Detailed Notes on Ecosystems for Environmental Studies
1. Ecosystem: Structure and Function
Introduction to Ecosystems
• An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism
communities and their non-living environment, interacting as a functional unit.
• The term "ecosystem" was introduced by ecologist A.G. Tansley in 1935 to
emphasize the interconnectedness of organisms and their physical surroundings.
• Ecosystems can range in size from microscopic environments, such as a drop of
water containing microorganisms, to massive regions, such as forests, oceans,
and deserts.
• They play a crucial role in maintaining ecological balance by facilitating
processes like energy flow, nutrient cycling, and habitat provision.
Structure of an Ecosystem
1. Abiotic Components:
o These are the non-living elements of an ecosystem that influence the
living organisms present.
o Key abiotic components include:
▪ Sunlight: The primary source of energy for most ecosystems,
driving photosynthesis in autotrophs.
▪ Temperature: Regulates the physiological and metabolic activities
of organisms.
▪ Water: Essential for survival; its availability affects species
distribution.
▪ Soil: Provides nutrients, water, and a substrate for plants and other
organisms.
▪ Air: Supplies essential gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide for
respiration and photosynthesis.
▪ Nutrients: Elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
that are crucial for plant growth.
2. Biotic Components:
o These consist of all living organisms in the ecosystem, categorized as:
▪ Producers (Autotrophs):
▪ Organisms like green plants, algae, and photosynthetic
bacteria that convert solar energy into chemical energy
through photosynthesis.
▪ They form the base of the food chain and are essential for
energy production.
▪ Consumers (Heterotrophs):
▪ Organisms that depend on producers or other consumers for
their energy needs.
▪ They are further divided into:
▪ Primary Consumers: Herbivores that feed directly
on producers, such as cows, deer, and grasshoppers.
▪ Secondary Consumers: Carnivores that prey on
herbivores, including animals like snakes and frogs.
▪ Tertiary Consumers: Apex predators that consume
secondary consumers, such as eagles and tigers.
▪ Omnivores: Species like humans and bears that eat
both plants and animals.
▪ Decomposers:
▪ Microorganisms like fungi and bacteria that break down
dead organic matter into simpler substances.
▪ They recycle nutrients, making them available for producers
and maintaining ecosystem health.
Functions of an Ecosystem
1. Energy Flow:
o Energy enters the ecosystem through solar radiation and is harnessed by
producers through photosynthesis.
o This energy flows through the ecosystem via the food chain, from
producers to various levels of consumers.
o Energy transfer follows the laws of thermodynamics, with a significant
portion lost as heat at each trophic level, making the energy flow
unidirectional.
2. Nutrient Cycling:
o Ecosystems facilitate the cycling of nutrients through biogeochemical
cycles, such as the carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and water cycles.
o These cycles ensure the continuous availability of essential elements,
maintaining ecosystem productivity.
3. Ecological Balance:
o Ecosystems regulate the population of organisms through natural checks
like predation, competition, and symbiotic relationships.
o This balance prevents overexploitation of resources and ensures stability.
4. Adaptation and Resilience:
o Ecosystems exhibit resilience by recovering from disturbances like natural
disasters or human activities.
o They adapt to gradual changes, such as climate shifts, to sustain
biodiversity.
2. Ecological Succession
Definition and Concept
• Ecological succession is the gradual and progressive replacement of one
biological community by another over time, leading to the development of a
stable climax community.
• It is a natural process influenced by factors like climate, soil conditions, and
species interactions.
• Succession enhances biodiversity and ecosystem complexity.
Types of Succession
1. Primary Succession:
o Occurs in areas devoid of life, such as newly formed volcanic landscapes
or receding glaciers.
o Pioneer species like lichens and mosses colonize the area, initiating soil
formation and creating conditions for more complex organisms to thrive.
o This process is slow and can take thousands of years to reach a climax
stage.
2. Secondary Succession:
o Happens in areas where an ecosystem existed but was disturbed or
destroyed, such as in abandoned farmlands or after forest fires.
o Soil and seeds often remain, allowing for faster recovery and the
reestablishment of vegetation and wildlife.
3. Cyclic Succession:
o Involves recurring changes in community composition due to periodic
disturbances or seasonal variations.
o For example, seasonal blooms of algae in a pond.
Stages of Succession
1. Pioneer Stage:
o Involves the colonization of bare or disturbed areas by hardy organisms
like lichens, algae, and mosses.
o These species modify the environment, making it more hospitable for
other organisms.
2. Intermediate Stage:
o Characterized by the growth of shrubs, grasses, and small trees,
increasing biodiversity and ecological interactions.
3. Climax Stage:
o Represents a stable and mature ecosystem with a diverse array of flora
and fauna.
o It maintains equilibrium and supports maximum biomass.
3. Food Chains and Food Webs
Food Chains
• A food chain illustrates the linear transfer of energy and nutrients through an
ecosystem.
• Types of food chains include:
o Grazing Food Chain: Begins with green plants and proceeds through
herbivores to carnivores.
▪ Example: Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Hawk.
o Detritus Food Chain: Starts with decomposed organic matter and
involves detritivores and decomposers.
▪ Example: Dead leaves → Earthworms → Birds → Hawks.
Food Webs
• A food web is a complex and interconnected network of multiple food chains
within an ecosystem.
• It provides greater stability, as the extinction of one species does not disrupt the
entire system.
• Example: In a forest, a rabbit may be eaten by both foxes and hawks,
demonstrating alternative energy pathways.
4. Types of Ecosystems: Structure, Function, and Features
a) Forest Ecosystem
Introduction:
• Forest ecosystems are large areas dominated by trees, providing habitat for a
vast array of flora and fauna.
• They play a critical role in global carbon and water cycles and are among the
most productive ecosystems.
Types:
1. Tropical Rainforests:
o Found near the equator; characterized by high rainfall, warm
temperatures, and incredible biodiversity.
2. Temperate Forests:
o Found in temperate regions with distinct seasons and moderate
biodiversity.
3. Boreal Forests (Taiga):
o Found in colder climates; dominated by coniferous trees like pines and
firs.
Characteristics:
• Dense canopy layers, including emergent, canopy, understory, and forest floor
layers.
• High levels of biodiversity and ecological interactions.
• Soil fertility varies; tropical forests have nutrient-poor soils, while temperate
forests are richer in nutrients.
Structure:
1. Abiotic Factors: Sunlight, rainfall, temperature, soil composition, and air
humidity.
2. Biotic Components:
o Producers: Large trees like teak, mahogany, and oak.
o Consumers: Herbivores like deer and monkeys, predators like tigers and
eagles.
o Decomposers: Fungi, termites, and bacteria that recycle nutrients.
Functions:
• Act as carbon sinks by absorbing carbon dioxide.
• Regulate climate and water cycles.
• Provide resources like wood, food, and medicines.
b) Grassland Ecosystem
Introduction:
• Grasslands are vast regions dominated by grasses, with occasional shrubs and
trees.
• They are crucial for supporting large herbivores and preventing soil erosion.
Types:
1. Tropical Grasslands: Found near the equator; have wet and dry seasons, like
the savannas of Africa.
2. Temperate Grasslands: Found in cooler regions with moderate rainfall, such as
the prairies of North America.
Characteristics:
• Moderate rainfall insufficient for forests but adequate for grasses.
• High temperature variations between seasons.
• Fertile soils, ideal for agriculture.
Structure:
1. Abiotic Factors: Fertile soil, moderate rainfall, seasonal temperature changes.
2. Biotic Components:
o Producers: Grasses like wheatgrass and shrubs.
o Consumers: Grazing animals like zebras, rodents, and predators like
lions.
o Decomposers: Earthworms, bacteria, and fungi.
Functions:
• Provide grazing grounds for livestock.
• Support large wildlife populations.
• Act as carbon reservoirs and prevent desertification.
c) Desert Ecosystem
Introduction:
• Deserts are arid regions receiving minimal rainfall, often characterized by
extreme temperatures.
• They cover about one-third of Earth's surface and are home to specially adapted
organisms.
Types:
1. Hot Deserts: Characterized by high temperatures, such as the Sahara.
2. Cold Deserts: Characterized by low temperatures, such as Antarctica.
Characteristics:
• Harsh living conditions with low precipitation and high evaporation rates.
• Sparse vegetation and animal populations.
• Adaptations like water storage in plants (cacti) and nocturnal habits in animals.
Structure:
1. Abiotic Factors: Sandy or rocky soil, scarce water, extreme temperatures, high
sunlight intensity.
2. Biotic Components:
o Producers: Cacti, thorny bushes, and drought-resistant grasses.
o Consumers: Herbivores like camels, predators like foxes, and insects.
o Decomposers: Microorganisms adapted to arid conditions, recycling
limited nutrients.
Functions:
• Prevent soil erosion and regulate temperature extremes.
• Serve as habitats for unique and rare species.
• Provide minerals and other resources for human use.
