SUBJECT LIFE SCIENCES NOTES

GRADE 12

YEAR 2018-2023

COMBINED BY BAG OF HOPE ACADEMY

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HUMAN
Response To Environment

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 Introduction
 Human nervous system
 Central Nervous System:
 Peripheral Nervous System
 Autonomic Nervous System
 Structure and functioning of a nerve
 Reflex arc
 Disorders of the CNS
 Human eye
 Receptors
 Human Ear
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 The nervous system (involving nerves/wires)

and endocrine system (involving
hormones/chemicals) are two components that
help us respond to the environment

ThunderEDUC

endocrine
nervous
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system By M.SAIDI
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 Receptor: structure that receives a

stimulus and converts it into an impulse
 Effectors: gland or organ that brings
about a response to stimuli received by
the body
 Stimulus: detectable change in the
internal or external environment
 Impulse: electrical signal created by
receptor organs in response to stimuli.

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 The need for a nervous system in

humans
 1.Reaction to stimuli (stimuli
can be external and internal)

 2.Co-ordination of the various

activities of the body

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ThunderEDUC
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 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:
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 The central nervous system is made up

of the brain and spinal cord.

➢The brain and spinal cord

are protected by:
➢Cranium
➢ Meninges (Three membranes)
➢cerebrospinal fluid
➢Vertebrae (spinal cord only)
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10 ThunderEDUC
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by Abutimalesela
➢Controls Connects the left
actions and right
➢Receives and hemispheres of
interprets sensations the brain –
from sense organs allowing
➢Higher thought communication
processes between both
hemispheres

Control centre
for hunger,
thirst, sleep,
body
temperature
and emotions

➢Transmits nerve ➢Coordinates all

impulses between voluntary movements
the spinal cord and ➢Controls muscle
the brain tension to maintain
➢Controls balance
involuntary actions
such as heartbeat
11and breathing
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1.5 The diagram

below shows some
parts of the human
central nervous
system.

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 SPINAL CORD
➢is a long, thin, tubular structure which extends from
the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar
region of the vertebral column.
➢It encloses the central canal, which contains
cerebrospinal fluid

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 consists of all the nerves

found outside of the
central nervous system.
 consists of 12 pairs of
cranial nerves which are
connected to the brain
and 31 pairs of spinal
nerves which are
connected to the spinal
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cord.
ThunderEDUC
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 1.Somatic nervous system

 which controls voluntary muscles
 2.Autonomic nervous system
 which controls involuntary muscles
 PNS- has the following functions
 transmits impulses from the receptors
to the central nervous system via the
sensory neurons
 transmits impulses from the central
nervous system to the effectors via the
motor neurons
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➢1. the sympathetic nervous system
is responsible for the fight or flight
function in
emergency situations
➢2. the parasympathetic nervous system
restores the body to a normal state after
an emergency situation
NOTE:
1.The two systems work antagonistically
to each other. (opposite ways)
1. sympathetic nervous system works
together with Adrenalin
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Sympathetic system Parasympathetic system

increases heart rate decreases heart rate
constricts blood vessels in dilates blood vessels in
the skin skin
(vasoconstriction) (vasodilatation)
increases blood pressure decreases blood pressure
causes relaxation of the causes contraction of the
bladder wall bladder wall
dilates pupils constricts pupils

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 Neurons are specialised cells which connect the

brain and spinal cord to all other parts of the
body.
 Neurons are the structural /functional units of
the nervous system.
 STRUCTURE OF A NEURON
 dendrites – transmitting impulses towards the
cell body.
 cell body (with nucleus) – controlling the
metabolism/ activities of the cell.
 axon – transmitting impulses away from the cell
body.
 myelin sheath – insulating the axon and speeding
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Nucleus: controls all the cell’s functions

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➢1.Sensory neurons(afferent)
➢ transmit impulses from receptors to the
central nervous system.
➢2. An interneuron/relay/conector.
➢connects a sensory neuron to a motor
neuron in the central nervous system
➢Motor neurons (efferent)
➢ transmit impulses from the central
nervous system to the effectors (muscles
and glands) in the body.
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 The reflex arc: is the pathway along which an

impulse is transmitted to bring about a response to
a stimulus during a reflex action.
 The reflex action: is a rapid automatic response to a
stimulus.
Structure of a reflex arc

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the
impulse from receives a
the receptor to stimulus and
the spinal cord converts it into
an impulse

A structure
which
produces the
reaction

Carries the
Carries the impulse from
impulse from the spinal cord
sensory neuron to the effectors
to the motor
neuron
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FUNCTIONING OF A SIMPLE REFLEX ACTION
➢The stimulus (pain) is
detected by receptors
(skin) and converted
into a nerve impulse.
➢Its then transmitted
along the sensory
neuron through the
dorsal root in white
matter to the spinal
cord.
➢Where its transmitted from the sensory neuron to an
interneuron through a synaptic connections.
➢The impulse is transmitted from the interneuron to a
motor neuron trough another synaptic connections in
grey matter
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 The impulse exits
the spinal cord
through the ventral
root
 and is transmitted
along the axon of
the motor neuron
to the
effectors(muscle)
 this causes the
muscles in the body
to contract.
➢The body responds to stimulus quickly away
from stimulus(pain).
Path: receptor-sensory neuron -connector neuron - motor neuron – effectors.
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 It allows the body to respond very

quickly, to protect itself against
possible injury
Others examples of reflex actions
pricking finger, knee jerk reaction,
removing hand from a candle
flame/hot stove plate, blinking of the
eye etc

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 Synapse can
be defined as
functional junction
between parts of
two different
neurons i.e. Axon-
dendrite
 The connection is
done by
neurotransmitters,
chemicals that
move across the
gap between axon
and dendrite
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1. It ensures that the impulse moves in one

direction only i.e. impulse is transmitted
from the sensory neuron to the motor
neuron
2. It prevents continuous stimulation of the
neurons

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ANSWERS

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 Class work to
be marked
by teacher

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 1.Alzheimer’s disease:
 the frontal and temporal lobes of the
cerebral cortex are affected so the
conscious part of the brain that
produces memory is slowly destroyed.
 Symptoms:
 memory loss
 confusion
 Genetic CAUSE
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 2.Multiple sclerosis
 degenerative disease resulting when the
myelin sheath surrounding the neuron axons
in the white matter of the brain and spinal
cord are attacked and damaged by the
body’s own immune system.
 Symptoms:
 loss of speech and vision
 difficulty walking
 pain
 fatigue
 memory loss
 caused by genetics, environment and
infectious diseases.
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Sense organs contain a high concentration of

receptor cells which are able to detect
stimuli to bring about a response.
➢Sensory receptors occur in specialized organs
such as the eyes, ears, nose, and mouth.
➢Receptors detect the changes in
the environment (stimulus)
➢Effectors i.e. the muscles or glands that
produce a response to the stimulus.
➢Neurons: these will help to connect the
receptors to effects
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 The body responds to a variety of

different stimuli such as light, sound,

touch, temperature, pressure, pain and

chemicals (taste and smell).

 The eye-light

 Ear – sound

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Yellow
spot

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 Changes
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Controls for near and protects the
the size of distant (far) eye against
allows Reduces
pupil vision damage
light reflection
into the
eye
Where
image is
formed
refraction
of light
rays from Forms
the object clearest
image

Carries
nerve
supports the impulses
cornea and the from the
front chamber of no vision retina to
the eye the brain
Holds the
gives shape lens in
36 to the eye position
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 Is a vision using two eyes with

overlapping fields of view, allowing
good perception of depth.
➢Binocular vision is important
in developing good depth
perception, which in turn affects
coordination and hand to eye skills.
Eg catching a baseball, making
sense of classroom instructions on
a blackboard or screen, and
performing simple tasks such as
walking or running.
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ACCOMMODATION
is the process of changing the shape of
the lens to focus on near or distant objects.
Near vision
(less than 6 m from the object)
 Ciliary muscles contract
 Suspensory ligaments slacken
 tension on the lens decreases
 lens becomes more convex
 Light rays are refracted (bent)
more
 a clear image is focused on the
retina
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 Ciliary muscles relax

 Suspensory ligaments tighten
(become taut)
 tension on the lens increases
 lens becomes less convex
 Light rays are refracted (bent)
less
 a clear image is focused on the
retina

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the process by which the diameter of the pupil is

altered to control the amount of light entering the
eye.
BRIGHT LIGHT CONDITIONS
➢Radial muscles of the iris Relax
➢Circular muscles of the iris Contract
➢Pupil constricts (gets smaller)
➢ Less light enters the eye
➢Radial -Relax ➢R-R
➢Circular -Contract ➢C-C

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 DIM CONDITIONS
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➢Radial muscles of the iris Contract

➢Circular muscles of the iris Relax
➢Pupil dilates (gets bigger)
➢More light enters the eye
➢Radial - Contract ➢R-C
➢Circular - Relax ➢C-R

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 EYE DEFECTS
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 1.Short-sightedness
 the ability to see nearby objects but cannot see
distant objects clearly.
 The defects may be caused by:
 an eyeball that is too long
 the cornea being too curved for the length of the
eyeball
 the inability of the lens to become less convex

42 Treatment : wear glasses with concave lenses

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 2.Long-sightedness
 the ability to see distant
objects but cannot see
nearby objects clearly.
 The defects may be caused
by:
 an eyeball that is too short
(rounded)
 the cornea being less
curved for the length of the
eyeball
 the inability of the lens to
become more convex
43 Treatment : wear glasses with convex lenses
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Is when the cornea or lens is not equally rounded in all

directions. light is not focused evenly on the retina.
This leading to: Treatment
1.blurred vision •glasses with
2.headaches prescription lenses
3.squinting of the eyes •contact lenses
• laser therapy

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➢occur when the clear transparent lens becomes

cloudy and opaque resulting in blurred vision

Treatment:
Surgery to replace the lens with a synthetic lens

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QUESTION

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Memo

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Tympanum Ossicles (MIS) Semi circularcanals

Auditory
nerve

Cochlea:

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 Tympanum:
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Transmits amplified canals: Auditory
sound waves to vibration Balance of the nerve:
the middle ear body Transmits
Auditory canal:
Transmits Hammer Anvil Stirrup impulses to
sound wave
Malleus.Incus.Stapes. the brain

Pinna:
Directs 0ssicles
sound
waves to
tympanic
membrane

Cochlea:
Oval window: Round Eustachian tube: Contains the
Transmits window: Equalises organ of Corti
sound waves to Releases pressure on which converts
the inner ear pressure from either side of sound waves into
the inner ear the tympanum nerve impulses
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 Pinna Traps the sound waves and directs them

into the auditory canal.
 Tympanic membrane Vibrates and transmits the
vibrations to the ossicles in the middle ear.
 Ossicles The ossicles amplify the vibrations and
carry them via the middle ear to the membrane
of the oval window.
 Oval window Vibrates and causes pressure waves
in the inner ear.
 Cochlea vibrations cause the sensory cells in the
organ of Corti to be stimulated in the cochlea
and nerve impulses are generated.
 Auditory nerve Transmits nerve impulses to the
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cerebrum to be interpreted.
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Demonstration of Hearing process

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➢2.4.1 Give the
LETTER and NAME of
the part that:
➢ (a) Transmits
impulses to the brain
➢ (b) Allows pressure
to equalise between
the outer ear and the
middle ear

➢2.4.2 Give only the LETTER of TWO structures in the

diagram of the ear that, when damaged, would result in
the following:
➢ a) Conductive hearing loss
➢ b) Sensorineural hearing loss
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ANSWERS

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Stimuli: speed and direction position of the head

Receptor: cristae maculae

Location : ampulla of semicircular sacculus and utriculus

canal

stimuli to impulse

along the auditory nerve

to cerebellum for interpretation
to restore balance
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 The cristae in the semicircular canals are

stimulated by changes in the direction and
speed of movement
 The maculae in the sacculus and utriculus
are stimulated by changes in the position of
the head When stimulated,
 the cristae and maculae convert the stimuli
received into nerve impulses.
 Which are transported along the auditory
nerve to the cerebellum to be interpreted.
 The cerebellum then sends impulses to the
muscles to restore balance.
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 Also describe the role of the maculae in

maintaining balance when a person tilts his/her
head to one side without falling over.

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 1.Middle ear infection

 Excess fluid in the middle ear caused by
pathogen infection (bacteria)
 Treatment
 Inserting grommets
 Antibiotics

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 2.Deafness
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 refers to a total or partial hearing loss.

 It is caused by:
 injury to parts of the ear, nerves or parts of the
brain responsible for hearing
 hardening of ear tissues such as the ossicles
 Treatment:
 hearing aids
 cochlear implants

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