expended in attempting to
overcome a difficulty, which in the end turned out to be purely
imaginary. To comprehend distinctly the manner in which a wheel
carriage is propelled by steam, suppose that a pin or handle is
attached to the spoke of the wheel at some distance from its centre,
and that a force is applied to this pin in such a manner as to make the
wheel revolve. If the tire of the wheel and the surface of the road
were absolutely smooth and free from friction, so that the face of the
tire would slide without resistance upon the road, then the effect of
the force thus applied would be merely to cause the wheel to turn
round, the carriage being stationary, the surface of the tire slipping or
sliding upon the road as the wheel is made to revolve. But if, on the
other hand, the pressure of the face of the tire upon the road is such
as to produce between them such a degree of adhesion as will render
it impossible for the wheel to slide or slip upon the road by [Pg336] the
force which is applied to it, the consequence will be, that the wheel
can only turn round in obedience to the force which moves it by
causing the carriage to advance, so that the wheel will roll upon the
road, and the carriage will be moved forward, through a distance
equal to the circumference of the wheel, each time it performs a
complete revolution.
 It is obvious that both of these effects may be partially produced;
the adhesion of the wheel to the road may be insufficient to prevent
slipping altogether, and yet it may be sufficient to prevent the wheel
from slipping as fast as it revolves. Under such circumstances the
carriage would advance and the wheel would slip. The progressive
motion of the carriage during one complete revolution of the wheel
would be equal to the difference between the complete circumference
of the wheel and the portion through which in one revolution it has
slipped.
When the construction of travelling steam engines first engaged the
attention of engineers, and for a considerable period afterwards, a
notion was impressed upon their minds that the adhesion between the
face of the wheel and the surface of the road must necessarily be of
very small amount, and that in every practical case the wheels thus
driven would either slip altogether, and produce no advance of the
carriage, or that a considerable portion of the impelling power would
be lost by the partial slipping or sliding of the wheels. It is singular
that it should never have occurred to the many ingenious persons who
for several years were engaged in such experiments and speculations,
to ascertain by experiment the actual amount of adhesion in any
particular case between the wheels and the road. Had they done so,
we should probably now have found locomotive engines in a more
advanced state than that to which they have attained.
To remedy this imaginary difficulty, Messrs. Trevethick and Vivian
proposed to make the external rims of the wheels rough and uneven,
by surrounding them with projecting heads of nails or bolts, or by
cutting transverse grooves on them. They proposed, in cases where
considerable elevations were to be ascended, to cause claws or nails
to project from the surface during the ascent, so as to take hold of the
road. [Pg337]
In seven years after the construction of the first locomotive engine
by these engineers, another locomotive engine was constructed by Mr.
Blinkensop, of Middleton Colliery, near Leeds. He obtained a patent, in
1811, for the application of a rack-rail. The railroad thus, instead of
being composed of smooth bars of iron, presented a line of projecting
teeth, like those of a cog-wheel, which stretched along the entire
distance to be travelled. The wheels on which the engine rolled were
furnished with corresponding teeth, which worked in the teeth of the
railroad, and, in this way, produced a progressive motion in the
carriage.
The next contrivance for overcoming this fictitious difficulty, was
that of Messrs. Chapman, who, in the year 1812, obtained a patent for
working a locomotive engine by a chain extending along the middle of
the line of railroad, from the one end to the other. This chain was
passed once round a grooved wheel under the centre of the carriage;
so that, when this grooved wheel was turned by the engine, the chain
being incapable of slipping upon it, the carriage was consequently
advanced on the road. In order to prevent the strain from acting on
the whole length of the chain, its links were made to fall upon upright
forks placed at certain intervals, which between those intervals
sustained the tension of the chain produced by the engine. Friction-
rollers were used to press the chain into the groove of the wheel, so
as to prevent it from slipping. This contrivance was soon abandoned,
for the very obvious reason that a prodigious loss of force was
incurred by the friction of the chain.
The following year, 1813, produced a contrivance of singular
ingenuity, for overcoming the supposed difficulty arising from the want
of adhesion between the wheels and the road. This was no other than
a pair of mechanical legs and feet, which were made to walk and
propel in a manner somewhat resembling the feet of an animal.
 Fig. 86.

A sketch of these propellers is given in fig. 86. A is the carriage

moving on the railroad, L and L′ are the legs, F and F′ the feet. The
foot F has a joint at O, which corresponds to the ankle; another joint is
placed at K, which corresponds to the knee; and a third is placed at L,
which corresponds to [Pg338] the hip. Similar joints are placed at the
corresponding letters in the other leg. The knee-joint K is attached to
the end of the piston of the cylinder. When the piston, which is
horizontal, is pressed outwards, the leg L presses the foot F against
the ground, and the resistance forces the carriage A onwards. As the
carriage proceeds, the angle K at the knee becomes larger, so that the
leg and thigh take a straighter position; and this continues until the
piston has reached the end of its stroke. At the hip L there is a short
lever L M, the extremity of which is connected by a cord or chain with
a point S, placed near the shin of the leg. When the piston is pressed
into the cylinder, the knee K is drawn towards the engine, and the
cord M S is made to lift the foot F from the ground; to which it does
not return until the piston has arrived at the extremity of the cylinder.
On the piston being again driven out of the cylinder, the foot F, being
placed on the road, is pressed backwards by the force of the piston-
rod at K; but the friction of the ground preventing its backward
motion, the re-action causes the engine to advance: and in the same
manner this process is continued.
 Attached to the thigh at N, above the knee, by a joint, is a
horizontal rod N R, which works a rack R. This rack has beneath it a
cog-wheel. This cog-wheel acts in another rack below it. By these
means, when the knee K is driven from the engine, the rack R is
moved backwards; but the cog-wheel acting on the other rack
beneath it, will move the latter in the contrary direction. The rack R
being then moved in the [Pg339] same direction with the knee K, it
follows that the other rack will always be moved in a contrary
direction. The lower rack is connected by another horizontal rod with
the thigh of the leg L F′, immediately above the knee at N′. When the
piston is forced inwards, the knee K′ will thus be forced backwards;
and when the piston is forced outwards, the knee K′ will be drawn
forwards. It therefore follows, that the two knees K and K′ are pressed
alternately backwards and forwards. The foot F′, when the knee K′ is
drawn forward, is lifted by the means already described for the foot F.
It will be apparent, from this description, that the piece of
mechanism here exhibited is a contrivance derived from the motion of
the legs of an animal, and resembling in all respects the fore legs of a
horse. It is however to be regarded rather as a specimen of great
ingenuity than as a contrivance of practical utility.

(186.)

It was about this period that the important fact was first ascertained
that the adhesion or friction of the wheels with the rails on which they
moved was amply sufficient to propel the engine, even when dragging
after it a load of great weight; and that in such case, the progressive
motion would be effected without any slipping of the wheels. The
consequence of this fact rendered totally useless all the contrivances
for giving wheels a purchase on the road, such as racks, chains, feet,
&c. The experiment by which this was determined appears to have
been first tried on the Wylam railroad; where it was proved, that when
the road was level, and the rails clean, the adhesion of the wheels
was sufficient, in all kinds of weather, to propel considerable loads. By
manual labour it was first ascertained how much weight the wheels of
a common carriage would overcome without slipping round on the
rail, and having found the proportion which that bore to the weight,
they then ascertained that the weight of the engine would produce
sufficient adhesion to drag after it on the railroad the requisite number
of waggons.[31]
In 1814, an engine was constructed at Killingworth, by Mr.
Stephenson, having two cylinders with a cylindrical [Pg340] boiler, and
working two pair of wheels, by cranks placed at right angles; so that
when the one was in full operation, the other was at its dead points.
By these means the propelling power was always in action. The cranks
were maintained in this position by an endless chain, which passed
round two cogged wheels placed under the engine, and which were
fixed on the same axles on which the wheels were placed. The wheels
in this case were fixed on the axles, and turned with them.

Fig. 87.

This engine is represented in fig. 87., the sides being open, to

render the interior mechanism visible. A B is the cylindrical boiler; C C
are the working cylinders; D E are the cogged wheels fixed on the axle
of the wheels of the engine, and surrounded by the endless chain.
These wheels being equal in magnitude, perform their revolutions in
the same time; so that, when the crank F descends to the lowest
point, the crank G rises from the lowest point to the horizontal position
D; and, again, when the crank F rises from the lowest point to the
horizontal position E, the other crank rises to the highest point; and so
on. A very beautiful contrivance was adopted in this engine, by which
it was suspended on springs of steam. Small cylinders, represented at
H, are screwed by flanges to one side of the boiler, and project within
it a few inches; they have free communication at the top with the
water or steam of the boiler. Solid pistons are represented at I, which
move steam-tight in these [Pg341] cylinders; the cylinders are open at
the bottom, and the piston-rods are screwed on the carriage of the
engine, over the axle of each pair of wheels, the pistons being
presented upwards. As the engine is represented in the figure, it is
supported on four pistons, two at each side. The pistons are pressed
upon by the water or steam which occupies the upper chamber of the
cylinder; and the latter being elastic in a high degree, the engine has
all the advantage of spring suspension. The defect of this method of
supporting the engine is, that when the steam loses that amount of
elasticity necessary for the support of the machine, the pistons are
forced into the cylinders, and the bottoms of the cylinders bear upon
them. All spring suspension is then lost. This mode of suspension has
consequently since been laid aside.
In an engine subsequently constructed by Mr. Stephenson, for the
Killingworth railroad, the mode adopted of connecting the wheels by
an endless chain and cog-wheels was abandoned; and the same effect
was produced by connecting the two cranks by a straight rod. All such
contrivances, however, have this great defect, that, if the fore and
hind wheels be not constructed with dimensions accurately equal,
there must necessarily be a slipping or dragging on the road. The
nature of the machinery requires that each wheel should perform its
revolution exactly in the same time; and consequently, in doing so,
must pass over exactly equal lengths of the road. If, therefore, the
circumference of the wheels be not accurately equal, that wheel which
has the lesser circumference must be dragged along so much of the
road as that by which it falls short of the circumference of the greater
wheel; or, on the other hand, the greater wheel must be dragged in
the opposite direction, to compensate for the same difference. As no
mechanism can accomplish a perfect equality in four, much less in six,
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