Name of Programme : B.Ed.

Special Education

Name of the Course Code : SED 214X

Title : PEDAGOGY OF TEACHING MATHMATICS

Curriculum Design : Prof. M. Manivannan

Chair Person-Faculty of Education
Tamil Nadu Open University,Chennai

Course Writer : Dr. K. S. Premila

Associated professor of Education
School of Education
Tamil Nadu Open University,Chennai

Content Editor & Dr. B. Anupama Devi

Course Coordinator : Assistant professor of Special Education
School of Special Education & Rehabilitation
Tamil Nadu Open University,Chennai

2019 (First Edition)

Reprint (Year) August 2021

ISBN No: 978-93-5706-093-6

© Tamil Nadu Open University, 2021

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the Tamil Nadu Open University. Course Writer is the sole responsible person
for the contents presented in the Course Materials. Further information on the Tamil Nadu Open University
Academic Programmes may be obtained from the University Office at 577, Anna Salai, Saidapet, Chennai-600 015
[or] www.tnou.ac.in

@ TNOU, 2022, “PEDAGOGY OF TEACHING MATHMATICS” is made available

under a Creative Commons Attribution -Share Alike 4.0 License (International)

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/
Printed by: M/S. R.K.11, Virudhunagar District Co-Operative Printing Press Ltd
 SED – 214X
PEDAGOGY OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS

BLOCK 1
Nature of Mathematics 7

BLOCK 2
Objectives and Instructional Plannining

in Mathematics 40

BLOCK 3
Strategies for Learning and Teaching Mathematics 82

BLOCK 4
Teaching-Learning Resources in Mathematics for

students with Disabilities 164

BLOCK 5
Assessment and Evaluation for Mathematics Learning 185

1
 SED-214X: PEDAGOGY OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS

Course Objectives

This course facilitates the Student-Teacher to;

• recognise the nature of Mathematics and its historical

development with contribution of Mathematicians.
• associate the aims and objectives of teaching Mathematics at
school level.
• apply skills to select and use different methods of teaching
Mathematics.
• develop competencies of planning for teaching Mathematics,
organizing laboratory facilities and equipment designing pupil
centered teaching learning experiences.
 practice skills to design and use various evaluation tools to
measure learner achievement in Mathematics.

Block 1: Nature of Mathematics

Unit 1: Meaning, Nature, Importance and Value of Mathematics
Unit 2: Axioms, Postulates, Assumptions and Hypothesis in
Mathematics
Unit 3: Historical Development of Notations and Number Systems
Unit 4: Contribution of Mathematicians (Ramanujam, Aryabhatta,
Bhaskaracharya,
Euclid, Pythagoras)
Unit 5: Perspectives on Psychology of Teaching and Learning of
Mathematics-
Constructivism, Enactivism, Vygotskyian Perspectives, and Zone
of Proximal
Development

Block 2: Objectives and Instructional Planning in Mathematics

Unit 6: Aims and Objectives of Teaching Mathematics in Elementary and
Secondary
Schools
Unit 7:Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives and Writing
Objectives
in Behavioural Terms
Unit 8: Lesson Planning– Importance and Basic Steps. Planning Lesson
of Arithmetic,
Algebra and Geometry

2
Unit 9: Unit Planning – Format of A Unit Plan
Unit 10: Pedagogical Analysis: Meaning and Need and Procedure for
Conducting Pedagogical
Analysis. Classification of Content, Objective, Evaluation, etc

Block 3: Strategies for Learning and Teaching Mathematics

Unit11: Concept Formation and Concept Attainment: Concept
Attainment Model for
Learning and Teaching of Concepts
Unit12: Learning By Exposition: Advanced Organizer Model
Unit13: Methods of Teaching- Lecture, Discussion, Demonstration,
Inductive-Deductive,
Analytic-Synthetic, Problem-Solving, And Project
Unit14: Techniques of Teaching Mathematics: Oral Work, Written
Work, Drill-Work,
Brain- Storming and Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
Unit15: Creating Different Situations of Learning Engagement: Group
Learning, Individual
Learning, Small-Group, Cooperative (Peer-Tutoring, Jigsaw,
etc.), and Situational/
Contextual Learning

Block 4: Teaching-Learning Resources in Mathematics for

Students with Disabilities
Unit16: Mathematics Laboratory- Concept, Need, and Equipment for
Setting Up a
Mathematics Laboratory
Unit17: Utilization of Learning Resources in Mathematics: Charts and
Pictures, Weighing
and Measuring Instruments, Drawing Instruments, Models,
Concrete Materials,
Surveying Instruments With Reference To Children With
Disabilities
Unit18: Bulletin Boards and Mathematics Club
Unit19: Abacus, Cussionaire Rods, Fractional Discs, Napier Strips
Unit20: Calculators, Computers, Smart Boards, Multimedia
Presentations, and Special Aids
and Appliances For Children With Disabilities

3
Block 5: Assessment and Evaluation for Mathematics Learning
Unit21: Assessment and Evaluation- Concept, Importance and Purpose
Unit22: Error Analysis, Diagnostic Tests, Identification of Hard Spots
and Remedial
Measures
Unit23: Tools and Techniques for Formative and Summative
Assessments of Learner
Achievement in Mathematics, Comprehensive and Continuous
Evaluation in
Mathematics
Unit24: Preparation of Diagnostic and Achievement Test
Unit25: Adaptations in Evaluation Procedure for Students With
Disabilities

Course Learning Outcomes

After completing this course the student-teachers will be able to
• Explain the nature of Mathematics and its historical development
with contribution of Mathematicians.
• Describe the aims and objectives of teaching Mathematics at
school level.
• Demonstrate and apply skills to select and use different
methods of teaching Mathematics.
• Demonstrate competencies of planning for teaching Mathematics,
organizing laboratory facilities and equipment designing pupil
centered teaching learning experiences.
• Design and use various evaluation tools to measure learner
achievement in Mathematics.

4
Suggested Readings

 Chambers, P. (2010).Teaching Mathematics, Sage Publication,

New Delhi.
 David, A.H., Maggie, M.K., & Louann, H.L. (2007). Teaching
Mathematics Meaningfully: Solutions for Reaching Struggling
Learners, Canada: Amazon Books.
 James, A. (2005). Teaching of Mathematics, New Delhi:
Neelkamal Publication.
 Kumar, S. (2009). Teaching of Mathematics, New Delhi: Anmol
Publications.
 Mangal, S.K. (1993). Teaching of Mathematics, New Delhi: Arya
Book Depot.
 Mani, M. N. G. (1992). Techniques of Teaching Blind Children,
New Delhi: Sterling Publishers.
 Mukhopadhyaya, S., Jangira, N. K., Mani, M.N. G., &
Raychaudhary, N. (1987).
 Sourcebook for Training Teachers of Visually Handicapped, New
Delhi: NCERT.
 Nemeth, A. (1973). Nemeth Code for Mathematics and Scientific
Notation, Loviseville K: American Printing House.
 Siddhu, K.S. (1990). Teaching of Mathematics, New Delhi:
Sterling Publishers.
 Keeley, P. K., & Cheryl, T. R. (2011). Mathematics Formative
Assessment, Canada: Sage Publications.
 National Curriculum Framework. (2005). NCERT, New Delhi:
NCERT.
 National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education. (2009).
NCTE, New Delhi.
 Teaching of Mathematics (ES-342), Blocks 1-4. (2000). IGNOU,
New Delhi.

5
 Web Resources

 http://yayoi.senri.ed.jp/ois/curriculum/maths_aims_objs.htm

 http://www.project2061.org/publications/sfaa/online/chap2.ht
m

 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED506343.pdf

 https://www.adda247.com/teaching-jobs-exam/evaluation-
and-assessment-in-mathematics-study-notes-for-all-teaching-
exams/

6
 BLOCK 1 NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

Structure

Introduction

Objectives

Unit 1 Mathematics
1.1 Meaning and Definition

1.2 Growth of Mathematics in Various Cultures

1.3 Nature of Mathematics
1.4 Need and Significance of Mathematics Teaching

1.5 Importance of Mathematics and its Value in Daily life

Unit 2 Axioms, Postulates, Assumptions and Hypothesis in
Mathematics

2.1. Axiomatic Method - Its evolution

2.2 Postulational System
2.3 Assumptions and Hypothesis

Unit 3 Historical Development of Notations and Number Systems

3.1 Notations
3.2 Number Systems

Unit 4 Contribution of Mathematicians

Unit 5 Perspectives on Psychology of Teaching and Learning of
Mathematics
5.1 Constructivism

5.2 Enactivism
5.3 Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)

Let Us Sum Up
Glossary
Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

7
INTRODUCTION

Mathematics is regarded as the mother of all sciences. If our students

are to function effectively at this time of extraordinarily and accelerating
global changes, they must understand mathematics and be able to use
mathematics both in their personal and professional lives. There has
never been a greater need to be mathematically literate than those days.
Those who understand and are proficient in mathematics have
significantly enhanced opportunities and options that open doors to
productivity. Those who lack mathematical competence will find such
doors and options closed. Thus mathematics, teaching takes a vital
place. In this unit, we will be discussing the definitions, nature,
characteristics and history of mathematics.

OBJECTIVES

After learning this Block, you will be able to:

 define mathematics;

 discuss the nature of mathematics;

 understand the need and significance of mathematics teaching;
 describe the importance of mathematics and its value in daily life;

 know the aesthetic sense in mathematics;

 understand the history of mathematics; and

 appreciate the contributions of mathematicians.

UNIT 1 MATHEMATICS

1.1 Meaning and Definition

The dictionary meaning of mathematics is that ‘It is either the science of
number and space or the science of measurement, quantity and
magnitude’. Mathematics is thus defined as the science of quantity,
measurement and spatial relations. It is a systemized, organized and
exact branch of science. It deals with quantitative facts, relationships as
well as with problems involving space and form. It is a logical study of
shape, arrangement, and quantity.

8
Mathematics is commonly defined as the study of patterns of structure,
chance, and space; more informally, one might say it is the study of
figures and numbers. In the formalist view, it is the investigation of
axiomatically defined abstract structures using logic and mathematical
notation; other views are described in philosophy of mathematics.
Mathematics is defined in different ways by different authors. Let us
examine a few of them.
 Bertrand Russell (1901) defined mathematics as “The subject in
which we never know what we are talking about, nor whether what
we are saying is true”, is fundamentally significant.
 Comte defined mathematics as “The science of indirect
measurement”.

 Kant defined mathematics as “Mathematics is the indispensable

instrument of all physical researches”.
 Gauss stated that “Mathematics is the queen of sciences and
arithmetic is the queen of all mathematics”.
 Aristotle defines ‘Mathematics is the study of quantity’. Bacon
defines ‘Mathematics is the gateway and key to all the sciences’.

 Descartes defines’ Mathematics is a science of order and

measures’.
Though there are innumerable definitions of mathematics, none of them
is comprehensive enough to bring out the meaning of mathematics fully.
However, each definition throws insight into one or more aspects of
mathematics.

1.2 Growth of Mathematics in Various Cultures

It is difficult to pinpoint exactly at time in history and in which part of the

world mathematics had its birth. However, there are important clues. As
far as the old stone Age when men lived in caves, the developed a
language of form, quantity and size which enriched their lives with
creative art form and paintings. These nomadic wandering men later
were replaced as farmers who built homes and villages and developed
agriculture and crafts such as poetry, carpentry and weaving. Inventions
such as wheel were made which expanded trade between remote
places. The commercial activity promoted manufacturing of tools and
weapons. These developments helped in crystallization of number idea,
using devices such as tally marks, strokes on a stick, knots on ropes,

9
pebbles, fingers etc, for keeping numerical records. Once counting by
fingers came, men could use the idea of base (5 and 10) to express
larger numbers. This gave birth to basics of early arithmetic notably in
Egypt and in pre-Aryan civilization of Mahenjo-Daro on the Indus.
Agriculture and trade encouraged developments in measurement and
basic geometrical skills. This led to the evolution of menstruation.
Geometrical patterns were extensively used in decorating walls,
colouring of pottery, weaving of baskets and cloth. Some very primitive
tribes had ways of reckoning time and used a calendar. They also
possessed some Knowledge of astronomy which required understanding
of motion of sun, moon and stars.
In brief, mathematics arose from necessity. The initial stress was on
operational arithmetic and menstruation which satisfies the needs of
agriculture, trade, irrigation, navigation, engineering and business.
Measurement became a cultural necessity and science of numbers was
merged with geometric form. Practical, workable and empirical rules
were devised for calculating areas of rectangles, circles and the volume
of cylinder sphere, etc. Pythagorean theorem, value of pi, irrational
numbers, algebraic equations were some of the most valuable
discoveries which created an harmony between arithmetic and
geometry.

1.3 Nature of Mathematics

The following are the nature of mathematics:

 Mathematics is a Science of Discovery.

 Mathematics is an Intellectual Game.

 Mathematics is the Art of Drawing Conclusions.

 Mathematics is a Tool Subject.

 Mathematics is a Systematic Deductive Science.

 Mathematics is an Experimental, Inductive Science.

 Mathematics involves an Intuitive Method.

 Mathematics is a Science of Precision and Accuracy.

 Mathematics is a Subject of Logical Sequence.

 Mathematics requires the application of rules and concepts to new

situations.
 Mathematics has its own language and symbols.

10
 Mathematics is an Abstract Science.

 Mathematics is a study of structure.

1.4 Need and Significance of Mathematics Teaching

Mathematics Teaching provides:

 A good mathematical background with the knowledge of concepts
and theories
 A clear understanding of laws of nature, the culture and
development of civilization
 An appreciation of the applications of mathematics for the scientific
and technological advancement.
 Sufficient mathematical skills to meet the demands of daily life.
 A better understanding of the world around
 A good deal of self-reliance, self-confidence, tolerance and open-
mindedness

 A window for looking at the world and a framework for solving

problems
 An essential element of communication

 A powerful tool in the hands of the learners.

 Ability to apply
- Mathematical concepts and theorems to new situations
- Mathematics make meaningful connections to life’s experiences

- Mathematical ideas and relationships in areas outside classroom

 Ability to transfer

- The mathematical type of thinking and reasoning to daily life

situations
- The knowledge and skills learned through mathematics lessons
to other contexts in the work place in everyday life.
 Ability to communicate mathematical ideas coherently and clearly
to peers, teachers and others.

 Ability to think alternative methods of solving problems.

11
1.5 Importance of Mathematics and its Value in Daily life
Mathematics has got many educational values which determine the
need of teaching the subject in schools. These values can be studied
under the following heads:

1. Practical Value
2. Cultural Value

3. Disciplinary Value
1. Practical Value

Mathematics has great practical value. Everyone uses some

mathematics in every form of life.
A common man sometimes can do without reading or writing but he
cannot do without counting and calculating. Any person who is ignorant
of mathematics can be easily cheated. He will always be at the mercy of
others. We have to make purchases daily. We buy cloth, food items,
fruit, vegetables, grocery etc.
We have to calculate how much we have to pay for everything. A house-
wife also needs mathematics for looking after her house, preparing
family budgets and estimates, writing various expenses and noting down
various household transactions.
Mathematics is needed by all of us whether rich or poor, high or low. Not
to speak of engineers, bankers, accountants, businessmen, planners
etc., even petty shopkeepers, humble coolies, carpenters and labourers
need mathematics not only for earning their livelihood but also to spend
wisely and save for future. Whoever earns and spends uses
mathematics.
We are living in a world of measurements. We have to measure lengths,
areas, volumes and weights. We have to fix timings, prices, wages,
rates, percentages, targets, exchanges etc. In the absence of these
fixations, the life in the present complex society will come to a standstill.
There will be utter confusion and chaos. Just think if a fairy descends on
earth and removes all mathematics. There will be no calendar, no maps,
no accounts, no fixations or measurements, no industrial activity, no
plans or projects.

Thus we see that mathematics has tremendous value or application in

our daily life. It is essential for leading a successful social life.

12
2. Cultural Value
Mathematics has got a great cultural value which is steadily increasing
day by day. Mathematics has made a major contribution to our cultural
advancement. The progress of our civilisation has been mainly due to
the progress of various occupations such as agriculture, engineering,
industry, medicine, navigation, rail road building etc.

These occupations build up culture. Mathematics makes direct or

indirect contribution to the development of all occupations. Hogben says,
"Mathematics is the mirror of civilisation".
The history of mathematics shows how mathematics has influenced
civilisation and culture at a particular time. Progress in mathematics, of
Greeks and Egyptians in the past led to their cultural advancement and
the progress of their civilisation.
Mathematics is a pivot for cultural arts such as music, fine arts, poetry
and painting. Perhaps that is why the Greeks, who were the greatest
geometers of their times, were quite adept in fine arts.
3. Disciplinary Value

Mathematics trains or disciplines the mind also. It develops thinking and

reasoning power. According to Locke, "Mathematics is a way to settle in
the mind a habit of reasoning." Mathematics is 'an exact and definite
science'. Every student of mathematics has to reason properly without
any prejudices or unnecessary biases. Reasoning in mathematics has
the characteristics of simplicity, accuracy, objectivity, originality etc.
Besides reasoning, mathematics has the following disciplinary values
also.
 Development of the power of concentration. The faculty to
concentrate one's mind can only be learnt by the study of
mathematics.
 Development of inventive faculty. The study of mathematics
develops inventive faculty of the students. The solving of a difficult
problem in mathematics is just like making a discovery.
 Will power. Mathematics develops patience and perseverance in the
students. It strengths their will power.

In addition to practical, cultural and disciplinary values, mathematics has

so many other values. Mathematics teaches the art of economical living.
It teaches economy in time, speech, thought and money.

13
Thus we see that mathematics has many educational values which show
the increasing importance of the subject in schools and in social life.

Check your progress

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the
Block.
1. Define mathematics.
………………………………………………………………….………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
2. What are the need and significance of mathematics teaching?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………

UNIT- 2 AXIOMS, POSTULATES, ASSUMPTIONS AND

HYPOTHESIS IN MATHEMATICS

2.1 Axiomatic Method - Its evolution

Although Babylonian mathematics had initiated use of symbols – i.e.

they assigned symbols to stand for objects or ideas, set up relationships
between them and operated with them on a conceptual level they had
not indulged in ‘mathematics for its own sake’. The only area which had
little use in the non-mathematical affairs of life on which they worked
was number theory since it involved only the ‘natural numbers’.
Babylonian mathematics was a number science since it consisted only
of the natural numbers and their relations, with extensions to
sexagesimal fractions and rules for applications to weights and
measures. Babylonian mathematics contained little of geometry-only a
set of rules for mensuration, The credit goes to Greeks to assimilate
geometric concepts with number concepts. Greek mathematics was
essentially geometric which got related to numbers in mensuration. A
line has length, this association of number with line later helped in
associating number with area and volume. Euclid made a distinction
between number and magnitude. Another important effect of the
‘invasion’ of mathematics by geometry was the invention of axiomatic
method. It was presumably in the attempt to develop geometry on a
secure foundations safe from paradoxes as well as to provide for in

14
incommensurability. So geometry must be credited for the origin of
axiomatic method. However, it was not until the nineteenth century that
the use of axiomatic method was accepted as a means of formulating
and generalizing mathematical and physical concepts. Later, as an
integral part of the axiomatic method, logic also attained an important
place in mathematics, Its importance in methods of proof is so great that
ultimately mathematics appears as an extension of logic. The essence of
mathematics is logical-deduction.
‘Mathematics in its widest signification is the development of all types of
formal, necessary, deductive reasoning’. A. N. Whitehead.
Applications of axiomatic method to logic itself resulted in development
of mathematical logic which has applications in pure science, computer
theory etc. During the last century the axiomatic method has been used
to a wide variety of models, mathematical and non-mathematical, on the
conceptual side it has helped mathematics to achieve a freedom.
Mathematics is no longer restrained by an ideal or an external reality.
Mathematical ‘truths’ could be created without the restrictions that could
be imposed by the world of experience. Mathematics does not yield
knowledge of facts, which have to do with the contingent actualities of
the world as it is, but only conclusions that follow by logical necessity
from the premises defining the system. Any number of self consistent
mathematical patterns can be defined and deductively elaborated.
Euclid’s Elements

Anybody familiar with geometry at school stage knows that postulational

procedure was initiated by Euclid. Euclid used two groupings of
fundamental assumptions, one entitled ‘Axioms’, the other entitled
‘Postulates’. Axioms are labeled ‘common notions’ and are accompanied
by remarks as. “An axiom is a self-evident truth”. The axioms contain
such statements as: ‘The whole is greater than any of its parts.’ ‘Things
equal to the same thing are equal to one another’. It may be noted that
these statements do not use any geometric terms and can be taken to
be ‘universal truths’
A postulate is a geometric fact so simple and obvious that its validity
may be assumed. Postulates contain such statements as: “Through two
distinct points one and only one straight line can be drawn,” ‘A line can
be extended indefinitely.’

From the Axioms and Postulates and a collection of definitions, Euclid

deduced 465 propositions in a logical chain.

15
Euclid selected five geometrical statements as the basis for his
deductive treatment.
“Let the following be postulated:

1. To draw a straight line from any point to any point.

2. To produce a finite straight line continuously in a straight line.
3. To describe a circle with any centre and distance.
4. That all right angles are equal to one another.
5. That if a straight line falling on two straight lines makes the interior
angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two
straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which
are the angles less than the two right angles.”
Euclid was the greatest systematizer who organized all the knowledge of
Geometry known during his times into a deductive systems. A few short
comings have been pointed out in the Elements.
1. Euclid’s postulates use technical terms – point, straight line, circle,
centre, right angle as well as certain operations such as drawing,
falling, producing continually. His Elements contain no list of
undefined terms. Some of his definitions are vague.
2. Some of his proofs are invalid because of the lack of a postulate
that would insure the continuity of lines or circles. The concept of
betweenness does not appear in his text.
3. Euclid’s concept of superposition to prove congruence does not fit
well in his scheme of deduction.
Later, numerous efforts were made to prove Euclid’s fifth postulate as a
logical consequence of the other four postulates. As a result non-
Euclidean Geometry’s – hyperbolic, elliptic were born. In Euclidean
geometry it is proved that the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to
two right angles, in hyperbolic geometry the angle sum is always less
than two right angles and in elliptic geometry the angle sum is always
greater than two right angles. For centuries, the axioms of Euclid were
regarded as ‘absolutely true’ and his theorems with logical proofs were
beyond doubt. Now a days, however, Euclid’s axioms are being
regarded as based upon experimental results and observations made of
nature. The realization that we are not compelled to regard space as
being Euclidean and as a result of logical consistency non Non-
Euclidean geometry has received a great deal of attention.

16
2.2 Postulational System
The method of mathematics is essentially postulational. In a
postulational system we select certain concepts to be primitive or
undefined. These are both technical terms (such as line, point) as well
as the terms of classical logic (such as there exists, one, every and not).
These terms should be as few as possible. The second step in setting
up a postulational system is listing all the statements (or assertions)
formulated in terms of the primitive terms. No proof for these statements
is offered. These are “self-evident”. These are the axioms of the system.
They state basic properties of the primitive terms and they should be
simple in structure and few in number.
The third step consists of laying down rules by way of which ‘new’
statements can be deduced from old’ ones. We call this step ‘choice of
logic’. Normally we use a form of argument called the rule of implication.
The rule of implication states that if (1) the statement p implies the
statement q, and (2) the statement p is true then the statement q will be
true.
The fourth step consists of deducing the logical consequences of the
postulates. These statements are the theorems of the system.
Any postulation system should be consistent, independent and
complete.

An axiom system is called consistent when it does not imply any

contradictory statements.
By independence we mean essentially that we are ‘not saying too much’
in stating our axioms. A system is complete if it is impossible to add to it
a new independent axiom. An example of an axiom system is Peano’s
axiom system. It consist of three primitive terms, “O”, “number”,
“Successor” and five axioms.

A1 O is a number
A2 The successor of a number is a number.

A3 No two numbers have the same successor.

A4 O is not the successor of any number.

A5 If P is a property such that (i) O has the property P and (ii) whenever
n has the property P, the successor of n has the property P, then every
number has the property P.
From these we can define the natural numbers. The fifth axiom is called
the principle of mathematical induction.

17
Axiomatic method has been particularly valuable in physical sciences
because the deductive system is abstracted from observations of the
real world. In other subjects such as economics, psychology, sociology
the use of deductive method is relatively new and only for some portions
of these subjects mathematical models are constructed.

2.3 Assumptions and Hypothesis

Assumption : Nearly every mathematical statement is really saying: "if
this is true, then this is also true". Certain assumptions are so common
that they are usually left off (suppose that is a set of elements which has
the following properties...), but you should never make the mistake that
anything is assumed by definition.

Axioms and postulates are the basic assumptions underlying a given

body of deductive knowledge. They are accepted without
demonstration. All other assertions (theorems, if we are talking about
mathematics) must be proven with the aid of these basic assumptions.
Hypothesis : A hypothesis is a proposition that is consistent with known
data, but has been neither verified nor shown to be false. Something that
has yet not been proved to classify as a theory but believed to be true by
the researcher is labeled as a hypothesis. A hypothesis is merely a
proposition that is presented or put forward by a scientist to explain a
natural phenomenon. It does not become a theory until it is proved and
tested under different conditions and circumstances. At best, it is an
assumption that has been made working. It is rather correct to call a
hypothesis a theory that needs verification and investigation. Any
statement that is put forward for the sake of argument to support an
occurrence or phenomenon is called a hypothesis.

Difference between a Assumption and Hypothesis?

 Hypothesis is an argument put forward to explain a phenomenon
or sets of phenomena

 Hypothesis is not a theory until it has proved and verified under

different circumstances
 Anything taken for granted is an assumption, and a hypothesis is
at best, a working assumption
 Hypothesis is a theory in waiting, as it can be called theory only
after verification

18
UNIT 3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF NOTATIONS AND
NUMBER SYSTEMS

3.1 Notations
Mathematical Notation until 17th century – India

In various world regions in the 6 th till 15th century the principles were
slowly formed at which foundations of a modern mathematical notation
have been worked out, that ate used with certain modifications also in
modern today mathematics. A decay of the European science, culture
and education in the second half of the first millennium have caused that
the European mathematics played in that process for many centuries an
inferior and even neglectable role and it rose to new success especially
under the influence of the higher level of mathematics in other cultures
of the world.
a. Anonymous manuscript Bakhashali (about 200 A.D or 6 th – 7th
century)
The manuscript was excavated near the village Bakhshali in the
northwestern India in 1881. Its symbolism is strikingly based on the
syncopate principle but it differs – especially phonetically – from
the later works of medieval Indian mathematics which were
constructed continually by various authors in a historical
sequence. The kernel of the symbolism in this manuscript is the
denotation of basic arithmetic and algebraic relations and
operations be abbreviations but the consequent systematic use is
missing.
The following table contains an overview of symbols.

Sign Denotation Meaning

yu yuta ( = added) Addition

xa xaya ( = subtracted) Subtraction

gu guna ( = multiplied) multiplication

bhā bhāga ( = divided) Division

mū mūla ( = root) square root

pha phalah ( = equal) Equality

19
 The notation of unknown quantities appears only in one case and
it is expressed by ordinal numerals.
b. The notation from the 6th till 12th century

In the works of Bhaskara I (6th century), Brahmagupta (598 – about

660; the work Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta – Brahma correct system,
628), Bhaskara II (1114 – after 1178; the work Siddhanta siromani
– Head jewel of accuracy, about 1150), Narayana (the 14 th
century) and other Indian mathematicians a little attention is paid
to the notation of operations and relations nut a greater stress is
put on the notation of unknown quantities and their powers. It
followed from the needs of algebra that was a superior science to
arithmetic and was in a dominant position in the Indian medieval
mathematics.
The syncopate principle is all the time of basic importance;
however it already has the character of the stable standard and
authors of later periods respect the usage in the notation of their
predecessors.
A selection of this notation brings the following table.

Sign Wording Meaning

rũ rũpa (= shape; appearance) Constant term

(in an equation)

yā yāvat-tāvat (=so much-how the first unknown

much)

cā cālaca ( = black) the second

unknown

nĩ nĩlaca ( = blue) the third

unknown

pĩ pĩtaca ( = yellow) the fourth

unknown

lo lohitaca ( = red) the fifth unknown

ha harĩtaca( = green) the sixth

unknown

va varga ( = square) the square, the

20
 second power

gha ghana ( = solid, cube) the cube, the

third power

va-va varga – varga the fourth power

va-gha- varga - ghana - ghāta the fifth power

ghāta

va-gha varga-ghana the sixth power

va-va- varga-varga-ghana-ghāta the seventh

gha-ghāta power

va-va-va varga-varga-varga the eighth power

gha-gha ghana-ghana the ninth power

ca caranĩ (=root) the square root

varga – mūla (mūla = root) the square root

ghana – mūla the third root

Although this symbolism could seem primitive and cumbersome, it

represented in the time of its origin a top level of the abstraction. It
is also evident from the fact that the outstanding mathematicians in
Arab and Central Asia countries have not comprehended its
importance and didn’t adopt it and used further in their works a
verbal (rhetorical) algebraic terminology.
Mathematical Notation in the 18th and 19th century

The number π considered as a ratio O/d where O denotes the

perimeter and d the length of the diameter of a circle, had no
stable denotation a long time J. Ch.Sturm has denoted it by the
letter e in 1689. The denotation π / δ for O/d has at W. Oughtred in
1652 obviously a syncopate character: π and δ are initial letters of
the Greek words to the denotation of the perimeter and diameter
(περιµετρoς and διαµετρoς respectively). William Jones has used
for this ratio the denotation π in 1706. In the same meaning was
used the symbol π by L. Euler (1736, 1737 and further years),
Johann Bernoulli (1739 and further), Nicolas Bernoulli (1742 and

21
 further). It was definitively anchored in the Euler’s book
Introduction in analysin infinitorum (Introduction to the analysis of
infinitives, 1748).

Leibniz has denoted the number e by the letter b. The Euler’s

symbol e used by Euler in 1727 – 8 and 1736 won a general
acceptance and in later years it got a character of the standard.
The symbolism of the theoretical arithmetic, algebra and number
theory : Most symbols in these domains have their origin at pioneers of
these subjects and at their significant successors as were Leibniz,
Cramer, Vandermonde and others in the early period and during the 18 th
century as well as Euler, Legendre, Gauss, Jacobi, Dirichlet, Cayley,
Kronecker, Weierstrass, Cantor, Peano etc. The original symbol of a
leading personality was replaced not once by a more convenient, lifelike
and acceptable one, which was suggested by a less important
successor.
From generally known and spread symbols e.g the sign ≡ for the
congruence of integers was used for the first time by Gauss in 1801, the
sign ∑ of the sum by Euler in 1755, the today symbol ( m/n ) of the
binomial number by Ettingshausen in 1827, the sign m! of the factorial
by Ch. Kramp in 1808, the symbol of permutation by Cauchy in 1815,
the denotation │…│of the determinant by Cayley in 1841, the denotation
║…║for matrices by Cayley in 1843 and 1845, the denotation (…) for
matrices was used by Bocher (1919), Kowalewski (1909), the denotation
[…] by Cullis0 (1913); the symbols ϰ0 and ϰ1 were introduced by Cantor
in 1895, the symbols ω, Ω were used by Cantor and Schoenflies.

Some other symbols of the elementary character

Logarithm: Napier used no abbreviations for logarithm. The
abbreviations Log, log., l, lg soon appeared in the works of his
contemporaries. E. g. Kepler used the abbreviations Log in 1624 as well
as Briggs and Oughtred which also used the denotations log., Lo.
According to the Leibniz’ symbolism in Acta eruditorum the sign/was
used for the natural logarithm and L for the logarithm to any base b>1. IT
was also variable the writing of the symbol for the base in the complete
symbol of the logarithm. There were problems, especially at the
tabulating, with the writing of number values of logarithms (and not only
of mantissas) in the form of integers and with the writing the negative
values of logarithms.
The progress in the mathematical notation especially in the domain of
the arithmetic and algebra played a progressive role in the history of

22
mathematics not only in methods but also in the content. A long-time
latent or apparent struggle with the charge of the rhetorical description
preceded the crucial qualitative breaks in the content and methods of
those domains. The creation and application of the syncopate and later
sophisticated notation brought an arrangement into the structure of
objects and of relations among them, gave an opportunity to formulate
problems clearly and deprive them of the vagueness of the verbal
expression and so to form a preparatory grade of the effective solution.
3.2 Number Systems

Numeral systems are sometimes called number systems, but that name
is ambiguous, as it could refer to different systems of numbers, such as
the system of real numbers, the system of complex numbers, the system
of p-adic numbers, etc.

Numbers in Early India

In India, emphasis was not on military organization but in finding

enlightenment. Indians, as early as 500 BCE, devised a system of
different symbols for every number from one to nine, a system that came
to be called Arabic numerals, because they spread first to Islamic
countries before reaching Europe centuries later.
What is historically known goes back to the days of the Harappan
civilization (2,600-3,000 BCE). Since this Indian civilization developed
into commerce and cultural activities, it was only natural that they devise
systems of weights and measurements. For example a bronze rod
marked in units of 0.367 inches was discovered and points to the degree
of accuracy they demanded. Evidently, such accuracy was required for
town planning and construction projects. Weights corresponding to units
of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 have been
discovered and they obviously played important parts in the
development of trade and commerce.
It seems clear from the early Sanskrit works on mathematics that the
insistent demand of the times was there, for these books are full of
problems of trade and social relationships involving complicated
calculations. There are problems dealing with taxation, debt and interest,
problems of partnership, barter and exchange, and the calculation of the
fineness of gold. The complexities of society, government operations
and extensive trade required simpler methods of calculation.
Earliest Indian Literary and Archaeological References

23
When we discuss the numerals of today’s decimal number system we
usually refer to them as “Arabian numbers.” Their origin, however, is in
India, where they were first published in the Lokavibhaga on the 28th of
August 458 AD.This Jain astronomical work, Lokavibhaga or “Parts of
the Universe,” is the earliest document clearly exhibiting familiarity with
the decimal system. One section of this same work gives detailed
astronomical observations that confirm to modern scholars that this was
written on the date it claimed to be written: 25 August 458 CE (Julian
calendar). As Ifrah2 points out, this information not only allows us to date
the document with precision, but also proves its authenticity. Should
anyone doubt this astronomical information, it should be pointed out that
to falsify such data requires a much greater understanding and skill than
it does to make the original calculations.
The origin of the modern decimal-based place value system is ascribed
to the Indian mathematician Aryabhata I, 498 CE. Using Sanskrit
numeral words for the digits, Aryabhata stated “Sthanam sthanam dasa
gunam” or “place to place is ten times in value.”The oldest record of this
value place assignment is in a document recorded in 594 CE, a donation
charter of Dadda III of Sankheda in the Bharukachcha region.
The earliest recorded inscription of decimal digits to include the symbol
for the digit zero, a small circle, was found at the Chaturbhuja Temple at
Gwalior, India, dated 876 CE. This Sanskrit inscription states that a
garden was planted to produce flowers for temple worship and
calculations were needed to assure they had enough flowers. Fifty
garlands are mentioned (line 20), here 50 and 270 are written with zero.
It is accepted as the undisputed proof of the first use of zero.
The usage of zero along with the other nine digits opened up a whole
new world of science for the Indians. Indeed Indian astronomers were
centuries ahead of the Christian world. The Indian scientists discovered
that the earth spins on its axis and moves around the sun, a fact that
Copernicus in Europe didn’t understand until a thousand years later—a
discovery that he would have been persecuted for, had he lived longer.
From these and other sources there can be no doubt that our modern
system of arithmetic—differing only in variations on the symbols used for
the digits and minor details of computational schemes—originated in
India at least by 510 CE and quite possibly by 458 CE.

The first sign that the Indian numerals were moving west comes from a
source which predates the rise of the Arab nations. In 662 AD Severus
Sebokht, a Nestorian bishop who lived in Keneshra on the Euphrates

24
river, wrote regarding the Indian system of calculation with decimal
numerals:
“ ... more ingenious than those of the Greeks and the Babylonians, and
of their valuable methods of calculation which surpass description...”
This passage clearly indicates that knowledge of the Indian number
system was known in lands soon to become part of the Arab world as
early as the seventh century. The passage itself, of course, would
certainly suggest that few people in that part of the world knew anything
of the system. Severus Sebokht as a Christian bishop would have been
interested in calculating the date of Easter (a problem to Christian
churches for many hundreds of years). This may have encouraged him
to find out about the astronomy works of the Indians and in these, of
course, he would find the arithmetic of the nine symbols.
The Decimal Number System

The Indian numerals are elements of Sanskrit and existed in several

variants well before their formal publication during the late Gupta Period
(c. 320-540 CE). In contrast to all earlier number systems, the Indian
numerals did not relate to fingers, pebbles, sticks or other physical
objects.

The development of this system hinged on three key abstract (and

certainly non-intuitive) principles: (a) The idea of attaching to each basic
figure graphical signs which were removed from all intuitive associations,
and did not visually evoke the units they represented; (b) The idea of
adopting the principle according to which the basic figures have a value
which depends on the position they occupy in the representation of a
number; and (c) The idea of a fully operational zero, filling the empty
spaces of missing units and at the same time having the meaning of a
null number.
The great intellectual achievement of the Indian number system can be
appreciated when it is recognized what it means to abandon the
representation of numbers through physical objects. It indicates that
Indian priest-scientists thought of numbers as an intellectual concept,
something abstract rather than concrete. This is a prerequisite for

25
progress in mathematics and science in general, because the
introduction of irrational numbers such as “pi,” the number needed to
calculate the area inside a circle, or the use of imaginary numbers is
impossible unless the link between numbers and physical objects is
broken.
The Indian number system is exclusively a base 10 system, in contrast
to the Babylonian (modern-day Iraq) system, which was base 60; for
example, the calculation of time in seconds, minutes and hours. By the
middle of the 2nd millennium BC, the Babylonian mathematics had a
sophisticated sexagesimal positional numeral system (based on 60, not
10). Despite the invention of zero as a placeholder, the Babylonians
never quite discovered zero as a number.
The lack of a positional value (or zero) was indicated by a space
between sexagesimal numerals. They added the “space” symbol for the
zero in about 400 BC. However, this effort to save the first place-value
number system did not overcome its other problems and the rise of
Alexandria spelled the end of the Babylonian number system and its
cuneiform (hieroglyphic like) numbers.

It is remarkable that the rise of a civilization as advanced as Alexandria

also meant the end of a place-value number system in Europe for nearly
2,000 years. Neither Egypt nor Greece nor Rome had a place-value
number system, and throughout medieval times Europe used the
absolute value number system of Rome (Roman Numerals). This held
back the development of mathematics in Europe and meant that before
the period of Enlightenment of the 17th century, the great mathematical
discoveries were made elsewhere in East Asia and in Central America.
The Mayans in Central America independently invented zero in the
fourth century CE.Their priest-astronomers used a snail-shell-like
symbol to fill gaps in the (almost) base-20 positional ‘long-count’ system
they used to calculate their calendar. They were highly skilled
mathematicians, astronomers, artists and architects. However, they
failed to make other key discoveries and inventions that might have
helped their culture survive. The Mayan culture collapsed mysteriously
around 900 CE. Both the Babylonians and the Mayans found zero the
symbol, yet missed zero the number. Although China independently
invented place value, they didn’t make the leap to zero until it was
introduced to them by a Buddhist astronomer from India in 718 CE.

26
Zero becomes a real number
The concept of zero as a number and not merely a symbol for
separation is attributed to India where by the 9th century CE practical
calculations were carried out using zero, which was treated like any
other number, even in the case of division.
The story of zero is actually a story of two zeroes: zero as a symbol to
represent nothing and zero as a number that can be used in calculations
and has its own mathematical properties.
It has been commented that in India, the concept of nothing is important
in its early religion and philosophy and so it was much more natural to
have a symbol for it than for the Latin (Roman) and Greek systems. The
rules for the use of zero were written down first by Brahmagupta, in his
book “Brahmasphutha Siddhanta” (The Opening of the Universe) in the
year 628 CE. Here Brahmagupta considers not only zero, but negative
numbers, and the algebraic rules for the elementary operations of
arithmetic with such numbers.
“The importance of the creation of the zero mark can never be
exaggerated. This giving to airy nothing, not merely a local habitation
and a name, a picture, a symbol, but helpful power, is the characteristic
of the Hindu race from whence it sprang. It is like coining the Nirvana
into dynamos. No single mathematical creation has been more potent for
the general on-go of intelligence and power.” - G. B. Halsted
A very important distinction for the Indian symbol for zero, is that, unlike
the Babylonian and Mayan zero, the Indian zero symbol came to be
understood as meaning nothing.
As the Indian decimal zero and its new mathematics spread from the
Arab world to Europe in the Middle Ages, words derived from sifr and
zephyrus came to refer to calculation, as well as to privileged knowledge
and secret codes. Records show that the ancient Greeks seemed
unsure about the status of zero as a number. They asked themselves,
“How can nothing be something?” This lead to philosophical and, by the
Medieval period, religious arguments about the nature and existence of
zero and the vacuum.

The word “zero” came via the French word zéro, and cipher came from
the Arabic word safira which means “it was empty.” Also sifr, meaning
“zero” or “nothing,” was the translation for the Sanskrit word sunya,
which means void or empty.

27
The number zero was especially regarded with suspicion in Europe, so
much so that the word cipher for zero became a word for secret code in
modern usage. It is very likely a linguistic memory of the time when
using decimal arithmetic was deemed evidence of dabbling in the occult,
which was potentially punishable by the all-powerful Catholic Church
with death.

UNIT- 4 CONTRIBUTION OF MATHEMATICIANS

Man had to spend thousands of years in learning how to count, in the

same way he had to spend thousands of years in learning how to write
numbers. At first he represented a number by engraving lines on the
bark of trees. He soon found out that it was still use Roman symbols, as,
I stand for one; V stands for five; X stands for ten; L stands for fifty, etc.
The Egyptians has pictorial symbols. The Romans made group of 5 and
10 on the basis of the figures of one and two hands, because it was
easier to count with the help of fingers than with that of pebbles. The
different groups were represented by different symbols. The chief defect
with their symbols was that it took a long time in reading and writing
numbers. Man, therefore, invented an instrument abacus by name. Even
today in China and Japan and abacus is used in teaching children how
to count.

Soon man invented ‘Zero’ which means empty space. It is said that it
was invented by the Babylonians but with the extinction of their
civilization, the use of ‘Zero’ also disappeared. Zero was rediscovered by
the Indians. The Arabs learnt it from Indians and the Western learnt it
from the Arabs. In Arabic digits are called ‘Hindse’ which word shows
that the Arabs learnt them from India (Hind). Gradually the decimal
system was invented in the 16 th century. In 1612, John Napier found out
the method of calculating long multiplications and divisions with the help
of Logarithmic Tables. Briggs (1556-1631 A.D), discovered the method
of working out to a base of 10. From 330 B.C. until 1637 A.D. Synthetic
method were used. A new approach to Analytical Geometry was
developed in 1637 by a Frenchman, Rene Descartes. It is said that
Fermat (1601- 1665 A.D.) invented Differential and Integral Calculus.
Algebra had also been developed to some extent by Diophantos of
Alexandria in 350 A.D.

The Hindus also made great contributions to the science of

mathematics. Some of the important Hindus mathematicians like

28
Aryabhata, Bhaskaracharya, Srinivasa Ramanujan etc., explored new
fields in mathematics. They imparted precisions and exactness to the
various branches of mathematics. The students must know what
contributions were made by Indians to mathematics and should feel
proud of them. They should be exhorted to drive deep into the study of
mathematics and by their new finding in it bring credit to their country.

The place which mathematics occupies today is made possible through

dedicated and sustained hard work of its students through ages.
Mathematics progressed all the way through the contribution of several
Western and Indian Mathematicians. Through their invaluable
contribution they have immortalised themselves. Introducing the
biographies of outstanding mathematicians can inspire the students.
Here, we are going to discuss the contributions of a few outstand
mathematicians from abroad and India.
a. Euclid

Euclid is believed to be an Egyptian who comes to Alexandria to learn

and afterwards placed in charge of the mathematics department of the
Alexandria University. His influence on mathematics began about 300
B.C. He wrote a textbook on Geometry, called the Elements, and it
covers all the essential parts of mathematics known in his time. The
Elements contains 13 books. Each text begins with definitions,
postulates, and common opinions, then proceeds to obtain results by
rigorous geometric proof. Books 1-6 deals with plane Geometry. Books
7-9 contain elements of numbers theory, where number means positive
integers greater than 1, Beginning with 22 new definitions - such as
unity, even, odd and prime those books develop various properties of
the positive integers. Books 10-13, examine three dimensional figures in
Greek Stereometria. Euclid also wrote other books in mathematics and a
few in physics. The important of them are ‘Date’, ‘On Division of
Figures’, ‘Phenomena’, ‘Optics’ etc. In all his works Euclid follows the
basic logical structure of Elements, having definitions and rigorously
proved propositions. All works continue to exist in the Original Greek
except ‘On Division of Figures’, which is partially preserved in Arabic.
His major contributions are:

 Euclid’s second theorem – Prime numbers are infinite

 He thought about the three current problems of time – Dividing an
angle into three equal parts, Making double of a cube and
obtaining square from a cube.

29
 Euclidean Algorithm – The greatest common divisor of two
numbers.
b. Srinivasa Ramanujan

Srinivasa Ramanujan was one of the greatest Indian mathematical

geniuses. He was quite and meditative, and possessed an extraordinary
memory. He delighted in entertaining his friends with theorems and
formulae. He passed his matriculation examination at 16, but could not
do well at the college. He was married in 1909, and it became necessary
for him to find some permanent employment. He was appointed as a
clerk in the office of the Madras Point Trust. But he did not Blacker his
work in mathematics. His earliest contribution were published in the
journal of Indian Mathematical Society. His article on ‘Some Properties
of Bernoulli’s Numbers’ way very much appreciated. Through the help of
the chairman of the Madras Port Trust, he came in contact with the
famous mathematician, C.H. Hardy. He got a scholarship from Madras
and went to England.
Though he had no schooling in modern mathematics, but he could work
out modular equations and theorems of complex multiplication to orders
unheard of. His mastery of continued fractions was beyond that of any
mathematicians in the world. He was a head of contemporary
mathematical knowledge when he arrived in England. He recreated in
his field through his own unaided powers a rich half century of European
mathematics. One may doubt that so prodigious a feat had ever before
been accomplished in the history of thought. Ramanujan was not a
geometer; he cared nothing for mathematical physics, let alone the
possible usefulness of his mathematical work to other disciplines.
Numbers, as it appears, were his friends. In the simplest array of digits,
he detected wonderful properties: Congruence, symmetries and
relationships which has escaped the notice of even the outstandingly
gifted mathematicians. It was his insight into algebraically formulae,
transformations of infinite series, etc., that was most amazing. 1729 is a
very famous Ramanujan number. It is the smallest number which can be
expressed as the sum of two cubes in two different ways i.e.,

1729 = 13 + 123 = 93 + 103

He also produced quite a number of results in definite integrals in the

form of general formulae.
c. Aryabhatta

One of the best known of the Hindu writers was Aryabhatta. His chief
work is divided into four parts, three, of which are on astronomy, while

30
the fourth gives thirty three rules in Arithmetic, Algebra and Plane
Geometry. In algebra, he deals with problems involving series. He
derived the following formulae:

12 + 2 2 + 3 2 +………….+ n2 = n (n +1) (2n +1)

6
13 + 23 + 3 3 + ……. + n3

= (1 + 2 + 3 + ……..+ n) 2 = n2 (n + 1) 2
4

= n (n + 1)
2

He was familiar with series, permutations and linear and quadratic

equations in Algebra. He was also aware of the decimal system, for
some of his arithmetic deals with numbers by tens upto 10 18. He also
gave a rule for finding square roots and cube root along with their time in
India the formula for interest, time and other related ones, in the
problem. He gave accurate approximation for , and wrote in his book
Aryabhatiya the following: Add four to one hundred, multiply by eight and
then add sixty two thousand. The result is approximately the
circumference of a circle of diameter twenty thousand. The result is
approximately the circumference of a circle of diameter twenty thousand.
By this rule the relation of the circumference to diameter is given. This
gives  = 62832/ 20000 = 3.1416 which is an accurate vale of . He
gives formulae for the areas of a triangle and of a circle which are
correct. He introduces the versin (Versine = 1- Cosine) into
Trigonometry.
d. Bhaskaracharya
Bhaskaracharya otherwise known as Bhaskara was one of the most
powerful and creative mathematician of ancient India. He was also
known as Bhaskara the learned. Well known works of Bhaskara are:
Lilavati, Bijaganita and Siddhantasiromani. Lilavati is about arithmetical
and geometrical progressions, plane geometry, solid geometry, interest,
permutations, ratio, etc., Bijaganita is about positive and negative
numbers, Zero, quadratic equations with more than one unknown and

31
operations with products of several unknown, etc. Siddhantasiromani is
about sphere, spherical trigonometry, ellipse calculations and
astronomical calculations.
e. Pythagoras

Pythagoras was a Greek Mathematicians. Pythagoras is believed to

have been a pupil of Thales. He too had many followers. Pythagoras
proved the position relating to the sum of the angels of a triangle and a
few others. Though he has given credit for the theorem at least 1,500
years before, while the Chinese knew it about 100 years previously, and
the Hindus were also aware of it. We are still in doubt as to what method
Pythagoras and his followers did much work on polyhedra which are
special names according to the number of sides which make up the
solid. Pythagoras also studied the properties of areas and volumes and
he was first to prove that a circle contains a greater areas than any
plane figure with the same perimeter, while the sphere contains a
greater volume than other shape bounded by the same surface. He,
indeed, made geometry a science by basing it on axioms, postulates,
and definitions and by setting down methods of proof. He was also one
of the first men to class all numbers as even or add (Odd numbers were
called gnomon). An odd number, which we call 2n + 1 was looked upon
as the difference of two square numbers (n + 1) 2 and n2 , or to
illustrate this, (3+1) 2 – 3 2, where n=3. He also states that the sum of
the odd numbers from 1 to (2n+ 1) was a square number, namely, (n+1)
2.

The square root of a square number was termed a side by the

Pythagoreans , while the product of two numbers was called a plane,
unless the product had no exact square root, when it was termed an
oblong. If the three same numbers were multiplied together, the product
was called cube. He was very much impressed by numbers, and
believed that they possessed different qualities, for example, number 1
stood for reason, 2 for opinion, 4 for justices, etc. Pythagoras also
developed the theory of music. He was perhaps the most outstanding
person in the history of ancient mathematics.

32
 Check your progress

Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the Block.

3. Write short note on postulational system.

………………………………………………………………………………………
….……….……………………………………………………………………………

4. Mention the contributions of mathematics for the following

mathematicians.
a) Euclid

b) Brahmagupta
………………………………………………………………………………………
…..…………………..………………………………………………………………

UNIT 5 PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGY OF TEACHING

AND LEARNING OF MATHEMATICS

5.1 Constructivism
Constructivism is based on the premise that we all construct our own
perspective of the world, based on individual experiences and internal
knowledge. Learning is based on how the individual interprets and
creates the meaning of his or her experiences. Knowledge is
constructed by the learner and since everyone has a different set of
experiences and perceptions, learning is unique and different for each
person.
Learning Process

Constructivist theorists believe that learning is a process where

individuals construct new ideas or concepts based on prior knowledge
and/or experience. Each of us generates our own mental models, which
we use to make sense of our experiences. We resolve conflicts
between ideas and reflect on theoretical explanations. Learning,
therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to
accommodate our new experiences.
This theory is used to focus on preparing people to problem solve.
Therefore, to be successful, the learner needs a significant base of
knowledge upon which to interpret and create ideas. Additionally, with
Constructivism, outcomes are not always predictable because learners

33
are constructing their own knowledge. Thus Constructivism does not
work when the results always need to be consistent.
Constructivism - Examples and Applications:

 Case studies

 Research Projects
 Problem based learning

 Brainstorming

 Collaborative learning / group work

 Discovery learning
 Simulations
Constructivism, as espoused by such researchers and theorists as Jean
Piaget and Ernst von Glasersfeld, has dominated educational research
and practice for over 20 years. In this theory, learning is considered an
active process in which a learner constructs his or her own subjective
knowledge. Learners accommodate and assimilate new knowledge into
their existing knowledge base. Some of the new ideas, positive
contributions, and implications of the constructivist worldview for
education include:

 Teaching and learning become more student-centered. Learning

does not automatically happen when information is presented to a
student. Education becomes more humanized.

 “If we assume that students have to build up their own knowledge,

we have to consider that they are not 'blank slates'”.
 Students are rational beings: “Whatever a student says in answer
to a question (or “problem”) is what makes sense to the student at
that moment”.
 “If teachers want to modify a student’s concepts and conceptual
structures, they have to try and build up a model of the particular
student’s own thinking”.
 “Asking students how they got to the answer they gave” is useful
for pedagogical purposes.
 Let students struggle with problems of their own choice, helping
them only when they ask for help”.

34
5.2 Enactivism
Enactivism, a combination of Constructivism and Embodied Cognition, is
a theory wherein cognition and environment are inseparable, and
learning is drawn from the interaction between learner and environment.
It is rooted in the phenomenological work of Merleau-
Ponty and Bateson’s biological perspective work. Enactivism is
underpinned by the thought that actions are not simply a display of
understanding, but they are themselves understandings. This makes it
possible to observe how humans learn alone and in groups, and how
participation in any shared actions contribute to an overall sense of
identity. For the enactivist, what is imagined, what is fantasized, what is
guessed at, and what is intuited, are understood as being extremely
important to meaning making and contributing to knowledge and what is
learned. Cognition is an evolving interaction between systems; the
cognitive system is a producer of meaning rather than a processor of
information, as in constructivism. Learning is not about gaining
information; instead, it is seen as an ongoing process of exploration
about consciousness, self, context, and interactions of complex systems
in order to adapt to the evolving world. Action and mental process are
inseparable; action is knowledge. Applied to an educational context,
enactivism stresses that reality and mind are interlinked and cannot be
separated; as a result, learning should never occur as isolated events in
a classroom.
Research on embodied cognition and the theory of enactivism have
found that sensory behavior and cognition are connected, if not
inseparable.
Major differences with Constructivism

Enactivism differs from constructivism in several ways.

 Constructivism maintains a separation of mental thought from
physical action, where the two are combined in enactivism.

 Knowledge, according to constructivism, is an object that occupies

space and must be built by the learner with facilitation from a
teacher, whereas in enactivism knowledge is present in all things
and in all actions, and the teacher and students discover the
knowledge together as it co-evolves with the actions they take.
 Constructivism is concerned only with cognitive knowledge, and
does not consider subconscious knowledge or the role of emotions
in learning.

35
 Making connections is an important part of constructivism. Gaining
knowledge is a focus of constructivism, and knowing about
interconnections in the environment is the focus of enactivism.

5.3 Social Development Theory (Vygotsky)

Social Development Theory argues that social interaction precedes
development; consciousness and cognition are the end product of
socialization and social behavior.
Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory is the work of Russian
psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)[1][2]. Vygotsky’s work was largely
unkown to the West until it was published in 1962. Vygotsky’s theory is
one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes
regarding social interaction, the more knowledgeable other, and the
zone of proximal development.
Social Interaction - Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the
process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s
understanding of child development (in which development necessarily
precedes learning), Vygotsky felt that social learning precedes
development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural
development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the
individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then
inside the child (intrapsychological)”.
The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) - The MKO refers to anyone
who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner,
with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is
normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the
MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers.
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - The ZPD is the distance
between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance
and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the
problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this
zone.
Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the socio-
cultural context in which they act and interact in shared experiences.
According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture,
such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments.
Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions,

36
ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization
of these tools led to higher thinking skills.
Applications of the Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory

Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist

model in which a teacher or lecturer ‘transmits’ information to students.
In contrast, Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in which
students play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student
are therefore shifted, as a teacher should collaborate with his or her
students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in students.
Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students
and teacher.

LET US SUM UP

In this unit we learnt about the meaning and definition of mathematics.

Mathematics is an abstract science which deals with numbers and
figures. In this unit we discussed the nature of mathematics and
importance of mathematics and its value in daily life. Mathematics
progressed all the way through the contributions of several western and
Indian Mathematicians like Euclid, Pythagoras, Descartes, Aryabhatta,
Bhaskaracharya, Brahmagupta and Srinivasa Ramanujan.

GLOSSARY

 Hypothesis – an idea that is suggested as the possible explanation

for something but has not yet been found to be true or correct.

 Arithmetic – the kind of mathematics which involves counting with

numbers (adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing).
 Archaeology – the study of the past, based on objects or parts of
buildings that are found in the ground.
 Psychology - the scientific study of the mind and the way that
people behave.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Comte defined mathematics as “The science of indirect

measurement”.
2. Need and significance of mathematics teaching:

37
  A better understanding of the world around

 An essential element of communication

 A good deal of self-reliance, self-confidence, tolerance and open-
mindedness.
 A window for looking the world and a framework for solving
problems.

3. The method of mathematics is essentially postulational. In a

postulational system we select certain concepts to be primitive or
undefined. These are both technical terms (such as line, point) as
well as the terms of classical logic (such as there exists, one,
every and not). These terms should be as few as possible. The
second step in setting up a postulational system is listing all the
statements (or assertions) formulated in terms of the primitive
terms.
4. a) Euclid’s major contributions are:
 Euclid’s second theorem- prime numbers are finite.
 Euclidean Algorithm- The greatest common divisor of two
numbers.
 He thought about- Dividing an angle into three equal parts ,
making double of a cube and obtaining square from a cube.
b) Brahmagupta’s contributions are: He wrote a book in verse
dealing with arithmetic, algebra, and geometry.The arithmetic
includes integers, fractions, progressions, S.I., mensuration and
some problems on simple plane geometry. His algebra is mainly
applicable to astronomy. He gives rules for negative numbers.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Anice James (2005). Teaching of Mathematics . Hyderabad:

Neelkamal Publications.
Bill Handley (2012). Speed Mathematics. Wiley-Blackwell; 3rd Edition

Mangal.S.K.(2007). Teaching of Mathematics. Tandon Publications,

Ludhiana
Marilyn Burns (2007). About Teaching Mathematics: A K-8 Resource,
Math Solutions; 3rd edition
NCERT (2015). Mathematics Text Book for class for class 6 to 10;
NCERT Publication, New Delhi.

38
Rajesh Kumar Thakur (2009). Vedic Mathematics; Unicorn Books
Raju B.S.P & Upadhyaya.B.S. et,al (2011). Pedagogy of Mathematics
two year B.Ed Course, NCERT; First Edition
Steven G. Krantz (1999). How to Teach Mathematics; American
Mathematical Society; 2nd edition
Steven G. Krantz (2003). A Mathematician's Survival Guide: Graduate
School and Early Career Development; American Mathematical Society

Mathematics School Text book of Government of Tamilnadu.

www.eltguide.wordpress.com

Web Resources

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/axiomatic

https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/social-development/

****

39
BLOCK 2 OBJECTIVES AND INSTRUCTIONAL PLANNING
IN MATHEMATICS
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Unit 6 Aims and Objectives of Teaching Mathematics
6.1 Aims of Teaching Mathematics
6.2 Aims and Objectives
6.3 Instructional Objectives
6.4 Learning Outcomes
6.5 General Instructional Objective
6.6 Specific Learning Outcome
6.7 Student’s Performance
6.8 Writing GIOs and SLOs
Unit 7 Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
7.1 The Three Domains of Learning
7.2 GIOs AND SLO
Unit 8 Lesson Planning
8.1 Definitions of Lesson Plan
8.2 Basic Considerations for Preparing the Lesson Plan
8.3 Functions of a Good Lesson Plan in Mathematics
8.4 Important Features of a Good Lesson Plan
8.5 Various Approaches to Lesson Planning
8.6 Herbatian Approach
8.7 Format of a Lesson Plan
8.8 Lesson Plan - Model
Unit 9 Unit Plan
9.1 Definitions of a Unit
9.2 Characteristics of a Good Unit
9.3 Steps in Unit Planning
9.4 Advantages of Unit Plan
9.5 Format of a Unit Plan
Unit-10 Pedagogical Analysis
Let Us Sum Up
Glossary
Answers to Check Your Progress
Suggested Readings

40
 INTRODUCTION

Mathematics should be visualized as the vehicle to train a child to think,

reason, analyze and to articulate logically. Apart from being a specific
subject, it should be treated as a concomitant to any subject involving
analysis and reasoning - National Policy on Education 1986. The
National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCFSE) 2000
document echoes such sentiments as well. Yet, despite this history of
exhortations, mathematics education has remained pretty much the
same, focused on narrow aims.

OBJECTIVES

After learning this Block, you will be able to:

 understand and differentiate the Aims and Objectives of teaching
mathematics;
 differentiate the Aims and Objectives of teaching mathematics;
 define Instructional Objectives;
 understand and describe GIOs and SLOs;

 explain Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives; and

 prepare Unit Plan and Lesson Plan.

UNIT 6 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS

6.1 Aims of Teaching Mathematics

Aims of teaching mathematics are to be framed in the light of the

educational values of the subject. Value is the spring-board of aims. We
know that mathematics has wide applications in our daily life. It has
great cultural and disciplinary values. Thus we may mention the aims of
teaching mathematics as under:
Table 6.1: Aims of Teaching Mathematics

S.No Aims Description

1. Practical or  To give the individual an understanding of ideas and

Utilitarian operations in number and quantity needed in daily life.
 To enable the individual to have clear comprehension of
the way the number is applied to all measures but most
particularly to those frequently used concepts such as

41
 length, volume, area, weigh, temperature, speed etc.
 To enable the individual to become proficient in the four
fundamental operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
 To provide the basis of mathematical skills and
processes which will be needed for vocational purposes.
 To enable the learner to acquire and develop
mathematical skills and attitude to meet the demands of
(i) daily life (ii) future mathematical work and (iii) work in
the related fields of knowledge.
 To enable the student to make appropriate
approximations.
 To enable the learner to understand the concept of radio
and scale drawing, read and interpret graphs, diagrams
and tables.

2. Disciplinary  To provide opportunities that enable the learners to

exercise and discipline mental faculties.
 To help the learner in the intelligent use of reasoning
power.
 To develop constructive imagination and inventive
faculties.
 To develop the character through systematic and orderly
habits.
 To help the learner to be original and creative in thinking.
 To help the individual to become self-reliant and
independent.

3. Cultural  To enable the learner to appreciate the part played by

mathematics in the culture of the past and that it
contains to play in the present world.
 To enable the student to appreciate the role played by
mathematics in preserving and transmitting our cultural
traditions.
 To enable him to appreciate various arts like drawing,
design making, painting, poetry, music, sculpture and
architecture.
 To provide through mathematical ideas, aesthetic and
intellectual enjoyment and satisfaction and to give an
opportunity for creative expression.
 To help the students explore creative fields such as art
and architecture.
 To make the learner aware of the strengths and virtues
of the culture he has inherited.

42
  To develop in the individual an aesthetic awareness of
mathematical shapes and patterns in nature as well as
the products of our civilization.

4. Social  To develop in the individual an awareness of the

mathematical principles and operations which will enable
the individual to understand and participate in the
general social and economic life of his community.
 To enable the student to understand how the methods of
mathematics such as scientific, intuitive, deductive and
inventive are used to investigate, interpret and to make
decision in human affairs.
 To help the pupil acquire social and moral values to lead
a fruitful life in the society.
 To help the pupil in the formation of social laws and
social order needed for social harmony.
 To provide the pupils scientific and technological
knowledge necessary for adjusting to the rapidly
changing society and social life.
 To help the learner appreciate how mathematics
contributes to his understanding of natural phenomena.
 To help the pupil interpret social and economic
phenomena.

6.2 Aims and Objectives

For a teacher it is practically impossible to realize all the aims of

mathematics education within the framework of curriculum, for they
involve a total programme of education encompassing even out-of-
classroom experiences. The part of the aim that can be achieved within
an institution (or in a classroom) is an objective. While aims give
directions to education, objectives are directed towards the aims.
Table 2.2: Difference between Aims and Objectives

Aims Objectives

 Aims are what  Objectives are what you will

you want to do to achieve them.
achieve.

 Aim is abstract.  Objective is more specific in

character.

43
  Aim need not  Objective is time-bound.
be time-bound.

 Aims are long  Objectives are short term

term goals. goals.

 Aims are  Objectives vary from course

common for to course. Specific for each
many course.
disciplines

 Aims are  Objectives attainable within

attainment the educational system-steps
beyond the towards the realization of the
scope of the aims.
curriculum.

6.3 Instructional Objectives

Instructional objectives are used to inform students and others what the
student is to achieve. They provide one method of expressing expected
student competencies. Instructional objectives are concerned with
students, not faculty, and will guide them in their studies. Clearly defined
instructional objectives also aid faculty in designing appropriate
educational experiences.
Instructional objectives stem from the defining of preset performance
standards that represent a minimal level of expected performance,
learning outcomes, to be achieved by all students and hence are key to
competency based learning and evaluation. Instructional objectives are
specific and observable or measurable, rather than broad and intangible.
They are tied to student evaluation and serve as a foundation for
assessing the student's knowledge, skills, and performance.
Instructional Goals vs. Instructional Objectives

Instructional goals are often defined as general statements that define

the major purposes of a course, rotation or unit of instruction. They are
not readily measurable and may have several interpretations. They are
broad references to a general direction of the course rather than any
specific description of process or outcomes. A goal may describe the
intent of a course. It is that end which is hoped for at the conclusion of
the unit of instruction. From a faculty perspective, goals give a general

44
direction for selecting content but offer no specifics related to the
instructional process or the expected student outcome.
Instructional objectives are defined as statements that describe what the
learner will be able to do after completing a unit of instruction. In other
words, an instructional objective is a statement of certain behaviors or
observable actions that, when they are exhibited by a learner,
demonstrate that the learner has some skill, attitude, or knowledge.
Since behaviors are the indicator of the desired outcome, these are
often called behavioral objectives.
Another even more descriptive definition is: An instructional objective is
a statement of an observable proficiency in which the criteria for
acceptable performance is specified and measurable. The resources
important in the performance of the task are also stated.
Instructional objectives can be grouped into two general categories:
enabling objectives and terminal objectives. Enabling objectives are
ones written to assist the student in achieving the intended behaviors
during the course of a unit of study. Terminal objectives are ones written
to indicate the behaviors expected of the student at the completion of the
unit of study.

6.4 Learning Outcomes

Think for a moment about a course or training session with which you
are currently involved. Identify one skill that you think would be essential
to know or do by the end of this learning period. If you were able to do
this, then you are beginning to construct a learning outcome.

 Definition of Learning Outcomes

Learning outcomes are statements that describe significant and

essential learning that learners have achieved, and can reliably
demonstrate at the end of a course or program. In other words,
learning outcomes identify what the learner will know and be able to
do by the end of a course or program.
Spady, (1994), an educational researcher who spearheaded the
development of outcomes based education, suggests that the ability
demonstrate learning is the key point. This demonstration of
learning involves a performance of some kind in order to show
significant learning, or learning that matters. He claims that
significant content is essential, but that content alone is insufficient

45
 as an outcome. Rather, knowledge of content must be manifested
through a demonstration process of some kind.

6.5 General Instructional Objectives (GIOs)

An intended outcome of instruction that has been stated in general

enough terms to encompass a domain of student performance. This
general instructional objective must be further clarified by a set of
specific learning outcomes.

6.6 Specific Learning Outcome (SLOs)

An intended outcome of instruction that has been stated in terms of

observable student performance. This outcome describes the types of
performance that are acceptable evidence of learning.

6.7 Student’s Performance

Any measurable or observable student response that is a result of

learning.

6.8 Writing GIOs and SLOs

Listing objectives is a time consuming process, which requires careful

thought. It is best done over a period of time in order to be able to review
and revise. But for having one prepared and refined a list for a course, it
can remain as a guide from year to year with only minor revisions.
For each general instructional objective it is necessary to write SLOs
that will state the precise behaviour or performance that is expected of a
student. Each general instructional objective can have many specific
outcomes of learning under it, These are smaller units of performance
and can be precisely measured by tests of various kinds.
There are five elements which when used in writing an SLO give the
clearest definition for student performance that can be used for both
teaching and testing. The five elements are as follows.

a. Performer (The student, The trainer, The Learner, etc)

b. Action Required (An action verb. Example: Identifies, compares,
describes, distinguishes, analyses, classifies etc.)

46
c. Task (Include a task to be performed. Example: Compares the
properties, explain the derivation).
d. Conditions (Include any conditions that may be required. Example:
Compares the properties of the given triangles).
e. Criteria for judgement (any relevant criteria for clarity. Example:
Explains the phenomena with at least two examples, computers with
speed and accuracy)

Check your progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of

the Block.
1. What are the aims of mathematics teaching?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………….………………………………………………..
2. Define instructional goals.

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………….…….……………………………………………

UNIT 7 BLOOM'S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL

OBJECTIVES

Bloom's Taxonomy was created in 1956 under the leadership of

educational psychologist Dr Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher
forms of thinking in education, such as analyzing and
evaluating concepts, processes, procedures, and principles, rather than
just remembering facts (rote learning). It is most often used when
designing educational, training, and learning processes.

7.1 The Three Domains of Learning

The committee identified three domains of educational activities
or learning (Bloom, et al. 1956):
 Cognitive: mental skills (knowledge)
 Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude or self)
 Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (skills)

47
Since the work was produced by higher education, the words tend to be
a little bigger than we normally use. Domains may be thought of as
categories. Instructional designers, trainers, and educators often refer to
these three categories as KSA (Knowledge [cognitive], Skills
[psychomotor], and Attitudes [affective]). This taxonomy of learning
behaviors may be thought of as “the goals of the learning process.” That
is, after a learning episode, the learner should have acquired a new skill,
knowledge, and/or attitude.
 The Cognitive Domain

The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of

intellectual skills (Bloom, 1956). This includes the recall or recognition of
specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the
development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major
categories of cognitive an processes, starting from the simplest to the
most complex (see the table below for an in-depth coverage of each
category) :

 Knowledge

 Comprehension
 Application
 Analysis

 Synthesis

 Evaluation
The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the
first ones must normally be mastered before the next one can take
place.

48
 Table 2.3 : The Cognitive Domain

Example, Key Words (action verbs), and

Objectives and Category
Technologies for Learning (activities)

Examples: Recite a policy. Quote prices

from memory to a customer. Know the
safety rules. Define a term.
Key Words: arranges, defines, describes,
Knowledge: Recall data or
identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches,
information.
names, outlines, recalls, recognizes,
reproduces, selects, states
Technologies: bookmarking, flash cards,
Internet search, reading

Examples: Rewrites the principles of test

writing. Explain in one's own words the
steps for performing a complex task.
Translates an equation into a computer
Comprehension: spreadsheet.
Understand the meaning,
Key Words: comprehends, converts,
translation, interpolation,
diagrams, defends, distinguishes,
and interpretation of
estimates, explains, extends, generalizes,
instructions and problems.
gives an example, infers, interprets,
State a problem in one's
paraphrases, predicts, rewrites,
own words.
summarizes, translates
Technologies: create an analogy,
participating in cooperative learning,
taking notes, story telling

Examples: Use a manual to calculate an

employee's vacation time. Apply laws of
statistics to evaluate the reliability of a
Application: Use a
written test.
concept in a new situation
or unprompted use of an Key Words: applies, changes, computes,
abstraction. Applies what constructs, demonstrates, discovers,
was learned in the manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts,
classroom into novel prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves,
situations in the work uses
place.
Technologies: collaborative learning,
create a process, material good, etc.), blog,
practice

Analysis: Separates Examples: Troubleshoot a piece of

49
material or concepts into equipment by using logical deduction.
component parts so that its Recognize logical fallacies in
organizational structure reasoning. Gathers information from a
may be understood. department and selects the required tasks
Distinguishes between for training.
facts and inferences.
Key Words: analyzes, breaks down,
compare, contrast, diagrams, deconstructs,
differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes,
identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates,
selects, separates
Technologies: fishbowls, debating,
questioning what happened, run a test

Examples: Write a company operations or

process manual. Design a machine to
perform a specific task. Integrates training
from several sources to solve a problem.
Synthesis: Builds a
Revises and process to improve the
structure or pattern from
outcome.
diverse elements. Put parts
together to form a whole, Key Words: categorizes, combines,
with emphasis on creating compiles, composes, creates, devises,
a new meaning or designs, explains, generates, modifies,
structure. organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs,
relates, reorganizes, revises, rewrites,
summarizes, tells, writes
Technologies: essay, networking

Examples: Select the most effective

solution. Hire the most qualified candidate.
Explain and justify a new budget.
Evaluation: Make Key Words: appraises, compares,
judgments about the value concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques,
of ideas or materials. defends, describes, discriminates,
evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies,
relates, summarizes, supports
Technologies: survey, blogging

 The Affective Domain

The affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, Masia, 1973) includes the

manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as
feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes.
The five major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the
most complex:

50
  Receiving Phenomena

 Responds to Phenomena
 Valuing

 Organization

 Internalizes Values

Table 2.4 : The Affective Domain

Objectives and Category Example and Key Words (verbs)

Examples: Listen to others with

respect. Listen for and remember the
name of newly introduced people.
Receiving Phenomena:
Awareness, willingness to hear,
selected attention. Key Words: acknowledge, asks,
attentive, courteous, dutiful, follows,
gives, listens, understands

Examples: Participates in class

Responds to Phenomena: discussions. Gives a presentation.
Active participation on the part Questions new ideals, concepts,
of the learners. Attend and models, etc. in order to fully
react to a particular understand them. Know the safety
phenomenon. Learning rules and practice them.
outcomes may emphasize
compliance in responding,
willingness to respond, or Key Words: answers, assists, aids,
satisfaction in responding complies, conforms, discusses,
(motivation). greets, helps, labels, performs,
presents, tells

Valuing: The worth or value a Examples: Demonstrates belief in the

person attaches to a particular democratic process. Is sensitive
object, phenomenon, or towards individual and cultural
behavior. This ranges from differences (value diversity). Shows
simple acceptance to the more the ability to solve problems.
complex state of commitment. Proposes a plan to social
Valuing is based on the improvement and follows through with
internalization of a set of commitment. Informs management on
specified values, while clues to matters that one feels strongly about.
these values are expressed in
the learner's overt behavior and

51
are often identifiable. Key Words: appreciates, cherish,
treasure, demonstrates, initiates,
invites, joins, justifies, proposes,
respect, shares

Examples: Recognizes the need for

balance between freedom and
responsible behavior. Explains the
Organization: Organizes role of systematic planning in solving
values into priorities by problems. Accepts professional ethical
contrasting different values, standards. Creates a life plan in
resolving conflicts between harmony with abilities, interests, and
them, and creating an unique beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to
value system. The emphasis is meet the needs of the organization,
on comparing, relating, and family, and self.
synthesizing values.

Key Words: compares, relates,

synthesizes

Examples: Shows self-reliance when

working independently. Cooperates in
group activities (displays teamwork).
Internalizes Values
Uses an objective approach in
(Characterization): Has a
problem solving. Displays a
value system that controls their
professional commitment to ethical
behavior. The behavior is
practice on a daily basis. Revises
pervasive, consistent,
judgments and changes behavior in
predictable, and most important
light of new evidence. Values people
characteristic of the learner.
for what they are, not how they look.
Instructional objectives are
concerned with the student's
general patterns of adjustment
Key Words: acts, discriminates,
(personal, social, emotional).
displays, influences, modifies,
performs, qualifies, questions, revises,
serves, solves, verifies

 The Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination,
and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires
practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance,
procedures, or techniques in execution. Thus, psychomotor skills range
from manual tasks, such as digging a ditch or washing a car, to more
complex tasks, such as operating a complex piece of machinery or
dancing.

52
 Table 2.5 : Dave’s (1975) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
for Psychomotor Domain

Objectives and Category Example and Key Words (action verbs)

Imitation : Observing and Examples: Copying a work of art.

patterning behavior after Performing a skill while observing a
someone else. demonstrator.
Performance may be of Key Words: copy, follow, mimic, repeat,
low quality. replicate, reproduce, trace

Examples: Being able to perform a skill on

Manipulation : Being able one's own after taking lessons or reading
to perform certain actions about it. Follows instructions to build a
by memory or following model.
instructions.
Key Words: act, build, execute, perform

Examples: Working and reworking

Precision: Refining, something, so it will be “just right.” Perform
becoming more exact. a skill or task without assistance.
Performing a skill within a Demonstrate a task to a beginner.
high degree of precision Key Words: calibrate, demonstrate,
master, perfectionism

Examples: Combining a series of skills to

Articulation : produce a video that involves music,
Coordinating and adapting drama, color, sound, etc. Combining a
a series of actions to series of skills or activities to meet a novel
achieve harmony and requirement.
internal consistency. Key Words: adapt, constructs, combine,
creates, customize, modifies, formulate

Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight

Naturalization : Mastering parallel parking spot. Operates a computer
a high level performance quickly and accurately. Displays
until it become second- competence while playing the piano.
nature or natural, without Michael Jordan playing basketball or
needing to think much Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball.
about it. Key Words: create, design, develop,
invent, manage, naturally

7.2 GIOs AND SLO

53
a. Cognitive Domain – GIO and SLO
While teaching mathematics at high school and higher secondary
schools, the three classes of objectives under cognitive domain which
form the basis for other higher levels of objectives namely knowledge,
comprehension and application (Table) can be given priority over the
other objectives. The other higher mental abilities such as analysis,
synthesis and evaluation are possible when the students attain the
necessary intellectual and mental maturity.
Table 2.6 : Cognitive domain - GIOs and SLOs

GIOs SLOs

1. Knowledge: The pupil

The pupil acquires  recalls or reproduces
knowledge of terms,
concept/terms/formulae/…etc.
symbols, concepts,
definitions, principles  recognizes
processes and formulae
in Mathematics.  defines
 states definitions theorems, formula
 lists properties

2. Comprehension: The pupil

The pupil develops  gives examples…
understanding of terms,
symbols, concepts,  explains…
definitions, principles,  describes…
processes and formulae.
 illustrates with examples…
 gives reason for…
 establishes relationship between
/among
 detects errors
 substitutes the values
 identifies..
 compares
 discriminates/distinguishes
 classifies as per criteria
 proves the result/theorem
 estimates the result

54
  translates verbal statements into
symbolic form and vice versa
 interprets
 infers

3. Application: The pupil

The pupil applies his/her  analyses what is given and what is
knowledge and to be found out
understanding of
mathematics to unfamiliar  selects suitable method/appropriate
or new situations formula
 judges the sufficiency or superfluity
of the given data
 formulates hypothesis
 suggests alternative method
 generates
 Predicts
 Verifies the result

b. Affective Domain – GIO and SLO

There are adequate empirical evidences to show that success in any

field of work depends upon the individual’s attitude towards the task, his
interest and involvement in the work, and so on. Success in
mathematics also depends upon the student’s interest in the subject, his
favourable disposition towards mathematics and his scientific temper of
mind. The following objectives have to be given due consideration while
teaching mathematics: (i) Interest, (ii) Positive attitude, and (iii) Scientific
attitude. Table gives the GIOs and SLOs for the objectives mentioned
above
Table 2.7 : Affective Domain - GIOs and SLOs

GIOs SLOs

1. Interest The Pupil

The pupil develops interest  reads literature on mathematics
in mathematics
 solves mathematical puzzles
 writes popular articles on
mathematics topics for school
magazines
 gives short cuts for solving

55
 problems
 does additional study in
mathematics
 does problems which are not
related to the syllabus
 participates in mathematics
debates, quiz contest etc.

2. Positive Attitude The Pupil

The pupil acquires positive  likes his teacher of mathematics
attitude towards
mathematics  exhibits enthusiasm in learning
mathematics
 promotes the activities of the
mathematics club in the school
 enquires about programmes in
T.V on mathematics/ reading
materials in mathematics
 listen with interest and
enthusiasm to talks on topics in
mathematics
 helps students who are weak in
mathematics
 engages in recreational activities
such as doing puzzles, reading
mathematical articles etc. during
leisure time.

3. Scientific attitude The Pupil

The pupil develops scientific  accepts a proposition only when
attitude through the study of logically proved
mathematics
 examines all aspects of a
problem
 points out error boldly, if
convinced
 accepts errors without hesitation
 respects the opinions of others
 keeps on open mind and does
not record any argument as
final

c. Psychomotor Domains – GIO and SLO

56
 Skill to be developed in mathematics
In mathematics the following skills may be developed. Some of these
skills are not purely psychomotor; they have to be integrated with the
classes of objectives under cognitive domain.

- Skill of drawing figures

- Skill of drawing graphs

- Skill of reading tables

- Skill of computation
Table 2.8: Psychomotor Domain - GIOs and SLOs

GIOs SLOs

1. The pupil develops skill The Pupil

in drawing figures
 draws fairly accurate free hand
figures
 selects appropriate geometrical
instruments
 handles geometrical instruments
with ease
 measures with speed and
accuracy
 constructs according to the
given specification
 draws neatly and correctly

2. The pupil develops skill  selects appropriate scale

in drawing graphs
 tabulates correctly
 plots the points neatly and
correctly
 draws the graph neatly and
correctly
 interprets the graph correctly

3. The pupil develops skill  Reads the table correctly

in reading table
 Reads the table with speed and
accuracy

4. The pupil develops skill  does oral calculation with speed

57
 in computation and accuracy
 does written calculations with
speed and accuracy
 does written calculations neatly

The teaching of mathematics should facilitate the realization of the

objectives relating to all the three domains. The teacher has to select the
objectives with utmost care so that they are attainable and measurable.
The GIOs and SLOs are to be stated with reference to the topic/lesson
related for instruction to make it clear and specific.

Check your progress

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of
the Block.
3. Write down any two higher order objectives of Cognitive
Domain.
…………………………………………………………………………..
……………………….........…………………………………………..
4. Mention the three domains of Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives.
…………………………………………………………………………..
……….………………….........……………………………………….

UNIT 8 LESSON PLANNING

The day-to-day planning of the details and sequence of each day’s work
is of great importance to each individual teacher. The daily lesson plan
forces a teacher to determine what learning activities will go on in the
class during that period. A teacher who goes to the class without
planning for the lesson runs the risk of wasting time and dissipating
effort. Indeed the very act of writing the plan out forces a crystallization
of the plan in the teacher’s mind. This in itself is an important step
towards a successful consummation of what is being planning.

58
8.1 Definitions of Lesson Plan
Good defined a lesson plan as an “outline of the important points of a
lesson arranged in the order in which they are to be presented to
students by teacher”.
Davies defined lesson plan as “an arrangement of learning, planning,
organizing, and controlling by a teacher”. In the words of Stands, Lester
B “A lesson plan is actually a plan of action. It therefore includes the
working philosophy of the teacher, her knowledge of philosophy, her
information about and understanding of her pupils, her comprehension
of the objectives of education, her knowledge of the material to be
taught, and her ability to utilize effective methods”
According to Bossing, “a lesson plan is the title given to the statement of
the achievement to be realized and the specific means by which these
are to be realized as a result of the activities engaged in during the
period. It points out what has been done, in what direction the pupils
should next be guided and helped and what work is to be taken
immediately. It is the teacher’s mental and emotional visualization of the
classroom experience as he plans it to occur” It is in many ways the
core, the heart of effective teaching.

8.2 Basic Considerations for Preparing the Lesson Plan

While preparing a lesson plan, the following broad principles should be

borne in mind.
 Selection of the suitable subject matter.
 Presentation of the selected material in an organized, orderly and
effective manner.
 Stating the objectives to be realized in clear and specific terms

 Assessing of the pupil’s capacities, capabilities, interests,

background and previous knowledge
 Careful estimation and selection of those activities most appropriate
for realizing the objectives

 Arrangement of these activities into a properly ordered schedule

 Evaluating the attainment of the stated objectives.

59
8.3 Functions of a Good Lesson Plan in Mathematics

A good lesson plan in mathematics serves the following:

 Lesson planning makes the teacher’s work more regular, organized
and systematic.
 It delimits the teacher’s field of work and thus enables him to define
his aims and objectives more clearly.

 It forces consideration of goals and objectives, the selection of

subject matter, the selection of procedure, the planning of activities
and the planning of evaluation devices.
 It prevents waste of time, as every step has been planned with
forethought. Unnecessary repetition is thus avoided.
 Its enhances self confidence of the teacher as it paves the way for
the teacher to enter the class without anxiety.

8.4 Important Features of a Good Lesson Plan

A good lesson should have certain important characteristics.

 All the objectives of the lesson plan, both general and specific,
should be stated clearly in the lesson plan.

 A good lesson plan should outline in detail the various steps that the
teacher proposes to take in the class.
 A good lesson plan should not remain at the oral or mental stage; is
should be preferably written
 A good lesson plan should have its basis on the previous knowledge
and experience of the learner and the present knowledge should be
well integrated with previous knowledge.
 Ample provisions should be made in the lesson plan for arousing the
curiosity and sustaining the interest of the students.

8.5 Various Approaches to Lesson Planning

A teacher can follow any of the following approaches for lesson
planning.

 Herbatian Approach
 Morrison’s or Unit Approach

 Bloom’s or Evaluation Approach

60
  RCEM Approach

8.6 Herbatian Approach

John Fredrik Herbat, a German philosopher and education (1776-1841)

advocated pedagogy- based lesson planning. Herbatian approach to
lesson planning involves the following steps.

 Preparation

 Presentation
 Association or Comparison
 Generalisation and

 Application

1. Preparation
It pertains to preparing and motivating the children to learn the new
topic. The mind of the child should be prepared to receive new
knowledge. The preparation should not only set the atmosphere for
learning, but it should also arrest attention of the students and focus it on
the new topic.

The preparation may involve:

a. Testing the previous knowledge relevant for learning the new topic
b. Integrating the previous knowledge with the new lesson to be
learned
c. Capturing the attention and maintaining interest using A.V.aids, story
telling, etc. Arousing the curiosity of the students by creating a
problematic situation or posing and intriguing question.
d. Announcing the aim of the lesson. (For example, a statement like
“Today we are going to derive a formula for the area of an equilateral
triangle.”)
2. Presentation

It is at this step that actual teaching takes place. The students acquire
new knowledge and ideas. For an effective learning outcome, the
teacher should ensure active student participation by providing a number
of learning activities. The teacher can make use of audio-visual aids and
illustrative materials to make the learning interesting, effective and
meaningful. The teacher should stimulate the mental faculties of the

61
students by asking thought provoking questions. This is very important
for teaching mathematics. The teacher can gradually build the new
concepts based on the responses elicited from the students.
3. Association of Comparison

The new knowledge becomes more meaningful when it is compared,

contrasted, associated and integrated with already existing knowledge.
This step is particularly significant in subjects like mathematics where
the students have to learn definitions, establish principles or
generalizations or formulae deducted from already learnt concepts,
postulates, theorems, and axioms. Some examples can be given and
students may be asked to observe and compare and see how these are
explicitly related to previously learnt ideas and concepts.
4. Generalisation

In mathematics the students are often required to establish some

formula, law, generalization or the rule. This is possible by presenting
particular examples and requiring the students to observe and compare
for common elements or pattern. Thus they are led to frame a general
law or principle. The teacher’s job is to enable the pupils to draw out the
generalization. When the mind comprehends new knowledge, it
compares and contrasts with what is already present and only then
ideas are generalized and new rules/laws or formulas are formed. This
step enables the learner to systematic the new knowledge acquired.
5. Application

Knowledge is power only when it is applied to new and unfamiliar

situations. It is particularly so in mathematics as the students have to
apply the rules, formulae or generalizations that they have learnt in order
to solve problems. By application the validity of the generalization is
tested and verified. Thus the knowledge becomes more meaningful to
the learner and becomes permanent in his mind.
6. Recapitulation

Though recapitulation is not mentioned as a separate step in Herbartian

scheme, the significance of recapitulation cannot be overlooked. This is
used fro ascertaining how well the students have understood the
concepts and to assess how effective the method of teaching has been.
Recapitulation can be done by.
a. asking questions on the contents of the lesson.

b. giving a short objective type test.

62
 c. asking the students to arrange the steps in solving problem in its
logical sequence.etc.
Recapitulation also helps the students to review and reorganize the
subject matter and consolidate ideas.

Check your progress

Notes: a) Write down your answer in the space given

below.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at
the end of the Block.

5. Define a lesson plan.

………………………………………………………………….
……………………….…………………………………………
6. Write down any two principles for writing the lesson plan.
…………………………………………………………………
…………….……………...……………………………………

7. Mention any points for the functions of a good lesson

plan in mathematics.
…………………………………………………………………
……………..………………………...………………………

8.7 Format of a Lesson Plan

Steps in Writing Lesson Plan in Mathematics

For lesson plan in mathematics the following steps can be followed.

a. Introduction or Motivation

b. Announcement of Aims
c. Presentation
d. Applications

e. Review/Recapitulation and

f. Assignment
Format of a Lesson Plan

Name of the Student-Teacher :

Name of the School :

63
Standard and Section :

Subject :
Unit :

Topic :

Date :
Time :

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES:

The Pupil
1. acquires the knowledge of the …………….
2. develops the understanding about its implications
………………..
3. applies the knowledge to classify the degrees of …………...
4. develops the skills of drawing and labeling.
5. develops to appreciate tasks of the …………...
SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES:

The Pupil
1. recalls the properties of the ………………….

2. distinguishes …………………..
3. locates …………………..
4. evaluates the ………….

5. enumerates the ………………..

6. classifies the figures …………………….

7. draws the triangle …………….

8. elucidates the ………….

METHOD OF TEACHING:
Lecture and Demonstration
LEARNING AIDS:

Model, Flash Cards, Charts, Colour chalk, etc.

64
1. MOTIVATION:
The teacher gives a brief description about parallelogram and its
construction. Then the teacher asks the following question to arouse
motivation among the students.

1. ………………….?
2. ………………….?

3. ………………….?
Then the teacher announces the aim of the lesson and writes title of the
lesson on the blackboard as ……………………...

2. PRESENTATION

LEARNING BLACKBOARD
CONTENT SPECIFICATION EVALUATION
EXPERIENCE WORK

3. APPLICATIONS

4. REVIEW / RECAPITULATION

5. HOME ASSIGNMENT

Signature of the Mentor Signature of the Student

Teacher

8.8 Lesson Plan - Model

Name of the Student-Teacher : Priya .M

Name of the School : M.A.M. Higher Secondary

65
 School, Chennai -15
Standard and Section : IX ‘C’
Subject : Mathematics
Unit : 10

Topic : Construction of
prallelogram
Date : 04.06.2018

Time : 10.30 am

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES:

The Pupil
1. acquires the knowledge of the construction of a parallelogram:
given two sides and one diagonal.
2. develops the skill in construction of a parallelogram: given two
sides and one diagonal.

3. applies his /her knowledge to new situations.

4. develops the positive attitude towards mathematics.
5. develops problem solving ability.
SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES:

The Pupil
1. recalls the properties of a parallelogram.

2. indicates that two triangles can form a parallelogram.

3. selects the appropriate method of construction.

4. Constructs parallelogram.
METHOD OF TEACHING:

Lecture and Demonstration

LEARNING AIDS:

Model, Cutouts of Triangles, parallelogram Quadrilaterals and polygons,

Charts, Colour chalk, etc.
1. MOTIVATION:

66
 The teacher motivates the students by showing the cut-outs of triangles,
quadrilaterals and polygons and asks them to pick out the quadrilaterals.

LEARNING
CONTENT SPECIFICATION BLACK BOARD WORK EVALUATION
EXPERIENCE

Identifies The teacher asks Pick out the

the
Quadrilateral.
students to pick
out the
parallelogram
from the set of
quadrilaterals
picked out

Identifies
The teacher Which of the
shows a given cutouts is
rectangle and a a parallelogram?
square.
The teacher writes two
Lists sides and a diagonal on the
black board and Highlights
it. How does a
rectangle
A parallelogram
become
Compares
1. Consists of two AB = 7 cms parallelogram?
congruent BC = 5 cms
The teacher
triangles AC = 9 cms Are these
shows the cut out
2. 2 pairs of equal of a parallelogram?
opposite sides parallelogram.

Explains Why are they

The teacher draws the
3. 2 pairs of equal parallelogram on the called
opposite interior blackboard parallelogram?
The teacher
angles.
announces the
Rectangles, topic as How do you
Squares, & “Construction of construct them?
Rhombus are also a
parallelograms. Analyses parallelogram”.
How many
measurements
do you need to
construct a
parallelogram?

67
 D C

Announcement of The teacher

the Topic draws a rough
figure on the
black board and
elicits the method What can these
A B
Presentation of construction three
from the pupil measurement
A parallelogram is
be?
made of two
congruent
triangles.
A triangle is
constructed first
using the three
sides.

What does the

The parallelogram diagonal of the
Identifies “Construction of
ABCD contains parallelogram
Parallelogram”
two triangles, the The teacher divide it into?
measurement of marks the
one triangle being measurement of
given. CD and AD.
The ABC therefore How will you
Explains construct a
can be triangle?
constructed.

C D
How many
triangles does
To obtain the point Analyses the
D, the 4th vertex, D
parallelogram
C
the properties of a Response from contain?
parallelogram are Recalls the students.
recalled. Thus AD 9cms
and CD are Parallelogram 5cms Which are the
known. Identifies the triangles you
sufficiency of the A B see in
7cms
data parallelogram
AD = BC = 5 cms A
ABCD? 7cms B
(opposite side)
The teacher
completes the
AB = CD = 6 cms construction.
How many

68
(opposite side) measurements
do you needs to
construct a
Construction of Identifies triangle?
parallelogram
The teacher The teacher repeats
ABCD.
repeats the steps
the black board.
and writes them
on the black
1. Draw AB = 6
board.
cms
Writes another
problem on the
Explains The teacher
explains and Blackboard.
illustrate how to Do you have
2. With A and B find the area of
sufficient
as centres, draw the parallelogram
ABCD. Writes another
measurements
arcs of radii of
to construct
problem on the Black
9cms and 5cms
triangle ABC?
respectively. Name Board.
the point of
intersection, C Construct a
triangle ABC is parallelogram ABCD
The teacher asks
formed. What more do
the pupils to draw with AB = 7 cms, you need to
the construction complete the
in their AC = 9 cms, BC = 5cms
3. Join BC & AC parallelogram?
Notebooks.

4. With A and C as How do you

centres, draw arcs complete the
of radii 5 and 7cms triangles ADC?
respectively. Name
the point of
intersection D. What are the
measurements
C of the three
sides of triangle
9cms ADC? Why
5 Join AD and CD.
Triangle ADC is 5cms
formed. Draw and
altitude from D to
AB. A 7cms B

Area of the
parallelogram = Explains
C D How do you
bh, where h is the C
construct
distance between triangle ABC?
the parallel lines. 9cms
The attitude may 5cms
be more accurately How do you
drawn with a set complete the
square and scale. The teacher asks A 7cms B
parallelogram?

69
 few questions to
test the
Measure ‘h’ and What are the
comprehension of 9 cms
calculate the area. measurements
the pupils.
of the sides AD
and CD? Why?
Supervised Study
Identifies A
Selects 6 is
cms B
What the
appropriate
formula to find
Geometrical area of a
instrument, parallelogram?
handles them with
care, measures
with accuracy, What does ‘h’
constructs stands for?
according to the D C
given specification

0 779 7cms
Reasons out

A 6cms B
Recalls Construct
Parallelogram
ABCD
Identifies
With AB = 9
cms,
Explains AC = 7 cms, and
BC = 6 cms.

70
2. PRESENTATION

3. APPLICATIONS : Real life examples of parallelograms include

tables, desks, arrangements of streets on a map,
boxes, building blocks, paper etc.

4. REVIEW/RECAPITULATION : 1.How many measurements of you

need to construct a parallelogram?

2. Given two sides and one diagonal, how do you

construct the parallelogram?

5. HOME ASSIGNMENT : 1. Construct a parallelogram PQRS; PQ = 8

cms, QR = 5 cms, PR = 6 cms. Find its area.

Write the steps of construction.

Signature of the Mentor

Signature of the Student Teacher

63
 UNIT 9 UNIT PLAN

A variety of meanings have been assigned to the term unit. Some of

them are (i) the lesson for the day (ii) it is a block of work, (iii) as chapter
in a textbook, project and (iv) as a method instruction rather than a
method a organization of instructional materials, etc.
Writers of textbooks and curriculum makers have always found it
convenient and helpful to organize instructional material in unit blocks or
chapters. Some of them consider units as a collection of theorems and
exercises to be learned within a specified period of time. Some others
speaks of the units as a “series of exercises which are based upon
certain postulated facts and which lend themselves to logical
demonstrations to cover in time, the equivalent of six to eight weeks”.
Therefore, a unit is a large segment of subject matter having a common
theme or idea. A unit can be split up into smaller sub-units called topics
and the topics are linked to one another by a common ideas or a
principle. For example the unit ‘circle’ contains many topics such as

i. Circle-definition and elements

ii. Area and circumference of a circle

iii. Angle properties in a circle

iv. Tangents to a circle etc.

All these topics, are interrelated and interlinked by the common idea, the
‘concept if the circle’. The syllabus contains many units such as
Polynomials, Triangles, Equations, Business Arithmetic, Mensuration,
Identities etc, to list a few.
9.1 Definitions of a Unit

Preston defines a unit as “a large block of related subject matter as can

be over-viewed by a Klearner”. According to Samford, “a unit is an
outline of carefully selected subject matter, which has been isolated
because of its relationships to pupil’s needs and interests”.
A unit is not just a block of subject matter, but it is a large subdivision of
well organized subject matter. Units of instruction break up a course into
meaningful segments, that are larger than lesson plans. They are
organized around specific topics, which are neither blocks of subject
matter nor a series of independent lessons. A unit represents a careful
organization of subject matter and learning experiences around a
unifying principle or property.

68
9.2 Characteristics of a Good Unit

 A unit should be meaning segments of well organized subject matter.

 A unit can be broken up into interrelated sub-units or topics.

 The segments in the unit should be linked together by a unifying idea

or principle or property.
 A unit should not be too a lengthy of too short.

 The length of the unit should be such as to retain the interest of the
students.
 A good unit should be part of a unit that permits growth from year to
year.

9.3 Steps in Unit Planning

Unit planning is a part of year planning and it is a middle ground

between course planning and lesson planning. It is longer than lesson
planning, but shorter than course planning Unit planning involves the
following stages.
 Content Analysis
After choosing the unit, the teacher has to do a detailed analysis of the
contents of the unit to get an in-depth knowledge of the terms, concepts,
principles, generalization constituting the unit. This helps the teacher to
break up the unit into meaningful sub-units and lessons retaining the
continuity throughout the unit.
 Stating the general and specific objectives
The teacher should identify the general objectives and state the specific
objectives or learning outcomes to be achieved as a result of learning
the unit.
 Planning the learning activities

The third step is to select suitable learning experiences that may lead to
the realization of the stated objectives keeping in mind individual
differences, the psychology of learning , the content and objectives.
Suitable learning activities can be planned, to which the students will be
exposed to during the instruction of the unit. The teacher also has to
plan specific teaching strategies that will be employed for each segment
(sub unit) of the unit.
 Evaluation Procedure

69
The last step of unit planning is to select appropriate evaluation tools
and techniques to assess the content coverage, the realization of the
stated objectives and the effectiveness of teaching strategies.

9.4 Advantages of Unit Plan

Unit planning contributes to the educational process in the following
ways.
 Unit plan breaks up a lengthy unit into smaller sub-units or topics so
that pupils can easily grasp the scope of these during a brief
overview.
 Its helps the teacher to present the various principles and concepts
constituting the unit in an orderly and systematic manner, without
losing their continuity.
 It enables the pupils to see clearly the relationship between the
various facts, processes and principles that makes up the unit.
 It helps the pupils to appreciate the unifying principles linking all the
information together in the unit. This guides pupils to view the sub-
units as part of a whole and not independent segments of
information.
 It helps the teacher to plan a variety of learning experiences, keeping
in mind the individual differences, the nature of content and
objectives to be activated.
 It provides frequent opportunities for the students to review and
reorganize their learning.

 It helps the teacher to plan definite outcomes of learning so that they

are clear not only to the teacher, but also to the students.
 The study outline of the unit plan provides the students with
directions as to what to study, and how to do it most effectively.

9.5 Format of a Unit Plan

Example of Unit Plan:

Name of the Unit - Set Theory and Operations

Class – IX No. of the sub-unit – 6

Total Periods – 15 Duration of Period – 35 Minute

70
 S.No. Sub - Units No. of
Periods

1. Set theory and operations – Basic 02

informations and notations

Methods of representation of a set

2. 02
Kinds of sets
3. 03
Union and intersection of sets
4. 03
Venn Diagram
5. 02
Exercise: Solution of problems
6. 03

Total Periods 15

Format of Unit Plan

1. Class ……………… Subject ………………..

2. Name of the Unit ………………………………… S.No. of the Unit
…………….
3. No. of periods required for the Unit ……………….
4. Duration of the period …………………
5. No. of periods for Evaluation / Recapitalization ………………..
6. No. of periods for Remedial Teaching ………………..

Sub-unit Teachi Specific Teaching-Learning Teaching- Home Evaluation

and ng Objectives Situations Aids or Assignment
topic points & Expected Audiovisu
Change in al aids
behaviour

Teacher’s Student’s
Activities Activities

1.

2.
3.
4.

5.

71
UNIT 10 PEDAGOGICAL ANALYSIS

Pedagogy is the art (and science) of teaching. Effective teachers use an

array of teaching strategies because there is no single, universal
approach that suits all situations. Different strategies used in different
combinations with different groups of students to improve their learning
outcomes. Some teaching strategies are better suited to teaching certain
skills and fields of knowledge than are others. Some strategies are
better suited to certain student backgrounds, learning styles and
abilities. Pedagogy, incorporating an array of teaching strategies that
support intellectual engagement, connectedness to the wider world,
supportive classroom environments and recognition of difference, should
be implemented across all key learning, and subject areas. Pedagogical
practice promotes the wellbeing of students, teachers and the school
community - it improves students' and teachers' confidence and
contributes to their sense of purpose for being at school; it builds
community confidence in the quality of learning and teaching in the
school.
Pedagogical Analysis and Effective Teaching

In its simple meaning the term pedagogical analysis (a composition of

two words pedagogy and analysis) stands for a type of analysis based
on pedagogy. For its further understanding let us now try to be
acquainted with the term analysis and pedagogy.
Analysis as a term stands for a process of breaking or separating a thing
into its smaller parts, elements or constituents. We break a teaching unit
into its constituents –subunit, topics or single concepts etc. through the
process of unit analysis. In addition, we can break the contents of the
prescribed course in a subject into its various constituents – major and
minor sections, sub-sections, units and sub-units, major concept and
minor concepts, topics etc by carrying out a process of content analysis.
Therefore, “the analysis of a given content material in any subject any
topic carried out well in the spirit of the science of teaching (Pedagogy)
is known by the term pedagogical analysis of the contents”.
What is teaching?

Teaching is a simple term, it referred as a either an occupation or

profession of a group of peoples known as teacher or an activity or
activities to help an individual to learn or acquire some knowledge, skills,
attitudes or interests. However, the meaning or concept is not so simple.

72
E. Amidon (1967). Teaching is defined as an interactive process,
primarily involve in classroom talk, which takes place between teachers
and pupils and occurs during certain definable activities. N. L. Gage
(1962). Teaching is a form of interpersonal influence aimed to change
the behavior potential of another person. B. O. Smith (1960).
Teaching is a system of actions intends to produce learning. Above all a
good or effective teaching must accomplished the following objectives:

1. It should tell whether teaching is a process or product.

2. It should clearly indicate it’s constitutional elements or factors.
3. It should reveal its objectives.

4. It should say about its organizational or structural aspects.

Thus, “Teaching is a triadic relation and tripolar process involving the
source of teaching, student and a set of activities and manipulation to
bring changes in the behavior of the students”.
The profession teaching standards represent the teaching profession’s
consensus on the critical aspects of the art and science of teaching
(pedagogy) that characterizes accomplished teachers in various fields.
Cast in terms of actions that teachers take to advance student
outcomes, these standards also incorporate the essential pedagogical
knowledge, skills, dispositions, and commitments that allow teachers to
practice at a high level. These standards rest on a fundamental
philosophical foundation comprised of five core propositions:

 Teachers are committed to students and their learning.

 Teachers know the subjects they teach and have the necessary
pedagogical knowledge.
 Teachers are responsible for managing and monitoring student
learning.

 Teachers think systematically about their practice and learn from

experience.
 Teachers are members of learning communities
What is effective teaching?

Effective teaching is the teaching that successfully achieves the learning

objectives by the pupils as identified by the teacher. The most effective
teaching is that which results in the most effective learning. In addition,
the learning is a process not the product, it involves all those
experiences and training through teaching of an individual, which helps

73
to change the behavior and prepare to take necessary adjustment and
adaptation in change situation. There are essentially two simple
elements to effective teaching:

 The teacher must have a clear idea of what learning is to be

nurtured
 The teacher sets up and provides a learning experience that
enables this to happen.
The root of effective teaching of a successful teacher is evolved in the
following tenets:
1. Pupils learn best in a positive and nurturing environment
established by teachers who believe that every pupil is capable of
learning.

2. All pupils have areas of strengths and interests that can be useful
in advancing pupil learning. Effective teachers establish an
instructional environment that will draw on these strengths.
3. Teachers take into account the whole pupil; in other words, they
attend to the cognitive, affective, social, and physical dimensions
when developing an instructional program.

4. Active engagement and interaction facilitate pupil learning.

5. New learning is built upon previously learned information. Learning
is enhanced when prior knowledge and cultural and social
experiences are valued, acknowledged, and leveraged throughout
the curriculum.
6. Pupil learning is both individually and socially constructed; it is
influenced by cultural, familial, and social context.
7. Meaningful assessment is both formative and summative; it relies
on multiple measures, including informal observations.
Components and Operations Involved in the task of Pedagogical
Analysis
Looking in the way, by the term pedagogical Analysis of any subject
content we certainly aim to carry out the task of the analyzing the
prescribed course material or a particular unit/sub-unit/topic/single
concept of the subject being taught to a particular class by
systematically executing the following four operations in a close
interactive style.
A. Content analysis of the unit/topic/single concept being taught by
the teacher in the subject.

74
B. Setting of the teaching or instructional objectives of the content
material of the topic in hand by writing them in specific behavioral
terms.

C. Suggesting methods, techniques, teaching learning activities, aids

and equipments helpful for the teaching learning of the topic in
hand quite in tune with the realization of the set instructional
objectives.
D. Suggesting appropriate evaluation devices in the form of oral,
written or practical activities and test questions etc for evaluating
the outcomes of the teaching learning process carried in relation to
the teaching of the topic in hand.
In the light of the relationship and interdependence existing among the
above-mentioned four components of the pedagogical analysis,
operations of the content material in the subject may then be properly
illustrated through the following diagram. Figure 1.
In this way when a teacher is asked to perform pedagogical analysis of
the contents of a subject/unit or topic to be taught in the class he has to
go through the cycle of the above mentioned four components namely (i)
content analysis (ii) objective formulation (iii) selection of the teaching
method and material and (iv) selection of the evaluation devices.

Objective
Formulation

Pedagogical Selection of
Content Analysis of teaching
Analysis Contents methods

Selection of
Evaluation
Devices

Fig : 2.1 Component of Pedagogical Analysis

75
Steps of Pedagogical analysis

Step- 1 : Divided the contents of the selected unit into suitable sub-units
and arrange the selected sub-units in to a number of required
periods.
Step- 2 : Briefly write the essence of the content of the selected sub-unit.

Step- 3 : Write appropriate previous knowledge required for the sub-unit.

Step- 4 : Write appropriate instructional objectives to be selected for the
sub- unit.
Step- 5 : Select appropriate teaching strategies for the sub-unit
according to the following instructions:
I. Write the name of the methods applied.
II. Mention the teaching aids required.
III. Briefly illustrate the necessary demonstration and/or
experimentation required.

IV. Mention the necessary board work required.

V. Write probing questions related to the sub-unit and provide
appropriate answers for them.

VI. Prepare a work sheet for the sub unit.

Step- 6 : Give suitable examples/illustration/analogies for the sub-unit.
Step- 7 : Prepare a table of specification for the sub-unit.
Write at least six criterion referenced test-items each with specific
criteria for the sub-unit.
Needs of Pedagogical Analysis

Pedagogy i.e. the science of teaching is a master plan that includes a

details of what is to be done by a teacher, the instructional strategies,
instructional equipments and the cardinal objectives of instruction.
Depending on what can actually learn and what are the expectation sets
for learners of a particular stage of development, specific instructional
objectives are determined and appropriate set of activities provided.

The teacher decides instructional objectives, equipments and strategies

with every aspect of learning conditions to be created. Favorable
conditions for positive learning cell for knowledge of various factors
operating in different conditions. Pedagogical analysis is appropriate
objectives and strategies in various instructional situations and assess

76
the levels the level of actual learning at the end. A comprehensive vision
of required tasks, strategies for realization of specific goals facilitates
effective teaching. So, pedagogical analysis offers enormous potential
for improving the delivery of information in all form of education. It
involves various logical steps to arrive at logical inference. It also helps
the students to understand concepts, principles or phenomena.

Again, the learning environment created accordingly, enables to-

1. Relate individual fragment of knowledge to real experience in life
and work.
2. Develop skills and relate facts as a part of a larger organized
completely. Realization of specific goals, facilitated by a detailed
planning result in effective teaching.

Teaching or
Instructional O bjectives

Effective
Content of the Subject teaching
Methods and
Learning Materials

Evaluation Devices

Fig: 2.2 Pillars of the teaching learning process

How pedagogy serves effective Teaching

In this way in the light of what has been said already above, the science
of teaching pedagogy is found to serve the following two main objectives
in the schedule task of a teacher’s teaching.

(i) Teaching should be carried out as smoothly as possible and

77
(ii) It should result into the maximum output in terms of the expected
better teaching outcomes. What is suggested by the science of
teaching on pedagogy for the realization of its above said two main
objectives now carries a wide significance at this stage.

Let us briefly describe it.

A teachker has before him content material and learning experiences
related to that subject in a particular class. In this way, his success in his
teaching task depends upon the extent to which he is successful in
realization of the teaching instructional objectives. He can go on
smoothly in his teaching task only if he follows suitable method, devices,
techniques and aid materials etc. for providing the fruits of his teaching
to his students. How properly is he proceeding in his teaching task and
how will he is trying to achieve the set teaching objectives, that now
needs the help of a continuous system of testing and measurement
known as evaluations of teaching outcomes. The results of such
evaluations provides an appropriate feedback to the teacher for bringing
desirable modification in his methods and materials of teaching including
justifying the need of bringing alteration in setting of instructional
objectives. In this way science of teaching or pedagogy advocates a
total mutual
relationships and interdependence among the following four pillars of the
teaching learning process for attaining best possible results in the task of
teaching i.e. effective teaching. Figure 2.
Science of teaching or pedagogy in this way lays down the above-
mentioned four essentials pillars along with their inherent mutual
relationship and interdependence for being considered essential in the
realization of the desired success in a teaching task. It is the message
and spirit of the science of teaching or pedagogy that needs to properly
carry out in any scheme of the analysis of the content material to a
subject and then only then such analysis of the content material may be
termed as pedagogical analysis of the given content material.
In the light of what has been said above, a teacher of may proceed in
the way given below for analyzing the contents of the syllabus of his
subject as well as the contents of the topic to be taught in the classroom
by preserving the spirit or massage conveyed by the science of teaching
or pedagogy.

I. The contents of the subject should be got analyzed properly into

major and minor sections/units/concepts etc and sequenced as
well as organized as methodically as possible.

78
II. Only a desirable amount of the content material enabled to be
covered properly in the scheduled subject period should be taken
into hand at a time in the shape of a topic to be taught by the
teacher for his scheduled classroom.
III. The topic in the hand should also be analyzed properly in the form
of major and minor concepts/single concepts etc.

IV. The teacher should now clearly lay down the teaching or
instructional objectives related to the topic in hand by writing them
into the specific behavioral terms.
V. How can these stipulated instructional objectives be achieved
properly by teaching contents of the topic in hand should now be
made a point of consideration for proceeding further on the path of
pedagogical analysis. Definitely, in this situation it needs the better
employment of men material resources by the teacher.
Science of teaching (pedagogy) can help him here to think about
the best possible methods, strategies, tactics and techniques to be
employed, aid material and likewise sources to be utilized for the
teaching of the topic in hand in the existing teaching learning
situations. All of the possible things and factors helpful in the
teaching of the topic in view of the proper realization of the set
teaching objectives then should be properly analyzed and
classified in any of the scheme of pedagogical analysis of the topic
or contents of subject.
VI. In the last, there arises a need of exercising proper control over
the different components of the teaching-learning process. Such
control can only be possible through a well-organized scheme of
evaluation well in tune with the contents of the topic in hand,
stipulated teaching objectives and methods and material employed
for teaching. For this purpose, an appropriate evaluation scheme
should also find a place in any scheme of pedagogical analysis of
the topic or content material of the subject mathematics.

LET US SUM UP

We have discussed the aims and objectives of teaching mathematics in

general. The teacher should carefully choose the objectives regarding a
particular topic, keeping in view the nature of the students.
Bloom’s taxonomy which serves as the backbone of many teaching
philosophies, in particular those that lean more towards skills rather than

79
content. The educators would view content as a vessel for teaching
skills. The emphasis on higher-order thinking inherent in such
philosophies is based on the top levels of the taxonomy including
analysis, evaluation, synthesis and creation. Bloom’s taxonomy can be
used as a teaching tool to help balance assessment and evaluative
questions in class, assignments and texts to ensure all orders of thinking
are exercised in student’s learning.

GLOSSARY

 Cognitive – the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge

and comprehension.
 Psychomotor – relating to, or characterizing movements of the
body associated with mental activity
 Taxonomy – the scientific process of arranging things into groups.
 Evaluation - the making of a judgement about the amount,
number, or value of something; assessment.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Practical aim, disciplinary aim, cultural aim and social aim.

2. Instructional goals are defined as general statements that define
the major purposes of a course, rotation or unit of instruction.

3. Synthesis and Evaluation

4. Cognitive domain, affective domain and psycho-motor domain.

5. Good defined a lesson plan as “outline of the important points of a
lesson arranged in the order in which they are to be presented to
students by teacher”.
6. Two principles for preparing lesson plan:

- Selection of the suitable subject matter.

- Evaluating the attainment of the stated objectives.

7. Functions of a good lesson plan in mathematics:

- Lesson planning makes the teacher’s work more regular,

organized and systematic.
- It delimits the teacher’s field of work and thus enable him to define
his aims and objectives more clearly.

80
SUGGESTED READINGS

Anice James (2005). Teaching of Mathematics . Hyderabad:

Neelkamal Publications.
Bill Handley (2012). Speed Mathematics. Wiley-Blackwell; 3rd Edition
Mangal.S.K.(2007). Teaching of Mathematics. Tandon Publications,
Ludhiana
Marilyn Burns (2007). About Teaching Mathematics: A K-8 Resource,
Math Solutions; 3rd edition
NCERT (2015). Mathematics Text Book for class for class 6 to 10;
NCERT Publication, New Delhi.
Rajesh Kumar Thakur (2009). Vedic Mathematics; Unicorn Books
Raju B.S.P & Upadhyaya.B.S. et,al (2011). Pedagogy of Mathematics
two year B.Ed Course, NCERT; First Edition
Steven G. Krantz (1999). How to Teach Mathematics; American
Mathematical Society; 2nd edition

Steven G. Krantz (2003). A Mathematician's Survival Guide: Graduate

School and Early Career Development; American Mathematical Society
Mathematics School Text book of Government of Tamilnadu.

www.eltguide.wordpress.com

Web Resources

https://www.wku.edu/ste/objectives/definition_and_rationale.php

https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/blooms-taxonomy/

https://crlt.umich.edu/gsis/p2_5

*****

81
BLOCK 3 STRATEGIES FOR LEARNING AND TEACHING
MATHEMATICS

Structure

Introduction

Objectives

Unit 11 Concept Formation and Concept Attainment

11.1 Teaching as a Process

11.2 Concept of Models o Teaching

11.3 Characteristics of Teaching Models

11.4 Families of Models

11.5 Concepts for describing a Model

11.6 Concept Attainment Model

Unit 12 Learning by Exposition

12.1 Advance Organiser Model

Unit 13 Methods of Teaching

13 1 Inductive Method

13.2 Deductive Method

13.3 Analytic Method
13.4 Synthetic Method
13.5 Lecture Method

13.6 Demonstration Method

13.7 Lecture cum Demonstration Method

13.8 Project Method

13.9 Problem Solving Method
Unit 14 Techniques of Teaching Mathematics

14.1 Drill Work

14.2 Oral Work

14.3 Written Work

14.4 Brain - Storming

14.5 Computer Assisted Instruction

82
Unit-15 Creating different situations of Learning Engagement

15.1 Small Group Strategies

15.2 Individualized Strategies

Let Us Sum Up

Glossary
Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION

Any instructional method a teacher uses, has advantages,

disadvantages, and requires some preliminary preparation. Often times,
a particular teaching method will naturally flow into another, all within the
same lesson, and excellent teachers have developed the skills to make
the process seamless to the students. Which instructional method is
"right" for a particular lesson depends on many things, and among them
are the age and developmental level of the students, what the students
already know, and what they need to know to succeed with the lesson,
the subject-matter content, the objective of the lesson, the available
people, time, space and material resources, and the physical setting.
Another, more difficult problem is to select an instructional method that
best fits one's particular teaching style and the lesson-situation. There is
no one "right" method for teaching a particular lesson, but there are
some criteria that pertain to each that can help a teacher make the best
decision possible.

OBJECTIVES

After learning this Block, you will be able to:

 define and understand concept formation and concept attainment;

 discuss the different methods of teaching;

 describe the importance of CAI;

 know the techniques of teaching mathematics; and

 appreciate the importance of Group learning and Individual
Learning.

83
UNIT 11 CONCEPT FORMATION AND CONCEPT ATTAINMENT

Gage (1987) defined teaching “as any interpersonal influence aimed at

changing the ways on which other persons can or will behave”. Though
this definition stresses the involvement of more than one person in the
teaching process and the behavioural influence of one person in
changing the behaviour of others, if does not specify the persons
involved in teaching. A similar view is given by Hough and Duncan
(1970) in their definition with a difference, when they define teaching as
“an activity, in which one creatively and imaginatively uses himself and
his knowledge to promote the learning and welfare of others “In this
definition the authors have stressed the involvement of more than one
person in the teaching act, and given teaching the status of a
professional, rational and humane activity.
Flanders (1970) says “the act of teaching leads to reciprocal contacts
between the teacher and the pupils and the interchange itself is called
teaching”. Though the definition specifies the persons involved in the
teaching, it does not specify the situation in which the teaching takes
place and the kind of activities performed in teaching. These aspects are
effected in the definition given by Cater V, Good in the Dictionary of
Education. Good has given narrow and broader meanings of teaching,
According to the narrow meaning, teaching refers to the act of instructing
in educational institutions. Under the broader meaning, teaching implies
the management by an instructor of the teaching-learning process
including (a) direct interaction between teacher and learner (b) the
proactive decision making process of planning. designing, and preparing
the materials for the teaching-learning conditions and (c) post-active
redirection (evaluation, redesign and dissemination). From Good’s
definition three major factors emerges:
 Teaching is an instructional activity that takes place in an
educational institution.
 It is a managerial activity which is concerned with organisation of
teaching-learning situations.
 It is an interactive process between the teacher and the student
which involves proactive decision making activities and post –
active redirections.

84
11.1 Teaching as a Process
Teaching as a process has been highlighted by Joyce and Well when
they defined teaching “as a process by which the teacher and students
create a shared environment including sets of values, beliefs (agreement
about what is improvement) which in turn colour their view of reality”.
This definition, adds a new dimension to teaching namely the
importance of teaching-learning environment. But teaching as a process
is not clear from the definition. But a study of the four phases of teaching
given by Hough and Duncan makes it clear that teaching is a process
which has a series of activities that take place logically and sequentially
as given in table 3.1.
Table : 10.1 Phases of Teaching (Hough and Duncan)

Curriculum Instructing Measuring Evaluating

Planning Phase
Phase Phase Phase
Phase – I
Phase – II Phase – III Phase – IV

1. Helping to Creating intention Creating or Using feedback

formulate goals regarding the selecting to evaluate
of education. strategies of devices to appropriation of
instruction. measure objectives.
student learning

2. Selecting and Instruction Measuring Effectiveness of

organising the student learning. instruction.
content of
instruction

3. Stating the Obtaining Organising and The Validity and

objectives of situational analysing data. reliability of
instruction feedback about measurement.
instructing.

Thus Hough and Duncan in the four phases of teaching make it clear
that teaching is a process of a series of activities which take place in a
logical sequence.
Components of Teaching
The three components involved in the teaching act are the teacher, the
student and the curriculum. All components of teaching play an equally
important role in the process of teaching-learning.

85
Emergence of Models of Teaching
Attempts have been made by researchers to match the different
approaches or strategies or styles of learning with the objectives of
instruction and learning styles. Competence in teaching stems from the
capacity to reach out to differing children and to create a rich and multi-
dimensional environment for them. Models of teaching emerged out of
the search by Joyce and Well to find a variety of approaches or
strategies to match the various learning styles
.
11.2 Concept of Models of Teaching

The word ‘model’ is used by people in different ways in different

contexts. In the teaching-learning process, models have the same
interpretation as they have in case of construction of dams, buildings
etc. Thus models of teaching like plans, patterns or blueprints present
the steps necessary to bring about a desired outcome. According to
Joyce and Well, a teaching model is a pattern or plan which can be used
to shape curriculum or course, to design instructional materials and to
guide a teacher’s actions. Apart from the above uses it creates the
necessary environment which facilitates the teaching process. The core
of the process of teaching is the arrangement of environment within
which the students can interact. Thus a model of teaching consists of
guidelines for designing educational activities and environments. It
specifies ways of teaching and learning that are intended to achieve
certain kinds of goals. Thus a model of teaching is designed to achieve a
particular set of objectives and not a substitute to any teaching skill.

11.3 Characteristics of Teaching Models

Models of teaching
 are some sort of plans or guidelines or patterns or strategies of
teaching.

 are systematic procedures to modify the behaviour of the learners.

 specify the learning outcomes in terms of observable and measurable
performance of students.

 specify in definite terms the environmental conditions under which a

student’s response should be observed.
 specify the criteria of acceptable performance expected from the
students.

86
Functions of Models of Teaching
Models of teaching have three major functions in the teaching-learning
process. These are

a. designing of curriculum or courses of study.

b. development and selection of instructional materials.

c. guiding the teacher’s activity in the teaching-learning process.

Designing

Development &
Models of Teaching Selection of Materials

Guiding

Fig: 10.1 Functions of the Models of Teaching

11.4 Families of Models

Joyce and Well classified models of teaching into four families that
represent distinct orientations toward people and how they learn. They
are (1) Information Processing Models (2) Personal Models (3) Social
Interaction Models and (4) Behavioural Models.
1. Information Processing Models

This family of models aims at fostering information processing ability of

the learners. Joyce and Well define information processing as the way
people handle stimuli from the environment, organise data, sense
problems, and generate concepts and solutions to problems, and
employ verbal and nonverbal symbols. It involves intellectual skills
required to analyse information which include the ability to make
observation, and through the use of inference, to generalise, to predict
and to explain events. Although information processing models are
concerned with intellectual skills and acquisition of knowledge by the
students, they also contribute to the realisation of personal and social
goals. The route chosen, however is through intellectual functioning. The

87
models included in this family are: Inductive Thinking Model, Inquiry
Training Model, Scientific Enquiry Model, Concept Attainment Model,
Cognitive Growth Model, Advance Organiser Model, and Memory Model.
2. Personal Models

The models of this family share an orientation towards the individual and
the development of self. They emphasise the process by which
individuals construct and organise their unique reality. They are more
concerned with human feelings and emotions and try to move towards
the development of an integrated functioning self. The focus on helping
individuals to develop a productive relationship with their environments
and to view themselves as capable persons is also expected to result in
richer interpersonal relations and a more effective information
processing capability. The models included in this family are: Non-
Directive Teaching, Awareness Training, Synectics, Conceptual
Systems and Classroom Meeting.
3. Social Interaction Models
This family of models emphasizes the relationship of the individual to
society or to other persons. They focus on the development of
capabilities for interpersonal relationships. Thus they stress on the
processes by which reality is socially negotiated. Consequently models
from this orientation give priority to the development of social skills,
which help individuals to engage in a democratic process and to work
productively in the society. The models included in this family are: Group
Investigation, Social Enquiry, Laboratory Method, Jurisprudential, Role
Playing and Social Simulation.
4. Behavioural Models
All the models in this family have a common theoretical base known as
behavioural theory. In these models the emphasis is on changing the
observable behaviour of the learner rather than the underlying
psychological structure and the unobservable behaviour. One of the
common characteristics of these behavioural models is that they break
down the learning tasks into a series of small sequenced behaviours.
The models included is this family are: Contingency Management, Self-
control, Relaxation, Stress Reduction, Assertive Training,
Desensitisation and Direct Training.

88
11.5 Concepts for Describing a Model
Joyce and Well (1982) suggested some concepts in the procedure of the
implementation of any instructional model. These concepts are: Syntax,
Social System, Principles of Reaction, Support System and Instructional
and Nurturant Effects.
i. Syntax: The syntax or phasing of the models describes the model
in action. Syntax can be described in terms of sequences of
activities called phases. Each model has a distinct flow of phases.
ii. Social System: The social system describes student and teacher
roles and relationships and the kind of norms that are encouraged.
The leadership roles of the teacher vary greatly from model to
model. The teacher’s role can be that of a reflector, or a facilitator,
or a counsellor, or a task master, depending on the degree of
structure in the learning environment.
iii. Principles of Reaction: Principles of reaction guide the teacher in
how to regard the learner and how to respond to what he does. In
some models the teacher overtly tries to shape behaviour by
rewarding certain student activities and maintain a neutral stance
toward others. Principles of reaction provide the teacher with rules
by which the teacher can select mode-appropriate responses to
what the student does.
iv. Support System: This concept is used to describe the additional
requirements of the model beyond the usual human skills and
capacities and technical facilities, necessary for the successful
implementation of the model.
v. Instructional and Nurturant Effects: The description of the effects of
model can be categorised as the direct or instructional effects and
the indirect or nurturant effects. The instructional effects are those
directly achieved by leading the learner in certain directions. The
nurturant effects come from experiencing the environment created
by the model.
Training Strategy for Model of Teaching
The strategy to be used for training teachers in models of teaching has
been a matter of great concern for researchers. Joyce and Well (1978)
suggested four components of the training as follows.
 Presentation of theoretical bases
 Demonstration of correct performance
 Planning and executing peer teaching and provision of feedback
 Transfer of training, i.e. adaptation of teaching behaviour in the
classroom.

89
In fact there are three phases in the above mentioned learning strategy
as shown in fig. 3.2.

I II III
Knowledge Skill Transfer
Acquisition Acquisition

Fig : 10.2 Phases in Training Strategy

Each component has specific objectives and these objectives are

attained through a series of sub-steps involved in each component.
In this Unit two models from the family of Information Processing
Models, namely Concept Attainment Model and Advance Organiser
Model are discussed in detail.

11.6 Concept Attainment Model

The content a teacher transacts in a classroom can be broadly classified
into three categories, namely facts, concepts and generalisations.
Though the process of acquiring these three types of content by the
pupils is not uniform, mostly teachers use the same strategy for teaching
these three types of content.

Helping children learn concepts efficiently is a fundamental purpose of

education. Until recently, however, most educators did not consciously
distinguish the learning of concepts from other types of learning.
However, Bruner and his associates have done substantial work in
determining the process of learning concepts and identified the process.
Based on the work of Bruner and his associates, Joyce and Well (1980)
developed a model which is known as the Concept Attainment Model.
Concepts, Facts and Generalisations Differentiated

Concept of a thing is what it means to an individual or a mental image of

the thing formed by a generalisation from particulars. DeCecco (1980)
defined concept as a class of stimuli which have common
characteristics. Triangles, prime numbers, cousin, glass, plate, chalk,
tree etc., are all concepts. Bruner and his associates asserted that we
encounter innumerable stimuli in our environment and we respond to
them in terms of their class membership rather than their uniqueness. In
other words we from categories are known as concepts.

Facts are singular occurrences which either occurred in the past or exist
in the present and which have no predictive validity. For example,

90
statements such as “India got independence in 1947”, “Tamil Nadu is
one of the states of India” are all facts.
A generalisation is an inferential statement which expresses a
relationship of two or more concepts, applies to more than one event
and has a predictive and explanatory value. For instance the statement
“when a transversal cuts two parallel lines, the alternate angles are
equal” is a generalisation.
Theory of Concepts

Bruner and his associates assumed that though the concept of

categories may differ from culture to culture, the thought process of
forming categories will be the same. Therefore, they assumed that the
process of acquiring concept is essentially the same in all cultures.
Similarly the thought process of forming the concept is the same for
individuals in different cultures.
According to Bruner, a concept has the following five elements:
 Name of the Concept
 Examples (Positive and Negative)
 Attributes (Essential and Non-essential)
 Attribute Values
 Rules
Understanding a concept means knowing all the elements of the
concept. The name is the term given to a category or concept. For
example, the category of rectilinear figures bounded by four line
segments is called as ‘quadrilateral’ and hence the term quadrilateral
refers to the name of the concept/category. Items which are grouped in a
single category may differ from one another in certain aspects. But they
will have certain common features and it is because of these common
features that they are given the one general name.
Examples refer to the instances of the concept. Instances may be
positive or negative, Positive instances demonstrate what the concept is,
whereas negative instances demonstrate what the concept is not.
Attaining the concept requires the individual to classify the instances as
instances and non-instances as non-instances of the concept.

The third and fourth elements of a concept are attributes and attribute
values. Attributes refer to characteristic features of a concept. An
attribute is any discrete feature of an event and can be used as a means
of inferring the identity of something. Attribute of concepts may have a
range of values. For example, the attribute of ‘quadrilateral’ may be

91
represented by the values square, rectangle, parallelogram, etc.
However, there are concepts whose attributes do not have a range of
values.

The fifth element of a concept is the rule. A rule is a definition or

statement specifying the essential attributes of a concept. For instance
‘Polygon’ is a concept. The definition of polygon is the rule. A rule
normally evolves at the end of the concept attainment process.
Concept Attainment Teaching

In concept attainment teaching situation the learner is presented with an

array of instances or examples that are alike in some ways, and different
in others. The learner encounters these examples and must find out or
be told whether each instance exemplifies the concept. At each
encounter with an instance, the learner formulates and reformulates a
hypothesis about the concept. Each instance or example provides
potential information about the character and attribute values of the
concept. The process of sorting Yes and No instance is the core of the
Concept Attainment Model of teaching. Though the primary purpose of
the model is to help the students attain concepts, a second purpose of
the concept attainment model is to acquaint students with the
conceptualising process itself.
In identifying the thinking strategies people attain concepts, Bruner and
his associates distinguished between the two learning conditions of
selection and reception. In selection condition, the examples are not
marked ‘yes or no’. The learner encountering the array of unmarked
examples selects one and inquires whether it is a ‘yes’ or a ‘no’. In
reception conditions, the teacher presents the examples in a
prearranged order labeling them ‘yes or no’.

Since people use different strategies to attain concepts, Concept

Attainment Model has three variations.
 Reception Model
 Selection Model
 Unorganised Material Model
Reception Model

In the Reception Model of teaching, the teacher presents an array of

examples/instances (positive) and non-examples/non-instances
(negative). The examples are labelled as ‘Yes’ and the non-examples as
‘No’ and are presented one by one. At each encounter, the learners
compare attributes in positive and negative instances and formulate and

92
reformulate hypotheses with regard to the concept. They are asked by
the teacher to name the concept and state the rule / definition of the
concept according to its essential attributes. The teacher can extend
support to the students in case students find any difficulty in naming the
concept or stating the rule.
After this, the teacher presents an array of unlabelled examples,
requiring the learners to label them as ‘Yes’ or ‘No’. To ensure complete
learning thereafter, the students are asked to give a few examples of the
concept on their own. The teacher then asks the students to analyse the
strategies that they have followed to attain the concept. Students may be
asked to compare the effectiveness of different strategies.
Syntax of the Reception Model

The phases and activities of the Reception Model of concept attainment

are outlined in table 8.2. The activities involved in the Reception Model
can be divided into three phases.
In the first phase the teacher presents labelled examples (Yes) and non-
examples (No) of the concept to be formed. Students are asked to
compare the attributes in positive and negative examples and identify
the attributes which are present in all the positive examples. They are
asked to formulate and test hypotheses about the concept. Finally the
learners are asked to name the concept and state the rule defining the
concept.
In phase two, the students test their attainment of the concept first by
correctly identifying additional unlabelled examples of the concept and
then by generating their own examples.
In phase three, the students are asked to analyse the strategies by
which they attain concepts.
Table : 10.2 Syntax of the Reception Model

Phase I Phase II Phase III

Presentation of Data Testing Attainment Analysis of
and Identification of of the Concept Thinking Strategies
Concept

Teacher presents Students identify Students describe

labelled examples additional examples thoughts
as ‘yes’ or ‘no’

93
 Students compare Teacher confirms Students discuss the
attributes in positive hypotheses, names role of hypotheses
and negative concept, and restates and attributes
examples definition according to
essential attributes

Students generate Students generate Students discuss

and test hypotheses examples type and number of
hypotheses

Students state a
definition according to
the essential attributes

Social System of the Model

The model has a moderate structure. When using the Reception Model
of Concept Attainment the teacher acts as a recorder, keeping track of
the hypotheses (concepts) as they are mentioned and of the attributes.
The teacher also supplies additional examples as needed. The three
major functions of the teacher during reception-oriented concept
attainment activity are to record, prompt (cue), and present additional
data.
Principles of Reaction

During the flow of the lesson, the teacher wants to be supportive but
emphasises hypothetical nature of discussion. The teacher helps to
create a dialogue in which students test their hypotheses against each
other. In the latter phases of the model, the teacher wishes to turn the
students’ attention toward analysis of specific features of examples. The
teacher assists the students in discussing and evaluating their thinking
strategies, again being very supportive.
Support System

Support system consists of material that has been designed so that

concepts are embedded in the material, with positive and negative
examples that can be pointed out to the student. In this model, students
do not invent new concepts, but attain the ones that have previously
been selected by the teacher. Hence the data source need to be known
before hand and the aspects of concept attainment activity made visible.

94
The Selection-Oriented Model
In the selection-oriented model the teacher presents an array of
examples. Unlike in the Reception Model these examples are not
labelled as ‘yes’ or ‘no’. A learner confronted with the examples, selects
one and enquires whether it is an ‘yes’ or ‘no’. The major difference
between Reception Oriented and Selection Oriented models is in the
labeling and sequencing of examples. Another difference is that in
Selection Oriented Models students may ask about their own examples
in order to attain the concept. The students also control the sequence of
the examples by choosing the ones they want to inquire about. The
Selection Models place responsibility for concept attainment and
attribute tracking in the hands of the students. Its syntax is similar to that
of Reception Model, but its activities and role within phases one and two
are slightly different as shown in table. 3.3.

Table : 10.3 Syntax of the Selection Model of Concept Attainment

Phase I Phase II Phase III

Presentation of Data Testing Attainment Analysis of Thinking
and Identification of of the Concept Strategies
attributes

Teacher presents Students identify Students describe

unlabelled examples additional unlabelled thoughts
examples

Student enquires Students generate Students discuss the

which examples examples role of hypotheses
including their own are and attributes
positive

Students generate and Teacher confirms Students discuss type

test hypotheses hypothesis, names and number of
concepts and restates hypotheses
definitions according
to essential attributes

In this model learners can work individually as well as in groups. It is

desirable that the learner works initially as individuals and later in
groups.

95
Unorganised Materials Model
In this model learners attain concepts from materials that are not
organised. The process for attaining concepts in this model involves the
following steps: locating the concepts, identifying the attributes used,
discussing the adequacy and appropriateness of the attributes and
comparing the examples to other passages using the same concept.
Table 3.4 presents the syntax of the model.
The third version of concept attainment is more of a group discussion
than an instructional exercises such as Reception and Selection
variations. The teacher’s role is to facilitate discussion and ensure that it
focuses on the development of a concept in the material.
Table : 10.4 Syntax of Unorganised Materials Model

Phase I Phase II

Description of Concept Evaluation of Concept

as it is used

 Locate and label concept  Discuss adequacy and

appropriateness of the
 Identify attributes being used.
concepts being used.

 Compare examples to other

data using same concept.

Instructional and Nurturant Effects of the Concept Attainment

Model

The Concept Attainment Strategies can accomplish several instructional

goals, depending on the emphasis of a particular lesson. They are
designed for instruction on specific concepts and on the nature of
concepts. They also provide practice in inductive reasoning and
opportunities for altering and improving students’ concepts building
strategies. Finally, especially with abstract concepts, the strategies
nurture an awareness of alternative perspectives, a sensitivity to logical
reasoning in communication and a tolerance of ambiguity.
Applicability of the Concept Attainment Model

The concept attainment model can be used with students of all ages.
Since concrete concepts are taught in early grades, the model is quite
appropriate in helping children to learn these concrete concepts.
However, the third phase can be used with students from upper primary
classes onwards. Further the Reception Model is very appropriate for

96
young children whereas the Selection and Unorganised strategies are
more useful in secondary grades. The model is also an excellent tool for
evaluation. The phase two of the model tests the attainment of the
concepts by asking for additional examples and labelling the given
examples.
There are a lot of empirical evidences available in the research studies
showing the effectiveness of the Concept Attainment Model in teaching
Mathematics, Biology and other science subjects and the teachers can
make use of this model to help the students for better conceptualisation
of the subject matter.

UNIT 12 LEARNING BY EXPOSITION

12.1 Advance Organiser Model

Ausubel is one of the few educational psychologists to address himself

simultaneously to learning, teaching and curriculum. His theory of
Meaningful Verbal Learning deals with three concerns: (1) how
knowledge (curriculum content) is organised (2) how the mind works to
process new information (learning) and (3) how teachers can apply
these ideas about curriculum and learning when they present new
material to students (instruction). Advance Organiser Model was
developed based on Ausubel’s Theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning.
The structure of this model closely resembles the lecture method. The
Advance Organiser Model can be used only for verbal teaching. It can
also be used for developing instructional material.
Theoretical Basis and Assumptions

David P. Ausubel propounded the Theory of Meaningful Verbal

Learning. This theory applies to situations where the teacher plays the
role of lecturer. Its major purpose is to help students acquire subject
matter. The teacher is responsible for presenting what is to be learned.
Ausubel disagrees with the assumption that meaningful material cannot
be presented, but must come through independent problem-solving and
manipulative experience. According to Ausubel, whether material is
meaningful depends on the learner and the material and not on the
method of presentation. Meaningful learning takes place if the learner
begins with the right set and if the material is potentially understandable.
Therefore, meaningful learning involves two things: first, the learner’s
disposition to relate the new material non-arbitrarily and substantively to
his cognitive structure; second, the material he learns should be related
to his structure of knowledge on a non-arbitrarily and non-verbatim

97
basis. The key to meaning involves solidly connecting the new learning
material with existing ideas in the learner’s cognitive structure. In other
words, we must relate and reconcile what we know with what we are
learning. Meaningful learning thus obviously depends on two principle
factors, that is, both on the material to be learned and on the nature of
the particular learner’s cognitive structure. According to Ausubel,
cognitive structure means a person’s knowledge of a particular subject
matter at any given time and how well organised, clear and stable it is. In
other words, cognitive structure has to do with what kind of knowledge of
a field is in our minds, how much of it there is and how well organised it
is.
Ausubel (1963) believes that there is a parallel between the way the
subject matter is organised and the way people organise knowledge in
their minds (cognitive structure). He emphasises that each of the
academic discipline has a structure of concepts that are organised
hierarchically. Ausubel (1963) conceptualises a discipline as a level of
hierarchically organised concepts that begin with perceptual data at the
bottom and proceed through increasing levels of abstractness to the
most abstract concepts at the top. Thus we may imagine a discipline as
being composed of a pyramid of concepts all linked together, with the
most concrete concepts at the bottom and more abstract concepts at the
top.
Ausubel (1963) describes the mind as an information-processing and
information storing system that can be compared to the conceptual
structure of an academic discipline. The mind is a hierarchically
organised set of ideas that provides anchors for new information and
ideas as that are received, and serve as store house for them. As this
information processing system acquires new information and new idea it
reorganises itself to accommodate those idea. Thus the system is in a
continuous state of change. Ausubel maintains that new ideas can be
usefully learned and retained only to the extent that they can be related
to already available concepts or propositions that provide ideational
anchors. If the new material conflicts too strongly with the existing
cognitive structure or is so unrelated that no linkage is provided, the
information or ideas may not be incorporated or retained. To prevent this
from occurring, the teacher must organise a sequence of knowledge and
present it in such a way that the ideational anchors are provided. In
addition, the learner must actively reflect on the new material, thinking
through these linkages, reconciling differences and discrepancies with
existing information and noting similarities.

98
Ausubel’s ideas about subject matter and cognitive structure have
important and direct implications for the organisation of curriculum and
for instructional procedures. Two principles are suggested for
programming content in the subject fields in such a way that the
concepts become a stable part of a student’s cognitive structure. The
first is progressive differentiation and the second is integrative
reconciliation. Progressive differentiation means that the most general
ideas of the discipline are presented first followed by a gradual increase
in detail and specificity. Integrative reconciliation means that the new
ideas should be consciously related to previously learned content. In
other words the sequence of the curriculum is organised so that each
successive learning is carefully related to what has been presented
before. If the entire learning material has been conceptualised and
presented according to progressive differentiation, then the integrative
reconciliation follows naturally, though not without some intent on the
teacher’s part. Gradually, as a result of these principles, the discipline is
built into the mind of the learner. It must be kept in mind that the
discipline and the sequence of instruction are built from the top down,
rather than from the bottom up, first presenting the most inclusive
concepts, principles and/ or propositions.
Advance Organiser - Definition and Types

An Advance Organiser Model begins with the presentation of an

Advance Organiser. According to Ausubel (1978), advance organiser is
an introductory material at a higher level of abstraction, generality and
inclusiveness than the learning material presented before the actual
learning task. The main purpose of this is to explain, integrate and
interrelate the material in the learning task with previously learned
material as well as to help the learner discriminate the new material from
previously learned material. An advance organise statement is designed
to introduce the material that follows, and is broad enough to encompass
this information. It is obvious that the Advance Organiser Model is given
before the presentation of actual learning task and it helps in organising
the relationship between previous and new knowledge.

There are two types of advance orgainsers-expository and comparative.

Expository organisers are used when the new learning material is
completely unfamiliar. They are especially helpful because they provide
ideational scaffolding for unfamiliar material. Comparative organisers on
the other hand, are used most with relatively familiar material. They are
designed to integrate new concepts with basically similar concepts
existing in the cognitive structure. They are also designed to discriminate

99
between the old and new concepts in order to prevent confusion caused
by their similarity.
Characteristics of Advance Organiser Model

According to May (1979) the Advance Organiser Models have the

following characteristics.
 Short set verbal or visual information
 Presented prior to learning a larger body of to-be-learned content
 Contain no specific content from the to-be-learned information
 Provide a means of generating logical relationship among
elements in the to-be-learned information, and
 Influence the learners’ encoding process.
Syntax of the Advance Organiser Model

The Advance Organiser Model has three phases of activity and is

presented in table. 3.5.
Phase one is the presentation of the advance organiser. This phase
consists of three activities: clarifying the aims of the lesson, presenting
the advance organiser and prompting awareness of relevant knowledge.
Phase two is the presentation of the learning task or material. In this
phase an important task is to maintain students’ attention. Another task
is to make the organisation of the learning material explicit to the
students, so that they have an overall sense of direction. Furthermore,
the logical order of the material is to-be made explicit so that the
students can see how the ideas relate to each other.
The purpose of phase three is to anchor the new learning material in the
student’s existing cognitive structure. Ausubel identifies four activities in
this phase.
 Promoting integrative reconciliation
 Promoting active reception learning
 Eliciting a principle approach to subject matter
 Clarification.

100
 Table :10.3.5 Syntax of the Advance Organiser Model

Phase I Phase II Phase III

Presentation of Presentation of Strengthening
Advance Organiser Learning Task or Cognitive
Material Organisation

1. Classify aims of the 1. Make organisation 1. Use principles of

lesson explicit integrative
reconciliation
2. Present Organiser

3. Identify defining 2. Make logical order 2. Promote active

attributes of learning material reception learning.
explicit

4. Give examples 3. Maintain attention 3. Elicit critical

approach to subject
5. Provide context 4. Present material
matter
6. Repeat
4. Clarity

Social System

The model has a high structure. In this model the teacher defines roles
and controls social and integrative systems. However, the learning
structure is ideally much more interactive, with students initiating many
questions and comments.
Principles of Reaction
The teacher is seen as presenter of the learning material. The teacher’s
reaction will be guided by the purpose of clarifying the meaning of the
new learning material, differentiating it from and reconciling it with
existing knowledge, making it personally relevant to the student and
helping to promote a critical approach to knowledge. Ideally, students
will initiate their own questions in response to their own drive for
meaning.
Support System

The organiser and a hierarchical system of knowledge must be

developed. Learning material must be organised so that it pertains to the
organiser.

101
Instructional and Nurturant Effects of the Advance Organiser Model

The Advance Organiser Model helps in

 Conceptual structures
 Meaningful assimilation of information and ideas
 Developing interest in inquiry
 Developing habits of precise thinking
Applicability of the Model

The Advance Organiser Model was designed for use in face-to-face

teaching in the form of lectures and explanation. This model can be used
in developing instructional material. This model has great potential in
teaching concepts, relationships and imparting information effectively. It
can be used to teach any subject. Perhaps this model may be very
effective for high school and higher secondary school students.

Check your progress

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the

Block.
1. What are the training strategies for models of teaching ?
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………..……………………………………………
2. List any two characteristics of Advance Organiser Model.

………………………………………………………………………………
………………….……………………………………………………………

UNIT 13 METHODS OF TEACHING

“Why to teach mathematics” and “what to teach in mathematics?” have

been discussed in the previous chapter. Methods deal with the “How” of
mathematics. How the children will learn effectively, depends on the
method the teacher adopts. “How to impart mathematical knowledge?”
and “How to enable the children to learn mathematics?” are the
questions to be discussed in this chapter. Methods of teaching have an
intimate relationship with teaching and instructional objectives. So the
main aim of teaching is to bring about socially desirable behavioural
changes in the children. Though teaching in an art, methods are the way

102
or mode to understand and practice the art. So, every teacher should be
acquainted with different methods of teaching mathematics.
The word “method” has been derived from Latin word, which means,
“Mode” or “Way”. Methods are delivering knowledge and transmitting
mathematical skills by a teacher to his pupils and their comprehension
and application by them in the process of learning mathematics.

In a very restricted sense, it means “what to teach?” and “how to teach

mathematics?” or “how to approach it?”. Hence, “the process of
interpreting the world of knowledge to pupils’ mind is called the method
of teaching.” It is just a way to teach. The following figure can make it
more clear:

The world of knowledge includes the knowledge, interest, attitude, skill

etc. i.e, all the three domains – cognitive, affective and Psychomotor.
Another approach to define a method of teaching may be as follows:

According to Brondy (1963), “Method refer to the formal structure of the

sequence of acts commonly denoted by instruction. The word method
covers both strategies and techniques of teaching and involves the
choice of what is to be taught.”
Now which method should be used to teach mathematic, depends upon
the abilities and interest of the teacher. But while selecting the method,
the teacher should always keep in his mind the aims of teaching
mathematics. These aims include the mental, social and moral dev
elopement of the child. This development is only possible, when
methods of teaching are appropriate and effective. A teacher who does
not use suitable method to teach the subject matter according to the
requirements of the children, is not supposed to be a good teacher.

103
However, it is important to note that a method should not become an
end in itself but should be used as a means to achieve the determined
aims and objectives of teaching mathematics. The teacher is free to use
a variety of the teaching method according to his own abilities, interests
and experiences. Following points may be considered while selecting a
method:

 What to teach?

 Why to teach?
 Whom to teach?
 How to teach?

 What are the problems are using in this method?

 How can we remove those problems?
 Which method is the best?
According to Herbart Spencer, methods of teaching should be based on
some principles. These principles are:
 From simple to complex

 From concrete to abstract

 From known to unknown

 From direct to indirect

 From definite to indefinite
 From empirical to rational
 Emphasis on Self-learning

 Method should be interesting

All the above principles are based on psychological principles because
the basis of these principles and their ideology is as same as psychology
and shows the influence of Pestalozzi and Froebel.
While selecting a method the teacher should also consider the basic
principles of teaching. Some important principles of teaching are as
follows-
 Principle of learning by doing.

 Principle of individual differences

 Principle of motivation
 Principle of correlation

104
 Principle of linking with previous knowledge of the child

 Principle of Distribution
 Principle of Repetitions

 Principle of certain objectives

 Principle of evaluation.
A. Classification of Methods

Generally, methods of teaching mathematics can be classified in two

categories :
 Learner-centered methods
 Teacher-centered methods
Learner- Centered Methods

In learner-centered methods, the learner occupies a central position in

the classroom. The whole teaching-learning process is geared to the
needs, interests, capabilities and requirements of the child. These are
based on psychological principles. The purpose is to develop abilities,
skills and discovery attitude amongst the students. These includes:
Project, Laboratory, Problem-Solving, Heuristic, Discussion method etc.
Teacher - Centered Methods

In teacher-centered methods, the teacher occupies a central position in

the classroom. In these methods focus is given on telling, memorisation
and recalling information. The children are just passive recipients and
they are in the background of educational process of knowledge. These
include: Lecture, Historical and Lecture cum-Demonstration method.
B. Factors Affecting Methods of Teaching

In general the factors affecting the methods of teaching can be classified

as follows:
 Factors Related with Instructional Objectives: The usefulness
and practicability of instructional objectives affects the selection of
teaching method. So before selecting the method of teaching the
teacher should decide the instructional objectives. Keeping in
mind, the mental level, interest and attitude of children, he should
use that method in an effective manner.
 Factors Related with Content: Contents is that matter whose
communication is the main basis of teaching. Therefore, the nature
and standard of content affects the selection of teaching methods

105
 in real sense. That is why the school curriculum should be based
on the principles of “Activity centered” or “Learning by doing” and
“Learning through Experiences” so that learning of children
become more effective.
 Factors Related to Teacher: The teacher has most active role in
teaching process. The teaching process can be made powerful
and effective by using teaching methods. The power of
communication of the teacher, this facilitate available to him and
time can affect the selection of any teaching method. Apart from
this the law, capability of the teacher less knowledge of the subject
and dissatisfactory professional training also affects his work.
 Factors Related to Students: From psychological point of view,
the child is centre of all teaching methods. So his mentality, ability,
interest, will to learn and attitude affects the selection of teaching
method.
Therefore, the teacher should keep all these things in his mind before
selecting any specific method.
C. Precautions while selecting Methods of Teaching

A successful mathematics teacher should has some precautions before

selecting a method of teaching, so that the method selected by him be
effective and useful to the students. The Secondary Education
Commission/ Mudhaliar Commission (1952 – 1953) has thrown light on
the following points regarding the selection of teaching methods:
 The aim of teaching methods should not only be to provide
maximum knowledge to the students but the education should be
provided in such a way that they themselves gain knowledge by
their efforts.

 The teacher should select such a method by which children can

develop desirable values, good attitude and habit to work hard.
 The teaching method should develop different skills, honesty, self
dependence and self-reliance amongst the children.
 The teacher should keep in mind the individual differences of the
children while selecting a specific method, so that the children of
all levels; average below average and sharp mind can get
opportunity to learn according to their abilities, mental power and
speed.

 The children should be given opportunity to work together in

groups.

106
 In mathematics emphasis should not be given on verbalism and
memorization.
 Such a teaching method should be selecting by which the
knowledge given be purposeful, concrete and real.
 Such method should be selected by which the children get proper
opportunities to apply or use the acquired knowledge.

Like in other subjects, many methods are common in mathematics

teaching. But now the question is that, which method is more useful? It
is better to leave this decision to the teacher because he has the closest
relationship with teaching learning process.
A successful, intelligent and experienced teacher should keep in mind,
the mental level, habits and attitudes of children before selecting a
method. Along with this the teacher should also keep in mind the
individual differences, because by using proper and effective method,
the children take interest in mathematics.
D. Various Methods of Teaching Mathematics
Some methods of teaching which are very useful for mathematics
teachers are presented in this Unit. They are:

 Inductive Method
 Deductive Method
 Analytic Method

 Synthetic Method

 Lecture Method
 Demonstration Method

 Lecture cum Demonstration Method

 Project Method and

 Problem Solving Method

13.1 Inductive Method

Inductive method is advocated by Pestalozzi and Francis Bacon.

Inductive method is based on induction. Induction is the process of
proving a universal truth or a theorem by showing that if it is true of any
particular case, it is true of the next case in the same serial order and
hence true for any such cases. Thus it is a method of arriving at a
formula or a rule by observing a sufficient number of particular

107
instances. If one rule applies to a particular case and it equally
applicable to different similar cases, it is accepted as a general rule or
formula. Therefore, inductive approach proceeds from

 Particular cases to general rules or formulae.

 Concrete instance to abstract rules.

 Known to unknown.

 Simple to complex.
This method has been found to be very suitable for the teaching of
mathematics because many mathematical formulae and generalisations
are the results of induction.
a. Steps in Inductive Method

Inductive method follows clear and specific steps as under:

 Selection of a number cases.
 Observation of the cases under given conditions.
 Investigation and analysis for common properties and
relations.

 Finding common relations.

 Arriving at generalization.
 Verification or Application.

Example

If two parallel lines are cut by transversal the alternate angles are equal.
Step-1: Selection of a number of cases

Students may be asked to draw at least three pairs of parallel lined cut
by transversal and mark the pair of alternate angles as a, b, c, d.

108
The students can be asked to measure the angles a,b,c and d and
tabulates the results.
Step-2: Observation of the cases under given conditions.

By appropriate questioning the students may be asked to observe the

cases and see the common property and similarity of the given
instances i.e.

i) a pair of parallel lines cut by a transversal.

ii)  a and  c are pairs of alternate angles

 b and  d
Step-3: Investigation and analysis for common properties and
relations

The students are asked to analyse the data tabulated by them and draw
inferences regarding common properties.

Cases ma mb mc md

Case (i) 600 420 600 420

Case(ii) 550 600 550 600

Case (iii) 450 750 450 750

Step-4: Finding common relations

From the tabulated data it can be observe that

m a = m c
m b = m d
Step -5: Arriving at generalization

 a =  c (a and c are alternate angles)

 b =  d (b and d are alternate angles)
 Alternate angles are equal i.e. when two parallel lines are cut by a
transversal, the alternate angles are equal.
Step -6: Verification or Application
Require the students to verify the validity of the generalization by
applying it to a new situation. The students may be asked to draw
another pair of parallel lines cut by a transversal and mark the alternate
angles. They can measure the alternate angles and verify the validity of
the generalization drawn.

109
Many more examples can be listed where inductive approach can be
used effectively.
A few are given below:

 Sum of the first ‘n’ natural numbers

 Laws of indices
 Number of elements in a power set

 Number of diagonals in a polygon

 Factorisation of quadratic expressions etc.

b. Merits of Inductive Method

The following are the merits of inductive method:

 It helps understanding. It is easy to understand a mathematical
principle established through a number of simple examples.
 It is a logical method. So it suits mathematics.
 It gives opportunity of active participation to students in the
discovery of formula.

 It is based on actual observation, thinking and experimentation.

 It curbs the tendency to learn things by rote, and also reduces
home work.

 As it gives freedom form doubts, it suits the child.

c. Demerits of Inductive Method
The following are the demerits of inductive method:

 It is limited in range. It contains the process of discovering the

formula with the help of a sufficient number of cases, but ‘what
next?’ is not provided in it.

 This method only facilitates the discovery of formula or the rule. A

lot of supplementary work and practice is needed to fix the topic in
the mind of the learner.

 This method iks not absolutely conclusive as it might leave some

doubts in the minds of the students regarding the validity of the
generalization arrived at through the observation of a few particular
instances.

 It is likely to be more laborious and time consuming.

 It is nor useful as some of the unnecessary details and
explanations may make teaching dull and boring.

110
 Its application has to be restricted and confined to understanding of
rules in the early stage.

13.2 Deductive Method

It is the opposite of Inductive Method. Here the learner proceeds from

general to particular, abstract to concrete, and formula to examples. A
pre-constructed formula is told to the students and they are asked to
solve the relevant problems with the help of that formula. The formula is
accepted by the learners as a pre established and well established truth.
a. Steps in Deductive Method

Deductive approach of teaching follows the steps given below for

effective teaching.
 Clear recognition of the problem: A clear recognition of the
problem statement provides the basic link for the thinking process
and the solution to the problem.
 Search for a tentative hypothesis: The second step in deductive
method is the search for a tentative hypothesis, a tentative solution
to the problem.
 Formulation of a tentative hypothesis: The search for the
solution leads to the formulation of a tentative hypothesis that
appears to have promise as a possible or probable solution to the
problem. The tentative hypothesis has its basis on certain axioms
or postulates, or propositions or rules and formulae that have been
accepted to be true.
 Verification: Finally the hypothesis that has been formulated is to
be verified as the right solution to the problem at hand.
Example

Find the area of an equilateral triangle of side 3cm.

Step-1: Clear recognition of the problem
The student analyses the problem as to what is given and what is to be
found out
Given: An equilateral triangle of side 3 cm.
Problem: To find its area.
Step-2: Search for tentative hypothesis

111
The student analyses various possible solutions i.e. various formulae for
the area of triangle that they have encountered before.
1 1
Such as, A = bh; A = ab
2 2
A= s(s  a)( s  b)( s  c), A = 3 a2

4
Step-3: Formulation of tentative hypothesis

The student selects A= 3 a2

4
as a possible hypothesis as its is the formula to find the Area of an
equilateral triangle.
Step-4: Verification

The student verifies the hypothesis

A= 3 a 2 sq. unit
4

A= 3 32

i.e. A = 3 x 9 sq. cm.

4
Deductive approach is very frequently followed by teachers of
mathematics, as mathematics is a deductive science. Problems can be
solved by applying formulae and rules that have been already derived.
Theorems and riders can be deducted from theorems which have been
already proved, definitions that have been stated and postulates and
axioms that have been accepted.
b. Merits of Deductive Method

The following are the merits of deductive method:

 It is short and time saving.
 It enhances speed, skill and efficiency in solving problems.

 It glorifies memory, as students have to memorise a considerable

number of formulae.
 At the ‘practice and revision’ stage, this method is adequate and
advantageous.

112
 It completes the inductive method as probability in induction is
reduces to certainty in deduction.
c. Demerits of Deductive Method

The following are the demerits of deductive method:

 It is very difficult for a beginner to understand an abstract formula if it
is not proceeded by a number of concrete instances.

 It encourages rote memory as deductive method demands the use of

certain laws, rules or formulae to be recalled by the learners from
their memory.
 It does not clarify the doubts of the student regarding the
generalization and hence the learning is incomplete
 It is not suitable for beginners
 It does not encourage students’ involvement in learning. The
students cannot be active learners.
 It is not suitable for the development of thinking, reasoning and
discovery.

Inductive Method Deductive Method

 Based on inductive  Based on deductive

reasoning reasoning
 Proceeds from  Proceeds from
Particular General General
Particular
Concrete
Abstract Abstract
Concrete
 A Psychological Method
 An un-psychological method
 A method of discovery and
stimulates intellectual powers  A method of presentation and
does not develop originality
 Emphasis is on reasoning.
and creativity
 Encourages meaningful
 Emphasis is on memory.
learning
 Encourages rote learning
 Most suitable for initial
stages of learning
 Suitable for lower classes  Suitable for practice and
application
 Enhances active participation
of the students
 Lengthy, time consuming and  Most suitable for higher
laborious classes

113
 Not absolutely conclusive,  Makes the student passive
based on probability recipient of knowledge
 Facilitates discovery of rules  Short, concise and elegant
and generalizations

 Makes the probability a

certainty

 Enhances speed, skill and

efficiency in solving
problems.

d. Comparison of Inductive and Deductive Methods of Teaching

13.3 Analytic Method

This method proceeds from unknown to known. ‘Analysis’ means

‘breaking up’ of the problem in hand so that it ultimately gets connected
with something obvious or already known. It is the process of unfolding
of the problem or of conducting its operation to known its hidden
aspects. Start with what is to be found out. Then think of further steps
and possibilities which may connect the unknown with the known and
find out the desired result. In its original sense the verb ‘to analyse’
means to loosen or separate things that are together. About analysis,
Thorndike says that all the highest intellectual performance of the mind
is analysis.
Examples :

If a = c , then prove
b d
ac + 4b2 = c2 + 4bd

bc dc
Solution:
We have to start from the equation that is to be proved and proceed
towards the known. Thus, we start from

ac + 4b2 = c2 + 4bd
bc dc

1. How to write this identity in easy form? (We cut ‘c’ in the
denominators of both sides and then cross multiply)

114
 Thus, ac + 4b2 = c2 + 4bd

bc dc

 ac + 4b2 = c2 + 4bd
b d

 acd + 4 b2 d = c2b + 4 b2 d ( by cross

multiplication )
2. How can it be solved further?

( ‘4 b2 d’ can be cut from both sides and ‘c’ can also be cut out )
Thus, acd + 4 b2 d = c2b + 4 b2 d

 acd = c2b

 ad = cb
3. How can we write it in some other form?
ad = cb

 a = c
b d
This type of the solution of the problems can be easily obtained by
analysis.
a. Merits of Analytic Method

The following are the merits of the analytic method:

 It is a psychological method.
 It leaves on doubts and convinces the learner.

 If facilitates understanding.

 It strengths the urge to discover facts.

 The steps in its procedures are developed in a general manner.
No cramming of a fixed step and a set pattern is necessitated.
Each step has its reason and justification.
 It develops self-confidence in the students as they tackle the
problems confidently and intelligently.
 It develops thinking and reasoning power among the students.
b. Demerits of Analytic Method

The following are the demerits of the analytic method:

115
 It is lengthy method.

 With this method it is difficult to acquire efficiently and speed.

 It may not be applicable to all topics of mathematics.

 It may not be very effective for below average students who would
find it difficult to follow the analytical reasoning.

13.4 Synthetic Method

This method proceeds from known to unknown. It is opposite of the

analytic method. Synthesis is the complement of analysis. To synthesis
is to place together things that are apart. It starts with something already
known and connects that with the unknown part of the statement. It
starts with the data available or known and connects the same with the
conclusion. It is the process of putting together known bits of information
to reach the points where unknown information becomes obvious and
true.
Examples :

If a = c , then prove
b d

ac + 4b2 = c2 + 4bd
bc dc
Solution:

In this method, we start from known and proceed to unknown.

We know that, a = c
b d

Adding 4b on both sides, a + 4b = c + 4b

c b c d c

 ac + 4b2 = c2 + 4bd

bc dc
which was to be proved.
a. Merits of Synthetic Method

The following are the merits of the synthetic method:

 It follows the same process as given in the text books.

116
 It is a short and elegant method.

 It facilitates speed and efficiency.

 It suits the teacher.

 It is more effective for slow learners.

b. Demerits of Synthetic Method
The following are the demerits of the synthetic method:

 It leaves many doubts in the mind of the learner; and offers no

explanation for them.
 Without a satisfactory answer to so many questions that arise in
synthetic, the pupil is perplexed when a new problem is put him.
Even the recall of all the steps of synthesis may not be possible
for the learner.
 It does not provide full understanding.
 There is no scope of discovery and thinking in this method.
 Memory work and home work are likely to become heavy.

 It does not suit the learner and the subject.

c. Comparison of Analytic and Synthetic Methods of Teaching

Analytic Method Synthetic Method

 It proceeds form the unknown to It proceeds form the known to

known facts the unknown facts
 It starts from the conclusion and It starts with the hypothesis
goes to the hypothesis and ends with the conclusion
 It is a process of thinking It is a product of thought
 It is a process of exploration and It is a process of presentation
demands thought of the previously discovered
facts
 It pulls apart or analyse the
statement under solution It puts together or synthesises
known facts
 It is a general method
 It is lengthy, awkward, slow,
roundabout, and involves, trial and It is a special device
error.
 It answers satisfactorily any quest on It is concise, a elegant, quick,
that may arise in the mind of an straight forward, and does
intelligent pupil without trial and error
 It is a method for the thinker and

117
 discoverer It does not satisfy the doubt
and questions arising in the
 There are close contacts between
mind of the learner.
the teacher and the taught
 The students can recall and
reconstruct easily any steps if It is method for the crammer
forgotten
 It develops originality There are no such intimate
 It is informal contacts between them.

 It is psychological It is not easy to recall or

reconstruct any forgotten
 It is formational steps.
 It is based on heuristic lines
 It is the fore- runner of synthesis It develops memory
It is formal
It is logical
It is informational
There is no heuristic approach
in it.
It is the followers of analysis.

d. Relationship between Analytic and Synthetic method

Analysis is often identified with induction and synthesis with deduction.
Both analysis and synthesis are required in induction as well as in
deduction. We analyse in order to see the relation better. Thorndike
seems to think that all thought, at any rate, all the highest intellectual
performance of the mind is analysis. He remarked, “The mind of most
intellectual act to connect one thing with the other, but its highest
performance is to think a thing apart into its elements.” But most of the
philosophers, educationalists and logicians say that the highest form of
man’s intellectual activity is synthesis. The confusion is due to the mixing
up of the original or the root meaning of these words and the meaning
given by the various investigators in the different fields of thought.
According to N. Kuppuswami: In logic and mathematics we analyze in
order to find out how these things can be combined together to make up
the whole? Synthesis means more or less the same – the putting
together of the analyzed elements so as to bring about the desired
effects. Therefore, in all the cases it is the purpose that governs their
meanings. Hence we can say that synthesis is the complement of
analysis and in logic and mathematics the two always go together.

118
Moreover, Analysis leads to complete the purpose of analysis. We
cannot synthesise without analyzing or analyze without synthesis.
Analysis is useless followed by synthesis. Just as, we cannot have
induction without deduction or deduction without induction. It should be
noted that analysis helps the mind to synthesis, but actual synthesis,
consist in the mind seeing through the common elements.

Hence, analysis is the instrument used, and the final result is the
outcome of the process of synthesising the analyzed facts. This is the
reason why philosophers think that synthesis is the highest form of
intellectual activity.

13.5 Lecture Method

Lecture method is one of the most popular and ancient methods of

teaching in our schools. This is a teacher structured method. In this
method, the teacher comes to the class and goes on delivering the
subject matter. In this method, the teacher is the active participant and
students are just passive listeners. They do not take any active part in
teaching-learning process. Very few teachers allow questions during the
lecture, though some of them give some time to their students to ask
questions after the lecture. Many students forget their questions by the
time the lecture is over. It is an exposition of knowledge, facts, principles
or other information which a teacher wishes to present his pupils. In this
method, the teacher assumes that the students posses sufficient
background and ability to understand the lecture. The students are
passive listeners. It is useful at higher level. This method is useful for:

i. Conveying information
ii. Generating understanding

iii. Stimulating interest

a. How to use this method ?
In using the lecture method, there is a need for proper planning and
effective execution. The teacher should take into consideration of the
previous knowledge of the students. The lecture should be well planned,
divided into parts, and highlighting important points. It should be in
simple language, containing a lot of examples.
b. Body of the Lecture Method
In lecture method, generally there are the following steps.

119
 Aim of the Lecture

Topic Introduction

Questions Body of the Lecture Examples

Discussion

Illustration

Demonstration

Summary and Conclusion

The lecture should be supported by diagrams, charts, models and any
other audio-visual aids. If the lecture is properly planned, it may motivate
and stimulate the students.
c. Merits of Lecture Method
1. It is easy, brief, convenient, attractive and concise.

2. Useful for higher classes.

3. It is more economical, as no other materials except the blackboard
is needed.

4. More information can be given to more number of students.

5. It is speedy. Students can listen and take notes immediately.

6. The teacher is always alert.

7. The flow of thought is maintained and the teacher can tell many
new things.
8. It is inspirational. Good lecturers are highly motivating, and
students pick up inspiration, instigation, zeal, ambitions ideas etc
from them.
d. Demerits of Lecture Method

1. Providing facts alone is not teaching.

2. It is spoon feeding. The students remain passive.

120
3. It is not suitable for lower classes.

4. The mental levels of the students are not developed.

5. Except sense of hearing, no other sense is used.

6. Motivation is less.
7. It is teacher centered. The teacher is an authority, rather than a
teacher.

8. It is un-psychological. It develops only the memory. The interests,

aptitudes, scientific attitudes, etc are not developed,

9. It does not develop critical thinking, reflection, etc.

13.6 Demonstration Method

Demonstration is a process or means of showing how something works

or is used. The demonstration method is a natural method of teaching
and provides foundation for the initiative behaviour through example. In
this method, both the teacher and the students are active. The teacher
demonstrates while teaching and the students acquire knowledge by
careful observation of it. It is used for the following reasons:
1. To show method and technique

2. To demonstrate a phenomena
3. To verify facts and principles
4. To show applications
5. To solve problems

6. To identity problems for further investigation.

a. How to use this method ?

There are two kinds of demonstrations, i.e., teacher demonstration and

collaborative demonstration. Teacher demonstration is used to
demonstrate certain skills and collaborative demonstration is for
students getting an opportunity to use in geometrical problems. The
following procedures are generally practiced in this method.
The appropriate arrangement, demonstration table, sufficient light,
demonstration material, their proper arrangement, teaching aids, black
board, etc should be arranged properly. It should be arranged at the
right season and right time. The students’ attention should be secured
first.

121
The following are the steps in this method:
 Planning and Preparation: First of all, the teacher should plan
and prepare for the demonstration. He should collect and arrange
the experimental apparatus. He should be thorough in the subject
matter. He has to prepare the lesson notes, type of questions,
sequence, etc. He has to rehearse the experiments prior to the
demonstration. It will enable the teacher to collect all the requisites
for the demonstration. He must prepare a lesson plan. It will make
the work systematic.
 Introducing the Lesson: A lesson should be started by motivating
and preparing the minds of the students for it. Generally the lesson
may be introduced with a problem, so that the students can
appreciate and realize the importance of the topic. By that the
teacher can awaken the enthusiasm and keenness of the
students.
 Presentation of the subject matter: The next step is to present
the subject matter. It must be with the broader sense of teaching,
use of proper illustrations, judicious questions, etc.
 Performance of experiments: The demonstration table should be
a model for the students to follow. The experiments must work and
their results should be clear and striking. The teacher should never
try to make an experiment succeed by illicit means. They must be
simple. Experiments should be well-spaced throughout the lesson.
It is wrong to demonstrate all the experiments at an early part of
the lesson or rushed in at the end.
 Blackboard work: By the by, the black board should be utilized
efficiently. It may be used for tabulating data, important results,
and principles related to the demonstration, drawing necessary
sketches and diagrams.
b. Precautions to be taken during demonstration

1. The demonstration is visible to all. The apparatus is arranged on

the demonstration table. If possible, students come one by one
and have a close look of the apparatus. Proper lighting
arrangement is done.

2. Demonstration is done when there is a need for it in the lesson.

3. Demonstration is helpful in clarifying a point. So, the teacher
should use the blackboard also wherever necessary.

122
4. The teacher demonstrates the experiment with proper voice and
intonations.
5. He explains the concepts; allows adequate time to understand;
and relates it with the theory. He often asks questions and
maintains the interest of the pupils.
6. The teacher uses teacher oriented, student oriented, and silent
demonstration approaches.

7. During demonstration, safety rules are strictly followed.

c. Merits of Demonstration Method

1. Students get an opportunity to see, observe and study real

experiments.
2. It seeks participation of the students, thus providing an opportunity
for learning mathematics as inquiry.
3. It is an excellent motivator.
4. It is one of the best means to illustrate and verify facts.
5. It is helpful in explaining skills, solving problems and promoting
relevant and useful discussion in the classroom.
6. It develops power of critical observation, thinking, reasoning and
the knowledge obtained is permanent.
d. Demerits of Demonstration Method

1. In teacher oriented demonstration, not all the students get an

opportunity to participate.
2. In large classes, not all the students are able to observe properly
and many students may miss a point.

3. Some times, lack of prior preparation or the incapability of the

teacher to perform the experiment makes demonstration a failure.

13.7 Lecture Cum Demonstration Method

The lecture cum demonstration methods is inter-related. It combines

both lecture and demonstration methods. In this the limitations of lecture
method are removed. The lecture is combined with demonstration, thus
making this method more impressive. This combined method is
economical in both time and energy-wise. The teacher performs the
experiment in the class and goes on explaining what he does. It takes
into account the active participation of the students and is thus not a lop-

123
sided process like the lecture method. The students see the actual
apparatus and operations and help the teacher in demonstrating the
experiment and thereby feel interested in learning. It is difficult to talk
about things which the pupils have to imagine. But it is always easy for
the students to understand and remember the concrete things. Research
shows that the students taught by lecture method and demonstration
method both fare well equally; but the demonstration pupils score higher
marks on the immediate tests while the individual laboratory pupils score
more on delayed tests. The lecture-cum demonstration method proves
to be one of the best methods if the demonstrations are well-planned
and rehearsed by the teacher.
a. How to use this method ?

The teacher explains the theoretical portions of the content with the help
of lecture method, making use of diagrams and statements. He uses the
blackboard for this purpose. Then he performs the experiments with the
help of students to make the theoretical portion clearer. During the
course of demonstration, he keeps asking questions to the students. The
teacher should plan and rehearse the demonstration well in advance. It
gives confidence to the demonstrator. The teacher should be clear of the
purpose of demonstration. He should know beforehand the aims of the
demonstration, the generalizations to be made and the attitudes to be
developed while demonstrating. Both the students and teacher
participate. The teacher always seek the help of students in arranging,
fitting up and performing the experiment. Questioning is an important
part of demonstration in order to know that the students have
understood and are attentive in observing the demonstration. The
teacher explains the important and difficult points involved in the
demonstration in simple and comprehensive language and should write
them on the blackboard. The apparatus for demonstration is arranged in
order. It should be visible to all the students in the class. The
demonstration table is generally at a little higher level than the pupil
tables. Proper care should be taken for adequate lighting and to the size
and clarity of the apparatus. The demonstration should be simple and
speedy. The demonstration should be in accordance with the time and
other resources available. The demonstration is supplemented with
other teaching aids to make it more real and interesting.
b. Merits of Lecture cum Demonstration Method

1. All shortcomings of lecture method are removed.

2. All positive points of demonstration method are included.

124
3. The students get a clear picture of the topic.
4. It is useful where the apparatus is costly and sensitive to break,
the experiment involves some danger, the experiment involves
some complex operations, and quick revision of some principles or
project is desired.
5. It is psychologically based as the students are shown the concrete
things. They take active part in the teaching-learning process. This
arouses in them an interest and enthusiasm for the study of
mathematics. Their curiosity, creative and acquisitive instinct
obtain satisfaction and they learn through hand and eye.

6. It is economical as it saves both time and money.

c. Demerits of Lecture cum Demonstration Method

1. The students do not get a chance to make use of apparatus

independently.
2. The students simply observe. They are not collecting any data.
3. There are some physical problems in this method.

4. This method is not economically feasible.

Check your progress

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the
Block

3. What are steps involved in Inductive method of teaching?

……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………..………………………………………

4. Write the demerits of Deductive method of teaching?

……………………………………………………………………………
…………………….……………………………………………………

5. Write short note on Lecture Method.

……………………………………………………………………………
…………………….……………………………………………………

125
13..8 Project Method
This is one of the innovative teaching practices developed in the
twentieth century. This was proposed by W.H. Kilpatrick. According to
him, ‘Project is an activity which is performed with complete attachment
in a social atmosphere to achieve the goal. He laid emphasis on
purposeful activity, problem solving and the needs and interests of the
individual child in action, learning and conduct. It was influenced by John
Dewey’s problem solving approach. It offers a system appropriate in a
free society and technically consistent with modern learning theory.
Project is a whole-hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social
environment. This method aims at acquisition of knowledge, habits,
skills, ideals, etc. indirectly by means of activity. It is based on the
principles of Utility, Purposive, Activity, Reality, Freedom and Social
development.
a. How to use this method?

There are five major steps in this method.

1. Purposing: Pupils develop purposes of the project and the
procedures to be followed. It is the determination of the nature and goal
of the project. These decisions are related to the interest, aptitude, and
ability of the pupils. If need arises, the teacher gives direction. As far as
possible, the student should get a chance to formulate a project. The
teacher should give the necessary suggestions.
2. Planning: At this stage, pupils plan to execute. It involves
searching the most appropriate and viable line of action from various
available ones. A pupil should be careful in planning because attainment
of goals depends on proper planning.
3. Executing: This step is concerned with the execution of the plan.
It involves undertaking the activity, completing it and searching the
results. Whole hearted involvement of the pupil in a purposeful activity is
the main focus. The students have to acquire various types of
knowledge to complete their responsibilities. The knowledge thus
attained is more permanent. The teacher encourages the students,
supervises their work and makes changes if required.
4. Evaluation: It is evaluating the project, its purposes, achievement
and its social impacts. It includes both formative and summative
evaluation. The students discuss their work and rectify their mistakes
and recollect useful knowledge.

126
5. Recording: In this step, the students keep a complete record of
work - how they planned, what discussions were held, how duties were
assigned, etc and finally criticism of their own work and some important
points for further reference.
b. Merits of Project Method
1. It involves students in learning with a definite purpose. They
contemplate, study and work.
2. Students plan, execute and evaluate their own work in a whole-
hearted way.
3. Learning is related to reality and social set up.

4. Students organize their own work and take responsibility.

5. It offers freedom to students, and it is based on the socially
acceptable interests and needs of the learner.
6. This is a psychological method. It is based on learning by doing.
7. Relationship is developed among various subjects. The acquired
knowledge is permanent.
c. Demerits of Project Method
1. It is time consuming.

2. It is difficult to complete the prescribed syllabus through this

method.
3. The teacher has to put in more labour.
4. Inexperienced teachers face problems with this method.

5. Correct knowledge of the true principles is not obtained.

6. This method is not useful in absence of good libraries and
laboratories.

13.9 Problem Solving Method

The problem solving method is one which involves the use of the
process of problem solving or reflective thinking or reasoning. Problem
solving method indicates begins with the statement of a problem that
challenges the students to find a solution. The problem centers around
the subject matter under study and requires the use of information and
skills available to the students. In the process of solving the problem the
students may be requires to gather data, analyse and interpret the
information, to arrive at the solution to the problems.

127
a. Definition of Problem Solving
A problem is an obstruction of some sort to the attainment of an
objective, a sort of difficulty which does not enable the individual to
reach a goal easily.
According to James Ross, “Problem solving is an educational device
whereby the teacher and the pupils attempt in a conscious, planned,
purposeful manner to arrive at an explanation or solution to some
educationally significant difficulty”.
Risk, T.M defines, “Problem solving is a planned attack upon a difficulty
or perplexity for the purpose of finding a satisfactory solution”.
Yokam and Simpson defines “A problem occurs in a situation in which a
felt difficulty to act is realized. It is a difficulty that is clearly present and
recognized by the thinker. It may be a purely mental difficulty or it may
be physical and involve the manipulation of data. The distinguishing
thing about a problem, however, is that it impresses the individual who
meets it as needing a solution. He recognises it as a challenge”.
Thus, problem solving involves :
 A goal to be reached

 A felt difficulty to reach the goal

 Challenging the felt difficulty through conscious, planned and
purposeful attack.

 Reaching the goal or arriving at a satisfactory solution to the

problem at hand
Therefore, problem solving is a method in which the felt difficulty to act in
an educational situation is realised and then an attempt is made in a
conscious and purposeful way to find its solution.
The main objective of problem solving method is to stimulate the
reflective and creative thinking of the students. It involves the thought
process. The approach leads to the formulation of generalisations that
are useful in future situations involving the solution of similar problems.
The solution of a problem, whatever be its nature, practical or
informational involves the process of reflective thinking.
b. Steps in Problem Solving
George Polya described the experience of problem solving in his book,
How to Solve It.

128
As part of his work on problem solving, Polya developed a four-step
problem-solving process similar to the following:
 Understanding the Problem

 Devising a Plan

 Carrying out the Plan

 Looking Back

Generally, Problem solving follows five steps. They are:

Step 1: Identifying and defining the Problem

The problem arises out of a felt need and out of existing student
activities and environment activities. The students should be able to
identify and clearly define the problem. The problem which has been
identified should be interesting, challenging and motivating for the
students to participate in exploring.
Step 2: Analysing the problem

The problem should be carefully analysed. Given facts must be identified

and expressed. If necessary, it may be represented in symbolic form.
The relationships are to be clearly stated. Relations that are not
explicitly stated may be supplied by the students.
Steps 3: Formulating tentative hypothesis

The focus at this stage is on hypothesising searching for a tentative

solution to the problem. Analysis of the given data and analysis of
interrelationship among the given facts help the students in formulating
hypothesis or educated guesses as the solution to the problem at hand.
Step 4: Testing the hypothesis

Appropriate methods should be selected to test the validity of the

tentative hypothesis as a solution to the problem. If it is not proved to be
the solution, the students are asked to formulate alternate hypothesis
and proceed.
Step 5: Verification of the result
In this step the student are asked to determine their results and
substantiate the expected solution. The students should be able to make
generalisations and apply it to their daily life.
Example: 1

Define union of two sets. If A = {2, 3, 5}, B = {3, 5, 6,} and C = {4, 6, 8,
9,} Prove that AU(BUC) = (AUB) UC

129
Solution:
Step 1: After selecting and understanding the problem the child will be
able to define the problem in his own words that the union of two sets A
and B is the set which contains all the members of set A and all the
members of a set B. The union of two sets A and B is expressed as
‘AUB’ and symbolically represented as

AUB = {x : x  A or x B}

The common elements are taken only once in the union of two sets.
Step 2: After defining the problem in his own words, the child will
analyse the given problem that how the problem can be solved
Step 3: After analysing the various aspects of the problem he will be
able to make hypothesis that first of all he should calculate the union of
sets B and C i.e., BUC. Then, the union of sets A and (BUC) i.e., AU
(BUC). Thus he can get the value of AU (BUC). Similarly he can solve
(AUB) UC.
Step 4: Then on the basis of given data, the child will be able to solve
the problem in the following manner:
It is given that

A = {2, 3, 5}
B = {3, 5, 6,} and C = {4, 6, 8, 9}
 BUC= {3, 5, 6} U {4, 6, 8, 9}

= {3 , 4, 5, 6, 8, 9}

AU(BUC) = {2, 3, 5} U {3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9}

= {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9,}

Similarly,

(AUB) = {2, 3, 5} U {3, 5, 6}

= {2, 3, 5, 6}

(AUB) UC = {2, 3, 5, 6} U {4, 6, 8, 9}

= {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9}
Steps 5: After solving the problem the child will analyse the result on the
basis of given data and verify his hypothesis whether AU (BUC) is
equals to (AUB) UC or not. After verification he will be able to conclude
that

AU (BUC) = (AUB) UC

130
Thus the child generalise the results and apply his knowledge in new
situations
c. Approaches and Techniques for Problem Solving

Problem solving advocates the following approaches

 Analytic and Synthetic approaches.
 Inductive and Deductive approaches

 Method of analogies

In analogy, problems are solved by comparing them with similar

problems that have been solved before. Thus the method of solution
becomes explicit and clear.
Example:

In the classroom, teacher taught how to find out the areas of the
rectangle with Length 6m and Breadth 4m.
(i.e.) Area of the rectangle = Length x Breadth
= 6m x 4m

= 24 m2
The area of the given rectangle is 24 m2

Whenever teacher asked to find out the area of the rectangle with
specified length and breadth, students can solve the problem by
comparing it with the similar problem solved by the teacher.
 Restatement Method
Problem solving becomes easier if the student is able to redefine
the given problem using his own language and symbols. This
approach is known as restatement method.
Example:

Consider the following problem. Find two natural numbers whose

difference is 3 and sum of their squares is 117. Here, student
restating the problem in the following manner.

There first natural number = x

Consider, The second natural number = x +3

Sum of their squares = 117

What is given in the problem?

x2 + (x + 3)2 = 117

131
 solving the above quadratic equation student may find out the two
natural numbers.
 Method of Dependencies

In this method, the problem is solved by focusing in mutually

dependent components in the problem. The analysis of the
problem into its constituent elements throws light on the mutually
dependent elements can be made use of for reaching the correct
solution of the problem.
Example:

Consider the following problem: Length and breadth of a field is

50m and 20 m respectively. A path enclosing the field has a width
of 5m. find out the area of the path.

Here the problem depends on two areas: One is the areas of the
field including the path and another one is the area of the field.
Student can find out area of the path by subtracting the area of the
field from the area of the field including path.
 Graphic Method

In this method, the problem is represented using diagrams and

figures. The graphic representation aid the students in determining
fundamental relationships that exist among the given data and to
look for further details and relationships necessary for solving the
given problem. This method is very helpful in proving theorems,
solving riders, problems relating to menstruation. Pythagoras
theorem, set theory, functions and relations etc.
Example:

Consider the following problem. Find the area of the design as

shown in the figure.

132
 The above design is a combination of the rectangle ABDE, the
semi circle AFE and the equilateral triangle BCD. After finding the
above mentioned three areas, the student can find out the area of
the design shown in the figure.
d. Developing Problem Solving Skills
A successful problem solver founders less; he is more decisive in
choosing his point of attack. His approach to the problem is more
objective and impersonal. The skill in problem solving can be developed
with practice and proper training. The most widely used approach to
training in problem solving is to teach the learners various general
principles about the thinking process. Some general rules are:
 Formulate and delimit the problem.

 Avoid narrowing down attention to a single aspect of the problem.

 Go beyond the obvious.
 Avoid interference from a functional fixedness or a negative
transfer.
 Reject the unpromising leads. Take to new ones.
 Question your date: If it sufficient? Is it superfluous?

 Check your assumptions.

 Be cautious about your conclusions.
The students must be told the ways of changing any existing idea with
sufficient illustrations and exercises. They will have to be oriented to put
things to other uses, adapt, modify, magnify, minify, substantiate,
rearrange, reverse, combine, etc. these facilitate problem solving.

The conductive environment for problem solving has a permissive

atmosphere freedom of expression, effective communication and mutual
respect and encouragement from the co-workers.
e. Teachers’ Role in Problem Solving Method

Teacher plays a significant role in problem solving method. The

teacher’s role is to:

 Ensure an atmosphere of freedom in the class.

 Create the problem situation.

 Help the students in accepting, defining and stating the problem.

 Help the students in analysing the problem and in breaking up the

problem into simple units.

133
 Help the students keep their attention focused on the main
problem all the time.
 Assist the students in locating relevant source materials.

 Encourage the students in seeking important relationships in the

data.
 Help the students develop an attitude of open mindedness and
critical enquiry.

 Exhibit spirit of enquiry and discovery.

f. How to Teach Pupils to Solve Problems?

There are two devices: the illustrative examples and the set of
directions. The first works out one problem in detail. This is followed by
practice problems of the same type. This does not develop original
thinking, because the pupil generally follows the steps mechanically.
Explaining a problem is a very different thing form teaching it. The
illustrative problem has a place in the teaching procedure because the
pupil may refer to it in case of need. The pupil should be urged to work
them with the book closed.
The solving of verbal problems requires a variety of activities. The
situations of the problem should be properly understood. Facts must be
identified and expressed in symbols and much practice should be given
in it. The relationships involved are to be clearly stated in words and
expressed in symbols. Try to make a problem without the actual
numbers and estimate the result in advance. Relationships that are not
states must be supplied by the pupil. Formulae are to be recalled and
evaluated. Numerical values are to be substituted in the formulae.
Equations are to be derived and solved. The solutions are to be
checked. All of this calls for exactness and for training in reading,
planning, thinking, making decisions, and drawing inferences.
g. Merits of Problem Solving Method
The following are the merits of Problem solving method:

1. Problem Solving provides a real life like experience to the children.

2. It develops in pupils good habits of planning, thinking, reasoning
and independent work.

3. It develops initiative and self-responsibility among the students.

4. It takes into account individual differences.

5. It helps the students to develop reflective thinking.

134
6. It helps the students to approach future problems with confidence.
7. It builds a mental attitude for effective learning based on critical
thinking.

8. It helps the children develop mental traits of open-mindedness and

tolerance as the children see many sides to a problem and listen
to many points of view.
h. Demerits of Problem Solving Method

The following are the demerits of Problem solving method:

 Not all students are problem solvers.
 The problem solving method becomes monotonous if used too
frequently.
 It is time consuming and consequently it is not possible to cover
the syllabus on time.
 The success of this method depends upon mathematics teachers
who are well versed in critical and reflective thinking. Not all
mathematics teachers are well versed in those types of thinking.

 Reference and Resource materials may be difficult to come by.

 Only a skilled and resourceful teacher will be able to make an
effective use of this method.
 All topics in mathematics cannot be taught through this method.
 Textbooks are not available according to this method.
 Lack of interest and motivation on the part of the students can
spoil the effectiveness of this method.

UNIT 14 TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS

In mathematics teaching, teaching techniques are such aids which are

used to make the lesson interesting, to explain the content and to
remember it by heart during teaching - learning process. Techniques are
not directly linked with the teaching objectives, but they are linked with
the teaching methods. Thus, teaching refers to a pattern of teaching acts
that serve to attain certain outcomes. Method is a wider term, which
includes techniques.
14.1 Drill Work
Any subject matter mastered by a learner is likely to be forgotten unless
it is fixed by repeated practice and application. This is specially true of

135
mathematical skills and relationships. Skills need to be perfected and
maintained through systematic drill. Concepts and relationships must be
reviewed and applied at frequently recurring intervals. Drill and review
are means to strengthen the knowledge already acquitted. Drill and
exercises have a valuable place in the teaching of mathematics.
Example:

After teaching the measurement of Area and Perimeter of plane

geometrical figures like Rectangle, Parallelogram, Triangle, Circle etc.,
the following problems may be given to the students as drill work.
1. Find out the areas of the following rectangles

a) length=4m; breadth=3m
b) length=12m; breadth=10m

c) length=6m; breadth=4m
2. Find out the area and perimeter of the following parallelogram
a) base=8m ; altitude=15m
b) base=3m ; altitude=2m

c) base=3.5m ; altitude=7m
3. Find out the area and perimeter of the following circle

a) radius=3.5m
b) radius=7m
c) radius=21m
After teaching the sum of first ‘n’ natural numbers, the following
problems may be given to the students as drill work.
Find out the sum of the following first ‘n’ natural numbers

a) 1+2+3+…..+15=?

b) 1+2+3+…..+37=?
c) 1+2+3+…..+75=?

d) First 120 natural numbers

a. The Functions of Drill Work
Drill in mathematics serves a number of useful functions. Drill and
exercises:
 Help in the fixation of rules, principles and formulae already
acquired by the students.

136
 Strengthen the connection between related concepts.

 Provide essential means of attaining some of the desired controls.

 Help in increasing speed and accuracy in solving mathematical
problems as the learners become proficient in mathematical skills
and operation.
 Help in the automatisation of mathematical facts, formulae,
operations and skills through systematic and repeated practice.

 Help in habit formation.

 Are helpful in remedial work.
 Help in providing greater efficiency in the use of knowledge that
they have acquired.
 Help in improving self-confidence through a sense of achievement.
 Provide stimulus for further learning.
 Provide encouragement for slow learners and average students.
However, it should be remembered that drill is not mere repetition of a
formula or skill. While planning for drill the needs and interests of the
children are always to be taken into consideration. Drill becomes more
effective and meaningful if it ensures understanding. Children should not
be drilled on procedures that they do not understand. Such drill lacks
significance and motive. Drill should be intelligently planned so that it
accomplishes its purpose, otherwise it may be sheer waste of time and
energy.
b. Principles of Drill Work
Some important guidelines relating to drill in mathematics are:

 Drill must aim at automatising a specific response/skill or

eliminating erroneous responses.
 Drill must be sufficiently and properly motivated and once initiated
should be well organised.
 Drill material should provide intrinsic motivation to students to work
with enthusiasm and concentration so that their work will be more
effective.
 Drill materials must be highly individualised so as to meet the
individual needs and abilities.

137
 The proficiency to be attained must be defined. The degree of
proficiency will vary according to the purpose and need of
individual child.

 Drill exercises should contain sufficient materials to keep all the

students profitably occupied throughout the drill period.
 Drill periods should be of short duration. Long periods of
continuous drill become tiresome and ineffective. If it requires
more time to master the desired point of proficiency, small periods
of practice at recurring intervals can be provided.
 Accuracy rather than speed should be given priority during drill.

 Drill should be properly supervised to avoid fixation of wrong

concepts.
 Drill exercises should be frequently checked for accuracy by the
teacher.
 Answers should be provided for the students to check the
correctness of their responses.
 Wherever possible, provision for self-evaluation should be made
available to the students by which the student can score his own
work and compare his performance with established standard.
 The learner should both understand what he is practicing and
appreciate its significance to him as an individual.
 Drill should follow the developmental and discovery stages of
learning and be used to reinforce and extend basic learning.

 Drill exercises should be varied so that they do not become

monotonous for the students.
 Drill should be used when and where needed.

 It should not be used as means of punishment.

 Well learned skills should not be assigned for more practice.

 In general it is better to provide drill upon whole process rather
than parts there of unless some particular parts need practice.
 Mechanical repetition and rote memorisation should be avoided by
stimulating thinking and insight.

138
 Drill exercises should be sufficiently diversified to provide worth-
while stimulating practice for students of different attainments and
capacities.
c. Advantages of Drill Work

Drill Work in Mathematics has the following advantages:

 Learnt materials can be retained for a longer time.

 It is a good technique of learning for beginners.

 Speed of the learning material can be adjusted according to need.

 Accuracy of learnt material can be improved.
 Memory of the child can be checked.

 Pronunciation of the child can be corrected.

 It is a very economical device of learning and teaching.
 It is a less time consuming technique of learning.
 Immediate reinforcement through practice and application is
desirable.

14.2 Oral Work

It is the work which is done orally without the help of written work and
record. It can be defined as mental work, where in a problem is solved
orally, or mentally, without the use of pen and paper. As a matter of fact,
much of mathematical work has to be done mentally and many tables
have to be learnt by heart. It precedes written work. Of course, when
calculations become more complicated and heavy, writing is use as an
aid. As mind cannot carry out those calculations orally, written work
becomes indispensable. But in all respects, oral work is the backbone
not only of written work, but also of overall performance in the subject.
Example:

After teaching the measurement of Area and Perimeter of plane

geometrical figures like Rectangle, Parallelogram, Triangle, Circle etc.,
teacher may ask the formulae of area and perimeter of plane
geometrical figures. In the next day also, teacher may ask the formulae
of area and perimeter of plane geometrical figures. This kind of activity
may be a good mental exercise and easy way of testing previous
knowledge.

139
a. Functions of Oral Work

The following are the functions of the Oral Work:

 It has an appeal for the eye and ear, and this appeal is likely by
the students.

 With the help of oral work, some time can possibly be saved.
 It is very suitable for securing attention of the students and for
making them concentrate. A few oral questions can make them
alert and active.
 It is useful in everyday life, because in actual life pen and paper
are often not available and one has to do certain calculations
mentally.
 It helps in elucidation and illustration. The same idea can be
effectively illustrated through a sufficient number of oral
examples or questions presented in quick succession without
much loss of time.
 It removes shyness of pupils through oral expression.

 It quickens wit and sharpens intelligence.

 It is a good mental exercise, because it develops alertness,
readiness of mind, quick hearing and quick thinking.
 It is an effective means of maintaining disciplines.
 Briskness in oral work is stimulating for the students.

 In case of an error, it helps in its mental cancellation.

 It is interesting and effective especially in the initial stages of every
topic.

 It is an easy way of testing preview knowledge.

 It helps in connecting the introduction of a new topic with the
previous knowledge of the students.

 Oral questions enable the teacher to judge whether the students

are following the lesson or not.
 Recapitulation and revision can also be done by well-framed oral
questions.
 The teacher can throughout remain in touch with the class with the
help of oral questions.

140
 It provides variety in the otherwise monotonous routine of the
classroom.
 If properly used, it can provide motivation.

 It develops accuracy, exactness and precision.

 It encourages healthy competition.

 It builds strong foundation for later written work.
b. Advantages of Oral Work

Oral Work in Mathematics has the following advantages:

 With this technique memory of the child can be tested.
 Confidence in the process of learning can be developed.
 Thinking, understanding and imagination power of the child can be
developed.
 Revision of the subject matter taught can be done quickly.
 Previous knowledge of the student can be checked properly before
teaching the new topic.

 Student become more attentive in the class because at any

moment any student can be asked to answer the oral questions.
 Process of quick questioning makes the students mentally alert.

 Auditory sense of the child can be developed.

 This technique can be used for teaching many topics.

14.3 Written Work

Oral work must be supplemented by written work. Oral discussions and

mental images are not always enough and cannot possibly be retained
for long. Mental work has therefore to be combines with written work.
Oral work has to supplement written work and not to supplant it. Oral
work must contribute to success in written work. Over emphasis on oral
work will also be a harmful attitude. As a habit forming measure, both
oral and written work should be included in every lesson. In certain
cases, some students may not gain substantially from oral work alone;
their interests will be served if oral work is followed by written work.
Written work is, in a way mental confirmation of information acquired
orally. It is an extension of oral work. It affects accuracy and precision
more effectively. It has got its own place and utility. Whereas oral work
forms the beginning, written work forms the end in the learning of a new

141
process. The saying “Reading makes a full man, conference a ready
man, and writing an exact man”, is to some extent applicable to the
teaching of mathematics also. The teacher may adopt a flexible division
of time to provide for different phases of work, namely;

 Oral fundamentals
 Written fundamentals

 Oral Problems

 Written problems
In no case should oral work be discovered form written work and vice
versa. They are companions. They work best in combination and
partnership.
Example:

In continuation with the oral work, teacher may ask the students to write
the orally presented matters. It provides training in copying numbers,
formulae, etc.
a. Functions of Written Work

The following are the functions of the Written Work:

 Written work provides a clear and visual picture of the various
elements of the problem under study.
 It helps the students to review and revise their learning as it is
available in the written form.

 It provides precision and accuracy to oral work.

 It helps in orderly presentation of ideas and steps.

 It provides training in following logical steps in mathematical
problem solving.
 The teacher can follow the performance and evaluate the progress
of the students through their written work.

 It provides training in copying numbers and figures correctly and

neatly with care.
 It trains the students in quite thinking.

 Some students may not gain much from oral work as it may not
provide adequate mental images. They need written work to
ensure learning.

142
 Written work provides mental confirmation of information acquired
through oral work.

b. Advantages of Written Work

Written Work in Mathematics has the following advantages:

 Learning by this techniques is retainable for a longer time.

 Memory of the child can be tested.

 Expression and writing power of the students can be checked
properly.
 In case of need, suggestion to improve handwriting can be given
to the students.
 Confidence in the process of learning can be developed.
 Mistakes can be checked properly.
 Practices of the learnt material can be carried out easily.
 Speed of writing can be improved.

 Record of the learnt material can be kept for the purpose of

reference.
14.4 Brain-storming

Brainstorming is a group creativity technique by which efforts are made

to find a conclusion for a specific problem by gathering a list of ideas
spontaneously contributed by its members.
In other words, brainstorming is a situation where a group of people
meet to generate new ideas and solutions around a specific domain of
interest by removing inhibitions. People are able to think more freely and
they suggest many spontaneous new ideas as possible. All the ideas are
noted down and are not criticized and after brainstorming session the
ideas are evaluated. The term was popularized by Alex Faickney
Osborn in the 1953 book Applied Imagination.
History : Advertising executive Alex F. Osborn began developing
methods for creative problem-solving in 1939. He was frustrated by
employees’ inability to develop creative ideas individually for ad
campaigns. In response, he began hosting group-thinking sessions and
discovered a significant improvement in the quality and quantity of ideas
produced by employees. During the period when Osborn made his
concept, he started writing on creative thinking, and the first notable

143
book where he mentioned the term brainstorming is "How to Think Up"
in 1942. Osborn outlined his method in the 1948 book Your Creative
Power in chapter 33, "How to Organize a Squad to Create Ideas".

Osborn claimed that two principles contribute to "ideative efficacy," these

being :
1. Defer judgment,

2. Reach for quantity.

Following these two principles were his four general rules of
brainstorming, established with intention to :
 reduce social inhibitions among group members.

 stimulate idea generation.

 increase overall creativity of the group.
1. Go for quantity: This rule is a means of enhancing divergent
production, aiming to facilitate problem solving through the
maxim quantity breeds quality. The assumption is that the greater
the number of ideas generate the bigger the chance of producing a
radical and effective solution.
2. Withhold criticism: In brainstorming, criticism of ideas generated
should be put 'on hold'. Instead, participants should focus on
extending or adding to ideas, reserving criticism for a later 'critical
stage' of the process. By suspending judgment, participants will
feel free to generate unusual ideas.
3. Welcome wild ideas: To get a good long list of suggestions, wild
ideas are encouraged. They can be generated by looking from
new perspectives and suspending assumptions. These new ways
of thinking might give you better solutions.
4. Combine and improve ideas: As suggested by the slogan
"1+1=3". It is believed to stimulate the building of ideas by a
process of association.
Applications : Osborn notes that brainstorming should address a
specific question; he held that sessions addressing multiple questions
were inefficient.
Further, the problem must require the generation of ideas rather than
judgment; he uses examples such as generating possible names for a
product as proper brainstorming material, whereas analytical judgments
such as whether or not to marry do not have any need for brainstorming.

144
Groups
Osborn envisioned groups of around 12 participants, including both
experts and novices. Participants are encouraged to provide wild and
unexpected answers. Ideas receive no criticism or discussion. The group
simply provides ideas that might lead to a solution and apply no
analytical judgment as to the feasibility. The judgments are reserved for
a later date.
1. Nominal group technique : Participants are asked to write their
ideas anonymously. Then the facilitator collects the ideas and the
group votes on each idea. The vote can be as simple as a show of
hands in favor of a given idea. This process is called distillation.
After distillation, the top ranked ideas may be sent back to the
group or to subgroups for further brainstorming. For example, one
group may work on the color required in a product. Another group
may work on the size, and so forth. Each group will come back to
the whole group for ranking the listed ideas. Sometimes ideas that
were previously dropped may be brought forward again once the
group has re-evaluated the ideas.

It is important that the facilitator be trained in this process before

attempting to facilitate this technique. The group should be primed
and encouraged to embrace the process. Like all team efforts it
may take a few practice sessions to train the team in the method
before tackling the important ideas.
2. Group passing technique: Each person in a circular group writes
down one idea, and then passes the piece of paper to the next
person, who adds some thoughts. This continues until everybody
gets his or her original piece of paper back. By this time, it is likely
that the group will have extensively elaborated on each idea.
The group may also create an "idea book" and post a distribution
list or routing slip to the front of the book. On the first page is a
description of the problem. The first person to receive the book
lists his or her ideas and then routes the book to the next person
on the distribution list. The second person can log new ideas or
add to the ideas of the previous person. This continues until the
distribution list is exhausted. A follow-up "read out" meeting is then
held to discuss the ideas logged in the book. This technique takes
longer, but it allows individuals time to think deeply about the
problem.

145
3. Team idea mapping method : This method of brainstorming
works by the method of association. It may improve collaboration
and increase the quantity of ideas, and is designed so that all
attendees participate and no ideas are rejected.
The process begins with a well-defined topic. Each participant
brainstorms individually, then all the ideas are merged onto one
large idea map. During this consolidation phase, participants may
discover a common understanding of the issues as they share the
meanings behind their ideas. During this sharing, new ideas may
arise by the association, and they are added to the map as well.
Once all the ideas are captured, the group can prioritize and/or
take action.
4. Directed brainstorming : Directed brainstorming is a variation of
electronic brainstorming (described below). It can be done
manually or with computers. Directed brainstorming works when
the solution space (that is, the set of criteria for evaluating a good
idea) is known prior to the session. If known, those criteria can be
used to constrain the ideation process intentionally.

In directed brainstorming, each participant is given one sheet of

paper (or electronic form) and told the brainstorming question.
They are asked to produce one response and stop, then all of the
papers (or forms) are randomly swapped among the participants.
The participants are asked to look at the idea they received and to
create a new idea that improves on that idea based on the initial
criteria. The forms are then swapped again and respondents are
asked to improve upon the ideas, and the process is repeated for
three or more rounds.

In the laboratory, directed brainstorming has been found to almost

triple the productivity of groups over electronic brainstorming.
5. Guided brainstorming : A guided brainstorming session is time
set aside to brainstorm either individually or as a collective group
about a particular subject under the constraints of perspective and
time. This type of brainstorming removes all cause for conflict and
constrains conversations while stimulating critical and creative
thinking in an engaging, balanced environment.
Participants are asked to adopt different mindsets for pre-defined
period of time while contributing their ideas to a central mind map
drawn by a pre-appointed scribe. Having examined a multi-
perspective point of view, participants seemingly see the simple

146
 solutions that collectively create greater growth. Action is assigned
individually.
Following a guided brainstorming session participants emerge with
ideas ranked for further brainstorming, research and questions
remaining unanswered and a prioritized, assigned, actionable list
that leaves everyone with a clear understanding of what needs to
happen next and the ability to visualize the combined future focus
and greater goals of the group.
6. Individual brainstorming : "Individual brainstorming" is the use of
brainstorming in solitary situations. It typically includes such
techniques as free writing, free speaking, word association, and
drawing a mind map, which is a visual note taking technique in
which people diagram their thoughts. Individual brainstorming is a
useful method in creative writing and has been shown to be
superior to traditional group brainstorming.
7. Question brainstorming : This process involves brainstorming
the questions, rather than trying to come up with immediate
answers and short term solutions. Theoretically, this technique
should not inhibit participation as there is no need to provide
solutions. The answers to the questions form the framework for
constructing future action plans. Once the list of questions is set, it
may be necessary to prioritize them to reach to the best solution in
an orderly way.
Methods to improving brainstorming sessions : There a number of
ways that groups can improve the effectiveness and quality of their
brainstorming sessions.
 Avoiding face-to-face groups: Using face-to-face groups can
increase production blocking, evaluation apprehension, social
matching and social loafing.
 Stick to the rules: Brainstorming rules should be followed, and
feedback should be given to members that violate these rules.
Violations of brainstorming rules tend to lead to mediocre ideas.
 Pay attention to everyone’s ideas: People tend to pay more
attention to their own ideas, however brainstorming requires
exposure to the ideas of others. A method to encourage members
to pay attention to others’ ideas is to make them list the ideas out
or ask them to repeat others’ ideas.

147
 Include both individual and group approaches: One method
that helps members integrate their ideas into the group is
brainwriting. This is where members write their ideas on a piece of
paper and then pass it along to others who add their own ideas.
 Take breaks: Allow silence during group discussions so that
members have time to think about things through.
 Do not rush: Allow lots of time for members to complete the task.
Although working under pressure tends to lead to more solutions
initially, the quality is usually lower than if more time is spent on
the task.
 Stay persistent: Members should stay focused and persist at the
task even when productivity is low.
 Facilitate the session: A skilled discussion leader should lead
and coordinate the brainstorming sessions. This leader can
motivate members, correct mistakes, and provide a clear standard
of work. They can also be used to keep track of all the ideas and
make sure that these ideas are available to everyone.

14.5 Computer Assisted Instruction

Computer-assisted instruction or CAI refers to instruction or remediation

presented on a computer. Many educational computer programs are
available online and from computer stores and textbook companies.
They enhance teacher instruction in several ways.
Computer programs are interactive and can illustrate a concept through
attractive animation, sound, and demonstration. They allow students to
progress at their own pace and work individually or problem solve in a
group. Computers provide immediate feedback, letting students know
whether their answer is correct. If the answer is not correct, the program
shows students how to correctly answer the question. Computers offer a
different type of activity and a change of pace from teacher-led or group
instruction.
Computer-assisted instruction improves instruction for students with
disabilities because students receive immediate feedback and do not
continue to practice the wrong skills. Computers capture the students’
attention because the programs are interactive and engage the students’
spirit of competitiveness to increase their scores. Also, computer-
assisted instruction moves at the students’ pace and usually does not
move ahead until they have mastered the skill. Programs provide

148
differentiated lessons to challenge students who are at risk, average, or
gifted.

a. Characteristics of CAI
Many features of tutorial CAI are consistent with the traditional
classroom. Tutorial CAI provides a one-way (computer to student)
transmission of knowledge; it presents information and the student is
expected to learn the information presented. Much CAI software
presents information in a single curriculum area (e.g., arithmetic or
vocabulary) and uses brief exercises that can easily be accommodated
within the typical 50-minute academic period. CAI is designed for use by
a single student and can be accommodated into a regular class
schedule if computers are placed in a laboratory into which various
whole classes are scheduled.
Basic skills (such as the ability to add or spell) lend themselves to drill-
and-practice activities, and CAI, with its ability to generate exercises
(e.g., mathematics problems or vocabulary words) is well suited to
providing extensive drill and practice in basic skills. Students at risk of
academic failure often lack basic skills; unable to acquire advanced
thinking skills and become logical candidates for CAI drill-and-practice
instruction. Recent research and thinking on the needs of disadvantaged
students stress a different need, however. Disadvantaged students need
the opportunity to acquire advanced thinking skills and can acquire basic
skills within the context of complex, meaningful problems. This latter
approach to instruction, which is stressed in educational reform, has not
been well served by traditional CAI
b. Steps in developing CAI

The steps in developing CAI are more or less the same as those of PL
and are listed below:
1. Planning: In this step, the nature of the target group, their age,
previous level of achievement, medium of instruction, nature of the
topic, potential for paced, sequenced learning, score for using
illustrations, length of the topic, nature of the programme, etc are
being planned.
2. Preparation: Preparation of the lesson for CAI involves the stating
of the objectives, structuring and organizing the lesson
pedagogically, writing the program and editing.

149
3. Testing: The testing phase involves the tryout of the programme
and to assess the effectiveness of it. It assesses the programme
contents, content presentation and arrangement of structure,
learner’s motivation, graphic presentation, and the essential
elements of educational software.
c. How to use this method ?

Teachers should review the computer program or the online activity or

game to understand the context of the lessons and determine which
ones fit the needs of their students and how they may enhance
instruction.
 Can this program supplement the lesson, give basic skills practice,
or be used as an educational reward for students?

 Is the material presented so that students will remain interested yet

not lose valuable instruction time trying to figure out how to
operate the program?
 Does the program waste time with too much animation?
 Is the program at the correct level for the class or the individual
student?

 Does this program do what the teacher wants it to do (help

students organize the writing, speed up the writing process, or
allow students to hear what they wrote for editing purposes)?

Teachers should also review all Web sites and links immediately before
directing students to them. Web addresses and links frequently change
and become inactive. Students might become frustrated when links are
no longer available. Writing programs are beneficial to writing instruction
because they allow students to learn in a variety of ways and can speed
up the writing process. With proper training, students can learn to focus
on the message instead of the mechanics.
d. Applications of Computer Assisted Instruction
 Drill-and-Practice: Drill and practice assumes that the skills have
previously been presented and that further practice is necessary
for mastery. For example, the students may be trained in the
application of formulas, or some experimental techniques, etc.
 Tutorial: Tutorial activity includes both the presentation of
information and its extension into different forms of work, including
drill and practice, games and simulation.

150
 Games: Game software often creates a contest to achieve the
highest score and either beat others or beat the computer.
However, the games fail to take into account the required higher
order thinking skills needed for success in the real life situations.
They promote positive character traits such as capacity for
exploration, planning and execution and fostering quick thinking in
complex settings.
 Simulation: Simulation software can provide an approximation of
reality that does not require the expense of real life or its risks.
Flying a digital airplane can be highly realistic but without cost and
physical risk. Simulation software also refers to the mathematical
modeling of many natural systems that push the limits of computer
capacity in the sciences and the humanities. These include a 1
billion-atom simulation of the strength of a material, the 2.64 million
atom simulation of a ribosome which makes proteins in all
organisms, the Blue Brain project to simulate the entire molecular
workings of the human brain, and fluid dynamics simulations that
create numerous special effects in Hollywood movies with water,
gases and fire.
 Discovery: Discovery software provides a large database of
information specific to a course or content area and challenges the
learner to analyze, compare, infer and evaluate based on their
explorations of the data.
 Problem Solving: Problem solving software teaches specific
problem solving skills and strategies.
 Inquiry Mode: In inquiry mode, the system responds to student
inquiry with answers it has stored. In this mode, instructional staff
must learn how the system operates.
 Author Mode: CAI is used to support instruction by generating
sets of materials for a student’s use. In generating concept
learning materials, these might be sentence forms which have
blanks in them, each of which is to be filled by a word or a set of
words, i.e., inserted into the blanks by computer according to the
set of instructions.
e. Role of the teacher in Computer Assisted Instruction
It is feared that the use of CAI in teaching-learning will relegate the place
of the teacher. To some extent, its use may eliminate teachers from
teaching scene. But this fear is baseless. CAI has proved as a powerful
tool for the teacher in the instructional process. CAI directly interacts

151
with the students individually and with the teacher. Teachers are to play
their role in CAI. Human teachers cannot be eliminated from teaching-
learning process. For the use of new tools, teachers are required.
Experts are needed as computer engineer, lesson writer, or system
operator. Always teachers and experts are required. The CAI is
equivalent to the teacher and it is more useful at the lower levels and the
middle levels. So, the teacher need not concentrate in these aspects
and he may either study further, or concentrate in more creative
activities.
f. Merits of Computer Assisted Instruction

 It enhances quality of education and saves instructional time.

 Learning is student based and self paced.

 Learning is more private and the reinforcement and refinement are

immediate.
 It is instructor-independent and hence it is consistent, well
structured and thorough.
 It can stimulate complex problems and permit students to explore
and investigate.

 It is best suited for remedial teaching and is helpful for slow

learners.
 It saves time for teachers and they can devote more time for other
activities.
g. Demerits of Computer Assisted Instruction
 There is a lack of personal touch if the entire course is taught
through CAI.

 It is difficult to get suitable software for our conditions.

 It is costly.

 Long hours of CAI result in fatigue.

152
 Check your progress

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the
Block.
6. What are the functions of Oral Work?

…………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………..……………………………………………………

7. What are the advantages of CAI?

…………………………………………………………………………………
……………….…………………………………………………………………

UNIT 15 CREATING DIFFERENT SITUATIONS OF LEARNING

ENGAGEMENT

15.1 Small Group Strategies

Besides thickly populated class room there are class rooms with special
needs and with specific objective. Teacher need to be equipped with
those skills that would help them effect the small group strategies (SGS).
The following are the skills gained by using the SGS.

Skills Aspects

Thinking Reasoning, speculating, evaluating,

analyzing, decision - making, and
problem-solving.

Sharing Observations, experiences, and feelings.

Small groups are not ideal for distributing information, but they are
helpful for students to develop their understanding of concepts and to
acquire or improve strategies and approaches to problems. To achieve
these higher-order thinking and learning activities promoted by small
group teaching, it is helpful for the student to engage in meaningful
communication directed towards a goal or set of goals. These higher-
order thinking skills are the chief objective of small group sessions.
Guidelines for Small Group Teaching
 Keep the learning process moving. While facilitating learning
activity follow appropriate sequence. Guide students to do their

153
 own reasoning and help them apply their current information at
every stage of the learning process.
 Investigate students’ knowledge. Ask questions until students
have brought out all they know, which often is more than they
realize. Why? What do you mean? What does that mean? Why did
you say that? How do you know that is true?
 Avoid expressing an opinion concerning the correctness or
quality of any student’s comments or contributions. Even
saying “that’s a good question” may indicate that any questions not
followed by that statement are “bad questions”.
 Do not give them choices to find the knowledge elsewhere.
This will make them loose self guidance and will make them follow
the views of the teacher.
 Ensure the contributions of every student. Decisions should be
a group process, not just the decisions by the most self-assured
and outspoken students of the group.
 Encourage and guide every student to contribute in the
discussion. Do whatever is necessary to get the students to talk,
discuss, and argue amongst them. What do you think?
 Make the discussion questions are apt. Help the students to
discuss in a simple manner, not challenging or arguing roughly but
politely with concrete facts. When the behavior of the group or an
individual in the group begins to adversely affect the group
process, the group should address their own problem.
 Continually monitor the progress of each student in the
group. Watch and obtain assistance for any students with learning
difficulties in reasoning, comprehension, verbal expression, and
information retrieval and organization.
1. Co-Operative Learning
Sometimes called small-group learning is an instructional strategy in
which small groups of students work together on a common task. The
task can be as simple as solving a multi-step problem together, or as
complex as developing a design for a new kind of product. In some
cases, each group member is individually accountable for part of the
task; in other cases, group members work together without formal role
assignments.

According to David Johnson and Roger Johnson, there are five basic
elements that allow successful small-group learning:

154
 Positive interdependence: Students feel responsible for their
own and the group’s effort.
 Face-to-face interaction: Students encourage and support one
another; the environment encourages discussion and eye contact.
 Individual and group accountability: Each student is responsible
for doing their part; the group is accountable for meeting its goal.
 Group behaviors: Group members gain direct instruction in the
interpersonal, social, and collaborative skills needed to work with
others occurs.
 Group processing: Group members analyze their own and the
group’s ability to work together
2. Group Learning

Group learning is the desired learning strategy in this present era of

information interchange. In computer Science, learning and doing by
group work is very much demanded and appreciated. It refers to a group
of people who share common values and beliefs, are actively engaged
in learning together from each other. These kinds of learning become
common mode of learning in today’s learning culture. Very often this
kind of learning is encouraged and practiced as pedagogical learning in
higher education. This idea was evolved from community learning and
McMillan and Chavis, the community psychologists categorize four
factors for community learning. They are membership, influence,
satisfying individual needs and sharing of events and views. The group
learning first involves becoming a member of the group, the group which
is loyal to its members who work and help each other; members of the
group can perform intellectual and emotional activities that can influence
learning. Besides, a learning community gives chance to its participants
to meet particular needs by expressing personal opinion share their
views and personal experiences for the pleasure of sharing or for
learning information. Many of the colleges and universities have started
to encourage this kind of learning among its students nowadays. This
kind of institutional group learning involves sharing and integration of
academic content with daily interactions among students, faculty, and
staff during the academic environment as well as off the institutional
timing.
3. Discussion

A discussion is an oral exploration of a topic, object, concept or

experience. All learners need frequent opportunities to generate and

155
share their questions and ideas in small and whole class settings.
Teachers who encourage and accept students’ questions and comments
without judgment and clarify understandings by paraphrasing difficult
terms and stimulate the exchange of ideas.

Its purpose are:

1. to help students make sense of the world

2. to stimulate thought, wonder, explanation, reflection and recall

3. to provide opportunities for students

4. to clarify and expand their ideas and those of others
5. to promote positive group interaction and conversation to
demonstrate questioning techniques.

15.2 Individualized Strategies

Individual strategies are short-term actions focused on changing
individual behavior, while environmental strategies involve longer-term,
potentially permanent changes that have a broader reach the most
effective prevention plans will use both environmental and individual
substance misconception prevention strategies. Individualized
instruction is a method of instruction in which content, instructional
materials, instructional technique and media, and frequency and pace of
learning are based upon the abilities and interests of each individual
student. Individualized instruction is like direct instruction, which also
places greater reliance upon carefully prepared instructional materials
and explicitly prepared instructional sequences. Individualized instruction
is recommended only for the slow learners to cater to their needs in
which the student should build his or her learning and knowledge.
Individualized Instruction, however, presumes that the students lack the
basic knowledge and skills and designed accordingly. Since the
programme is designed for every individual it is expensive and time
consuming in preparing the lessons.
1. Library Based Learning

A library is a collection of information, sources, resources, and services,

and the structure in which it is housed: it is organized for use and
maintained by a public body, an institution, or a private individual. In the
more traditional sense, a library is a collection of books. “Reading makes
a complete man”. Hence libraries make a complete man/woman.
Libraries are meant to help students and people to collect facts,

156
information and ideas from books on varied categories written by various
authors. A good library provides books on all kinds of knowledge that is
expected by its readers. Libraries help the students to gain the
information that are needed for their academic work as well their life time
benefits.
Following are a few types of libraries.
 Academic Libraries - These libraries are located on the
campuses of colleges and universities and serve primarily the
students and faculty of that and other academic institutions. Some
academic libraries, especially those at public institutions, are
accessible to members of the general public in whole or in part.
 Public libraries or Public Lending Libraries - These libraries
provide service to the general public and make at least some of
their books available for borrowing, so that readers may use them
at home over a period of days or weeks. Typically, libraries issue
library cards to community members wishing to borrow books.
Many public libraries also serve as community organizations that
provide free services and events to the public.
 Research Libraries - These libraries are intended for supporting
scholarly research, and therefore maintain permanent collections
and attempt to provide access to all necessary material. Research
libraries are most often academic and national libraries, but many
large special libraries have research libraries within their special
field and a very few of the largest public libraries also serve as
research libraries.
 School Libraries - Most public and private primary and secondary
schools have libraries designed to support the school’s curriculum.
 Special Libraries - All other libraries fall into this category. Many
private businesses and public organizations, including hospitals,
museums, research laboratories, law firms, and many government
departments and agencies, maintain their own libraries for the use
of their employees in doing specialized research related to their
work. Special libraries may or may not be accessible to some
identified part of the general public. Branches of a large academic
or research libraries dealing with particular subjects are also
usually called “special libraries”: they are generally associated with
one or more academic departments. Special libraries are
distinguished from special collection which are branches or parts

157
 of a library intended for rare books, manuscripts, and similar
material.
2. Programmed Learning

Programmed instruction is the name of the technology invented by the

behaviorist B.F.Skinner to automate teaching and learning. It consists of
self-teaching with the aid of a textbook or teaching aid that presents
subject material structured in a logical sequence. Programmed
instruction allows students to answer questions about a unit of study at
their own rate, checking their own answers and advancing only after
answering correctly. After each step, they are presented with a question
to test their comprehension, then are immediately shown the correct
answer or given additional information. It is suggested “learning has
occurred when a specific response is elicited by specific situation or
stimulus with a high degree of probability. The more likely and
predictable the response, the more efficient the learning has been….
These attempts to shape human behaviour by presenting a gradual
progression of small units of information and related tasks to the learner.
At each stage the learner must actively participate by performing the set
task. He is then immediately supplied with feedback in the form of
correct answer” There are two basic types of programming are used:
linear, or straight-line programming, and branching programming. Linear
programming immediately reinforces student responses that are correct.
Each ‘bit’ of information is presented in a “frame,” and a student who has
made a correct response proceeds to the next frame. All students work
through the same sequence. In branching programming, the student
who responds incorrectly will either be returned to the original frame, or
routed through a subprogram designed to remedy the deficiency
indicated by the wrong choice. This process is repeated at each step
throughout the program, and a student may be exposed to differing
amounts of material depending upon errors made.
3. Contextual Learning

What Is Contextual Learning? What is the best way to teach so that all
students can use and retain that information? How can a teacher
communicate effectively with students who wonder about the relevance
of what they study? These are the challenges teachers face every day,
the challenges that a curriculum and an instructional approach based on
contextual learning can help them successfully address.
Many students have a difficult time understanding academic concepts
(such as math concepts) as they are commonly taught (that is, using an
abstract, lecture method), but they desperately need to understand the

158
concepts as they relate to the workplace and to the larger society in
which they will live and work. Traditionally, students have been expected
to make these connections on their own, outside the classroom.

However, growing numbers of teachers today are discovering that most

students' interest and achievement in math, science, and language
improve dramatically when they are helped to make connections
between new knowledge and experiences they have had, or with other
knowledge they have already mastered. Students' engagement
increases significantly when they are taught why they are learning the
concepts and how those concepts can be used outside the classroom.
Contextualized learning is a proven concept that incorporates the most
recent research in cognitive science. It is also a reaction to the
essentially behaviorist theories that have dominated American education
for many decades. The contextual approach recognizes that learning is
a complex and multifaceted process that goes far beyond drill oriented,
stimulus-and-response methodologies.
According to contextual learning theory, learning occurs only when
students process new information or knowledge in such a way that it
makes sense to them in their own frames of reference (their own inner
worlds of memory, experience, and response). The mind naturally seeks
meaning in context by searching for relationships that make sense and
appear useful.
Building upon this understanding, contextual learning theory focuses on
the multiple aspects of any learning environment, whether a classroom,
a laboratory, a computer lab, or a worksite. It encourages educators to
choose and/or design learning environments that incorporate many
different forms of experience in working toward the desired learning
outcomes. In such an environment, students discover meaningful
relationships between abstract ideas and practical applications in the
context of the real world; concepts are internalized through the process
of discovering, reinforcing, and relating.

159
 Check your progress

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the
Block

6. Write the purposes of Discussion.

………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………..……………………………………………

7. List out the types of library.

………………………………………………………………………………
………………….…………………………………………………………

LET US SUM UP

We have learned quite a bit about accommodating the students through

different instructional methods and techniques. If we vary our methods,
we have learned, we accommodate a wider range of learning styles than
if we used one method consistently. Teaching methods are the
complement of content, just as instruction is the complement of
curriculum.
In this time of global hazards and changes in our lives wrought by
technology, it is essential that technology teachers maintain a refined
sense of how to teach about controversial and sensitive technological
issues. It is essential that technology teachers have a command over
various methods, as well as over demonstration and project methods.

GLOSSARY

 Brain-Storming – to solve a problem or make a decision by

thinking of as many ideas as possible in a short time.

 Analysis – the careful examination of the different parts or details

of something.
 Testing – A test or examination (informally, exam or evaluation) is
an educational assessment intended to measure a test-taker's
knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical fitness, or classification in many
other topics

160
 Demonstration - an act of showing or explaining to somebody how
to do something or how something works.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1.
 Presentation of theoretical bases
 Demonstration of correct performance
 Planning and executing peer teaching and provision of feedback
 Transfer of training, i.e. adaptation of teaching behaviour in the
classroom.
2.
 Short set verbal or visual information
 Presented prior to learning a larger body of to-be-learned content
3. Inductive method follows clear and specific steps as under:

 Selection of a number cases.

 Observation of the cases under given conditions.

 Investigation and analysis for common properties and relations.

 Finding common relations.

 Arriving at generalization.

 Verification or Application.
4. The following are the demerits of deductive method:
 It is very difficult for a beginner to understand an abstract formula if
it is not proceeded by a number of concrete instances.
 It encourages rote memory as deductive method demands the use
of certain laws, rules or formulae to be recalled by the learners
from their memory.
5. Lecture method is one of the most popular and ancient methods of
teaching in our schools. This is a teacher structured method. In
this method, the teacher comes to the class and goes on
delivering the subject matter. In this method, the teacher is the
active participant and students are just passive listeners.
6. The following are the functions of the Oral Work:
 It has an appeal for the eye and ear, and this appeal is likely by
the students.

161
  It is very suitable for securing attention of the students and for
making them concentrate. A few oral questions can make them
alert and active.

7. Advantages of Computer Assisted Instruction

 It enhances quality of education and saves instructional time.

 Learning is student based and self paced.

 Learning is more private and the reinforcement and refinement are

immediate.
8. Discussion purpose are:
 to help students make sense of the world
 to stimulate thought, wonder, explanation, reflection and recall
 to provide opportunities for students
9. Types of Library
 Academic Library
 Public Library
 Research Library
 School Library
 Special Library

SUGGESTED READINGS

Agarwal, S.M. (1994). Teaching of Modern Mathematics. New Delhi:

Dhanpat Rai & Sons.

Anice James (2005). Teaching of Mathematics . Hyderabad:

Neelkamal Publications.
Bloom, B.S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Cognitive
Domain Book. New York: Moleay
Carey, L.M. (1988). Measuring and Evaluating School Learning.Boston:
Allyn and bacon.

Dutton, Wilbur. H & Adam, L.J. (1962). Arithmetic for

Teachers.Englewood Eliffs: Prentice Hall Inc. Backhouse. (1967).
Statistics.London: Longman.

NCERT. (2015). Content-Cum-Methodology of Teaching Mathematics.

New Delhi: NCERT.
NCERT. (2015). Mathematics Text book for class X. New Delhi: NCERT
Publication.

162
Servais, Wand Varga, T. (1971). Teaching School
Mathematics.UNESCO: A UNESCO Source Book, Penguin Books.
Singh, U.N & Others. (1992). Mathematics - A Text Book for Class VIII
Part I. New Delhi: NCERT.46
Singhal, P.K. (1996). Planned Mathematics for class X and IX. New
Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training.
The Current Text book in Tamilnadu for Mathematics.
Venir, M. (1987). Programming in BASIC Problem Solving with Structure
and Style. Jico Publishing House.

Wickelgren, Wayne, A. (1974). How to Solve Problems. W.H.Freeman,

San Fransisco.
Content-Cum-Methodology of Teaching Mathematics. New Delhi:
NCERT.

Web Resources

https://www.depts.ttu.edu/ciser/science-teacher-resources/curriculum-for-
teachers/strategies-for-teaching/ConceptAttainment_Overview.pdf

https://www.davuniversity.org/images/files/study-
material/ADVANCE%20ORGANIZER%20MODEL,EDU202.pdf

https://educationnorthwest.org/sites/default/files/Computer-
AssistedInstruction.pdf

*****

163
BLOCK 4 TEACHING-LEARNING RESOURCES IN
MATHEMATICS FOR STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES

Structure

Introduction

Objectives

Unit-16 Mathematics Laboratory

Unit-17 Mathematics Club

Unit-18 Abacus, Cuisenaire rods, Fractional discs and Napier strips

Unit-19 Technology, Special Aids and Appliances for Children with
Disabilities

Let Us Sum Up

Glossary
Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

INTRODUCTION

Providing learners with learning experiences in relevant situations

beyond the four walls of the classroom can give them idea of the context
of the concept being transacted along with a sense of environmental and
cultural appreciation. It can be an organised field visit or just stepping
out of the classroom. Urban schools can have access to mathematics
related centre, museum, national laboratories, etc. Whether the school is
located in urban or rural area, it can utilise the physical surroundings and
its immediate environment as learning resource to further students
interest in mathematics. Integrating classroom learning with learners’
own experiences outside the classroom contextualise their learning. This
promotes learners’ creativity, participation and interest in mathematics
classroom, which help them to shift away from the rote memorization
and have a feel of mathematics.

OBJECTIVES

After learning this unit, you will be able to:

 identify the strength and weaknesses of the students;

 describe the various activities enriching mathematics learning;

164
 know the significance of mathematics club;

 appreciate the importance of mathematics laboratory; and

 understand the need and significance of community resources.

UNIT 16 MATHEMATICS LABORATORY

Mathematics is essentially a subject, where doing is more prominent

than reading. That is why certain amount of equipment is indispensable
in order to make even a start in this subject. Moreover, it is felt by a vast
majority of people that mathematics is a dry and difficult subject, full of
abstract things. The result is that students take very little interest in it. To
create the necessary interest is a constant problem for the teacher. This
subject demands the ;use of aids at every step.
Equipment for mathematical instruction falls into two categories:

1. that which the student needs in order to pursue his own individual
study, and
2. that which can be used in common and has to be provided by the
school in the Mathematics Laboratory.
The former category includes such obvious necessities as text-book,
writing equipment, simple drawing and measuring instruments in the
form of a geometry box, and in some cases special equipment such as
the slide rule, log tables, calculator, etc.
1. Personal Equipment of the student

As mentioned above this equipment includes instruments which the child

has to frequently use for his individual work. They constitute the
minimum essential equipment, equipment without which any effective
work in mathematics is impossible. At the same time, this equipment is
not expensive, rather, it is simple and inexpensive. It is very important
that each student should have his own personal equipment. He should
provide himself with text-book, notebook, pencil, rubber, pen and a
geometry box. Borrowing these things is a lazy habit, which wastes the
time of both the borrower and the lender. This habit should be
discouraged straightaway. The instruments which he must have should,
of course, be simple, substantial and inexpensive.

165
2. Equipment for Mathematics Laboratory
Mathematics laboratory serves not only as a laboratory but also as
mathematics room and mathematics museum. Keeping in view the
various purposes it should have the following equipment.
i. Concrete Materials
It should be provided with concrete materials concerned with simple
arithmetical topics such as beads, sticks, pebbles, ball frames, number
cards, seeds, balances, coins, weights, measuring tapes, didactic
apparatus which is used in Montessori method, scissors, pins, card-
board, chart paper, graphs, nails, hammers, ropes etc. It may also be
provided with the following materials.
a. A Number Kit consisting of a set of wooden blocks of different
colours, labeling the digits from one to ten. Each block has the
numeral and word representing the numeral.
b. Place value pockets is a box having three or four portions labeled
as Units, Tens, Hundreds, Thousands. This is used to teach place
value of numbers, ideas of carrying processes of addition and
subtraction etc.
c. Fractional Parts is a series that is divided into halves, thirds,
fourths, fifths etc. These are quite useful to illustrate the concept of
fractions, addition, multiplication etc.
d. Charts. A number of Mathematical charts should be kept in the
mathematics laboratory. Charts can be used to explain certain
points which otherwise would be difficult to explain. These charts
are drawn on paper with the help of colour as well as pencil. These
charts may be got prepared by the students on different topics
such as percentage, average, fractions, circles, cubes etc. Some
set of charts are also available from the market.
The charts, as far as possible, should be accurate, interesting and
good looking. If the charts do not fulfill these requirements, they
should not be used for the class-room teachings. There may be
charts and models of certain geometrical figures such as triangles,
squares, rectangles.
ii. Pictures and Photographs

The pictures and photographs of various mathematicians be prominently

displayed in the mathematics room. It would be much useful if the
contributions of these mathematicians are also indicated on such charts.

166
iii. Models
Various mathematical models such as those of triangles, squares, solids
etc. be stored in a mathematics laboratory. These help in understanding
abstract mathematical concepts. Now various models illustrating
mathematical proof or principles or statements are available in the
market.
iv. Black-Board and Geometrical Instruments

The size of black-board provided in mathematics room should be larger

than ordinary size. Provision for coloured chalks may also be made in
the laboratory. Colored chalks are required for use in drawing various
figures and diagrams. A set of geometrical instruments like protractors,
compass, rulers etc. be kept in a mathematics laboratory. Stencils for
drawing geometrical figures are also important equipments for
mathematics laboratory.
v. Bulletin Boards or Display Boards

Such Board are used to display various illustrations concerning

mathematics. The material for display on such boards e.g. mathematical
figures, rules, graphs etc. can be collected from various sources.
vi. Equipments and Materials concerning other subjects

Mathematical principles and procedures are used in other subjects and

the materials, equipment illustrating the application of mathematics (e.g.
barometer, hydrometer, pendulum etc) be also kept in mathematics
laboratory.
vii. Proportional Dividers, Slide Rules, Calculating Machines etc.

These are quite useful in the study of similarity of geometrical figures

and be kept in a mathematics laboratory. Making use of these
instruments we can magnify or reduce figures, graphs, maps etc. Slide
rules are quite useful in mathematical calculations. A training in
mathematical calculations can be provided by using simple calculating
machines.
viii. Weighing and Measuring Instruments

Mathematical laboratory work, quite often, involves the important

activities of weighing and measuring. Therefore, instruments used for
measuring and weighing such as measuring tapes, balances of different
types, measuring jar, and graduated cylinder should be there in a
mathematics laboratory.

167
ix. Surveying Instruments
Various Instruments used in surveying kept in a Mathematics laboratory
because surveying is concerned with Mathematics. Some of these
instruments are:
a. Angle Mirror which is used for laying out right angles in the field.
b. Plane Table and Alidate which are used for elementary mapping
and surveying.
c. Hypsometer and Clinometers are simple devices to measure
angles of elevation and depression. These can be used to
measure heights and distances of objects indirectly.
d. Level which is an instrument used in finding differences in
elevation.
e. Transit which is an angle measurer and a leveling instrument.

x. Projective Aids

Various projective aids and projecting devices such as magic lantern,

film-strip projector, epidiascope etc, should also be kept in Mathematics
Laboratory.
At present many film-strips on mathematical topics are available from
various sources. Film showing the application of mathematics may also
be obtained.
xi. Collections

The students be encouraged to collect mathematical data from different

sources eg. data on graphs, percentage, t-ratio, income, investments,
budgets, insurance etc. in the form of cuttings, pictures, charts, models
etc. from various magazines, new papers, books etc.
There can be so many other materials or instruments of mathematical
interest available from different sources. However, the teacher should
bear in mind the needs and requirements of students and should
encourage them for improvisation and self-collection. Students should
be actively involved in the maintenance and organisation of Mathematics
laboratory.
However, laboratory work should be properly planned. These should
provide useful learning experiences to the students and should not
degenerate into mere mechanical handling of materials or mere play.
Laboratory experiences should be supplemental by regular teaching.

168
3. Need of Mathematics Laboratory

The primary functions of a mathematics laboratory are to:

 make mathematics teaching and learning, interesting and
purposeful for the students
 provide activities that arouse the curiosity of the students and
maintain their interest in learning
 enable students to develop proper skills in handling equipment and
gadgets
 make students appreciate the practical applicability of
mathematical principles and laws
 concretise the abstract mathematical concepts
 help the students develop powers of observation, analysis and
drawing inferences.

UNIT 17 MATHEMATICS CLUB

As in other subjects so also in Mathematics, the students be encouraged

to organise themselves into Mathematics clubs and Mathematics
associations. Under the auspices of these organisation, discussions and
lectures etc. are arranged. Such functions are quite helpful in creating
interest in Mathematics. Under the auspices of such organisation certain
games based on some concepts of mathematics and mathematical
problems can also be arranged. This is likely to help the students in
having an idea of the practical utility of Mathematics in addition to
creating their interest in Mathematics.
The values of Mathematics clubs may be summarised as under:
i. It is useful in arousing and maintaining interest in mathematics.

ii. It stimulates the active participation of the students.

iii. It develops in the students a habit of selective study. This helps
them to make a distinction between relevant and irrelevant
material.
iv. The knowledge gained by students in various functions of such
club activities supplements the class teaching.
v. It provides the students an opportunity of free discussion and they
are benefited from one another’s view.

vi. Gifted students get an opportunity to satisfy their needs and

interests by actively participating in the activities of such clubs and
associations.

169
vii. Students get an opportunity to listen to some well known and
distinguished Mathematics.
viii. It gives the student’s basic training in organising such
programmes.

ix. It is helpful in making proper utilisation of leisure time.

x. Through participation in such clubs, students get acquainted with
the contribution of great mathematicians in their fields.

Check your progress

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of

the Block.
8. What is Number Kit?
…………………………………………………………………………
……………………………..…………………………………………
9. Write the values of Mathematics Club.

…………………………………………………………………………
……………………….…………………………………………………

UNIT 18 ABACUS, CUISENAIRE RODS, FRACTIONAL DISCS

AND NAPIER STRIPS

1. Abacus: Abacus alternatively referred to as the counting frame,

an abacus is a mechanical device used to assist a person in performing
mathematical calculations and counting, it consists of beads or disks that
can be moved up and down on a series of sticks or strings within a
usually wooden frame. The abacus itself doesn't calculate, it's simply a
device for helping a human being to calculate by remembering what has
been counted. The modern Chinese abacus, which is still widely used in
China and other countries, dates from about 1200 A.D. It is possible that
it derives from the earlier counting boards used around the
Mediterranean as early as 300 B. C. An Aztec version of an abacus,
circa 900-1000 A.D., is made from maize (corn) threaded through strings
mounted in a wooden frame. There are Japanese and Russian versions
of the abacus and several modern "improved" versions.
The standard abacus can be used to perform addition, subtraction,
division and multiplication, the abacus can also be used to extract

170
square-roots and cubic roots. The beads are manipulated with either the
index finger or the thumb of one hand.

Fig: 18.1 Abacus

The abacus is typically constructed of various types of hardwoods and

comes in varying sizes. The frame of the abacus has a series of
vertical rods on which a number of wooden bkeads are allowed to slide
freely. A horizontal beam separates the frame into two sections, known
as the upper deck and the lower deck.

2. Cuisenaire Rods : Cuisenaire Rods are a versatile collection of

rectangular rods of 10 colors, each color corresponding to a different
length. The shortest rod, the white, is 1 centimeter long; the longest,
the orange, is 10 centimeters long. One set of rods contains 74 rod s:
4 each of the orange (σ), blue (e), brown (n), black (k), dark green
(d), and yellow (y); 6 purple (p); 10 light green (g); 12 red (r); and 22
white (w). One special aspect of the rods is that, when they are
arranged in order of length in a pattern commonly called a
“staircase,” each rod differs from the next by 1 centimeter, the length
of the shortest
rod, the white.

Fig: 18.2 Cuisenaire Rods

171
Unlike Color Tiles, which provide a discrete model of numbers,
Cuisenaire Rods, because of their different, related lengths, provide
a continuous model. Thus, they allow you to assign a value to one
rod and then assign values to the other rods by using the
relationships among the rods.
Cuisenaire Rods can be used to develop a wide variety of
mathematical ideas at many different levels of complexity. Initially,
however, students use the rods to explore spatial relationships by
making flat designs that lie on a table or by making three-
dimensional designs by stacking the rods. The intent of students’
designs, whether to cover a certain amount of a table top or to fill a
box, will lead students to discover how some combinations of rods
are equal in length to other, single rods. Students’ designs can also
provide a context for investigating symmetry. Older students who
have no previous experience with Cuisenaire Rods may explore by
comparing and ordering the lengths of the rods and then recording
the results on grid paper to visualize the inherent “structure” of the
design. In all their early work with the rods, students have a context
in which to develop their communication skills through the use of
grade-appropriate arithmetic and geometric vocabulary.
Though students need to explore freely, some may appreciate
specific challenges, such as being asked to make designs with
certain types of symmetry, or certain characteristics, such as
different colors representing different fractional parts.
Use in mathematics teaching: The rods are used in teaching a variety
of mathematical ideas, and with a wide age range of learners. Topics
they are used for include:

 Counting, sequences, patterns and algebraic reasoning.

 Addition and subtraction (additive reasoning).

 Multiplication and division (multiplicative reasoning).

 Fractions, ratio and proportion.

 Modular arithmetic leading to group theory.

3. Fractional Discs : These Montessori fraction discs help children
to learn the addition and subtraction of fractions. Different fractions
(colours) can be added and removed, thus filling the disc more or less
with the resultant fraction being read off the disc. The fraction disc also
depicts angles in degrees (0 ... 360) so children can learn and calculate
with degrees of angles.

172
 Fig: 18.3 Fractional Discs

4. Napier's bones or Strips: Napier bones were invented by John

Napier (1550-1617), a Scottish mathematician and scientist. They
help you to do multiplication. There are 9 different 'bones' or strips
with numbers on - see below. You may need several copies of each
strip.

Fig: 17.4 Napier's bones

If you look at these strips, you will see that they are really the times
tables. Each square gives 2x, 3x, and so on, but the tens and units are
divided by a slanting line. You also need a frame to fit them in. The side
with the numbers and the bottom are raised slightly, so you can slot the
number strips next to them.
Use of Napier's bones : Napier's bones are good for multiplying a long
number by a single digit number. Let's multiply 425928 by 7. First take
the strips for 4, 2, 5, 9, 2 and 8, and fit them into the frame. They must fit
snugly.

173
Since we are multiplying by 7, you need to look at the squares next to
the 7 on the side. It is shaded on this diagram, but of course you don't
get this help with the real bones!

Now you can work out the answer very quickly. You read off the digits,
but any numbers within slanting lines must be added. So the answer is 2
8+1 4+3 5+6 3+1 4+5 6 or 2 9 7 11 4 9 6. Most of these digits are fine,
but the 11 needs to have 10 carried to the left. This makes 2 9 7+1 1 4 9
6 or 2981496, which is the right answer!
If you do the same sum on paper, you will see what is going on. When
you start the calculation, you multiply the end digit, 8, by 7, which is 56.
You put the 6 at the end, and carry the 7. Now you multiply the next
digit, 2, by 7. This is 14, but you need to add the 5 carried from the
previous calculation. So you add the 4 and 5, and carry the 1. You can
see the same addition happening with the Napier's bones. They provide
a mechanism for the carrying, and do the simple multiplication for you.
Here are the rest of the calculations for you to compare. Remember that
an extra 1 had to be carried at one point.

174
425928 4259 28 425928 425928 4259 28 425928

x 7 X 7 x 7 x 7 X 7 x 7

6 96 496 1496 814 96 2981496

5 15 615 3615 1461 5 14615

Check your progress

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the

Block
10. What is Abacus?
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………………..…………………………………………………
…………………
11. Write the advantages of Cuisenaire Rods in mathematics
teaching.
……………………………………………………………………………
…………………….………………………………………………………

UNIT 19 TECHNOLOGY, SPECIAL AIDS AND APPLIANCES FOR

CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES

Many students with disabilities require assistive technology to participate

in and benefit from their educational programs. A range of technology
solutions are available to support student performance, achievement,
and independence in the following areas: academics and learning aids,
aids to daily living, assistive listening and environmental aids for the
hearing impaired and deaf, augmentative communication, computer
access, leisure and recreation, seating, positioning, mobility, and vision.
Students who have access to the appropriate technology solutions that
they need are more likely to be successful in their educational programs.
1. Calculator : Implementing calculators into mathematics curricula
at all level will allow students to learn more quickly and efficiently while

175
keeping them engaged in what they are learning. By reducing the
emphasis on learning computational algorithms, more time will be
available to spend on sharpening problem – solving, mental arithmetic,
and estimation skills. The implementation of calculators has changed the
nature of the problems that are important in mathematics and has
opened the door for new methods of investigating those problems. Since
calculators reduce the amount of time required to solve problems and
learn certain skills, more applications can be considered, and students
who were previously turned off tedious computations may now be more
inspired to explore the richness of math.
The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) Curriculum
and Evaluation standards recommends that all students use calculators
to:

 explore and experiment with mathematical ideas such as patterns

numerical and algebraic properties, and functions;
 develop and reinforce skills such as estimation, computation,
graphing and analyzing data;
 focus on developing problem-solving processes rather than the
computations associated with the problems;
 perform tedious computations that often develop when working
with real data in problem situations;
 gain access to mathematical ideas and experiences that go
beyond those levels limited by traditional paper-and-pencil
computation.(NCTM, 1991)
NCTM further recommends that every teacher at every level promote the
use of calculators to enhance mathematics instruction by:

 modeling the use of calculators in a variety of situations;

 using calculators in computation, problem solving , concept
development, pattern recognition, data analysis, and graphing;
 incorporating the use of calculators in testing mathematical skills
and concepts;
 keeping current with the state-of-the-art technology appropriate for
the grade levels being taught;
 exploring and developing new ways to use calculators to support
instruction and assessment (NCTM,1991)
2. Computers : Computers are the latest aids in teaching learning
environment. It works tremendously by providing real time effects and
visual on the learning strategies.

176
Evolution in the field of Communication Technology has brought in
tremendous changes for using Educational Technology in teaching
learning. Particularly Computer has occupied a prominent place in the
technological aspect of teaching learning process with its potential
design, aiding in carrying on the process efficiently with more visual
effects and also sophistication in software and hardware with time and
evolution of internet and world wide web. The role of computers
exclusively known as CAL, CAI, CML, CMT, CBT etc are inclusive as
teaching aids.
Computer Access and Instruction : A variety of technology solutions
are available to adapt the classroom computer for students with
disabilities. Some computer access technology offers a method of input
other than the standard computer keyboard and mouse. Other computer
adaptations include software and hardware that modifies the visual and
sound output from the computer.
3. Computer Multimedia : Computer multimedia includes a variety
of audio, video and animation tools.
Video: Video has become one of the most popular of all instructional
aids. The initial discussion of video, which follows, is limited to passive
video. Interactive video is covered separately.
Passive Video: Passive video cassettes provide motion, color, sound,
and in many cases, special effects with advanced graphic and animation
techniques. High-quality, commercially produced video cassettes are
available for almost every subject pertaining to aviation training.
Consequently, video has replaced many of the projection-type
instructional aids.
Advantages of video are well documented. The current generation of
students is sometimes referred to as the video generation. Some
educators have theorized that TV has produced a visual culture that has
actually changed the way people learn. In any case, it is apparent that
most, if not all, students are familiar with and receptive to video.
For instructors, the convenience of video is certainly an advantage. The
capability to easily stop, freeze, rewind, and replay is particularly helpful
for both instructors and students. The cost of a video cassette and the
associated equipment, although higher than some of the more basic
instructional aid equipment, is fairly economical. In addition, the video
cassette recorder and television can be used for other than instructional
purposes.

177
Instructors also should be aware of certain disadvantages with video.
Students are often accustomed to dramatic, action-packed film or video
that is designed as entertainment. At the same time, they tend to watch
film or TV in a passive way without attempting to absorb what they are
seeing and hearing. Instructional video, in comparison, normally is
perceived as much less exciting and less stimulating visually. This,
coupled with an inattentive viewing style, can diminish the instructional
value of the video.
As is true with any instructional aid, instructors need to follow some
basic guidelines when using video. For example, the video presentation
is not designed to replace the instructor. Prior planning and rehearsal
will help determine the important points and concepts that should be
stressed, either during the presentation or as part of a summary.
Instructors should also try to prepare students for viewing video
programs by telling them what to watch carefully, what is important, or
possibly, what is incorrect. In addition, instructors should be available to
summarize the presentation and answer any questions students may
have regarding content.
Interactive Video: Interactive video refers broadly to software that
responds quickly to certain choices and commands by the user. A typical
system consists of a combination of a compact disk, computer, and
video technology. A compact disk (CD) is a format for storing information
digitally. A major advantage of a CD is the capability to store enormous
amounts of information. As an example, a single compact disk may
contain all pertinent aviation regulations, plus the complete AIM. With
search and find features incorporated, a CD is a powerful information
source. The software may include additional features such as image
banks with full color photos and graphics, as well as questions or
directions which are programmed to create interactivity for students as
they progress through the course.

The questions or directions are programmed using a branching

technique, which provides several possible courses of action for the user
to choose in order to move from one sequence to another. For example,
a program may indicate, “That was incorrect. Go back to ... and try
again.”
Interactive video solves one of the main problems of passive video in
that it increases involvement of the student in the learning process. Well-
designed interactive video, when properly used, is highly effective as an
instructional aid. Each student essentially receives a customized
learning experience.

178
Distance learning, or distance education, is another trend applicable to
aviation. In general terms, distance learning is the use of print or
electronic media to deliver instruction when the instructor and student
are separated. It also may be defined as a system and process that
connects students with resources for learning. As sources for access to
information expands, the possibilities for distance learning increases.
Computer-Based Multimedia: Interactive video is one form of
computer-based multimedia. However, in recent years, the terms
computer based training (CBT), or multimedia training, have become
very popular. The term multimedia is not new. Multimedia has been used
for decades in some form or other. In a basic form, multimedia is a
combination of more than one instructional media, but it could include
several forms of media-audio, text, graphics, and video (or film).
Multimedia in a more current context generally implies a computer-
based media that is shown on personal computers (PCs). With computer
based multimedia, information access is simplified. Sophisticated
databases can organize vast amounts of information which can be
quickly sorted, searched, found, and cross-indexed.

Real interactivity with computer-based training means the student is fully

engaged with the instruction by doing something meaningful which
makes the subject of study come alive. For example, the student
frequently is able to control the pace of instruction, review previous
material, jump forward, and receive instant feedback. With advanced
tracking features, computer-based training also can be used to test the
student’s achievement, compare the results with past performance, and
indicate the student’s weak or strong areas.
Although computers are often used on an individual basis by students,
equipment is available that can project images from a computer screen.
This allows the instructor to use a computer in conjunction with specially
designed software programs to create presentations for an entire class.
The instructor can tailor the presentation for the class, if necessary, and
also include graphics at appropriate points.
With computer-based training, the role of both the student and the
instructor changes. Students become more involved in their own
learning, and instructors may no longer occupy a center-stage position in
a typical classroom setting. Instead, instructors become supportive
facilitators of the computer-based multimedia program. As such, they
serve as guides or resource experts and circulate among students who
are working individually or in small groups. This results in considerable
one-on one instructor/student interaction. Thus, the instructor provides

179
assistance, reinforcement, and answers questions for those who need it
most. In this situation, the computer-based training should still be
considered as an add-on instructional aid to improve traditional
classroom instruction. The instructor, although no longer the center of
attention, must continue to maintain complete control over the learning
environment to ensure learning objectives are being achieved.

A more advanced application of computer-based training may involve

less instructor control. For example, a laboratory-type environment may
be configured with separate study areas for each student. With this
setup, the physical facility is usually referred to as a learning center or
training center. Students in these centers are often monitored by a
teacher’s aid, or other trained personnel, who can provide guidance,
answer questions, and act as a conduit to the instructor who is
responsible for the training. In this case, the responsible instructor needs
to establish procedures to make sure the required training is
accomplished, since he or she must certify student competency at the
end of the course.
Numerous advantages are attributed to computer-based multimedia
training. It is widely used in airline training for both pilots and aviation
maintenance technicians. Due to the active nature of CBT, the overall
learning process is enhanced in several ways. Well-designed programs
allow students to feel like they are in control of what they are learning
and how fast they learn it. They can explore areas that interest them and
discover more about a subject on their own. In addition, learning often
seems more enjoyable than learning from a regular classroom lecture.
The main advantages are less time spent on instruction compared to
traditional classroom training, and higher levels of mastery and retention.

Disadvantages include the lack of peer interaction and personal

feedback. For the instructor, maintaining control of the learning situation
may be difficult. It also may be difficult to find good CBT programs for
certain subject areas, and the expense associated with the equipment,
software, and facilities must be considered. In addition, instructors and
students may lack sufficient experience with personal computers to take
full advantage of the CBT programs that are available.
Interactive Whiteboard: An interactive whiteboard is a large interactive
display that connects to a computer and projector. A projector projects
the computer’s desktop onto the board’s surface, where users control
the computer using a pen, finger or other device. The board is typically
mounted to a wall or on a floor stand.

180
They are used in a variety of settings such as in classrooms at all levels
of education, in corporate board rooms and work groups, in training
rooms for professional sports coaching, broadcasting studios and more.
Uses for interactive whiteboards include:

Operating any software that is loaded onto the connected PC, including
Internet browsers or proprietary software

Using software to capture notes written on a whiteboard or whiteboard-

like surface
Controlling the PC (click and drag), mark-up (annotating a program or
presentation) and translating cursive writing to text (not all whiteboards)
In some instances the Interactive Whiteboard may be provided with an
integrated Audience Response System so presenters can carry out polls
and quizzes and capture the feedback on the Interactive Whiteboard
Interactive whiteboards are used in many schools as replacements for
traditional whiteboards or flipcharts or video/media systems such as a
DVD player and TV combination. Users can also connect to a school
network digital video distribution system using an Interactive
Whiteboard. Interactive whiteboards can also interact with online shared
annotation and drawing environments in the form of interactive vector
based graphical websites.
The software supplied with the Interactive Whiteboard will usually allow
the teacher to keep their notes and annotations as an electronic file for
later distribution either on paper or through a number of electronic
formats.
In addition, some interactive whiteboards allow teachers to record their
instruction as digital video files and post the material for review by
students at a later time. This can be a very effective instructional
strategy for students who benefit from repetition, who need to see the
material presented again, for students who are absent from school, for
struggling learners, and for review for examinations. Brief instructional
blocks can be recorded for review by students, they will see the exact
presentation that occurred in the classroom with the teacher’s audio
input. This can help transform learning and instruction.

181
 Check your progress

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the
Block.

12. Expand CBT?

………………………………………………………………………………
………………………..……………………………………………………

13. Write short note on Interactive White Board.

………………………………………………………………………………
………………….…………………………………………………………...

LET US SUM UP

Teachers need to explore all such possibilities for the enrichment of

teaching-learning experiences and providing students the opportunity of
independent thinking. However, a meticulous planning is required to find
the ways of harnessing various resources of learning in order to avoid
hurdles on the way and superficiality of teaching-learning activities.
Teacher can consider a number of approaches and strategies to
transact the concepts using those resources of learning. It will be a good
idea to make an inventory of learning resources correlating the
concepts of mathematics in the beginning of the session. Teachers can
take help of their colleagues and students in this planning. Collaboration
of time and expertise within school, between school and parents,
between different schools, between schools and external specialist
should be encouraged and promoted.

GLOSSARY

 Laboratory – a room or building that is used for scientific research,

testing, experiments, etc. or for teaching about science.
 Technology – combined use of computer hardware, software,
and educational theory and practice to facilitate learning.
 Multimedia – combining multiple media formats, whenever text,
audio, still images, animation, video and interactivity are combined
together, the result is multimedia. Slides, for example, are

182
 multimedia as they combine text and images, and sometimes
video and other types.
 Disability – person who have long-term physical, mental,
intellectual, or sensory impairments, which, in interaction with
various barriers, may hinder their full and effective participation in
society on an equal basis with others.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

10. A Number Kit consisting of a set of wooden blocks of different

colours, labeling the digits from one to ten. Each block has the
numeral and word representing the numeral.
11. The values of Mathematics clubs may be summarised as under:
 It is useful in arousing and maintaining interest in mathematics.

 It stimulates the active participation of the students.

12. Abacus alternatively referred to as the counting frame,
an abacus is a mechanical device used to assist a person in
performing mathematical calculations and counting, it consists of
beads or disks that can be moved up and down on a series of
sticks or strings within a usually wooden frame.
13. The rods are used in teaching a variety of mathematical ideas, and
with a wide age range of learners. Topics they are used for
include:

 Counting, sequences, patterns and algebraic reasoning.

 Addition and subtraction (additive reasoning).

 Multiplication and division (multiplicative reasoning).

14. Computer Based Training

15. An interactive whiteboard is a large interactive display that
connects to a computer and projector. A projector projects the
computer’s desktop onto the board’s surface, where users control
the computer using a pen, finger or other device. The board is
typically mounted to a wall or on a floor stand.

183
SUGGESTED READINGS

Agarwal, S.M. (1994). Teaching of Modern Mathematics. New Delhi:

Dhanpat Rai & Sons.
Anice James (2005). Teaching of Mathematics . Hyderabad:
Neelkamal Publications.
Bloom, B.S. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Cognitive
Domain Book. New York: Moleay

Carey, L.M. (1988). Measuring and Evaluating School Learning.Boston:

Allyn and bacon.
Dutton, Wilbur. H & Adam, L.J. (1962). Arithmetic for
Teachers.Englewood Eliffs: Prentice Hall Inc. Backhouse. (1967).
Statistics.London: Longman.
NCERT. (2015). Content-Cum-Methodology of Teaching Mathematics.
New Delhi: NCERT.
NCERT. (2015). Mathematics Text book for class X. New Delhi: NCERT
Publication.

Servais, Wand Varga, T. (1971). Teaching School

Mathematics.UNESCO: A UNESCO Source Book, Penguin Books.
Singh, U.N & Others. (1992). Mathematics - A Text Book for Class VIII
Part I. New Delhi: NCERT.46
Singhal, P.K. (1996). Planned Mathematics for class X and IX. New
Delhi: National Council of Educational Research and Training.
The Current Text book in Tamilnadu for Mathematics.
Venir, M. (1987). Programming in BASIC Problem Solving with Structure
and Style. Jico Publishing House.

Wickelgren, Wayne, A. (1974). How to Solve Problems. W.H.Freeman,

San Fransisco.
Content-Cum-Methodology of Teaching Mathematics. New Delhi:
NCERT.

Web Resources
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuisenaire_rods

https://mathedu.hbcse.tifr.res.in/mathematics-laboratory/

https://sites.google.com/site/atforld/at4math
*****

184
BLOCK 5 ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION FOR
MATHEMATICS LEARNING

Structure

Introduction

Objectives

Unit 20 Assessment and Evaluation

20.1 Need of Evaluation

20.2 Steps Involved in Evaluation

Unit 21 Types of Evaluation

21.1 Formative Evaluation

21.2 Summative Evaluation

21.3 Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation in
Mathematics

Unit 22 Types of Tests

Unit 23 Achievement Tests
23.1 Types of Achievements Tests

23.2 Teacher - made Achievement Tests

23.3 Preparation of a Teacher-made Achievement Test
Unit 24 Preparation of Diagnostic Test

Unit 25 Error Analysis, Identification of Hard Spots and Remedial

Measures
25.1 Error Analysis
25.2 Identification of Hard Spots and Remedial Measures

Unit 27 Evaluation Procedure for Students with Disabilities

Let Us Sum Up

Glossary
Answers to Check Your Progress
Suggested Readings

185
INTRODUCTION

A tool of evaluation, as used in education, is a device or technique that

will facilitate the process of measuring and recording the characteristics
of pupils. Tools of evaluation are sophisticated techniques of appraisal,
intelligently designed to measure what is required to be measured.
Evaluation tools can be classified in a number of ways based on the
purpose, format, technical features etc. Classification by purpose may
include the categories such as achievement test (survey test), diagnostic
test, and prognostic test. Using format as a basis for classification
results in categories like essay, objective type etc. Classification by
technical features may yield individual tools (oral test, observation),
group techniques (essay examination, rating scale, sociometry etc)
standardized tools (uniform test contents and testing procedure, norms
etc), informal tests(teacher-made tests for a particular unit of for a
purpose) power test, speed test, performance tests, pencil and paper
tests etc.

However, every test maker has his own way of looking at the
classification of evaluation devices. All evaluation tools can be viewed as
of two types:

i. Those designed for data collection and

ii. Those designed for summarization (cumulative record, progress
report etc).

The data gathering devices can be broadly categorized as tests and

non-tests. Test categories will include written test, oral test, performance
test etc. whereas non-test category will include interview, observation,
questionnaire, check test, anecdotal record etc.

OBJECTIVES

After learning this Block, you will be able to:

 explain the meaning of assessment and evaluation;

 illustrate the use of evaluation in improving mathematics

instruction;
 understand different types of achievement tests;

 describe/illustrate how the design and blue print of a unit are

prepared;
 discuss the importance of blue print; and

186
 identify the differences in the various types of test.

UNIT 20 ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

Assessment is the systematic process of documenting and using

empirical data on the knowledge, skill, attitudes, and beliefs to refine
programs and improve student learning. Assessment data can be
obtained from directly examining student work to assess the
achievement of learning outcomes or can be based on data from which
one can make inferences about learning. Assessment is often used
interchangeably with test, but not limited to tests. Assessment can focus
on the individual learner, the learning community (class, workshop, or
other organized group of learners), a course, an academic program, the
institution, or the educational system as a whole (also known
as granularity). As a continuous process, assessment establishes
measurable and clear student learning outcomes for learning,
provisioning a sufficient amount of learning opportunities to achieve
these outcomes, implementing a systematic way of gathering, analyzing
and interpreting evidence to determine how well student learning
matches expectations, and using the collected information to inform
improvement in student learning.
Evaluation in general is an act or a process that allows one to make a
judgement about the desirability or value of a measure. Evaluation in
educational situations is thus a relatively new term introduced to
designate a more comprehensive concept of measurement than is
implied in conventional tests examinations. The emphasis in evaluation
being upon broad personality changes and major objectives of an
educational programme includes not only subject matter achievements,
but also attitudes, ideals, ways of thinking, work habits and personal and
social adaptability. Thus evaluation is not just a testing programme.
Tests are but one of the many different techniques that may contribute to
the total evaluation programme. Evaluation is any systematic continuous
process of determining:

 The extent to which specified educational objectives, previously

identified and defined are attained.
 The effectiveness of the learning experiences provided in the
classroom.

 How well the goals of education have been accomplished.

187
Thus evaluation is integrated with the whole task of education and its
purpose is to improve instruction and not merely to measure its
achievements. In its highest form evaluation brings out the factors that
are inherent in students’ growth such as proper attitudes and habits,
manipulative skills, appreciations and understanding in addition to the
conventional acquisition of knowledge.

20.1 Need of Evaluation

The following are the need of evaluation:

 To provide for the collection of evidence which will show the
degree to which the pupils are progressing towards curricular
goals.

 To permit teachers and supervisors evaluate the effectiveness of

curricular experiences, activities and instructional methods.
 To make provision for building the growth of individual pupils, to
diagnose their weakness and strengths, to point out areas where
remedial measures are desirable.
 To provide to basis for modification of the curriculum or for the
introduction of experiences to meet the needs of the individuals
and groups of pupils.
 To motivate pupils towards better attainment and growth.

20.2 Steps Involved in Evaluation

The process of evaluation involves the following steps:

188
Define the objectives to be tested: Determining and classifying what is to
be evaluated always has priority in the evaluation process.
State objectives: State objectives in terms of behaviour modification i.e.
the learning outcomes.
Selection of evaluation tools: After the objectives are clarified, select the
evaluation tools and techniques to appraise a group of them.

Efficacy of tools: Ensure that the selected tools satisfy the criteria of
validity, reliability, objectivity and usability.
Administer of tools: Administer the tool of evaluation selected or
constructed to assess the selected objectives. This will yield raw scores
of the students.
Interpretation of data: Interpret the scores obtained using various
methods of interpretation.
Application of results: Apply the results of evaluation to the teaching
methods, learning activities and experiences.

UNIT 21 TYPES OF EVALUATION

Depending upon the nature and structure, evaluation is categorized as

Formative and Summative evaluation. An easy to distinguish these two
is given as “When the cook tastes the soup, that’s formative; when the
guests taste the soup, that’s summative.”

21.1 Formative Evaluation

Formative evaluation is a type of evaluation which has the purpose of

improving programmes. There are many different types of evaluations
depending on the students being evaluated and the purpose of the
evaluation. Formative evaluations strengthen or improve the students
being evaluated; they help to form ideas by examining the delivery of
teaching, the quality of its implementation, and the assessment of the
organizational context, personnel, procedures, inputs, and so on.
Formative evaluation includes several evaluation types:
 Needs Assessment determines who needs the program, how
great the need is, and what might work to meet the need
 Evaluability Assessment determines whether an evaluation is
feasible and how stakeholders can help shape its usefulness

189
 Structured Conceptualization helps stakeholders define the
program or technology, the target population, and the possible
outcomes
 Implementation Evaluation monitors the fidelity of the program or
technology delivery
 Process Evaluation investigates the process of delivering the
program or technology, including alternative delivery procedures

21.2 Summative Evaluation

Summative evaluations, in contrast, examine the effects or outcomes of

same students; they summarize it by describing what happens
subsequent to teaching of lessons; assessing whether the have attained
the objectives; determining the overall impact of the causal factor
beyond the immediate target outcomes. Summative evaluation is usually
carried after a period of course of teaching and learning. Summative
evaluation is done in depth to assess the students level of achievement
in a particular concept. It has a set period over a set concept and
objectives to be achieved. It evaluates not only the students but also the
teacher. The period usually range from 3 months to one year. At present
in the emerging field of computerized and online learning and evaluation
the summative evaluation becomes learner selected timings. The
learners can set their own timings to learn the set concepts for the
objectives. Example: Six sigma programme in Managerial Practices.
Summative Evaluation can also be subdivided:

 Outcome Evaluations investigate whether the program or

technology caused demonstrable effects on specifically defined
target outcomes
 Impact Evaluation is broader and assesses the overall or net
effects — intended or unintended — of the program or technology
as a whole
 Cost-Effectiveness and Cost-Benefit Analysis address
questions of efficiency by standardizing outcomes in terms of their
dollar costs and values
 Secondary Analysis re examines existing data to address new
questions or use methods not previously employed
 Meta-Analysis integrates the outcome estimates from multiple
studies to arrive at an overall or summary judgement on an
evaluation question.
Summative Evaluation are categorized as Teacher made tests and
Standardized tests.

190
 Formative Evaluation Summative Evaluation

1. The purpose of formative 1. The purpose is

evaluation is to diagnose the classification and
strength and weaknesses of the promotion of students.
pupils.
2. Evidences secured by it are
used for further improvement of
instruction and students better 2. Its results are used for
progress. certification and passing
judgement on pupils
3. Its focus is on improvement of
achievement.
pupils’ achievement.
3. Its focus is on
4. It refers to continuous evaluation
measurement of pupil’s
by means of unit tests,
achievement.
assignments etc.
4. It refers to term tests,
5. It is an integral part of teaching-
annual tests and external
learning process.
examinations.
6. It provides continuous feedback
to both pupil and teacher.
5. It is treated as an end of
7. It is done during the course of
the course activity.
instruction.
6. It does not provide
8. It gives relevant information
feedback.
which helps to improve
classroom instructions.
9. Its results are used for providing 7. It is done at the end of
remedial measures and academic session / years.
enrichment programmes for slow
and gifted learners respectively.
8. It provides the overall
results of the teaching-
learning process.

9. Its results are used for

classification placement
and prediction for future
success.

Table : 20.1 Difference between Formative and Summative

Evaluation

191
21.3 Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation in Mathematics

The Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation (CCE) provides

accommodation for individual differences. It aims at fostering individual
ability of children and helps them to realize their potentialities. The CCE
also aims at making up the deficiency by laying adequate emphasis on
the development of non-scholastic areas. Thus, it helps to develop all
aspects of child’s growth to his/her optional potential. Therefore, the
comprehensive and continuous evaluation presents a combination of
external and internal evaluation. In a system of comprehensive and
continuous evaluation both scholastic and non-scholastic aspects of
education are to be kept in view.
a. Comprehensive Evaluation

One of the main defects of the present examination system is that its
coverage is very limited to academic aspects. The non-academic
aspects are not attempted for the all round development of the child’s
personality. All the efforts for instruction are focused on this limited area.
So, the education remains confined to the cognitive domain alone and
even there it covers very little beyond memorisation. Hence, the
objective of the harmonious development of the child’s personality,
remains unfulfilled.

The several areas have been added to the curriculum, which facilitate
the development of children in non-academic areas. The several areas
are: work experience course, health education, physical education and
other specially planned co-curricular activities. Child’s growth in non-
cognitive areas should be evaluated and guided continuously and it may
not be the part of a formal examination. In this context the concept of
comprehensive evaluation covering different aspect of a child’s growth
had conceived.
b. Continuous Evaluation

It is likely possible to obtain valuable data about the strengths and

weaknesses of the children through continuous evaluation. Continuous
evaluation helps in providing remedies and enriched instruction with a
view to realising the objectives of education in the optimum growth and
development of various aspects of child’s personality. The feedback
helps teachers in improving the level of achievement and proficiency
among children.

192
Moreover, the comprehensive and continuous evaluation will be a part of
a teacher’s duty. The scheme of comprehensive and continuous
evaluation can work only, when there is healthy teacher-taught
relationship. Hence, Comprehensive and continuous evaluation is not an
end in itself. It provides opportunities for teachers to make suitable
changes in their efforts. Continuous feedback also provides direction to
children and parents in their efforts. The National Policy on Education
(1986), has also accepted that assessment of performance is an integral
part of any process of learning and teaching. As a part of sound
educational strategy; examinations should be employed to bring about
qualitative improvement in education. Evaluation will be streamlined and
the predominance of external examinations will be reduced in education.
Objectives of Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation

The main objectives of CCE are as follows:

 To foster individual abilities of the children.
 To help the children to realize their potentialities and capacities.
 To enable teachers to evaluate those attitudes, abilities and skills
which are impossible to evaluate through traditional examinations.
 To help teachers in improving the level of achievement.
 To emphasis the development of non-scholastic areas.
 The elimination of excessive element of chance and subjectivity.
 The elimination on emphasis of memorization.
 To help the children to have periodical feedback to judge their
achievements.
 To help teachers to continuously update their judgement in respect
to the progress of the children in the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domains.
 To provide remedial and enriched instructions.
 To develop all the aspects of child’s growth to his/her optional
potential.
 To motivate both the teachers and children to improve the
teaching-learning process.
 To evaluate comprehensively the more important abilities like;
affection, certain values, attitudes, interests, habits etc.
 To obtain valuable data about the strengths and weaknesses of
the children regularly.
 To provide opportunities for teachers to make suitable changes in
their efforts.
 The continuous feedback also provides direction to children and
parents in their efforts.

193
Scope/areas of Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation
 The scheme of comprehensive and continuous evaluation covers
the following aspects and areas of personality of a child.
 Academic Achievement of the child.
 Personal and social qualities; such as: Regularity, responsibility,
punctuality, habit of cleanliness, Co-operation, initiative, sense of
social service etc.
 Desirable attitudes; such as: socialism, secularism, democracy,
attitude towards teachers, school, studies, national integration etc.
 Interests; such as: Cultural, artistic, literary, scientific etc.
 Proficiency in co-curricular activities; such as: games, sports,
scouting-guiding. First aid, Red-cross etc.
 Health status (height, weight, chest expansion, cleanliness,
freedom from disease etc.,) which a teacher can observe and
record.
Components of CCE
Various tools and techniques such as observation of pupil behaviour in
different situations, checklists, inventories, rating scales, records of
interests, initiative, and creativity etc., may be used for evaluation in non-
academic areas. Cumulative records will show growth charts of the
children. The evaluation attempted on these lines will also be more
revealing and are of better use for children, parents and teachers.
Various components of comprehensive and continuous evaluation may
be as follows:

 Quiz – Scheduled or Unscheduled.

 Assignments – Class assignments & Home assignments.
 Written and oral tests – objective, short-answer, essay type,
problem-solving.
 Practical/Field/Laboratory/Project work.
 Term papers/Dissertation/Thesis/Survey reports.
 Tutorial group activities/Seminar/group discussion.
 Weightage to attendance – distribution of marks on the basis of
presence / absence.
Advantages of Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation

 CCE based on the assumption that the abilities and capacities of

children are evaluated continuously at every stage.
 It develops the habit of library consultation.
 It develops the habit of self study as well as regular study.
 It helps to develop confidence in the child.

194
 It provides the opportunity for mutual consultation.
 It also helps to develop the habit of advanced preparation of the
lesson/topic.
 Seminars, group discussion, tutorials etc., lead to a matter of
interaction between the teacher and pupil and also between
students and student.
 It helps to remove the weaknesses or deficiencies in teaching-
learning process.
 With the remedial programmes and projects the foundation of
concrete and constructive teaching-learning may be laid down.
 CCE incorporates both cognitive and non-cognitive aspect of the
child’s personality.
 It elimination the excessive element of chance and subjectivity.
 It provides periodical feedback to the child and teacher both.
 It provides valuable data about the strengths and weaknesses of
the children regularly.
 It provides opportunities for teachers and children to make suitable
change in their efforts.
 It provides opportunities for remedial teaching and enriched
instructions.
 It develops all the aspects of child’s growth for his/her optimal
potential.
 It also helps teachers to continuously and comprehensively update
their judgements in respect of the progress of the children in all the
three domains of behaviour.
 CCE motivates both the teachers and children to improve teaching
and learning process.
 CCE fosters individual abilities of the children.
Limitations of Comprehensive and Continuous Evaluation
 The CCE may work only when there is happy and healthy teacher-
taught relationship.
 Some teachers and examiners threaten their students and make
then insecure as well as mutinous.
 It is not possible for a teacher to do CCE without knowing his
students and their background.
 Favouritism, biases and prejudices to teacher can make the CCE
subjective rather than objective.
 The CCE may not be successful in a crowed class-room.
 It is more laborious and time consuming.
 This can be done by a true and devoted teacher.

195
 The observations and judgements of teacher may be free from
favourites, prejudices and partiality. i.e. Teachers may fail to
maintain objectivity in their role.
 If teachers fail to demonstrate integrity, sense of impartiality and
resistance to pressures, CCE may become a mockery.

Check your progress

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of
the Block

1. What is evaluation?

……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
2. Write down the steps involved in evaluation.
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

UNIT 22 TYPES OF TESTS

Achievement, Diagnostic and Prognostic Tests in Mathematics

The process of instruction involves three important tasks namely

teaching, learning and evaluation. Continuous evaluation has become as
integral part of instruction so as to continually assess the achievements
of the instructional objectives by the students, the effectiveness of the
learning experiences provided and the instructional strategy used by the
teacher. A teacher has to devise and administer a variety of tools and
techniques for evaluation. Though a teacher may have to use
techniques and tools such as interview, observation, case study,
cumulative record, rating scale, and checklist for a variety of purposes,
tests and examination constitute important means to evaluate the
students’ performance. Test can be used with different objectives:

i. for measuring achievement,

ii. for diagnosis and

iii. for prediction

Based on the functions served by tests, they can be broadly classified as

achievement tests, diagnostic tests and prognostic tests.

196
 Tests

Achievement Tests Diagnostic Tests

Prognostic Tests

(for measuring Achievement) (for diagnosis) (for predicting

Future performance)
Fig 5.1 : Classification of Tests

UNIT 23 ACHIEVEMENT TESTS

The term achievement is often naively understood in terms of pupils’

scores on a certain school subject. If for instance, a student is tested in
two school subjects say Mathematics and Biological Science and in the
former he gets 80% while in the latter he gets 60% marks, it is
understood that his achievement in Mathematics is better than his
achievement in Biological Science. In other words achievement means
one’s learning attainments, accomplishments, proficiencies etc.
According to Denis Baron and Harols.W.Bernard, the concept of
achievement involves the interaction of three factors namely, aptitude for
learning, readiness for learning and opportunity for learning.
Achievement in education precisely speaking, implies one’s knowledge,
understanding or skills in a specified subject or a group of subjects.
Achievement tests constitute an important tool of evaluation. It is
necessary for the teacher to know how far the pupils have attained in a
particular subject area. In the school evaluation programme, various
forms of achievement test are used to measure the accomplishment of
the pupils.
i. Definition
 “Any test that measures the attainments and accomplishments of
an individual after a period of training or learning” - NM Downie
 “The type of ability test that describes what a person has learned
to do” - Throndike and Hagen

197
 “A systematic procedure for determining the amount a student has
learned through instructions” - Groulund
 “a proficiency test used to ascertain what and how much has been
learnt or how well a task can be performed, the focus being on
evaluation of the past without reference to the future, except for
the implicit assumption that acquired skills and knowledge will be
useful I their own right in the future” – Super.D.E
From the above definitions, a more comprehensive definition of an
achievement test can be stated as: Achievement test is an instrument
design to measure the accomplishment of the students in a specified
area of learning, after a period of instruction.
ii. Functions of Achievement Test

The major functions of achievement tests are that they

 provide basis of promotion to the next grade.
 help in finding out at the beginning of the year where each student
stands in the various academic areas.
 help in determining the relative position of a student in a particular
subject or area of learning.

 motivate the students before a new assignment is taken up.

 help the teacher to see for himself how effectively he is doing,
what is getting across to pupils and what is not

 provide the teacher evidence relating to the realization of the

objectives, effectiveness of the learning experiences provided and
mode of instruction employed.

 help the teacher in identifying pupils’ difficulties and arranging for

remedial measures.
iii. Characteristics of Good Achievement Test

The following are the qualities of the achievement test.

 Validity: It means that it measures what it is supposed to
measure. It tests what it ought to test. A good test which measures
control of grammar should have no difficult lexical items.
 Reliable: If it is taken again by (same students, same conditions),
the score will be almost the same regarding that the time between
the test and the retest is of reasonable length. If it is given twice to
same students under the same circumstances, it will produce

198
 almost the same results. In this case it is said that the test provides
consistency in measuring the items being evaluated.
 Practicability: It is easy to be conducted, easy to score without
wasting too much time or effort.
 Comprehensive: It covers all the items that have been taught or
studied. It includes items from different areas of the material
assigned for the test so as to check accurately the amount of
students’ knowledge.
 Relevant: It measures reasonably well the achievement of the
desired objectives.
 Balanced: It tests linguistic as well as communicative competence
and it reflects the real command of the language. It tests also
appropriateness and accuracy.
 Appropriate in difficult: It is neither too hard nor too easy.
Questions should be progressive in difficulty to reduce stress and
tension.
 Clear: Questions and instructions should be clear. Pupils should
know what to do exactly.

 Authentic: The language of the test should reflect everyday

discourse.
 Appropriate for time: A good test should be appropriate in length
for the allotted time.
 Objective: If it is marked by different teachers, the score will be
the same. Marking process should not be affected by the teacher’s
personality. Questions and answers are so clear and definite that
the marker would give the students the score he/she deserves.
 Economical: It makes the best use of the teacher’s limited
time for preparing and grading and it makes the best use of the
pupil’s assigned time for answering all items. So, we can say that
oral exams in classes of +30 students are not economical as it
requires too much time and effort to be conducted.

23.1 Types of Achievements Tests

Achievement tests as used in schools are of two types:

 Teacher-made achievement tests.

 Standardised achievement tests.

199
Teacher –made achievements tests are of two types.

 Oral Tests.
 Written or Paper and Pencil Tests.

Written tests can still further be classified as:

 Long answer of Essay type

 Short answer type

 Objective Type

Teacher – made Achievement Test

TETest

Oral Written Test

Test

Essay Objective Type

Type
Short Answer
Type

Fig 5.2 : Classification of Achievement Test

23.2 Teacher-made Achievement Tests

a. Oral Tests

Oral tests are used extensively in the lower classes as well as in the
high school. Most mathematical teachers make use of oral tests to
develop the mental skill necessary for increasing speed and accuracy
and habit formation.
i. Advantages of Oral Tests

200
In the past, the classroom teacher relied very heavily on the oral work of
his pupils in order to arrive at an estimate of the extent to which they
mastered the work of his course. The value of the oral examination is
quite apparent. Unlike the situation with written examination, which
assumes that the examinee understands the questions, the oral
examiner can pose a question and modify the same if it is not
understanding better through an oral test.
The probing results not only in a more specific answer but also gives
some indication of the thought process used by the students in
answering the questions. The teacher can ask for clarifications, if
needed. Oral tests help the teacher to evaluate how well a pupil can
synthesis, integrate and organize the materials that he has learnt. It
becomes a valuable tool for the diagnosis of pupil’s difficulties. Skilful
questioning by the teacher too may help the pupil to apply known
mathematical principles and formula to a new situation. Oral tests are
very valuable for a teacher of mathematics.
ii. Disadvantages of Oral Tests

Nevertheless there are serious weakness of oral examination which

inhibit its use. Probably the most prominent weakness is the unreliability
of the oral tests. Such factors as lack of precision in actually conducting
an oral examination, failure to pre-plan the questions, prejudices of the
teachers and so on serve to detract from the usefulness of this
technique. Moreover, it is time consuming and it may be difficult to test
student over the entire area under study.
a. Written Tests

Written tests used by teachers for measuring pupil achievement may be

classified as essay examination or short answer examination. The latter
are often referred to as “objective” or “new type” tests.

i. Long answer or Essay Type Tests

The essay type examination may be defined as a relatively free written

response to a problem situation or situations in which the written answer
intentionally or unintentionally reveals evidence regarding the functioning
of the pupil’s mental powers as they have been modified by a particular
act of learning experience. Hence, the essay examination, when
properly analysed by the scorer, reveals information regarding selected
aspects of the organization and functioning of the pupil’s mental skill.

201
The essay examination which generally asks the pupils to discuss,
compare, give reasons and the like, requires the formulation of an
extended verbal answer to the question. The essay examination has
survived the continued criticism of the experts in educational
measurement and remains an approach widely used by classroom
teachers in achievement testing.

The relative popularity of the essay examination is not difficult to

understand. The most widely used tests are those which are prepared,
administered, scored and interpreted by the classroom teacher. They
are generally constructed for use only with those pupils enrolled in the
course taught by the teacher who prepares the tests. He may have
many purposes in mind in administering the tests - to motivate the pupil,
to determine the success with which he has taught a unit of subject
matter, to encourage additional reading and so on.
Advantages of Essay Examination

 Higher mental processes such as application, analysis, synthesis,

evaluation, formulating hypotheses, problem solving etc. can be
easily tested by essay type examination. It is rather impossible to
test mental processes by objective type tests. For example, a
multiple choice type can serve only as a means for collecting
evidence concerning how well the pupil can judge the tests of
several alternative hypotheses which are presented to him. It is
extremely difficult to follow the student’s thinking in such a higher
mental process as formulation hypotheses through on objective
type item.
 The student’s ability to organize and express his ideas effectively
is another objective which lends itself to measurement in essay
examination. The use of essay makes id possible for the teacher to
direct the attention of the pupil to large segments and integrated
units of the subject matter.

 Essay examinations may be used to arrive at an estimate pf the

creative ability of the pupil.
 The pupil’s response to essay examination has also been looked
upon as a source from which the teacher could gain some insight
into his personality.
 Chances of copying are minimal.
Limitation of Essay Type Examination

202
 Lack of Objectivity and Reliability in Scoring: One of the
important characteristics of any test is the consistency with which
competent examiners evaluate the responses of the examiners.
The principal criticism of the essay examination has been directed
to this point that the evaluation of the answers to essay questions
is not objective (i.e. marked variability in the marks or grades
allotted to the same paper by two or three examiners). This may
be because the scores disagree concerning the objective which is
being measured, selection and presentation of facts, interpretation
or use of language etc.
 Influence of other Extraneous Elements. (subjectivity):
Extraneous elements like the moods of the examiners,
impressions created by the examinee, use of flowery and attractive
language, comparison of the answer scripts by the examiners etc.
can affect the scoring resulting in greater subjectivity.
 Limited Sampling of the Content: The essay examination has
also been criticized on the grounds that the sampling of content or
range of information tested is narrower than it is objective
examination.
 Emphasis on Rote Memorisation: Another criticism levelled
against essay examination constructed by teachers is that
emphasis is placed upon the recall of more or less specific
information which can be validity and reliability measured by
objective type test items than by a free response essay
examination. These type of tests rather encourage rote
memorisation.
 Danger of Bluffing: There is a danger of bluffing in the essay
examination as the examiner can be easily misled by other
extraneous elements such as flowery language, neat presentation
etc, without presenting any substantial information as required by
the question.
 Difficulty of Scoring: Since the answers are not specific and
uniform , scoring of essay type examination is a difficult task.

 Selective Learning: Essay type examination encourages

selective learning as the sampling of the content is limited and it
covers only a few selected content areas.
Suggestions for Improving Essay Type Examination

 Define the objective to be tested by each essay.

203
 Prepare structured questions instead of preparing one long answer
question.
 Use a scoring key.

 Indicate clearly the direction and scope of the response expected.

Examples for Long-answer or Essay type Questions
 State and prove Pythagoras theorems.

 Construct a quadrilateral with the following measurements and

write down the steps of construction AB = 4.6 cm, BC, 6 cm, AD =
5 cm, AC = 8 cm.
 Show that (a+b)2 = a2 +2ab+b2 bringing out its geometrical
illustration.
ii. Short Answer Type Tests

A question which can be answered in less than four steps may be called
a short answer question. For example, the following questions will be
treated as short-answer ones.
 Prove that 1 + 2 + 3 + ………..n = n(n-1) /2

 For what value of K will 25 X2 – 70 X + K be a perfect square?

 In a right angled ∆ABC, AB = 4 cm, AC = 3 cm, what is the
measure of the hypotenuse BC?
Advantages of Short Answer Type Tests

 Short answer question can be easily related to the objectives.

 It can be more stimulating for pupils than essay type tests.

 It calls for more specific responses than the long answer type.
 Scoring is reliable and objective.

 As the responses are of free response type, they give insight into
student’s thought process and can be used for diagnosis.
 It gives training to the students to select relevant information and
present it in a concise form.
 It can cover a wider content area and can achieve a more
extensive sampling of the content than the essay type tests.
iii. Objective Type Questions

The essay examination requires formulation of an extended verbal

answer to the question. Objective type tests on other hand consist of
questions to which a pupil responds by the selection of one of several

204
given alternatives, or by giving or filling in a word or phrase or by some
other device which does not call for an extensive written response.
Advantages of Objective Type Tests

The objective type tests in comparison with essay examination, posses

certain definite advantages.
 Sampling: Objective type tests generally show much better
coverage of total course content than do essay examinations.
 Reliability and Objectivity of Scoring: In view of the fact that the
objective type questions generally have only one acceptable
response, objectivity of scoring is relatively high and therefore the
scoring is reliable. The objective type tests scored by different
competent examiners would result consistently in the same score.

 Ease of Scoring: Objective type tests may be scored by the use of

a key listing the correct responses and the scoring can be done by
anyone without any specific technical skill.
 Objective-based Items: The objective type tests can be prepared in
such a way that each item is designed to assess one particular
specific objective.

 Diagnostic Value: Identification of the pupils’ weaknesses is also an

easier task when objective type tests are used. By counting the
number of errors made on each question or item the teacher can
easily ascertain the particular elements of the course content which
show inadequate masteries. As each objective type question tests a
clearly stated objective, it is possible for the teacher to assess which
objectives are not realized by the pupils.
Limitations of Objective Type Tests
 Guessing: In objective type tests where the pupil is called upon to
select one of a number of possible alternatives, a series of
fortunate guesses will markedly increase the pupil’s score.
 Difficulty in construction: The preparation of objectives type
tests generally require considerably more time and resourcefulness
than the development of an essay type test.
 Testing complex process: In many classroom situations, the
teacher is concerned not only with the correctness of the pupil’s
answers to a question, but also with the correctness of the thought
process involved in arriving at the correct answer. This and other
higher mental abilities like organization, expression, problem

205
 solving etc. cannot be measured through objective type test. A
comparison of objective type test and essay type examination is
given in table 5.1.
Table 23.1 : Comparison of Objective Type Test and Essay Type
Examination

Essay Type
S.No. Aspects Objective Type Test
Examination

1. Outcomes Good for measuring Inefficient for

measured learning outcomes of measuring knowledge,
knowledge, good for the
comprehension and assessment of
application –Inadequate comprehension,
for higher mental abilities application and
and skills. analysis. Best for the
appraisal of synthesis
and judgement.

2. Sampling of the The use of large number Use of relatively small

Content of items results in broad number of items results
coverage which make in limited coverage and
representative sampling sampling of the
of the content feasible.
content.

3. Preparation of Difficult and time Relatively easier to

items consuming construct.

4. Scoring Objective, easy and Subjective, difficult and

less reliable.
highly reliable

5. Factors distorting Distorted by reading Distorted by writing

student’s scores ability and guess work. ability and bluffing.

6. Probable effect Encourages students to Encourages students

on learning remember, interpret and to organize, integrate
analyse the idea of and express their own
others. ideas.

23.3 Preparation of a Teacher-made Achievement Test

If the test is to serve as an efficient and effective tool of evaluation, its

preparation should be based on a number of careful considerations. The
preparation of a good test is a systematic process having well-defined
stages. The important steps envisaged in the preparation of a good
teacher-made test are.
1. Planning the test

206
 2. Preparation of a design

3. Designing the test items

4. Reviewing and editing

5. Arranging the items

6. Providing directions
7. Preparing the scoring key and marking scheme

8. Administering the test and scoring

9. Evaluating the test

1. Planning the test

“Test planning encompasses all of the varied operations that go into

producing the test but it must also involve careful attention to test
item difficulty, to type of test items, to directions to the examiner”.
(Lindquist, E.F.). We shall cover most of these considerations under
the heading; preparation of design for the test or blueprint of the test.
2. Preparation of a design

Designing is the first and most important step in the test

construction. It is at this stage that we plan to build in the test the
important qualities: validity, reliability, objectivity and practicability. In
order to accomplish this, the test constructor has to take a number of
decisions regarding selection of the objective, the selection of the
content, form of questions, the difficulty level of tests items and the
weightage to be allotted to the objectives, to the content and the
form of questions. The set of those decisions will be called the
design of the test from an analogy with the work of an architect.
Important decisions have to be taken concerning the following.
i. Identification of the objectives and allotting weightage to the
objectives

The most important step while planning a test, or any evaluation tool of
technique for that matter, is the identification of the instructional
objectives and stating them in terms of specific observable behaviour.
After the objectives are identified and stated, the test maker has to
decide their relative weights in the test. The fundamental principle to be
observed here is that the test should reflect the actual emphasis being
given to various mental processes during instruction. Because of the
intangibility of instructional process, there cannot be any fixed formula
for assigning weights to various objectives. But these weights will be by
and large a function of time, effort and resources spent on their

207
acquisition as also for the importance for the society and the learning of
the subject in terms of retention and transfer value. The simplest basis
for assigning the weights could be to weigh them in terms of time
devoted for their achievement. Weightages could, of course, be given in
numerical terms, distributing 100 points over the objectives, giving the
greatest number to those that are to receive the greatest emphasis.

For the sake of illustration, given below in table 5.2 are the objectives
identified for teaching some units in mathematics and the weightage
allotted to them.
Table 5.2: Showing the weightage allotted to the objective

S.No. Objectives Marks Allotted Percentage

1. Knowledge 6 24
2. Understanding 7 28
3. Application 10 40
4. Skill 2 8

Total 25 100

ii. Selection of the content and allotting weightage to the content

Content being the means through which objectives are attained, it

becomes very necessary to decide the weights to be given to its different
parts. As the whole syllabus cannot be covered through any single test,
a convenient number of units can be selected for testing. When this is
done a decision about the weights to be given to these units has to be
taken so as to represent the actual emphasis on them in instruction. In
assigning relative weights to units a number of factors will have to be
taken into account. How important is the unit in the total learning
experience? How much time was devoted to it during instruction?
Although there are a number of such considerations, the easier method
to decide weightages may be to base them on the time required to teach
various units.
For the sake of illustration, given below in the table 5.3 indicating the
weightages given to three units namely Polynomials, Function and
Quadrilaterals.
Table 5.3: Weightages given to Polynomials, Functions and
Quadrilaterals

208
 S.No. Unit Marks Given Percentage

1. Polynomials 10 42
2. Functions 8 32

3. Quadrilaterals (Construction) 7 28

Total 25 100

iii. Selection of the form of questions and giving weightage to the

questions
The test-maker has to decide about the form of questions to be used,
the number of questions to be chosen and the relative weightage to be
given to each form. Perhaps a judicious combinations of the different
forms will have to be used in achievement tests. However, among the
objective type questions, multiple choice may be given more weightage.
In the question paper which is being taken for illustration, the weightage
to different forms of questions could be as follows. Table 5.4

Table 5.4: Weightages given to different Forms of Questions

S.No. Unit Marks Given Percentage

1. Essay (E) 6 24
2. Short answer (S.A) 9 36
3. Objective type (O) 10 40

Total 25 100

iv. Distribution of difficulty level

A decision also has to be taken concerning the distribution of difficulty

level. The distribution of difficulty level in a test will depends upon the
purpose of the test as also on the group of students for whom it is
designed. To get optimum discrimination through a test, most of its
questions should be average difficulty level. A few easy questions to
motivate the below average students and a few difficult ones to
challenge the gifted should find a place in the question paper. If
achievement can assumed to be normally distributed, some weightage

209
in terms of percentages can be suggested for easy, average and difficult
questions as shown in table 5.5
Table 5.5: Distribution of Difficulty Level for Questions

S.No. Difficulty Level Percentage

1. Difficult Questions 15
2. Average Questions 70

3. Easy Questions 15

Total 100

V .Preparation of Blueprint: (Table of Specifications)

Preparation of the blueprint refers to the final stage of the planning of a
test. The blue-print is a three dimensional chart showing the weightage
given to the objectives, content and form of questions in terms of marks.
It is also called a table of specifications as it relates outcome to the
content and indicates the relative weight given to each of the various
areas. The units or the content spread along the vertical axis while the
objectives are listed on horizontal axis. Each column is further
subdivided into columns that indicate the forms of questions. Thus we
get a number of cells, each cell having three dimensions, the objective,
the content and the form of question. What is required on the part of the
test maker is to fit in all the questions in different cells in such a way that
the blueprint reflects the decisions of the design(er). When this is done,
all rows and columns are balanced, and the blueprint is ready. It is
illustrated in table 5.6.

Table 5.6: Blueprint

Objectives Knowledge Understanding Application Skill Total

Content E S.A O E S.A O E S.A O E S.A O

Polynomial 1(2) 3(1) 1(1) 3(1) 1(1) 10

210
 Functions 1(2) 3(1) 1(1) 1(2) 8

Quadrilateral 1(1) 7

Total 5 8 10 2 25

Uses of Blueprint

The preparation of the blueprint serves the following purposes. The

blueprint
 Helps to improve the content validity of the test.

 Defines as clearly as possible the scope and emphasis of the test

 Relates objectives to the content
 Gives greater assurance that the test will measure learning
outcomes content in a balanced manner.
 Lays before the tester a complete picture of the test he is going to
prepare.
3. Designing the Test Items
When the blueprint is ready, the next step is to prepare or select the
items. Write the test items according to the table of specifications. Take
each cell of the blueprint and draft an item taking care of the various
dimensions; the objective, the content and the form as laid down in the
blueprint. Some other decisions taken while designing the test,
particularly the one concerning the distribution of difficulty level has to be
implemented at this stage itself. It is also desirable to prepare more
items than the requirement of the cells of the blueprint since defects are
likely to become apparent in some items during the later review. The
additional items will make it easier to maintain the distribution of items
reflected in the table of specifications.
4. Reviewing and Editing
The pool of items for a particular test after being set aside for a time can
be reviewed with the help of experts. A more careful evaluation of the
items can be made by considering them in the light of each of the
following questions.

 Does each item measure an important learning outcomes included in

the table of specification?

211
 Is each item appropriate for the particular learning outcomes to be
measured?
 Does each item present a clearly formulated task?

 Is the item stated in simple, clear language?

 Is the item free from extraneous clues?

 Is the difficulty of the item appropriate for the students to be tested?

 Is each item independent and are the items, as a group, free from
overlapping?
 Does each item fit into one of the cells of the blueprint?
5. Arranging the items

When the final selections of the items has been completed and they are
ready to be assembled into a test, a decision must be made concerning
the best item arrangement. The following suggestions provide guidelines
for this purpose
 The items should be arranged so that all items of the same type are
grouped together.

 The items should be arranged in the order of increasing difficulty.

 It may be desirable to group together items which measure the same
learning outcomes or the same subject matter content.
6. Providing Directions

Directions constitute an inseparable part of a test. The directions for an

achievement test should be simple and concise and yet contain
information concerning each following: (1) purpose of the test (2) time
allowed to complete the test (3) how to record the answers (4) whether
to guess when in doubt about the answer (5) marks allotted for each
question as also for each section of the test.
7. Preparation of Scoring Key and Marking Scheme

When the test has been assembled and ready to administer, it becomes
necessary to prepare some other important accessories in the form of a
scoring key of objective type questions and marking scheme for supply-
type questions, such as short answer and essay type questions.
 Scoring key: Scoring key refers to the prepared list of answers to
a given set of objective questions. The examiner compares the
answers given by the students with those in the scoring key and
thus arrives at the marks to be awarded to the students.

212
 Correction for Guessing: The test constructor while preparing
the scoring key may feel like reducing to zero the gain in the score
expected to result from guess work. This popularly called
correction for guessing.

The generalized formula for correcting for guessing is.

S = R – kw / n-k where
S = Score, w = Number of wrong responses, R = Number of right
responses.
n= Number of suggested responses for a single item.
k=Number of responses to be selected or marked for each item.

In the case of True or False items, S = R – W (since n = 2, k = 1)

In the case of multiple choice questions where only one correct answer
is expected, the generalized formula reduces to S = R – W / n - 1
 Marking Scheme: In the preparation of marking scheme in
mathematics it will be desirable not only to analyse the solution into
important stages and to distribute marks over them but each stage
may be looked upon from the point of view of the method involved as
also from expected accuracy. The marks for each stage, therefore,
may be divided into two components: marks for the method and
those for accuracy. A marking scheme is essential because it
indicates:-

i. The number of steps or learning points expected in the answer.

ii. The outline of each point or step expected in the answer.
iii. The weightage to each point or each step.

iv. The level of accuracy expected of each step.

8. Administering and Scoring the Test
At this step, it is important to make sure that all students know exactly
what is expected of them and to provide them with the most favourable
conditions for taking the test. After the administration of the test, the
scoring can be done with the help of the scoring key and marking
scheme.
9. Evaluating the test
Evaluating the test helps the teacher to ascertain the following:-

 Was the test very easy or very difficult?

 Was the test too long or too short?

213
 Were the directions clear and specific?

 Did the items measures the intended objectives?

 Did the difficulty level of the questions match the level of the
students?

 Were the items clear and unambiguous?

 Were the distracters effective?

 Do the items discriminate among the different levels of achievers?

 What are the misconceptions formed by the students?

Evaluation can be done at two levels

i. Question-wise analysis

ii. Item analysis

i. Question-wise analysis is done by analyzing each question
according to objective, specification, content, question type,
estimated difficultly level and time required. This helps the
teacher in assessing the effectiveness of the test item with
reference to the objectives and other requirements in the
blueprint. This also gives an insight into the difficulties
encountered by students in taking the test.

ii. Item analysis is process by which a test maker evaluation the

effectiveness of the test item in terms of (i) the difficulty level of
the test items (ii) discriminating power of test items and (iii) the
effectiveness of the distracters. For item analysis the teacher
arranges the test papers in the ascending order of marks and
analysis is done for 27% of the students on the high and low end
of the scales, making sure that there are an equal number of
students in both the groups. Students’ responses to each item
are analysed for the students in upper and lower groups. Other
than the purposes mentioned above, item analysis has several
other benefits too.
 It provides useful information for class discussion of the test.

 It provides data for helping the students to improve their

learning.
 It provides insight and skill which lead to the preparation of
better tests on future occasions.

214
 Check your progress

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of
the Block.

4. Define achievement test.

……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

5. What are the types of achievement tests?

………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

6. What are the advantages of objective type tests?

……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………

UNIT 24 PREPARATION OF DIAGNOSTIC TEST

Diagnostic tests may be standardized or teacher-made, but teacher –

made diagnostic tests will be more effective and economical than
standardized tests. The norms which constitute a strong point with
standardized tests are not called for in diagnosis as the purpose is to
discover the weaknesses of individual students rather than compare
their achievements.
The preparation of a diagnostic test requires a special technique
different from the one used for building a survey test. Nevertheless, the
stages of preparation will be more or less the same as in the case of
survey tests. The difference mainly lies in the details of these stages.
The designing of a diagnostic test is significantly different from a survey
test. A teacher requires much more data on the specific difficulties of the
pupils. Diagnostic tests have, therefore, to be much longer than survey
tests to make necessary subtests sufficiently reliable. It also requires a
more detailed content analysis. The unit on which a diagnostic test is
based should be broken into learning points with an attempt not to omit
any of them. The diagnostic procedure is based in the assumption that
mastery of the total process can no stronger than that of the weak link in
the chain or related concepts or skills. Accordingly, each concept, skill or

215
learning point called into play in the test process is identified at the time
of designing and then measured.
As far as a diagnostic test is concerned, it is not very important to know
the relative importance of the various learning points as it is in the case
of survey tests. We are not to decide their relative weightage. The basic
principle is to cover all of them to give an unbroken sequence. Perhaps
for each learning point, an adequate number of questions will have to be
given to provide decisive evidences.
All the forms of questions can be employed for testing different learning
points. As we want to collect evidence on all the points, it is desirable to
use either short answer or objective type questions. Supply type of
questions seem, however, to have an edge over selection type because
they reveal the process of thinking in addition to the product of thinking.
Such questions will help the students who wants to respond in a manner
different from what is provided for in the responses. It appears,
therefore, that for diagnostic test, short answer involving one or two
steps be preferred especially in subjects like Mathematics. Whatever be
the form of questions, they should in general be easy ones.

No rigid time limit need be specified in the case of diagnostic tests.

Diagnosis should be individualized as much as possible and every
student should be allowed as much time as he reasonably needs.

It may be noted that as we do not have to relate content and process,

the preparation of a blueprint may altogether be avoided in a diagnostic
test. The items are designed so as to throw light on the weaknesses of
the students and therefore the questions have to be specifically related
to the learning points. The scope of the answer or the level of precision
expected should also be made clear.

After the items on different learning points are written, they have to be
assembled into a test. The basis of arranging test items in a diagnostic
test is entirely different from other tests. There appears to be good deal
of justification in favour of clubbing questions around learning points
even when they are of different forms. The learning points themselves
can be arranged in increasing order of their complexity. If they are so
arranged , the students do not have to change their mental sets very
frequently. Moreover, this arrangements also helps in analyzing the
responses of students with a view to identify their weaknesses, which is
one of the important tasks in diagnostic testing.

216
To complete the test, a set of instruction may be drafted. It should also
be provided with a scoring key and marking scheme. Finally the test is
edited and reviewed to weed out inaccuracies or lapses of wording etc.

The step in the construction of a diagnostic test can be summarized as

follows.
 Identification of the problem areas.

 Detailed content analysis.

 Listing all the learning points.

 Arranging the learning points in the logical sequence.
 Writing test items (preferably two or three items of free response
type) for each learning point.
 Clubbing the items around the learning points.
 Providing clear instructions.
 Preparing a scoring key and a marking scheme.
 Providing the time limit as required by individual students.

 Administration of the test.

After administering the test, the following procedure may be followed for
analysis the performance and identifying the weaknesses.

 Item-wise analysis of the performance of each student.

 Qualitative and quantitative analysis for identifying the strengths
and weaknesses.
 Identification if the causes for learning difficulties.

 Preparation of a diagnostic chart for each student.

 Planning and implementing highly individualized remedial
programmes.

 Evaluating the effectiveness of the programme.

Uses of Diagnostic Tests

The following are the uses of diagnostic tests.

The diagnostic tests

 point out inadequacies in specific skills

 locate areas in which individual instruction is required

217
 furnish continuous information in order that learning activities may
be most productive of desirable outcomes.
 serve as a basis for improving instructional methods, instructional
materials and learning procedures.

UNIT 25 ERROR ANALYSIS, IDENTIFICATION OF HARD

SPOTS AND REMEDIAL MEASURES

25.1 Error Analysis

In mathematics, error analysis is the study of kind and quantity of error,
or uncertainty, that may be present in the solution to a problem. This
issue is particularly prominent in applied areas such as numerical
analysis and statistics.
Error analysis in numerical modeling

In numerical simulation or modeling of real systems, error analysis is

concerned with the changes in the output of the model as the
parameters to the model vary about a mean.

For instance, in a system modeled as a function of two variables z = f(x,

y). Error analysis deals with the propagation of the numerical errors in
x and y (around mean values x and ȳ) to error in z (around a mean z ).
In numerical analysis, error analysis comprises both forward error
analysis and backward error analysis.
 Forward error analysis

Forward error analysis involves the analysis of a function z’ = ƒ’(

a0,a1,….an) which is an approximation (usually a finite polynomial) to a
function z’=ƒ’(a0,a1,….an) to determine the bounds on the error in the
approximation; i.e., to find є such that 0 ≤│z-z’│≤ є.
 Backward error analysis
Backward error analysis involves the analysis of the approximation
function z’ = ƒ’( a0,a1,….an), to determine the bounds on the
parameters ai = āi ± єi such that the result z’ = z
Backward error analysis, the theory of which was developed and
popularized by James H. Wilkinson, can be used to establish that an
algorithm implementing a numerical function is numerically stable. [3] The
basic approach is to show that although the calculated result, due to
roundoff errors, will not be exactly correct, it is the exact solution to a
nearby problem with slightly perturbed input data. If the perturbation

218
required is small, on the order of the uncertainty in the input data, then
the results are in some sense as accurate as the data "deserves". The
algorithm is then defined as backward stable. Stability is a measure of
the sensitivity to rounding errors of a given numerical procedure; by
contrast, the condition number of a function for a given problem
indicates the inherent sensitivity of the function to small perturbations in
its input and is independent of the implementation used to solve the
problem.

25.2 Identification of Hard Spots and Remedial Measures

Your main role as a teacher is to promote quality learning among the

students. This is possible only when you act as a guide and the students
actively participate in the process of learning. During the teaching-
learning process, you have to locate and identify the areas where the
learner commits mistakes. It is the crucial stage of the teaching-learning
process where you have to DIAGNOSE and prepare instructional
material for REMEDIAL TEACHING to ensure the desired quality of
learning. At this stage the role of a teacher is just like a doctor’s. The
doctor takes all the steps necessary to diagnose the disease by
performing different tests and then prescribes medicines for the
particular disease. In the case of education the process of Diagnostic
Testing is the STEP and REMEDIAL TEACHING is the
PRESCRIPTION. Hence diagnostic testing and remedial teaching are
very essential for ensuring effective learning and in improving the quality
of education. In this session an attempt is being made to discuss the
organization of Diagnosic Tests in Mathematics and undertaking
appropriate remedial measures

In general, after completing a particular unit/topic you conduct a test to

assess the achievements of learners. After evaluation you draw some
conclusions and you find that some of the students have fared very well
and a particular group of students have achieved below your
expectations. Now you will have to find out the causes for this low
achievement or slow learning. There would be certain reasons for this
low achievement. Now it is very essential to find out the particular area
where the difficulty lies or the particular concept where the learner
commits errors. To locate and identify the areas of learning difficulties
leads to Diagnostic Testing.
After identifying the areas where the error lies, you have to find out the
reasons due to which the particular child/group of students have not
responded well. At this stage you have to play the role of a doctor. If a

219
patient visits the doctor’s clinic he suggests different tests relevant to the
symptoms observed by him. After getting reports he is in a position to
identify and diagnose the disease and then prescribe the medicine for it.

Likewise, as a teacher, you have to first identify and locate the area
where the error lies. The process adopted for this purpose in educational
situations is known as Diagnostic Testing. We may say that Diagnostic
Testing implies a detailed study of learning difficulties.

In diagnostic testing the following points must be kept in mind:

i) Who are the pupils who need help?
ii) Where are the errors located?

iii) Why did the error occur?

While performing a Diagnostic Test you have the specific aim to analyze
the exact nature of the progress made by the learner in a particular
topic/unit and to know the particular area of weakness/error which
requires a series of carefully graded tests. The main aim of Diagnostic
Testing is to analyze not to assess.
If we consider arithmetical attainments from both a qualitative and
quantitative standpoints, we can distinguish four main points (i) accuracy
(ii) speed of writing (iii) methods of work and (iv) extent of the arithmetic
process mastered.
It is obvious that you will try to find the feedback through the medium of
class work or through weekly or monthly tests which indicate pupils’
ability in each of the four aforesaid directions. But it is not enough for
teaching purposes particularly with those pupils/learners who are slow
learners. With this group of learners you are required to have a more
analytical estimate of their achievements.
The essential steps in educational diagnosis are:

i) Identifying the students who are having trouble or need help

ii) Locating the errors or learning difficulties

iii) Discovering the causal factors of slow learning.
i) Identifying the students who are having trouble or need help

First, one must know the learners who require help. For this you can
administer a general achievement test based on the topics already
taught. After evaluation you will be in a position to make lists of students
who are below average, average or above average. Next, one has to

220
locate the area where the error occurs in order to have a deeper insight
into the pupils’ difficulties.
ii) Locating the errors or learning difficulties

After identifying the students who need help and visualising the
necessity of additional instructional material to improve the quality of
learning, your main role is to find out the area where the learner commits
mistakes or which is the area where learning difficulties lie.
In some cases of learning difficulties, the causal factors are relatively
simple. A student may be inattentive during teaching-learning or may be
committing errors due to insufficient practice or irregular attendance.
Sometimes the cause is ill-health or faulty work habits etc. It has also
been observed sometimes that the basic cause of low achievement is a
feeling of helplessness or the complexity of the subject-matter which
perhaps is much above the level of their comprehension.
While diagnosis is the process of investigating the learners’ difficulties
and the reasons for this, its follow up leads to actions that may help
children make up their deficiencies. This step is generally termed
Remedial Teaching. So you have to be skilled in preparing or arranging
for such materials which may be used to undertake corrective instruction
and thus enhancing the quality of learning.
The following points should be kept in mind while selecting appropriate
instructional material:
i) The corrective material should be designed to correct the students’
individual difficulties.
ii) You have to analyze the work of slow learners by means of
observation, interview and Diagnostic Testing. A careful consideration of
the three may help decide what kind of corrective material is to be
designed and whether material will be adequate to correct the specific
difficulties of learners.
iii) The corrective material should be graded, self-directive and should
permit students to work independently. Written directions, which
accompany the material, should be easily readable and comprehensible
by the students.

iv) The corrective material must permit individuals to progress according

to their pace.
v) The material should encourage systematic recording of evidence of
pupils’ progress.

221
The diagnosis made on the basis of a graded test provides a definite
direction to remedial teaching. The teaching-learning strategy should of
course, put emphasis on exercises in the relevant area of difficulty until
mastery is achieved. Further testing would be desirable to examine the
impact of remedial teaching.

UNIT 26 EVALUATION PROCEDURE FOR STUDENTS WITH

DISABILITIES

Evaluation is an essential beginning step in the special education

process for a child with a disability. Before a child can receive special
education and related services for the first time, a full and individual
initial evaluation of the child must be conducted to see if the child has a
disability and is eligible for special education. Informed parent consent
must be obtained before this evaluation may be conducted.

The initial evaluation of a child is required before any special education

and related services can be provided to that child. The purposes of
conducting this evaluation are straightforward:

 To see if the child is a “child with a disability,”

 To gather information that will help determine the child’s
educational needs.

 To guide decision making about appropriate educational

programming for the child.
In India, the Government has listed different disability categories under
which a child may be found eligible for special education and related
services. These categories are:
 Autism
 Deafness

 Deaf-blindness
 Developmental delay

 Emotional disturbance
 Hearing impairment
 Intellectual disability

 Multiple disabilities

 Orthopedic impairment
 Other health impairment

 Specific learning disability

222
 Speech or language impairment

 Traumatic brain injury

 Visual impairment, including blindness.
Identifying Children for Evaluation

Before a child’s eligibility , a full and individual evaluation of the child

must be conducted. There are at least two ways in which a child may be
identified to receive an evaluation:
(1) Parents may request that their child be evaluated. Parents are
often the first to notice that their child’s learning, behavior, or
development may be a cause for concern. If they’re worried about their
child’s progress in school and think he or she might need extra help from
special education services, they may call, email, or write to their child’s
teacher, the school’s principal, or the Director of Special Education in the
school district. If the school agrees that an evaluation is needed, it must
evaluate the child at no cost to parents.
(2) The school system may ask to evaluate the child. Based on a
teacher’s recommendation, observations, or results from tests given to
all children in a particular grade, a school may recommend that a child
receive further screening or assessment to determine if he or she has a
disability and needs special education and related services. The school
system must ask parents for permission to evaluate the child, and
parents must give their informed written permission before the
evaluation may be conducted.
Giving Parents Notice

It is important to know that the school system requires to notify parents

in writing that it would like to evaluate their child (or that it is refusing to
evaluate the child). This is called giving prior written notice. explain
why it wants to conduct the evaluation (or why it refuses);
 describe each evaluation procedure, assessment, record, or report
used as a basis for proposing the evaluation (or refusing to
conduct the evaluation);

 where parents can go to obtain help in understanding provisions;

 what other options the school considered and why those were
rejected; and
 a description of any other factors that are relevant to the school’s
proposal (or refusal) to evaluate the child.

223
The purpose behind this thorough explanation is to make sure that
parents are fully informed, understand what is being proposed (or
refused), understand what evaluation of their child will involve (or why
the school system is refusing to conduct an evaluation of the child), and
understand their right to refuse consent for evaluation, or to otherwise
exercise their rights under procedural safeguards if the school refuses
to evaluate.
All written communication from the school must be in a form the
general public can understand. It must be provided in parents’ native
language if they do not read English, or in the mode of communication
they normally use (such as Braille or large print) unless it is clearly not
feasible to do so. If parents’ native language or other mode of
communication is not a written language, the school must take steps to
ensure:
 that the notice is translated orally (or by other means) to parents in
their native language or other mode of communication,
 that parents understand the content of the notice, and
 that there is written evidence that the above two requirements
have been met.
Parental Consent
Before the school may proceed with the evaluation, parents must
give their informed written consent. This consent is for the evaluation
only. It does not mean that the school has the parents’ permission to
provide special education services to the child. That requires
a separate consent.

If parents refuse consent for an initial evaluation (or simply don’t respond
to the school’s request), the school must carefully document all its
attempts to obtain parent consent. It may also continue to pursue
conducting the evaluation by using the law’s due process procedures or
its mediation procedures, unless doing so would be inconsistent with
state law relating to parental consent.
However, if the child is home-schooled or has been placed in a private
school by parents (meaning, the parents are paying for the cost of the
private school), the school may not override parents’ lack of consent for
initial evaluation of the child.
Timeframe for Initial Evaluation : Let’s move on from the
prerequisites for initial evaluation (parent notification and parent
consent) to the actual process of initial evaluation and what the law

224
requires. Let us assume that parents’ informed consent has been given,
and it’s time to evaluate the child. Must this evaluation be conducted
within a certain period of time after parents give their consent?

Yes. : The initial evaluation must be conducted within 60 days of

receiving parental consent for the evaluation–or if the state establishes
its own timeframe for conducting an initial evaluation,
within that timeframe. (In other words: Any timeframe established by the
state takes precedence over the 60-day timeline )
The Scope of Evaluation : A child’s initial evaluation must be full and
individual, focused on that child and only that child. An evaluation of a
child means much more than the child sitting in a room with the rest of
his or her class taking an exam for that class, that school, that district, or
that state. How the child performs on such exams will contribute useful
information to an evaluation, but large-scale tests or group-administered
instruments are not enough to diagnose a disability or determine what, if
any, special education or related services the child might need, let alone
plan an appropriate educational program for the child.
The evaluation must use a variety of assessment tools and strategies to
gather relevant functional, developmental, and academic information
about the child, including information provided by the parent. When
conducting an initial evaluation, it’s important to examine all areas of a
child’s functioning to determine not only if the child is a child with a
disability, but also determine the child’s educational needs. This full and
individual evaluation includes evaluating the child’s:

 health,

 vision and hearing,

 social and emotional status,

 general intelligence,

 academic performance,
 communicative status, and

 motor abilities
The school system must ensure that the evaluation is sufficiently
comprehensive to identify all of the child’s special education and related
services needs, whether or not commonly linked to the disability
category in which the child has been classified.
Review Existing Data

225
Evaluation (and particularly reevaluation) typically begins with a review
of existing evaluation data on the child, which may come from the
child’s classroom work, his or her performance on State or district
assessments, information provided by the parents, and so on.
The purpose of this review is to decide if the existing data is sufficient to
establish the child’s eligibility and determine educational needs, or if
additional information is needed. If the group determines there is
sufficient information available to make the necessary determinations,
the public agency must notify parents:
 of that determination and the reason for it; and
 that parents have the right to request assessment to determine the
child’s eligibility and educational needs.

Unless the parents request an assessment, the public agency is not

required to conduct one.
If it is decided that additional data is needed, the group then identifies
what is needed to determine:
 whether he or she has a particular category of disability (e.g.,
“other health impairment,” “specific learning disability”);

 the child’s present levels of performance (that is, how he or she is

currently doing in school) and his or her academic and
developmental needs;

 whether the child needs special education and related services;

and
 if so, whether any additions or modifications are needed in the
special education and related services to enable the child to meet
the goals set out in the IEP to be developed and to participate,
as appropriate, in the general curriculum.

An example may help crystallize the comprehensive scope of

evaluations: Consider a first-grader with suspected hearing and vision
impairments who’s been referred for an initial evaluation. In order
to fully gather relevant functional, developmental, and academic
information and identify all of the child’s special education and related
services needs, evaluation of this child will obviously need to focus on
hearing and vision, as well as, cognitive, speech/language, motor, and
social/behavioral skills, to determine:
 the degree of impairment in vision and hearing and the impact of
these impairments on the child;

226
 if there are additional impairments in other areas of functioning
(including those not commonly linked to hearing and/or vision) that
impact the child’s aptitude, performance, and achievement; and

 what the child’s educational needs are that must be addressed.

With this example, any of the following individuals might be part of this
child’s evaluation team: audiologist, psychologist, speech-language
pathologist, social worker, occupational or physical therapist, vision
specialist, regular classroom teacher, educational diagnosticians, or
others.
The evaluation must use a variety of assessment tools and
strategies. It is inappropriate and unacceptable to base any eligibility
decision upon the results of only one procedure. Tests alone will not give
a comprehensive picture of how a child performs or what he or she
knows or does not know. Only by collecting data through a variety of
approaches (e.g., observations, interviews, tests, curriculum-based
assessment, and so on) and from a variety of sources (parents,
teachers, specialists, child) can an adequate picture be obtained of the
child’s strengths and weaknesses.

It also requires the schools to use technically sound instruments and

processes in evaluation. Technically sound instruments generally refers
to assessments that have been shown through research to be valid and
reliable. Technically sound processes requires that assessments and
other evaluation materials be:
 administered by trained and knowledgeable personnel;
 administered in accordance with any instructions provided by the
producer of the assessments; and
 used for the purposes for which the assessments or measures are
valid and reliable.
In conjunction with using a variety of sound tools and processes,
assessments must include those that are tailored to assess specific
areas of educational need (for example, reading or math) and not merely
those that are designed to provide a single general intelligence quotient,
or IQ.

Taken together, all of this information can be used to determine whether

the child has a disability, the specific nature of the child’s special needs,
whether the child needs special education and related services and, if
so, to design an appropriate program.

227
LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we learnt the meaning and importance of evaluation,

different type of tests. The need of tests and different type of
achievement test was dealt in detail. The preparation of teacher-made
test, preparation of blue print was explained in detail, with the help of
blue print. The preparation of diagnostic test, error analysis, identification
of hard spots and remedial measures and evaluation procedure for
students with disabilities were discussed in detail.

GLOSSARY

 Achievement – something that you have done successfully,

especially through hard work or skill.

 Assessment – the process of considering all the information about

a situation or a person and making a judgement.
 Diagnostic Assessment – a form of pre-assessment where
teachers can evaluate students' strengths, weaknesses,
knowledge and skills before their instruction.
 Examination – is a test to show the knowledge and ability of a
student.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Evaluation is a process that allows one to make a judgement

about the value of a measure.

2. Steps in evaluation:
1. Define the objectives to be tested

2. State objectives
3. Selection of evaluation tools
4. Efficacy of tools

5. Administer of tools

6. Interpretation of data
7. Application of results

3. Definition of achievement test: ”The type of ability test that

describes what a person has learned to do “.Thorndike and
Hagen

228
4. Two types of achievement tests:

1. Teacher-made achievement tests

2. Standardised achievement tests

5. Advantages of objective type tests: sampling, reliability and

objectivity of scoring, ease of scoring, objective-based items, and
diagnostic value.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Anice James (2005).Teaching of Mathematics . Hyderabad: Neelkamal

publications.
Bill Handley (2012). Speed Mathematics; Wiley-Blackwell; 3rd Edition
Mangal.S.K.(2007). Teaching of Mathematics. Tandon Publications,
Ludhiana
Marilyn Burns (2007). About Teaching Mathematics: A K-8 Resource,
Math Solutions; 3rd edition
NCERT (2015). Mathematics Text Book for class for class 6 to 10;
NCERT Publication, New Delhi
Rajesh Kumar Thakur (2009). Vedic Mathematics; Unicorn Books
Raju B.S.P & Upadhyaya.B.S. et,al (2011). Pedagogy of Mathematics
two year B.Ed Course, NCERT; First Edition
Steven G. Krantz (1999). How to Teach Mathematics; American
Mathematical Society; 2nd edition
Steven G. Krantz (2003). A Mathematician's Survival Guide: Graduate
School and Early Career Development; American Mathematical Society
Mathematics School Text book of Government of Tamilnadu.

www.eltguide.wordpress.com

Web Resources
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaluation

https://www.gre.ac.uk/learning-
teaching/assessment/assessment/design/formative-vs-summative

http://teacher.pas.rochester.edu/PHY_LABS/AppendixB/AppendixB.htm
l

229
 *****

230