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TH I R D ED ITI O N

Microbiology
An Evolving Science

Joan L. Slonczewski
Kenyon College

John W. Foster
University of South Alabama

Appendices 1 and 2 by
Kathy M. Gillen
Kenyon College

W. W. NORTON & COMPANY

NEW YORK LONDON
W. W. Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder
Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the
adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union. The firm soon expanded its program
beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America and abroad. By mid-
century, the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing program—trade books and college texts—
were firmly established. In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred control of the company to its
employees, and today—with a staff of four hundred and a comparable number of trade, college, and
professional titles published each year—W. W. Norton & Company stands as the largest and oldest
publishing house owned wholly by its employees.

Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2009 by W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Third Edition

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123456789
 Dedication
We dedicate this Third Edition to the memory of Lynn Margulis
(1938–2011) and Carl Woese (1928–2012), who forever
changed our understanding of evolutionary biology. Margulis
hypothesized that modern-day eukaryotic cells evolved from
symbiotic relationships with bacteria; and Woese used the
evidence of gene sequences to propose the now accepted
paradigm of three, continually evolving, domains of life: Bacteria,
Archaea, and Eukarya. The world will long miss the deep intellect
and larger-than-life personalities of these two scientists. We, the
authors, were profoundly influenced by their thinking and deeply
moved by their passing.
BRIEF CONTENTS

eTopic Contents!xix PART 4

Preface!xxi
Microbial Diversity
About the Authors!xxxiii
and Ecology'662
PART 1 17 Origins and Evolution!665
18 Bacterial Diversity!711
The Microbial Cell'2 19 Archaeal Diversity!757
1 Microbial Life: Origin and Discovery!5
20 Eukaryotic Diversity!797
2 Observing the Microbial Cell!41
21 Microbial Ecology!839
3 Cell Structure and Function!79
22 Microbes in Global Elemental Cycles!889
4 Bacterial Culture, Growth, and
Development!119
5 Environmental Influences and Control PART 5
of Microbial Growth!157 Medicine and Immunology'922
6 Viruses!191
23 Human Microbiota and Innate Immunity!925
24 The Adaptive Immune Response!961
PART 2 25 Microbial Pathogenesis!1003
Genes and Genomes'234 26 Microbial Diseases!1051

7 Genomes and Chromosomes!237 27 Antimicrobial Therapy!1107

8 Transcription, Translation, 28 Clinical Microbiology and Epidemiology!1147

and Bioinformatics!275
9 Gene Transfer, Mutations, and Genome APPENDIX 1: Biological Molecules!A-1
Evolution!321 APPENDIX 2: Introductory Cell Biology:
10 Molecular Regulation!365 Eukaryotic Cells!A-23
11 Viral Molecular Biology!409 APPENDIX 3: Laboratory Methods for
Microbiology!A-43
12 Biotechniques and Synthetic Biology!457
APPENDIX 4: Taxonomy!A-59

PART 3 Answers to Thought Questions!AQ-1

Metabolism and Glossary!G-1

Biochemistry'488 Figure Credits!F-1

Index!I-1
13 Energetics and Catabolism!491
14 Electron Flow in Organotrophy, Lithotrophy,
and Phototrophy!539
15 Biosynthesis!585
16 Food and Industrial Microbiology!623

VI
 CONTENTS

eTopic Contents!xix
Preface!xxi
About the Authors!xxxiii

PART 1
The Microbial Cell 2
AN INTERVIEW WITH RICHARD LENSKI:
Evolution in the Lab

CHAPTER 1
Microbial Life: Origin and Discovery........................................................................ 5
1.1 From Germ to Genome: What Is a Microbe?!7
1.2 Microbes Shape Human History!10
Special Topic 1.1: How Did Life Originate?!18
1.3 Medical Microbiology!20
1.4 Microbial Ecology!26
1.5 The Microbial Family Tree!29
1.6 Cell Biology and the DNA Revolution!32

CHAPTER 2
Observing the Microbial Cell ....................................................................................41
2.1 Observing Microbes!42
2.2 Optics and Properties of Light!46
2.3 Bright-Field Microscopy!51
2.4 Fluorescence Microscopy!58
2.5 Dark-Field and Phase-Contrast Microscopy!63
2.6 Electron Microscopy and Tomography!66
2.7 Visualizing Molecules!73
Special Topic 2.1: Molecular “Snapshots”: Chemical Imaging!74

VII
VIII ! CONTENTS

CHAPTER 3
Cell Structure and Function .....................................................................................79
3.1 The Bacterial Cell: An Overview!81
3.2 The Cell Membrane and Transport!86
3.3 The Cell Wall and Outer Layers!91
3.4 The Nucleoid, RNA, and Protein Synthesis!101
3.5 Cell Division!104
3.6 Cell Polarity and Aging!107
Special Topic 3.1: Senior Cells Make Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis!108
3.7 Specialized Structures!112

CHAPTER 4
Bacterial Culture, Growth, and Development ................................................. 119
4.1 Microbial Nutrition!120
4.2 Nutrient Uptake!127
4.3 Culturing Bacteria!133
4.4 Counting Bacteria!136
4.5 The Growth Cycle!139
4.6 Biofilms!145
Special Topic 4.1: Sharks and Biofilms Don’t Mix!146
4.7 Cell Differentiation!150

CHAPTER 5
Environmental Influences and Control of Microbial Growth ..................... 157
5.1 Environmental Limits on Growth!158
5.2 Adaptation to Temperature!160
Special Topic 5.1: It’s Raining Bacteria!163
5.3 Adaptation to Pressure!164
5.4 Water Activity and Salt!166
5.5 Adaptation to pH!167
5.6 Oxygen and Other Electron Acceptors!172
5.7 Nutrient Deprivation and Starvation!176
5.8 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Control of Microbes!178

CHAPTER 6
Viruses ........................................................................................................................... 191
6.1 What Is a Virus?!192
6.2 Virus Structure!198
6.3 Viral Genomes and Classification!203
6.4 Bacteriophage Replication!208
6.5 Animal and Plant Virus Replication!213
 CONTENTS ! IX

6.6 Culturing Viruses!221

Special Topic 6.1: The Good Viruses!226
6.7 Viral Ecology!226

PART 2
Genes and Genomes 234

AN INTERVIEW WITH CHRISTINE JACOBS-WAGNER:

The Thrill of Discovery in Molecular Microbiology

CHAPTER 7
Genomes and Chromosomes ................................................................................ 237
7.1 DNA: The Genetic Material!238
7.2 Genome Organization!240
7.3 DNA Replication!248
7.4 Plasmids!258
7.5 Eukaryotic Chromosomes!260
7.6 DNA Sequence Analysis!263
Special Topic 7.1: Where Have All the Bees Gone? Metagenomics, Pyrosequencing, and Nature!268

CHAPTER 8
Transcription, Translation, and Bioinformatics .............................................. 275
8.1 RNA Polymerases and Sigma Factors!276
8.2 Transcription of DNA to RNA!280
8.3 Translation of RNA to Protein!286
Special Topic 8.1: Stalking the Lone Ribosome!298
8.4 Protein Modification and Folding!303
8.5 Protein Degradation: Cleaning House!304
8.6 Secretion: Protein Traffic Control!306
8.7 Bioinformatics: Mining the Genomes!312

CHAPTER 9
Gene Transfer, Mutations, and Genome Evolution ....................................... 321
9.1 The Mosaic Nature of Genomes!322
9.2 Gene Transfer!322
Special Topic 9.1: There’s a Bacterial Genome Hidden in My Fruit Fly!330
X ! CONTENTS

9.3 Recombination!338
9.4 Mutations!341
9.5 DNA Repair!348
9.6 Mobile Genetic Elements!355
9.7 Genome Evolution!358

CHAPTER 10
Molecular Regulation ............................................................................................... 365
10.1 Regulating Gene Expression!366
10.2 Paradigm of the Lactose Operon!369
10.3 Other Systems of Operon Control!376
10.4 Sigma Factor Regulation!382
10.5 Regulatory RNAs!385
10.6 DNA Rearrangements: Phase Variation by Shifty Pathogens!389
10.7 Integrated Control Circuits!391
10.8 Quorum Sensing: Chemical Conversations!397
10.9 Transcriptomics and Proteomics!401
Special Topic 10.1: Networking with Nanotubes!402

CHAPTER 11
Viral Molecular Biology ...........................................................................................409
11.1 Phage T4: The Classic Molecular Model!410
11.2 Hepatitis C: (+) Strand RNA Virus!417
11.3 Influenza Virus: (–) Strand RNA Virus!424
11.4 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV): Retrovirus!432
11.5 Herpes Simplex Virus: DNA Virus!443
Special Topic 11.1: Cytomegalovirus!448
11.6 Gene Therapy with Viruses!450

CHAPTER 12
Biotechniques and Synthetic Biology ................................................................ 457
12.1 Basic Tools of Biotech: A Research Case Study!458
12.2 Genetic Analyses!458
12.3 Classic Molecular Techniques!463
12.4 Viewing the Interactions and Movements of Proteins!471
12.5 Applied Biotechnology!474
12.6 Synthetic Biology: Biology by Design!477
Special Topic 12.1: Bacteria “Learn” to Keep Time and Signal Danger!478
 CONTENTS ! XI

PART 3
Metabolism and Biochemistry 488

AN INTERVIEW WITH DAN WOZNIAK:

Polymer Biosynthesis Makes a Pathogenic Biofilm

CHAPTER 13
Energetics and Catabolism .................................................................................... 491
13.1 Energy and Entropy for Life!494
13.2 Energy in Biochemical Reactions!498
13.3 Energy Carriers and Electron Transfer!501
Special Topic 13.1: Microbial Syntrophy Cleans Up Oil!502
13.4 Catabolism: The Microbial Buffet!510
13.5 Glucose Breakdown and Fermentation!516
13.6 The Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) Cycle!527
13.7 Aromatic Pollutants!532

CHAPTER 14
Electron Flow in Organotrophy, Lithotrophy, and Phototrophy .............. 539
14.1 Electron Transport Systems!541
14.2 The Proton Motive Force!546
Special Topic 14.1: Testing the Chemiosmotic Theory!548
14.3 The Respiratory ETS and ATP Synthase!551
14.4 Anaerobic Respiration in Organotrophs!559
Special Topic 14.2: Bacterial Electric Power!562
14.5 Lithotrophy and Methanogenesis!563
14.6 Phototrophy!571

CHAPTER 15
Biosynthesis ................................................................................................................585
15.1 Overview of Biosynthesis!586
15.2 CO2 Fixation: The Calvin Cycle!589
15.3 CO2 Fixation: Diverse Pathways!597
15.4 Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids and Polyketides!601
15.5 Nitrogen Fixation!605
Special Topic 15.1: Mining a Bacterial Genome for Peptide Antibiotics!606
15.6 Biosynthesis of Amino Acids and Nitrogenous Bases!612
15.7 Biosynthesis of Tetrapyrroles!618
XII ! CONTENTS

CHAPTER 16
Food and Industrial Microbiology ........................................................................623
16.1 Microbes as Food!625
16.2 Fermented Foods: An Overview!627
16.3 Acid- and Alkali-Fermented Foods!629
16.4 Ethanolic Fermentation: Bread and Wine!637
16.5 Food Spoilage and Preservation!641
16.6 Industrial Microbiology!650
Special Topic 16.1: Companies Take On Tuberculosis!652
Special Topic 16.2: Microbial Enzymes Make Money!654

PART 4
Microbial Diversity and Ecology 662

AN INTERVIEW WITH NICOLE DUBILIER:

Marine Animals with Bacterial Symbionts

CHAPTER 17
Origins and Evolution............................................................................................... 665
17.1 Origins of Life!667
17.2 Early Metabolism!676
17.3 Microbial Phylogeny and Gene Transfer!681
Special Topic 17.1: Phylogeny of a Shower Curtain Biofilm!686
17.4 Adaptive Evolution!692
17.5 Microbial Species and Taxonomy!696
Special Topic 17.2: Jump-Starting Evolution of a Hyperthermophilic Enzyme!698
17.6 Symbiosis and the Origin of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts!703

CHAPTER 18
Bacterial Diversity ..................................................................................................... 711
18.1 Bacterial Diversity at a Glance!712
18.2 Cyanobacteria: Oxygenic Phototrophs!718
18.3 Firmicutes and Actinobacteria (Gram-Positive)!723
18.4 Proteobacteria (Gram-Negative)!734
Special Topic 18.1: Carbon Monoxide: Food for Bacteria?!738
18.5 Deep-Branching Gram-Negative Phyla!748
18.6 Spirochetes: Sheathed Spiral Cells with Internalized Flagella!750
18.7 Chlamydiae, Planctomycetes, and Verrucomicrobia: Irregular Cells!752
 CONTENTS ! XIII

CHAPTER 19
Archaeal Diversity ..................................................................................................... 757
19.1 Archaeal Traits!758
19.2 Crenarchaeota across the Temperature Range!766
19.3 Thaumarchaeota: Symbionts and Ammonia Oxidizers!773
19.4 Methanogens!775
Special Topic 19.1: Eating Ammonia: Thaumarchaeotes!776
19.5 Haloarchaea!784
Special Topic 19.2: Haloarchaea in the Classroom!786
19.6 Thermophilic and Acidophilic Euryarchaeota!790
19.7 Deeply Branching Divisions!793

CHAPTER 20
Eukaryotic Diversity ................................................................................................. 797
20.1 Phylogeny of Eukaryotes!798
20.2 Fungi!806
Special Topic 20.1: Yeast: A Single-Celled Human Brain?!810
20.3 Algae!818
20.4 Amebas and Slime Molds!824
20.5 Alveolates: Ciliates, Dinoflagellates, and Apicomplexans!827
20.6 Trypanosomes and Metamonads!833
Special Topic 20.2: The Trypanosome: A Shape-Shifting Killer!834

CHAPTER 21
Microbial Ecology ...................................................................................................... 839
21.1 Metagenomes—and Beyond!841
21.2 Functional Ecology!849
21.3 Symbiosis!852
21.4 Marine and Aquatic Microbes!857
Special Topic 21.1: Cleaning Up the Deepwater Oil Spill!858
21.5 Soil and Subsurface Microbes!869
21.6 Plant Microbial Communities!876
21.7 Animal Microbial Communities!882

CHAPTER 22
Microbes in Global Elemental Cycles .................................................................889
22.1 Biogeochemical Cycles!890
22.2 The Carbon Cycle and Bioremediation!894
22.3 The Hydrologic Cycle and Wastewater Treatment!896
Special Topic 22.1: Bioremediation of Weapons Waste!902
22.4 The Nitrogen Cycle!903
22.5 Sulfur, Phosphorus, and Metals!908
22.6 Astrobiology!916
XIV ! CONTENTS

PART 5
Medicine and Immunology 922

AN INTERVIEW WITH FERRIC FANG:

Molecular Microbiology Dissects a Pathogen

CHAPTER 23
Human Microbiota and Innate Immunity........................................................... 925
23.1 Human Microbiota: Location and Shifting Composition!926
23.2 Risks and Benefits of Microbiota!934
23.3 Overview of the Immune System!935
Special Topic 23.1: Are NETs a Cause of Lupus?!940
23.4 Barbarians at the Gate: Innate Host Defenses!943
23.5 The Acute Inflammatory Response!946
23.6 How Phagocytes Detect and Kill Microbes!950
23.7 Interferon, Natural Killer Cells, and Toll-like Receptors!953
23.8 Complement’s Role in Innate Immunity!955
23.9 Fever!958

CHAPTER 24
The Adaptive Immune Response ......................................................................... 961
24.1 Overview of Adaptive Immunity!962
24.2 Immunogenicity!965
24.3 Antibody Structure and Diversity!968
24.4 Primary and Secondary Antibody Responses!974
24.5 Genetics of Antibody Production!977
24.6 T Cells Link Antibody and Cellular Immune Systems!982
24.7 Complement as Part of Adaptive Immunity!992
Special Topic 24.1: An Uneasy Peace: Détente at the Microbiota-Intestine Interface!994
24.8 Hypersensitivity and Autoimmunity!995

CHAPTER 25
Microbial Pathogenesis ........................................................................................ 1003
25.1 Host-Pathogen Interactions!1004
25.2 Virulence Factors and Pathogenicity Islands!1010
25.3 Microbial Attachment: First Contact!1013
25.4 Toxins Subvert Host Function!1018
 CONTENTS ! XV

25.5 Deploying Toxins and Effectors!1028

25.6 Surviving within the Host!1033
Special Topic 25.1: Type VI Secretion: Poison Darts!1034
25.7 Experimental Tools That Define Pathogenesis!1045

CHAPTER 26
Microbial Diseases ................................................................................................. 1051
26.1 Characterizing and Diagnosing Microbial Diseases!1052
26.2 Skin and Soft-Tissue Infections!1054
26.3 Respiratory Tract Infections!1058
26.4 Gastrointestinal Tract Infections!1066
Special Topic 26.1: Sprouts and an Emerging Escherichia coli!1068
26.5 Genitourinary Tract Infections!1075
26.6 Central Nervous System Infections!1083
26.7 Cardiovascular System Infections!1090
26.8 Systemic Infections!1094
26.9 Immunization!1102

CHAPTER 27
Antimicrobial Therapy .......................................................................................... 1107
27.1 The Golden Age of Antibiotic Discovery!1108
27.2 Fundamentals of Antimicrobial Therapy!1111
27.3 Measuring Drug Susceptibility!1112
27.4 Mechanisms of Action!1116
27.5 Challenges of Drug Resistance!1126
27.6 The Future of Drug Discovery!1134
27.7 Antiviral Agents!1135
Special Topic 27.1: Anti-Quorum Sensing Drug Blocks Pathogen “Control and Command”!1136
Special Topic 27.2: Resurrecting the 1918 Pandemic Flu Virus!1139
27.8 Antifungal Agents!1142

CHAPTER 28
Clinical Microbiology and Epidemiology .........................................................1147
28.1 Principles of Clinical Microbiology!1148
28.2 Specimen Collection and Processing!1149
28.3 Conventional Approaches to Pathogen Identification!1152
28.4 Rapid Techniques for Pathogen Identification!1160
28.5 Point-of-Care Rapid Diagnostics!1167
28.6 Biosafety Containment Procedures!1169
28.7 Principles of Epidemiology!1171
Special Topic 28.1: What’s Blowing in the Wind?!1178
28.8 Detecting Emerging Microbial Diseases!1179
XVI ! CONTENTS

APPENDIX 1
Biological Molecules .................................................................................................. A-1
A1.1 Elements, Bonding, and Water!A-2
A1.2 Organic Molecules!A-6
A1.3 Proteins!A-8
A1.4 Carbohydrates!A-11
A1.5 Nucleic Acids!A-13
A1.6 Lipids!A-15
A1.7 Biological Chemistry!A-16
Special Topic A1.1: Calculating the Standard Free Energy Change, ∆G°, of Chemical Reactions!A-19

APPENDIX 2
Introductory Cell Biology: Eukaryotic Cells ................................................... A-23
A2.1 The Cell Membrane!A-24
A2.2 The Nucleus and Mitosis!A-31
A2.3 Problems Faced by Large Cells!A-34
A2.4 The Endomembrane System!A-34
A2.5 The Cytoskeleton!A-38
A2.6 Mitochondria and Chloroplasts!A-40

APPENDIX 3
Laboratory Methods for Microbiology ............................................................A-43
A3.1 Isolating Parts of Cells by Using an Ultracentrifuge!A-44
A3.2 Agarose Gel Electrophoresis!A-45
A3.3 Protein Identification on 2D Gels with Mass Spectrometry!A-47
A3.4 RNA and DNA Identification by Northern and Southern Blots!A-49
A3.5 Sanger Method of DNA Sequencing!A-51
A3.6 Gene Fusions Identify Regulatory Mutants!A-52
A3.7 Primer Extension Identifies Transcriptional Start Sites!A-52
A3.8 DNA Microarray!A-54
A3.9 Multiplex PCR!A-55
A3.10 Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization (FISH) and CARD-FISH!A-55
A3.11 Immunoprecipitation Techniques!A-57

APPENDIX 4
Taxonomy ................................................................................................................... A-59
A4.1 Viruses!A-60
A4.2 Bacteria!A-62
A4.3 Archaea!A-66
A4.4 Eukarya!A-68

Answers to Thought Questions!AQ-1

Glossary!G-1
Figure Credits!F-1
Index!I-1
 eTOPIC CONTENTS
Access to the eTopics is available through both the ebook and the Norton Coursepack.

1.1 An Interview with Rita Colwell: The Global Impact 10.5 The Phage Lambda Lysis/Lysogeny “Decision”
of Microbiology Is to Kill or Not to Kill
1.2 Discovering the Genetic Code 11.1 Poliovirus: (+) Strand RNA
1.3 Clifford W. Houston: From Aquatic Pathogens 11.2 The Filamentous Phage M13: Vaccines
to Outer Space—An Interview and Nanowires
2.1 Confocal Microscopy 11.3 Genetic Resistance to HIV
3.1 Isolation and Analysis of the Ribosome 12.1 Mapping the E. coli Interactome
3.2 How Antibiotics Cross the Outer Membrane 12.2 GFP Proteins Track Cell Movements in Biofilms
3.3 Outer Membrane Proteins: Isolation for Vaccine 12.3 DNA Vaccines
3.4 Experiments That Reveal the Bacterial Cytoskeleton 12.4 Gene Therapy and Gene Delivery Systems
4.1 Transport by Group Translocation: 12.5 Directed Evolution through Phage Display
The Phosphotransferase System Technology
4.2 Eukaryotes Transport Nutrients by Endocytosis 12.6 DNA Shuffling Enables In Vitro Evolution
4.3 Biofilms, Antibiotics, Garlic, and Disease 12.7 Site-Directed Mutagenesis Helps Us Probe Protein
5.1 The Arrhenius Equation Function
5.2 Some Alkaliphilic Enzymes Produce Useful Drug 13.1 Observing Energy Carriers in Living Cells
Delivery Systems 13.2 Swiss Cheese: A Product of Bacterial Catabolism
5.3 Signaling Virulence 13.3 Genomic Analysis of Metabolism
5.4 Oligotrophs 13.4 Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Connects Sugar
6.1 How Did Viruses Originate? Catabolism to the TCA Cycle
6.2 West Nile Virus, an Emerging Pathogen 13.5 Genetic Analysis of Aromatic Catabolism
7.1 Genes and Proteins Involved in DNA Replication 14.1 Caroline Harwood: A Career in Bacterial
Photosynthesis and Biodegradation: An Interview
7.2 Trapping a Sliding Clamp
14.2 Measuring Dy and DpH in Microbes by the Uptake
7.3 Replication Mechanisms of Bacteriophages
of Molecules
7.4 Plasmid Partitioning and Addiction
14.3 Environmental Regulation of the ETS
7.5 Equilibrium Density Gradient Centrifugation
14.4 ATP Synthesis at High pH
8.1 Building the Ribosome Machine
15.1 The Discovery of 14C
8.2 Discovering the mRNA Ribosome-Binding Site
15.2 Metagenomic Screening for Polyketide Drugs
8.3 Ubiquitination: A Ticket to the Proteasome
15.3 Antibiotic Factories: Modular Biosynthesis
8.4 What Is the Minimal Genome? of Vancomycin
9.1 F Pili and Biofilm Formation 15.4 Riboswitch Regulation
9.2 Mapping Bacterial Chromosome Gene Position 16.1 From Barley and Hops to Beer
by Conjugation
16.2 Caterpillar Viruses Produce Commercial Products
9.3 Deinococcus Uses RecA to Repair Fragmented
17.1 The RNA World: Clues for Modern Medicine
Chromosomes
17.2 Horizontal Gene Transfer in E. coli O157:H7
9.4 Mutation Rate
17.3 Leaf-cutter Ants with Partner Fungi and Bacteria
9.5 The Transposase for a Bacterial Transposon
Resembles the Integrase for HIV-1 18.1 Karl Stetter: Adventures in Microbial Diversity Lead
to Products in Industry
9.6 Integrons and Gene Capture
20.1 Oomycetes: Lethal Parasites That Resemble Fungi
10.1 CRP Interactions with RNA Polymerase
and CRP-Dependent Promoters 20.2 A Ciliate Model for Human Aging
10.2 Glucose Transport Alters cAMP Levels 21.1 Mapping Bermuda Phytoplankton
10.3 Slipped-Strand Mispairing 21.2 Cold-Seep Ecosystems
10.4 Toxin-Antitoxin Modules: Mechanisms 22.1 Wetlands: Disappearing Microbial Ecosystems
for Self-preservation or Altruism? 22.2 Metal Contamination and Bioremediation

XVII
XVIII ! ETOPIC CONTENTS

23.1 Microbes as Vaccine Delivery Systems 26.1 Sequenced Genomes of Pathogens

23.2 Do Defensins Help Determine Species Specificity 26.2 Human Papillomavirus
for Infection? 26.3 The Respiratory Tract Pathogen Bordetella Binds
23.3 Cathelicidins to Lung Cilia
24.1 Factors That Influence Immunogenicity 26.4 The Common Cold versus Influenza
24.2 ABO Blood Groups: Antigens, Antibodies, 26.5 Intracellular Biofilm Pods Are Reservoirs of Infection
and Karl Landsteiner 26.6 Human Immunodeficiency Virus: Pathogenesis
24.3 Organ Donation and Transplant Rejection 26.7 Spongiform Encephalopathies
24.4 Case Studies in Hypersensitivity 26.8 Atherosclerosis and Coronary Artery Disease
25.1 Finding Virulence Genes: Signature-Tagged 27.1 Antibiotic Spectrum of Activity
Mutagenesis
27.2 Antibiotic Biosynthesis Pathways
25.2 Finding Virulence Genes: In Vivo Expression
27.3 Poking Holes with Nanotubes: A New Antibiotic
Technologies
Therapy
25.3 Caught in the Act: Streptococcus agalactiae Evolved
27.4 Critical Virulence Factors Found in the 1918 Strain
through Conjugation
of Influenza Virus
25.4 Pili Tip Proteins Tighten Their Grip
28.1 API Reactions and Generating a Seven-Digit Microbe
25.5 Normal G-Factor Control of Adenylate Cyclase Identification Code
25.6 Diphtheria Toxin 28.2 DNA-Based Detection Tests
25.7 Identifying New Microbial Toxins 28.3 Microbial Pathogen Detection Gets Wired Up
25.8 Bacterial Covert Operations: Secreted Shigella
Effector Proteins Jam Communications between
Target Cells and Innate Immunity
 PREFACE

I
n the first two editions of Microbiology: An Evolving Science, we worked to write
the defining core text of our generation—the book that would inspire under-
graduate science majors to embrace the microbial world. Our emphasis on genet-
ics and ecology, the use of case histories in the medical section, and the balanced
depiction of women and minority scientists, including young researchers, drew—and
continues to draw—enthusiastic responses from our more than one hundred adopt-
ers. Our focus on evolution, and our modern organization reflecting changes in the
field, proved so successful that other textbooks have adjusted their chapter sequence
to parallel An Evolving Science. In the Third Edition, we maintain this chapter orga-
nization to facilitate year-to-year course transitions for instructors. In addition, we
incorporate exciting new research advances to ensure that An Evolving Science is the
most current and engaging microbiology textbook available.
Also in this Third Edition, we maintain our signature balance between cutting-
edge ecology and medicine, while adding new research topics and emerging
microbial-human partnerships. The book opens with a new Part 1 Interview with
Richard Lenski, in which he presents his personal perspective on the groundbreak-
ing bacterial evolution experiment. Experimental evolution now fills a new section
in Chapter 17, Origins and Evolution. Other chapters that underwent major revision
include Chapter 3, Cell Structure and Function, with a tightened opener and a new
section on cell aging; and Chapter 21, Microbial Ecology, which opens with a new
section on metagenomics and the culturing of “unculturables.”
In many chapters, we relate topics to current events, to keep students interested
in and informed on the role of microbiology in the world today. One example is
synthetic biology, the construction of microbes with genetic circuits engineered for
commercial use (Chapter 12, Biotechnology and Synthetic Biology). Another exam-
ple is the use of of viral replication cycles to develop lentiviral treatments for cancer
and inherited disorders, including the first possible “cure” for pediatric leukemia
(presented in Chapter 11, Viral Molecular Biology).
Our Third Edition continues as a community project, drawing on our experi-
ence as researchers and educators as well as the input of hundreds of colleagues
to create a microbiology text for the twenty-first century. We present the story of
molecular microbiology and microbial ecology from its classical history of Koch, Pas-
teur, and Winogradsky, to twenty-first-century researchers Rita Colwell and Bonnie
Bassler. The Third Edition includes many contributions recommended by colleagues
from around the world, at institutions such as Washington University, University
of California–Davis, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Cornell University, Florida
State University, University of Toronto, University of Edinburgh, University of Ant-
werp, Seoul National University, Chinese University of Hong Kong, and many more.
We are grateful to you all.

XIX
XX ! PREFACE

While we have expanded and developed new topics, we also recognized the need
to keep the length and “core” of the book to a size reasonable enough for the under-
graduate student. In order to contain length while adding new material, we continue
transferring certain topics online as “eTopics.” The eTopics are called out in the text,
hyperlinked to the ebook, and their key terms are fully indexed in the printed book.
Therefore, returning adopters can be confident of keeping access to all of the mate-
rial they taught from the Second Edition, but now they also have new topics on Myco-
bacterium tuberculosis cell aging and drug resistance (Chapter 3) and on bacteria that
convert phage genes into toxin secretion systems (Chapter 25), and many more.

Major Features
Our book targets the science major in biology, microbiology, or biochemistry. Sev-
eral important features make our book the best text available for undergraduates
today:
! New research on contemporary themes such as evolution, genomics, meta-
genomics, molecular genetics, and biotechnology enrich students’ understanding
of foundational topics and highlight the current state of the field. Every chapter
presents numerous current research examples within the up-to-date framework of
molecular biology. Examples of current research include measuring the movement
of a single translating ribosome; transplanting a whole genome; determining the
“pangenome,” the overall set of genes available to a species; and the spectroscopic
measurement of carbon flux from microbial communities.
! A comprehensively updated art program with engaging figures that are also
dynamic learning tools. A fresh, contemporary new design and an updated art
program presents content in an engaging, visually dynamic manner. New in-
figure Thought Questions encourage students to interpret and analyze visuals of
important concepts. Figures that pair with a process animation online include a
QR code in the text that students can scan using their smartphones to immedi-
ately view online.
! Core concepts are presented in a student friendly way that motivates learning.
Ample Thought Questions throughout every chapter challenge students to think
critically about core concepts, the way a scientist would. In addition, scientists
pursuing research today are presented alongside the traditional icons. For exam-
ple, Chapter 1 introduces historical figures such as Koch and Pasteur alongside
genome sequencer Claire Fraser-Liggett and young microbial ecologist Kazem
Kashefi growing a hyperthermophile in an autoclave, and undergraduate students
conducting transcriptomics in E. coli. Medical microbiology is presented using the
physician-scientist’s approach to microbial diseases. Case histories present how a
physician-scientist approaches the interplay between the human immune response
and microbial diseases.
! An innovative media package provides powerful tools for instructors and stu-
dents. A new Micrograph Database for instructors includes hundreds of micro-
graphs from the book and beyond tagged by easy-to-browse categories as well as
by chapter. For students, a new ebook integrates powerful new self-study ques-
tions, process animations, quiz questions, weblinks, eTopics, and more to encour-
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Another Random Scribd Document
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first appears above ground, it has a sweet taste like milk, and will
not bear carriage. As it grows older, it gets strong, stones being piled
round to protect it from the sun. The root of the plant is not used as
medicine. There are no date trees in Cabool, though they are to be
found both east and west of it—at Candahar and Peshawur. There
the people are ignorant of the art of extracting an intoxicating juice
from them, as in India. Peshawur is celebrated for its pears; Ghuzni
for its plums, which are sold in India under the name of the plum of
Bokhara; Candahar for its figs, and Cabool for its mulberries; but
almost every description, particularly stone fruits, thrive in Cabool.
Fruit is more plentiful than bread, and is considered one of the
necessaries of human life. There are no less than fourteen different
ways of preserving the apricot of Cabool: it is dried with and without
the stone; the kernel is sometimes left, or an almond is substituted
in its stead; it is also formed into cakes, and folded up like paper. It
is the most delicious of the dried fruits.
Among the public buildings in Cabool, the Bala
Bala Hissar, or
palace prison of the
Hissar, or citadel, claims the first importance; but
princes. not from its strength. Cabool is enclosed to the
south and west by high rocky hills; and at the
eastern extremity of these the Bala Hissar is situated, which
commands the city. It stands on a neck of land, and may have an
elevation of about 150 feet from the meadows of the surrounding
country. There is another fort under it, also called the Bala Hissar,
which is occupied by the governor and his guards. The citadel is
uninhabited by the present chief; but his brother built a palace in it
called the “Koollah i Firingee,” or the Europeans’ Hat, which is the
highest building. Dost Mahommed Khan captured the Bala Hissar, by
blowing up one of its towers: it is a poor, irregular, and dilapidated
fortification, and could never withstand an escalade. The upper fort
is small, but that below contains about five thousand people. The
King’s palace stands in it. The Bala Hissar was built by different
princes of the house of Timour, from Baber downwards. Aurungzebe
prepared extensive vaults under it, to deposit his treasure; and
which may yet be seen. While it formed the palace of the kings of
Cabool, it was also the prison of the younger branches of the royal
family, in which they were confined for life. They tell a story, that,
when set free from their prison, after murdering their keeper, they
looked with astonishment at seeing water flow—so close had been
the confinement in their walled abode. It is difficult to say, whether
these unfortunate men were not happier than in their present state,
which is that of abject poverty. Many of the sons of Timour Shah
came in absolute hunger to solicit alms from us. I advised them to
make a petition to the chief for some permanent relief, but they said
that they had no mercy to expect from the Barukzye family, now in
power, who thirsted after their blood.
Near the Bala Hissar, and separated from it and
Persians of Cabool.
every part of the city, the Persians, or
Kuzzilbashes, as they are called, reside. They are
Toorks, and principally of the tribe of Juwansheer, who were fixed in
this country by Nadir Shah. Under the kings of Cabool they served as
body-guards, and were a powerful engine of the state. They yet
retain their language, and are attached to the present chief, whose
mother is of their tribe. I had an opportunity of seeing these people
to advantage; being invited to a party given by our conductor from
Peshawur, the jolly Naib Mahommed Shureef. I met the whole of the
principal men, and their chief, Sheereen Khan. The entertainment
was more Persian than Afghan. Among them, I could discover a new
people, and new mode of thinking; for they have retained some of
the wit that marks their countrymen. As the evening was drawing to
a close, the chief called on a person to display his powers, not in a
tale, but in depicting the peculiarities of the neighbouring nations.
He began with the Afghans; and, after an amusing enough
exordium, which excepted the Dooranees or chiefs, (who, he said,
were not like other Afghans,) he described the entry of some twenty
or thirty nations into paradise. When the turn of the Afghans came,
he went on blasphemously to relate, that their horrid language was
unintelligible, and that, as the prophet had pronounced it to be the
dialect of hell, there was no place in heaven for those who spoke it.
The fellow had humour, and brought in some Afghan phrases, much
to the amusement of the company. He then attacked the Uzbeks for
their peculiar way of making tea, and their uncouth manners. He
now levelled his batteries against the whining, cheating and deceitful
Cashmeerian; and these people must be belied indeed, if they be
not masters in vice.[16] All parties, however, admit their talents and
ingenuity, which is a considerable counterbalance. The natives of
Herat, and their peculiar dialect, exercised the powers of this
loquacious Meerza: he imitated the roguery of their custom-house;
and allowed himself, as the officer on duty, to be bribed out of his
due, by accepting some wine, which he pretended was not for
himself.
The difference between Eastern manners, and
Difference between
Asiatic and
those of Europe, is nowhere more discernible than
European manners. in their manner of saying good things. An
European enjoys an anecdote; but he would be
very much surprised to be called on in a company to tell one for its
amusement. In the East, there are professional anecdote makers; in
the West, we are content with a bon-mot as it flows in the course of
conversation. Both may be traced to the government: for, in the
East, though there is much familiarity, there is little social
intercourse; and, in Europe, good manners teach us to consider
every one at the same board on an equality.
During our stay, the “Eed” occurred, which is the
Eed, or festival.
festival kept in commemoration of Abraham’s
intention to sacrifice his son Isaac. It was
observed with every demonstration of respect: the shops were shut;
and the chief proceeded to prayer at an appointed place, with a
great concourse of persons. In the afternoon, every one was to be
seen flocking to the gardens; nor could I resist the impulse, and
followed the crowd. In Cabool, you no sooner leave the bazar, than
you find yourself on the banks of the river, which are beautifully
shaded by trees of mulberry, willow, and poplar. Almost all the roads
round the city lead by the verge of aqueducts or running water. They
are crossed by bridges; and the large river has three or four of these
edifices; but they cannot boast of architectural beauty. The finest
gardens of Cabool lie north of the city; and they, again, are far
surpassed by those beyond, in the district of Istalif, under the first
snow-clad mountains, towards Hindoo Koosh. Their site is to be seen
from Cabool. I was conducted to the tomb of
Tomb of Timour
Shah.
Timour Shah, which stands outside the city, and is
a brick building of an octagon shape, rising to the
height of 50 feet. The interior of it is about 40 feet square, and the
architecture resembles that of Delhi. The building is unfinished. A
lamp was formerly lighted on this sepulchre; but the sense of this
king’s favours, like that of many others, has faded. Timour Shah
made Cabool his capital, and here is his tomb. His father is interred
at Candahar, which is the native country of the Dooranees.
I moved about every where during the day, and
Alchymy and
minerals.
had the pleasure of many sociable evenings with
our host the Nawab, whom I found, like many of
his countrymen, in search of the philosopher’s stone. Such an
opportunity as our arrival seemed to promise him a rich harvest. I
soon undeceived him, and laughed at the crucibles and recipes,
which he produced. I explained to him, that chemistry had
succeeded alchymy, as astronomy had followed astrology; but as I
had to detail the exact nature of these sciences, my asseverations of
being no alchymist had little effect. He therefore applied himself to
the doctor, from whom he requested recipes for the manufacture of
calomel and quinine plasters and liniments; which it was no easy
matter to furnish. He could not credit that the arts of giving and
manufacturing medicines were distinct; and set us down as very
ignorant or very obstinate. He would not receive the prepared
medicines, as they would be of no use to him after we had left. We
found this feeling generally prevalent; and woe be to the doctor in
these parts who gives medicines which he cannot make. We kept the
Nawab in good humour, though we would not believe that he could
convert iron into silver. We heard from him the position of many
metallic veins in the country. He produced among other curiosities
some asbestos, here called cotton-stone (sung i poomba), found
near Julalabad. The good man declared that he must have some of
our knowledge in return for what he told so freely.
Freemasonry.
I informed him that I belonged to a sect called
Freemasons, and gave some account of the craft,
into which he requested to be admitted without delay. But, as the
number of brethren must be equal to that of the Pleiades, we put it
off to a convenient opportunity. He confidently believed that he had
at last got scent of magic in its purest dye; and had it been in my
power, I would have willingly initiated him. He made me promise to
send some flower-seeds of our country, which he wished to see in
Cabool; and I faithfully forwarded them. I cut the plates out of Mr.
Elphinstone’s History of Cabool, and presented them to the Nawab at
a large party; and not only is the costume exact, but in some of the
figures, to their great delight, they discovered likenesses. Pictures
are forbidden among the Soonee Mahommedans; but in the present
instance they proved very acceptable. Among the Nawab’s friends
we met a man 114 years old, who had served with Nadir Shah. He
had been upwards of eighty years in Cabool, and seen the Dooranee
dynasty founded and pass away. This venerable person walked up
stairs to our rooms.
From the crowd of people we constantly met at
Afghans. Jewish
origin.
the house of our host, I was resolved on gathering
some information on the much disputed point of
the Afghans being Jews. They brought me all their histories, but I
had no time to examine them, and wished for oral information. The
Afghans call themselves, “Bin i Israeel,” or children of Israel; but
consider the term of “Yahoodee,” or Jew, to be one of reproach.
They say that Nebuchadnezzar, after the
Their traditions.
overthrow of the temple of Jerusalem,
transplanted them to the town of Ghore, near
Bameean; and that they are called Afghans, from their chief
Afghana, who was a son of the uncle of Asof (the vizier of Solomon),
who was the son of Berkia. The genealogy of this person is traced
from a collateral branch, on account of the obscurity of his own
parent, which is by no means uncommon in the East. They say that
they lived as Jews, till Khaleed (called by the title of Caliph)
summoned them, in the first century of Mahommedanism, to assist
in the wars with the Infidels. For their services on that occasion,
Kyse, their leader, got the title of Abdoolrusheed, which means the
Son of the mighty. He was also told to consider himself the “butan”
(an Arabic word), or mast of his tribe, on which its prosperity would
hinge, and by which the vessel of their state was to be governed.
Since that time, the Afghans are sometimes called Putan, by which
name they are familiarly known in India. I never before heard this
explanation of the term. After the campaign with Khaleed, the
Afghans returned to their native country, and were governed by a
king of the line of Kyanee, or Cyrus, till the eleventh century, when
they were subdued by Mahmood of Ghuzni. A race of kings sprung
from Ghore, subverted the house of Ghuzni, and conquered India.
As is well known, this dynasty was divided, at the death of its
founder, into the divisions east and west of the Indus; a state of
things which lasted till the posterity of Timourlane reduced both to a
new yoke.
Having precisely stated the traditions and history
Opinions regarding
these traditions.
of the Afghans, I can see no good reason for
discrediting them, though there be some
anachronisms, and the dates do not exactly correspond with those
of the Old Testament. In the histories of Greece and Rome we find
similar corruptions, as well as in the later works of the Arab and
Mahommedan writers. The Afghans look like Jews; they say they are
descended from Jews; and the younger brother marries the widow
of the elder, according to the law of Moses. The Afghans entertain
strong prejudices against the Jewish nation; which would at least
show that they had no desire to claim, without a just cause, a
descent from them. Since some of the tribes of Israel came to the
East, why should we not admit that the Afghans are their
descendants, converted to Mahommedanism? I am aware that I am
differing from a high authority[17]; but I trust that I have made it
appear on reasonable grounds.
 As the chief desired, I passed another evening
Party at the chief’s.
with him; and the doctor, being convalescent,
accompanied me; Mr. Wolff had proceeded on his
journey to India. Dost Mahommed Khan pleased us as much as
ever; he kept us till long past midnight, and gave us a full insight
into the political affairs of his country, and the unfortunate
differences that exist between him and his brothers. He expressed
hopes of being able to restore the monarchy,
Politics.
evinced a cordial hatred towards Runjeet Sing,
and seemed anxious to know if the British
Government would accept his services as an auxiliary to root him
out; but I replied, that he was our friend. He then promised me the
command of his army, if I would remain with him; an offer which he
afterwards repeated. “Twelve thousand horse and twenty guns shall
be at your disposal.” When he found that I could not accept the
honour, he requested me to send some friend to be his
generalissimo. On this occasion, we had some
The Kaffirs a
singular people.
highly interesting conversation regarding the
Kaffirs, who live in the hills north of Peshawur and
Cabool, and are supposed to descend from Alexander. The chief, on
the former occasion, had produced a young Kaffir boy, one of his
slaves, about ten years old, who had been captured for two years.
His complexion, hair, and features were quite European; his eyes
were of a bluish colour. We made him repeat various words of his
language, some of which were Indian. The Kaffirs live in a most
barbarous state, eating bears and monkeys. There is a tribe of them
called “Neemchu Moossulman,” or half Mahommedans, who occupy
the frontier villages between them and the Afghans, and transact the
little trade that exists among them. It is curious to find a people so
entirely distinct from the other inhabitants, and unfortunately every
thing that regards them rests in obscurity. I have hereafter stated
the particulars which I collected regarding the Kaffirs, whom I take
to be the aborigines of Afghanistan, and in no wise connected with
the reputed descendants of Alexander the Great, as has been stated
by some authors.
 We had passed nearly three weeks in Cabool;
Preparations for our
journey.
which appeared as a few days. It was now
necessary to prepare for our journey, which
seemed no easy matter. No caravan was yet ready; and it was even
doubtful if the roads were passable, as snow had fallen during the
month. It occurred to me that our best plan would be to hire a
Cafila-bashee, or one of the conductors of the great caravans, as
one of our own servants; and we might thus proceed at once,
without the delay attendant upon a caravan, and, I hoped, with
equal safety. The Nawab did not altogether relish the plan, nor our
precipitate departure. He would have willingly kept us for months.
We, however, entertained one Hyat, a sturdy but hale old man, who
had grown grey in crossing the Hindoo Koosh. When the Nawab
found our determination to depart, he urged his relative, the Ameen
ool Moolk, a nobleman of the late Shah Mahmood, who carries on
commercial transactions with Bokhara and Russia, to despatch one
of his trusty persons with us. It was therefore determined that a
brother of his Nazir, or steward, named Doulut, a respectable
Afghan, also styled the Nazir, should proceed with us. He had
business in Bokhara, and was even going on to Russia: our
movements expedited his departure. Every thing looked well, and we
were furnished by the Nawab’s kindness with letters to the Afghans
in Bokhara. The most influential of these was Budr-oo-deen. His
agent in Cabool, who brought me the letters, was resolved on being
rewarded for doing so by an enjoyment of our society. His name was
Khodadad, and he was a Moollah. He stopped and dined with us; but
declared, that whatever might be our wisdom as a nation, we had
no correct ideas of good living. He did not like our English fare,
which was cooked with water, he said, and only fit for an invalid.
Khodadad was a very intelligent man, who had travelled in India and
Tartary, and was well read in Asiatic lore. He had also studied Euclid,
whom his countryman, he said, nicknamed “Uql doozd,” or wisdom-
stealer, from the confusion which he had produced in men’s heads.
He was not fond of mathematics, and wished to know our motive for
studying them: he had not heard that it improved the reasoning
faculties; and only considered the persons versed in Euclid, as
deeper read than others. The chief also prepared his letters; but
there is little communication between the Afghans and Uzbeks, and
we found them of no service; that for the King of Bokhara was lost
or stolen. One of Dost Mahommed Khan’s court, however, the
governor of Bameean, Hajee Kauker, furnished us with letters, which
were of real use, as will afterwards appear. This man, though serving
under the chief of Cabool, is more friendly to his brother of
Peshawur, by whom we were introduced to him. I held my
intercourse with him secret, and he tendered the services of fifty
horsemen, which it was prudent to decline.
Before our departure from Cabool, I made the
Shikarpooree
merchants.
acquaintance of many of the Hindoo or
Shikarpooree merchants. The whole trade of
Central Asia is in the hands of these people, who have houses of
agency from Astracan and Meshid to Calcutta. They are a plodding
race, who take no share in any other matters than their own, and
secure protection from the Government by lending it money. They
have a peculiar cast of countenance, with a very high nose: they
dress very dirtily. Few of them are permitted to wear turbans. They
never bring their families from their country, which is Upper Sinde,
and are constantly passing to and from it; which keeps up a national
spirit among them. In Cabool, there are eight great houses of
agency belonging to these people, who are quite separate from the
other Hindoo inhabitants. Of them, there are about three hundred
families. I met one of these Shikarpooree merchants on the Island of
Kisham, in the Gulf of Persia; and were Hindoos tolerated in that
country, I feel satisfied that they would spread all over Persia, and
even Turkey.
With such an extensive agency distributed in the
Money
arrangements.
parts of Asia which we were now about to
traverse, it was not, as may be supposed, a very
difficult task to adjust our money matters, and arrange for our
receiving a supply of that necessary article, even at the distance we
should shortly find ourselves from India. Our expenses were small,
and golden ducats were carefully sewed up in our belts and turbans,
and sometimes even transferred to our slippers; though, as we had
to leave them at the door of every house, I did not always approve
of such stowage. I had a letter of credit in my possession for the
sum of five thousand rupees, payable from the public treasuries of
Lodiana or Delhi; and the Cabool merchants did not hesitate to
accept it. They expressed their readiness either to discharge it on
the spot with gold, or give bills on Russia at St. Macaire (Nijnei
Novgorod), Astracan, or at Bokhara, which I had no reason to
question: I took orders on the latter city. The merchants enjoined
the strictest secrecy; and their anxiety was not surpassed by that of
our own to appear poor; for the possession of so much gold would
have ill tallied with the coarse and tattered garments which we now
wore. But what a gratifying proof have we here of
Great proofs of the
civilisation by
the high character of our nation, to find the bills of
commerce. those who almost appeared as beggars cashed,
without hesitation, in a foreign and far distant
capital. Above all, how much is our wonder excited to find the
ramifications of commerce extending uninterruptedly over such vast
and remote regions, differing as they do from each other in
language, religion, manners, and laws.
 CHAP. VI.
JOURNEY OVER THE HINDOO KOOSH, OR SNOWY
MOUNTAINS.

If we had quitted Peshawur with the good wishes of

Quit Cabool.
the chief, we were now accompanied by those of his
brother, the Nawab. On the 18th of May, which
happened on a Friday, we quitted Cabool after noontide prayers,
according to the usual custom of travellers, that we might not offend the
prejudices of the people, who also consider that hour auspicious. We
thought we had parted from the good Nawab at the door of his house,
where he gave us his blessing; but before leaving the city, he once more
joined us, and rode out for two or three miles. I do not think I ever took
leave of an Asiatic with more regret than I left this worthy man. He
seemed to live for every one but himself. He entertained us with great
hospitality during our stay; and had, day by day, urged us to take any
other road than that of Toorkistan, prognosticating every evil to us. He
now took leave of us with much feeling; nor was it possible to suppress a
tear as we said adieu. Though his brother, the chief, had not caressed us
as he of Peshawur, he had yet shown great politeness and attention, of
which we expressed ourselves most sensible before taking our departure.
We halted for the night at a small village called Killa-i-
Cafila-bashee. His
arrangements and
Kazee, and, at our first outset, experienced the
influence. influence and utility of our Cafila-bashee. He cleared
out a house for us, by bribing a Moollah to leave it;
and we found the quarters very snug, for it was piercingly cold. Our
friend Hyat was a good-humoured man, and we made the reasonable
bargain with him, that he was to be rewarded according to his merits, of
which we were to be the judges. We committed ourselves to him as a
bale of goods, and desired him to march as he thought best. I gave him
my few books and instruments, which he passed off as part of the
property of the Jewish families who had left Cabool in the preceding year.
Prudence dictated our proceeding very quietly in this part of our journey;
and we were now designated “Meerza,” or secretary, a common
appellation in these countries, and which we ever after retained. The Dr.
allowed his title to slumber: but it was soon apparent that we should
have been helpless without our conductor; for, on the following morning,
a fellow possessing some little authority seized my horse’s bridle, and
demanded a sight of the contents of my saddle-bags. I was proceeding
with all promptness to display my poverty, when a word from the Cafila-
bashee terminated the investigation. We were not here recognised as
Europeans by any one, which certainly gave a pleasing liberty to our
actions. Among the contraband goods, for which the
Contraband Korans.
officers of the Custom-house were desired to search,
was the singular article of Korans; for it appeared that
the traders had exported so many of these good books beyond Hindoo
Koosh, that the “Faithful” in Afghanistan were likely to be robbed of the
whole of them. The suppression of the trade was a highly popular act on
the part of the chief of Cabool; since they are very expensive works,
written with great pains and labour, and most valuable.
We left the road which leads to Candahar on our left,
Julraiz.
and proceeded up the valley of the Cabool river to its
source at Sirchushma. Our first halting place was
Julraiz, which is so called from two Persian words that signify running
water; and near the village there were two beautifully clear brooks, the
banks of which were shaded by trees. It is these running rivulets that
make this country so enchanting, in spite of its bleak rocks. The valley
was not above a mile in breadth, and most
Valley of the Cabool
industriously cultivated; the water being in some
river.
places conducted for a hundred feet up hill. In the
lower lands, the rice fields rose most picturesquely in gradation above
each other, and hills on either side were topped with snow. The
thermometer stood at 60°.
At Sirchushma, which literally means the fountain-
Fish preserve.
head, we visited two natural ponds, the sources of the
river of Cabool, replenished by springs, and formed
into preserves for fish, which are kept with great care. It is a place of
pilgrimage sacred to Ali, who is said to have visited it,—a “pious lie,”
which is not supported by any authority, since the son-in-law of
Mahommed never saw Cabool, though his reputed deeds in this
neighbourhood be both numerous and wonderful. We fed the fish with
bread, which disappeared in a moment, torn from our hands by some
thousands of them: they are molested by no one, since it is believed that
a curse rests on the head of an intruder.
Before entering the valley of the river, we left the
Ghuzni.
famous Ghuzni to the south: it is only sixty miles from
Cabool. This ancient capital is now a dependency on
that city, and a place of small note: it contains the tomb of the great
Mahmood, its founder. There is a more honourable monument to his
memory in a magnificent dam, constructed at a great expense, and the
only one of seven now remaining. It is worthy of remark, that the ruler of
the Punjab, in a negociation which he lately carried on with the ex-King
of Cabool, Shooja ool Moolk, stipulated, as one of the conditions of his
restoration to the throne of his ancestors, that he should deliver up the
sandal-wood gates at the shrine of the Emperor Mahmood,—being the
same which were brought from Somnat, in India, when that destroyer
smote the idol, and the precious stones fell from his body. Upwards of
eight hundred years have elapsed since the spoliation, but the Hindoo
still remembers it, though these doors have so long adorned the tomb of
the Sultan Mahmood. Baber expresses his wonder that so great a
monarch should have ever made Ghuzni his capital; but the natives will
tell you that the cold renders it inaccessible for some months in the year,
which gave him greater confidence while desolating Hindostan and the
land of the infidels.
We wound up the valley, which became gradually
Pass of Oonna.
narrower till we reached a level tract on the
mountains,—the pass of Oonna,—the ascent to which
is guarded by three small forts. Before reaching the summit, we first
encountered the snow, with which I was too happy to claim acquaintance
after a separation of a dozen winters; though there were no companions
with whom I could renew the frolics of youth. It snowed as we crossed
the pass, which is about 11,000 feet high; and at length we found
ourselves, with pleasure, at a small village, free from the chilling wind
which blew all day. We had already made considerable progress in our
mountain journey: the rivers now ran in opposite directions; and our
advance had brought us into the cold country of the Huzaras, where the
peasants were only ploughing and sowing, while we had seen the
harvest home at Peshawur, and the grain in ear at Cabool.
We continued our mountain journey by the base of the
Effects of snow.
lofty and ever-snow-clad mountain of Koh i Baba,
which is a remarkable ridge, having three peaks that
rise to the height of about 18,000 feet. On the evening of the 21st of
May, we reached the bottom of the pass of Hajeeguk, half dead with
fatigue, and nearly blind from the reflection of the snow. For about ten
miles we had travelled in the bed of a rivulet, that was knee deep,
formed by melting snow, which we crossed more than twenty times. We
then entered the region of the snow, which still lay deep on the ground:
by noon it became so soft that our horses sunk into it, threw their
burdens and riders, and in several places were, with the utmost difficulty,
extricated. That part of the ground which was free from snow had
become saturated with the melted water, and a quagmire; so that we
alternately waded through mud and snow. The heat was oppressive,—I
imagine from reflection; I had quite lost the use of my eyes, and the skin
peeled from my nose, before we reached a little fort under the pass, at
which we alighted in the evening with a Huzara family.
We had here an opportunity of seeing the Huzaras in
A family of Huzaras.
their native state among the mountains; and were
received by an old lady, in a miserable flat-roofed
house, partly below ground, with two or three openings in the roof, as
windows. She was taking care of her grandchild, and bade us welcome,
by the lordly name of “Agha.” I called her “Mother;” and the old dame
chatted about her house and family matters. We were taken for Persians;
and, since the Huzaras are of the same creed as that nation, were
honoured guests. Our mendicant garb could lead to no discovery that we
were Europeans. The old woman assured us that the snow prevented
them from stirring out of their houses for six months in the year (for it
never rains), and that they sowed the barley in June, and reaped it in
September. These people have no money, and are almost ignorant of its
value. We got every thing from them by barter, and had no occasion to
show them gold, by which Englishmen are so soon found out in every
country. A traveller among them can only purchase the necessaries of life
by giving a few yards of coarse cloth, a little tobacco, pepper, or sugar,
which are here appreciated far above their value. The Huzaras are a
simple-hearted people, and differ much from the Afghan tribes. In
physiognomy, they more resemble Chinese, with their square faces and
small eyes. They are Tartars by descent, and one of their tribes is now
called Tatar Huzaras. There is a current belief that they bestow their
wives on their guests, which is certainly erroneous. The women have
great influence, and go unveiled: they are handsome, and not very
chaste; which has perhaps given rise to the scandal among their Soonee
neighbours, who detest them as heretics. Were their country not strong,
they would soon be extirpated; for they have enemies in every direction.
The good matron, who gave us an asylum from the snow and frost,
tendered also her advice for my eyes, which she said had been burned
by the snow. She recommended the use of antimony, which I applied
with the pencil, much to the improvement of my appearance, as she
informed me; but I can more surely add, to my relief and comfort when I
again encountered the snow.
I observed that these mountaineers, though some of
Goître.
them were living at elevations of 10,000 feet, were
altogether free from that unseemly disease, the goître,
which I had observed in the same range—the Himalaya, eastward of the
Indus, even below 4000 feet. Perhaps bronchocele is a disease confined
to the lesser altitudes; an opinion held by members of the faculty of the
first eminence on the Continent, as I find from a paper in the
Transactions of the Medical Society of Calcutta, by Dr. M. J. Bramley, of
the Bengal army. That gentleman, however, in his treatise on the disease,
which is founded on personal experience during a residence in the
mountainous regions of Nipal, adduces facts that would lead to a
contrary conclusion regarding its locality, which he states to be more
general on the crest of a high mountain than in the valley of Nipal.
One would have imagined, that, in these elevated and
Ali Illahi.
dreary regions, the inhabitants would be engaged with
other subjects than abstruse points of theology. A
moollah, or priest, however, had lately appeared among them to proclaim
some novel doctrines; and, among others, that Ali was the Deity, and
greater than Mahommed himself. He had found some hundred followers,
whom this fanatic had impressed with such an opinion of his power, that
they believed he could raise the dead, and pass through fire without
injury. One of the Huzara chiefs, who was shocked at the blasphemy of
this false prophet, had preached a crusade against him for misleading the
faithful; and many of the people accompanied him to assist in reclaiming
the deluded to Islam. They informed us that this sect was styled “Ali
Illahi,” and had adopted many odious customs; among others, that of the
community of women: they also held bacchanalian orgies in the dark,
from which they were named “Chiragh Koosh,” or lamp-killers, in allusion
to the darkness which concealed their iniquities. Such a sect, I am
assured, is not at all novel, since the Mogots of Cabool have long since
professed some of its tenets, and still secretly practise them. It is also
known in several parts of Persia and Turkey; but the march of intellect
had not hitherto extended it to the gelid regions of Hindoo Koosh.
The crusade of the Huzaras proved a fortunate
Yezdan Bukhsh
Huzara.
circumstance for us, as the chieftain of 12,000 families,
and of these passes, by name Yezdan Bukhsh, was
absent upon it; and he is a person who acknowledges but a doubtful
allegiance to Cabool. By the kindness of Hajee Khan Kauker, we were
introduced to him; but the report of his character did not lead us to hope
for more than common civility, if we even received that. We escaped,
however, in the religious turmoil, after waiting for an hour at the door of
the fort, and each of us paying a rupee as tax to his deputy, since we
were not Mahommedans. Our letter might, perhaps, have prevailed on
the Huzaras to let us pass at this cheap rate; but it was long before they
adjusted the demand with the Cafila-bashee, who gave me many a
significant glance during the treaty. The doctor and myself sought no
closer connection than a look at these mountaineers; but, as it appeared,
we were altogether unworthy of their notice.
After a night’s rest, and the friendly advice of the
Pass of Hajeeguk
and Kaloo.
Huzara matron, we commenced the ascent of the pass
of Hajeeguk, which was about 1000 feet above us, and
12,400 feet from the sea. We took our departure early in the morning of
the 22d of May; the frozen snow bore our horses, and we reached the
summit before the sun’s influence had softened it. The thermometer fell
4 degrees below the freezing point; the cold was very oppressive, though
we were clad in skins with the fur inside. I often blessed the good Nawab
of Cabool, who had forced a pelisse of otter skin upon me, that proved
most useful. The passage was not achieved without adventure, for there
was no road to guide us through the snow; and the surveyor, Mahommed
Ali, along with his horse, went rolling down a declivity, one after the
other, for about thirty yards. This exhibition in front, served to guide the
rear to a better path; but it was impossible to resist laughing at the Jack
and Jill expedition of the poor surveyor and his horse; he, a round figure
wrapped up in fur, and far outstripping his long-shanked animal, which
made deeper indentations in the snow. We were now about to
commence the ascent of the pass of Kaloo, which is still 1000 feet higher
than that of Hajeeguk; but our progress was again arrested by snow. We
doubled it, by passing round its shoulder, and took a side path through a
valley, watered by a tributary of the Oxus, which led us to Bameean.
Nothing could be more grand than the scenery which
Mountain scenery.
we met in this valley. Frightful precipices hung over us;
and many a fragment beneath informed us of their
instability. For about a mile it was impossible to proceed on horseback,
and we advanced on foot, with a gulf beneath us. The dell presented a
beautiful section of the mountains to the eye of the geologist[18]; and,
though a by-path, appeared to have been fortified in former years, as
innumerable ruins testified. Some of these were pointed out as the
remnants of the post-houses of the Mogul emperors; but by far the
greater number were assigned to the age of Zohak, an ancient king of
Persia. One castle in particular, at the northern termination of the valley,
and commanding the gorge, had been constructed with great labour on
the summit of a precipice, and was ingeniously supplied with water. It
would be useless to record all the fables of the people regarding these
buildings.
 Page 183. Pl. II. Vol. 1.

THE COLOSSAL IDOLS AT BAMEEAN.

On Stone by L. Haghe for Burnes’ Travels into Bokhara
Day & Haghe Lithrs to the King, Gate St.
J. Murray Albemarle St. 1834.
Bameean is celebrated for its colossal idols and
Bameean excavated
city.
innumerable excavations, which are to be seen in all
parts of the valley, for about eight miles, and still form
the residence of the greater part of the population. They are called
“Soomuch” by the people. A detached hill in the middle of the valley is
quite honeycombed by them, and brings to our recollection the
Troglodites of Alexander’s historians. It is called the city of Ghoolghoola,
and consists of a continued succession of caves in every direction, which
are said to have been the work of a king named Julal. The hills at
Bameean are formed of indurated clay and pebbles, which renders their
excavation a matter of little difficulty; but the great extent to which it has
been carried, excites attention. Caves are dug on both sides of the valley,
but the greater number lie on the northern face, where we found the
idols: altogether they form an immense city. Labourers are frequently
hired to dig in them; and their trouble is rewarded by rings, relics, coins,
&c. They generally bear Cufic inscriptions, and are of a later date than
the age of Mahommed. These excavated caves, or houses, have no
pretensions to architectural ornament, being no more than squared holes
in the hill. Some of them are finished in the shape of a dome, and have a
carved frieze below the point, from which the cupola springs. The
inhabitants tell many remarkable tales of the caves of Bameean; one in
particular—that a mother had lost her child among them, and recovered
it after a lapse of twelve years! The tale need not be believed; but it will
convey an idea of the extent of the works. There are excavations on all
sides of the idols; and below the larger one, half a regiment might find
quarters. Bameean is subject to Cabool: it would appear to be a place of
high antiquity; and is, perhaps, the city which Alexander founded at the
base of Paropamisus, before entering Bactria. The country, indeed, from
Cabool to Balkh, is yet styled “Bakhtur Zumeen,” or Bakhtur country. The
name of Bameean is said to be derived from its elevation,—“bam”
signifying balcony, and the affix “eean” country. It may be so called from
the caves rising one over another in the rock.
There are no relics of Asiatic antiquity which have
Idols of Bameean.
roused the curiosity of the learned more than the
gigantic idols of Bameean. It is fortunately in my
power to present a drawing of these images. They consist of two figures,
a male and a female; the one named Silsal, the other Shahmama. The
figures are cut in alto relievo on the face of the hill, and represent two
colossal images. The male is the larger of the two, and about 120 feet
high. It occupies a front of 70 feet; and the niche in which it is
excavated, extends about that depth into the hill. This idol is mutilated;
both legs having been fractured by cannon; and the countenance above
the mouth is destroyed. The lips are very large; the ears long and
pendent; and there appears to have been a tiara on the head. The figure
is covered by a mantle, which hangs over it in all parts, and has been
formed of a kind of plaster; the image having been studded with wooden
pins in various places, to assist in fixing it. The figure itself is without
symmetry, nor is there much elegance in the drapery. The hands, which
held out the mantle, have been both broken. The female figure is more
perfect than the male, and has been dressed in the same manner. It is
cut in the same hill, at a distance of 200 yards, and is about half the size.
It was not to be discovered whether the smaller idol was a brother or son
of the Colossus, but from the information of the natives. The sketch
which is attached will convey better notions of these idols than a more
elaborate description. The square and arched apertures which appear in
the plate represent the entrance of the different caves or excavations;
and through these there is a road which leads to the summit of both the
images. In the lower caves, the caravans to and from Cabool generally
halt; and the upper ones are used as granaries by the community.
I have now to note the most remarkable curiosity in the idols of
Bameean. The niches of both have been at one time plastered, and
ornamented with paintings of human figures, which have now
disappeared from all parts but that immediately over the heads of the
idols. Here the colours are as vivid, and the paintings as distinct, as in
the Egyptian tombs. There is little variety in the design of these figures;
which represent the bust of a woman, with a knob of hair on the head,
and a plaid thrown half over the chest; the whole surrounded by a halo,
and the head again by another halo. In one part, I could trace a groupe
of three female figures following each other. The execution of the work
was indifferent, and not superior to the pictures which the Chinese make
in imitation of an European artist.
The traditions of the people regarding the idols of Bameean are vague
and unsatisfactory. It is stated, that they were excavated about the
Christian era, by a tribe of Kaffirs (infidels), to represent a king, named
Silsal, and his wife, who ruled in a distant country, and was worshipped
for his greatness. The Hindoos assert that they were excavated by the
Pandoos, and that they are mentioned in the great epic poem of the
Mahaburat. Certain it is, that the Hindoos, on passing these idols, at this
day, hold up their hands in adoration: they do not make offerings; and
the custom may have fallen into disuse since the rise of Islam. I am
aware that a conjecture attributes these images to the Boodhists; and
the long ears of the great figure render the surmise probable. I did not
trace any resemblance to the colossal figures in the caves of Salsette,
near Bombay; but the shape of the head is not unlike that of the great
trifaced idol of Elephanta. At Manikyala, in the Punjab, near the
celebrated “tope,” I found a glass or cornelian antique, which exactly
resembles this head. In the paintings over the idols I observed a close
resemblance to the images of the Jain temples in Western India, on
Mount Aboo, Girnar, and Politana in Kattywar. I judge the figures to be
female; but they are very rude; though the colours in which they are
sketched are bright and beautiful. There is nothing in the images of
Bameean to evince any great advancement in the arts, or what the most
common people might not have easily executed. They cannot, certainly,
be referred to the Greek invasion; nor are they mentioned by any of the
historians of Alexander’s expedition. I find, in the history of Timourlane,
that both the idols and excavations of Bameean are described by Sherif o
deen, his historian. The idols are there stated to be so high that none of
the archers could strike the head. They are called Lat and Munat; two
celebrated idols which are mentioned in the Koran: the writer also alludes
to the road which led up to their summit from the interior of the hill.
There are no inscriptions at Bameean to guide us in their history; and the
whole of the later traditions are so mixed up with Ali, the son-in-law of
Mahommed, who, we well know, never came into this part of Asia, that
they are most unsatisfactory. It is by no means improbable that we owe
the idols of Bameean to the caprice of some person of rank, who resided
in this cave-digging neighbourhood, and sought for an immortality in the
colossal images which we have now described.
After a day’s delay at Bameean, where we could not
Geographical errors.
boast of much hospitality—since we procured a house
with difficulty, and were obliged to quit several that we
entered—we set out for Syghan, a distance of thirty miles. At the pass of
Akrobat, which we crossed half way, we left the dominions of modern
Cabool, and entered Toorkistan, which is denominated Tartary (more
properly Tatary) by Europeans. Following the geography of our maps, I
had expected to find the great snowy mountains beyond us; but we now
looked upon them in range behind. The “Koh i Baba” is the great
continuation of Hindoo Koosh. In our front we had yet to cross a wide
belt of mountains, but they were almost free from snow, and much lower
than those which we had traversed. We were
Leave Afghanistan.
conducted to the pass of Akrobat by twenty horsemen,
which a letter of introduction to the governor of Bameean from Hajee
Khan of Cabool had procured as a protection from the Dih Zungee
Huzaras, who plunder these roads. The escort was mounted on fine
Toorkmun horses, and accompanied by some native greyhounds—a fleet
sort of dog, with long shaggy hair on the legs and body. The party took
their leave on the pass, where we bade farewell to them and the
kingdom of Cabool.
At Syghan we found ourselves in the territory of
Uzbek chief of
Syghan.
Mahommed Ali Beg, an Uzbek, who is alternately
subject to Cabool and Koondooz, as the chiefs of these
states respectively rise in power. He satisfies the chief of Cabool with a
few horses, and his Koondooz lord with a few men, captured in forays by
his sons and officers, who are occasionally sent out for the purpose. Such
is the difference between the taste of his northern and southern
neighbours. The captives are Huzaras, on whom the Uzbeks nominally
wage war for their Shiah creed, that they may be converted to Soonees
and good Mahommedans. A friend lately remonstrated with this chief for
his gross infringement of the laws of the Prophet, in the practice of man-
stealing. He admitted the crime; but as God did not forbid him in his
sleep, and his conscience was easy, he said that he did not see why he
should desist from so profitable a traffic! I should have liked an
opportunity to administer a sleeping draught to this conscience-satisfied
Uzbek. He is nowise famed for justice, or protection of the traveller; a
caravan of Jews passed his town last year, on route to Bokhara, he
detained some of their women, and defended the outrage, by replying to
every remonstrance, that their progeny would become Mahommedan,
and justify the act. So this wretch steals men, and violates the honour of
a traveller’s wife, because he believes it acceptable conduct before his
God, and in consonance with the principles of his creed! Our Cafila-
bashee waited on this person, to report our arrival;
Intercourse with
and told him, it seems, that we were poor Armenians.
him.
He jested with him, and said we might be Europeans;
but our conductor appealed to a letter of introduction from Cabool, in
which we had not been so denominated. A nankeen pelisse, with eight or
nine rupees (the usual tax on a caravan), satisfied this man-selling
Uzbek, and we passed a comfortable night in a very nicely carpeted
“mihman khana,” or public-house of guests, which is situated at the
verge of the village; the chief himself sending us a leg of venison, as we
were known to his friends in Cabool. We were already in a different
country; the mosques were spread with felts, which indicated greater
attention to matters of religion, and they were also much better
buildings. We were instructed not to sleep with our feet towards Mecca;
which would be evincing our contempt for that holy place; and I ever
after observed the bearings of the compass in-doors, as attentively as I
had hitherto done outside. I also cut the central portion of the hair of my
mustachoes; since the neglect of such a custom would point me out as a
Shiah, and consequently an infidel. We made all these arrangements in
Syghan; which is a pretty place, with fine gardens, though situated in a
dreary valley, destitute of all vegetation beyond its precincts. When we
left it next morning, a man came about 500 yards from the village to give
us the “fatha” or blessing, as is usual in this country; and we departed,
and stroked down our beards with gravity at the honour.
Seeing this rigid adherence to the laws of Mahommed,
Feelings on entering
Tartary.
and the constant recurrence to the practice of the
Koran in every act of life, I was not disposed to augur
favourably for our comfort, or the reliance which we could place upon the
people with whom we were now to mingle. I thought of the expeditions
of Prince Beckevitch, and our own unfortunate predecessors, poor
Moorcroft and his party. The fate of the Russian Count and his little army
is well known; they were betrayed, and barbarously massacred. The lot
of Moorcroft was equally melancholy; since he and his associates
perished of fever, and not without suspicions of some more violent death.
I shall have occasion to speak of them hereafter. We could not, however,
but persuade ourselves, that a more encouraging field lay before us. We
had not appeared, as the Russian, to search for gold, nor to found a
settlement; and we had none of the wealth of the English traveller,
which, I do not hesitate to say, proved his ruin. We appeared even
without presents to the chiefs; for it was better to be thought mean, than
to risk our heads by exciting the cupidity of avaricious men. It may be
imagined that our feelings at this moment were not of an agreeable
nature; but fuller experience dissipated many of our fears. The notions of
our conductor even were singular. Shortly after leaving Cabool, I took up
a stone by the road side, to examine its formation; and the Cafila-
bashee, who observed me, asked me with anxiety, “Have you found
it?”—“What?”—“gold.” I threw away the stone, and became more
cautious in my future observations.
From Syghan we crossed the pass of “Dundan Shikun,”
Pass of Dundan
Shikun.
or the Tooth-breaker, which is aptly named from its
steepness and difficulty. We here found the assafœtida
plant in exuberance, which our fellow travellers ate with great relish. This
plant, I believe, is the silphium of Alexander’s historians; for the sheep
cropped it most greedily, and the people consider it a nutritious food. We
now descended into a narrow valley, with a beautiful orchard of apricots,
that extended for some miles beyond the village of Kamurd. The rocks
rose on either side to a height of 3000 feet, frequently precipitous; nor
was the dell any where more than 300 yards wide. We could not see the
stars, to take an observation at night: the whole scene was most
imposing.
At Kamurd we passed the seat of another petty chief,
Ruhmut oollah
Khan.
Ruhmut oollah Khan, a Tajik deeply addicted to wine.
He had been without a supply for ten days, and gave
vent to such ejaculations and regrets as amused our party for the
remainder of the march. Heaven and earth were the same to him, he
said, without his dose; and he produced a flagon, with an earnest
request that the Cafila-bashee would replenish it at Khoolloom, and send
it to him by the first opportunity. A coarse loongee, coupled with a
promise of the wine, satisfied this chief; for he also claims a tax on the
traveller, though he is but a tributary of Koondooz. His power is limited,
and it is curious to observe how he keeps on terms with his master,
Mahommed Moorad Beg. Unable to make “chupaos,” or forays, and
capture human beings, like his neighbour of Syghan, he, last year,
deliberately seized the whole of the inhabitants of one of his villages, and
despatched them, men, women, and children, as slaves, to Koondooz. He
was rewarded by three additional villages for his
Uzbek pity.
allegiance and services; yet we here hired a son of this
man to escort us on our travels; and it was well we did
so.
The chief of Kamurd, in a quarrel which he had some
Mahommedan law.
years since with one of his neighbours, unfortunately
lost his wife, who was captured. She was immediately
transferred to his rival’s seraglio, and in time bore him a numerous family.
After a lapse of years, circumstances restored her to her husband; but
the propriety of receiving her into his family was referred to the
Mahommedan doctors. As the woman had been carried off without her
consent, it was decided that she should be taken back, with all her
family. It is common among the Toorks to marry the wives of their
enemies captured in battle; but the custom is barbarous, and appears to
contradict the nice principles of delicacy regarding women, which are
professed by all Mahommedans.
I have hitherto forgotten to mention, that our
Companions.
companion the Nazir was accompanied by a person
named Mahommed Hoosein, an amusing character,
who had travelled into Russia, and often entertained us with an account
of that country, and the metropolis of the Czars. It appeared to him, and
several other Asiatics whom I afterwards met, a very close
approximation, in wine and women, to the paradise of their blessed
Prophet. A Mahommedan, who is transported from a
Asiatic opinions of
Europe.
country where females are so much secluded, would at
all times be struck with the great change in an
European country; but in Russia, where the moral tone of society
appears, from every account, to be rather loose, their amazement is
great indeed. The foundling hospitals and their inmates are a subject of
perpetual remark; and however much the Arabian prophet may have
condemned the use of intoxicating fluids, I could discover, from those
who I have visited Russia, that the temptations of the gin and punch
shops had not been resisted. Many of the Asiatics, too, become
gamblers; and commerce has imported cards into the holy city of
Bokhara. The pack consists of thirty-six cards, and the games are strictly
Russian. In describing the feelings of an Asiatic on the subject of Europe,
there must be much sameness; but it is at all times most interesting to
listen to their tales. Particulars which quite escape us, and a multiplicity
of trifles, are noticed with great gravity. Nothing is so wonderful to an
Asiatic as the European notions of military discipline and drill, which he
considers to be a description of torture and despotism. I had to answer
reiterated and endless questions on the utility of making a man look
always one way, march off always with one foot, and hold his hands in
certain positions on a parade ground. As they had not heard of the great
Frederick, I could not refer them to his high name for an example; but I
pointed to India and Persia as sure proofs of the advantage of disciplined
over undisciplined valour. The Asiatics, however, have a far higher
opinion of European wisdom than valour; and truly, since the age of
physical strength has ceased, wisdom is bravery.
On the 26th of May, we crossed the last pass of the
Pass of Kara
Koottul.
Indian Caucasus,—the Kara Koottul, or Black Pass,—
but had yet a journey of ninety-five miles before we
cleared the mountains. We descended at the village of Dooab into the
bed of the river of Khooloom, and followed it to that place among terrific
precipices, which at night obscured all the stars but those of the zenith.
On this pass we had an adventure, which illustrates
Adventures.
the manners of the people among whom we were
travelling, and might have proved serious. Our Cafila-
bashee had intimated to us that we had reached a dangerous
neighbourhood, and consequently hired an escort, headed, as I have
stated, by the son of Rhumut oollah Khan. In ascending the pass, we
met a large caravan of horses, en route to Cabool; and, on reaching the
top, descried a party of robbers advancing over a ridge of hills, and from
the direction of Hindoo Koosh. The cry of “Allaman, Allaman!” which here
means a robber, soon spread; and we drew up with our escort to meet,
and, if possible, fight the party. The robbers observed our motions, and
were now joined by some other men, who had lain in ambush, which
increased their party to about thirty. Each of us sent on a couple of
horsemen, who drew up at a distance of a hundred yards, and parleyed.
The robbers were Tatar Huzaras, commanded by a notorious free-booter
named Dilawur, who had come in search of the horse caravan. On
discovering that it had passed, and that we were in such good company
as the son of the chief of Kamurd, they gave up all intentions of attack,
and we pushed on without delay; immediately we had cleared the pass,
they occupied it; but the whole of their booty consisted of two laden
camels of the caravan, which had loitered behind. These they seized in
our view, as well as their drivers, who would now become slaves for life;
and had we not hired our escort, we should have perhaps shared a
similar fate, and found ourselves next day tending herds and flocks
among the mountains. The party was well mounted, and composed of
desperate men: disappointed of their prey, they attacked the village of
Dooab at night, where we first intended to halt. We had luckily pushed
on three miles further, and bivouacked in the bed of a torrent in safety.
The incidents of our escape furnished some room for reflection; and we
had to thank the Cafila-bashee for his prudence, which had cleared us of
the danger. The old gentleman stroked down his beard, blessed the lucky
day, and thanked God for preserving his good name and person from
such scoundrels.
The life we now passed was far more agreeable than a
Life of a traveller.
detail of its circumstances would lead one to believe,
with our dangers and fatigues. We mounted at
daylight, and generally travelled without intermission till two or three in
the afternoon. Our day’s progress averaged about twenty miles; but the
people have no standard of measure; and miles, coses, and fursukhs,
were equally unknown, for they always reckon by the day’s journey. We
often breakfasted on the saddle, on dry bread and cheese; slept always
on the ground, and in the open air; and after the day’s march, sat down
cross-legged, till night and sleep overtook us. Our own party was every
thing that could be wished, for the Nazir and his amusing fellow-traveller
were very obliging: we ourselves only amounted to eight persons; three
of them were natives of the country, and two others were instructed to
pretend that they were quite distinct from us; though one of them noted
the few bearings of the compass, which I myself could not conveniently
take without leading to discovery. We were quite happy in such scenes,
and at the novelty of every thing; and it was also delightful to recognise
some old friends among the weeds and shrubs. The hawthorn and sweet
brier grew on the verge of the river; and the rank hemlock, that sprung
up under their shade, now appeared beautiful from the associations
which it awakened. Our society, too, was amusing; and I took every
favourable occasion of mingling with the travellers whom we met by the
way, and at the halting places.
I found nothing more puzzling than the different
Modes of salutation.
modes of salutation among the Afghans, with which
time only can familiarise a foreigner. When you join a
party, you must put your right hand on your heart, and say “Peace be
unto you!” (Salam Alaikoom.) You are then told you are welcome; and
when you depart, you repeat the ceremony, and are again told you are
welcome. On the road a traveller salutes you with “May you not be
fatigued!” (Mandu nu bashee;) to which you reply, “May you live long!”
(Zindu bashee.) If acquainted, the salutations become more numerous.
Are you strong? are you well? are you free from misfortunes? &c. &c.: to
all of which, you must answer, “Thanks be to God!” (Shookur.) On
parting, your friend will tell you that your journey is not a tedious one,
and consign you to God’s keeping (bu uman i Khooda). If invited to
dinner, you must reply to the civility, “May your house be peopled!”
(Khana i to abad;) and if you be complimented on any occasion, you
must answer that “I am not worthy of you; it is your greatness.” Every
person, high and low, you must address by the title of Khan or Agha, to
gain his good graces. If he is a moollah or priest, you must call him
Akhoond or teacher, if a moollah’s son, Akhoondzada. A secretary is
called Meerza; which is, however, a cognomen for all nondescript
characters, in which class we were numbered. Intimate acquaintances
call each other “lalu” or brother. The Afghans must have learned all this
ceremony from the Persians, for there is not a more unsophisticated race
of people in Asia. It was quite entertaining to hear the various salutations
which were addressed to our Cafila-bashee: every person on the road
seemed to know him; and, as we passed along, he used to teach us
lessons of good breeding, which I took every occasion, as his apt scholar,
to display.
We continued our descent by Khoorrum and Sarbagh
Tremendous defiles.
to Heibuk, which is but a march within the mountains;
and gradually exchanged our elevated barren rocks for
more hospitable lands. Our road led us through most tremendous defiles,
which rose over us to a height of from 2000 to 3000 feet, and overhung
the pathway, while eagles and hawks whirled in giddy circles over us:
among them we distinguished the black eagle, which is a noble bird.
Near Heibuk, the defile becomes so narrow, that it is called the “Dura i
Zindan,” or Valley of the Dungeon; and so high are the rocks, that the
sun is excluded from some parts of it at mid-day. There
Poisonous plant.
is a poisonous plant found here, which is fatal even to
a mule or a horse: it grows something like a lily; and
the flower, which is about four inches long, hangs over and presents a
long seed nodule. Both it and the flower resemble the richest crimson
velvet. It is called “zuhr boota” by the natives, which merely explains its
poisonous qualities. I brought a specimen of this plant to Calcutta, and
am informed by Dr. Wallich, the intelligent and scientific superintendent
of the Honourable Company’s botanic garden, that it is of the Arum
species. We now found vast flocks browsing on the aromatic pastures of
the mountains, and we passed extensive orchards of fruit trees. Herds of
deer might be seen bounding on the summit of the rocks; and in the
valleys, the soil was every where turned up by wild hogs, which are here
found in great numbers. The people also became more numerous as we
approached the plains of Tartary, and at Heibuk we had to encounter
another Uzbek chief named Baba Beg, a petty tyrant of some notoriety.
As we approached his town, a traveller informed us
Heibuk.
that the chief was anticipating the arrival of the
Firingees (Europeans), whose approach had been
announced for some time past. This person is a son of Khilich Ali Beg,
who once ruled in Khooloom with great moderation; but the child has not
imitated the example of his parent. He poisoned a brother at a feast, and
seized upon his father’s wealth before his life was extinct. He had greatly
augmented the difficulties of Mr. Moorcroft’s party; and was known to be
by no means favourable to Europeans. His subjects had driven him from
his native town of Khooloom for his tyranny, and he now only possessed
the district of Heibuk. We saw his castle about four in the afternoon, and
approached with reluctance; but our arrangements were conducted with
address, and here also we escaped in safety. On our arrival, our small
caravan alighted outside Heibuk, and we lay down on the ground as
fatigued travellers, covering ourselves with a coarse horse blanket till it
was night. In the evening, the chief came in person to visit our Cabool
friend the Nazir, to whom he offered every service; nor did he appear to
be at all aware of our presence. Baba Beg, on this occasion, made an
offer to send the party, under an escort of his own, direct to Balkh,
avoiding Khooloom,—an arrangement, which I heard with pleasure, and,
as it will soon appear, that might have saved us a world of anxiety. Our
fellow-travellers, however, declined the proffered kindness, and vaunted
so much of their influence at Khooloom, that we had no dread in
approaching a place where we were ultimately ensnared. While this
Uzbek chief was visiting the Nazir, we were eating a mutton chop by the
fireside within a few yards, and near enough to see him and hear his
conversation. He was an ill-looking man, of debauched habits. He was
under some obligation to our fellow-travellers; and we and our animals
fared well on the flesh and barley which he sent for their entertainment.
Our character was never suspected; and so beautiful a starlight night
was it, that I did not let this, the first opportunity, pass without observing
our latitude north of Hindoo Koosh. We set out in the morning before the
sun had risen, and congratulated ourselves at having passed with such
success a man who would have certainly injured us.
Heibuk is a thriving village, with a castle of sun-dried
Heibuk reptiles.
brick, built on a commanding hillock. For the first time
among the mountains, the valley opens, and presents
a sheet of gardens and most luxuriant verdure. The climate also
undergoes a great change; and we find the fig tree, which does not grow
in Cabool, or higher up the mountains. The elevation of Heibuk is about
4000 feet. The soil is rich, and the vegetation rank. We had expected to
be rid of those troublesome companions of a tropical climate, snakes and
scorpions; but here they were more numerous than in India, and we
disturbed numbers of them on the road. One of our servants was stung
by a scorpion; and as there is a popular belief that the pain ceases if the
reptile be killed, it was put to death accordingly. The
Houses.
construction of the houses at Heibuk arrested our
attention: they have domes instead of terraces, with a
hole in the roof as a chimney; so that a village has the appearance of a
cluster of large brown beehives. The inhabitants adopt this style of
building, as wood is scarce. The people, who were now
People.
as different as their houses, wore conical skull-caps,
instead of turbans, and almost every one we met,
whether traveller or villager, appeared in long brown boots. The ladies
seemed to select the gayest colours for their dresses; and I could now
distinguish some very handsome faces, for the Mahommedan ladies do
not pay scrupulous attention to being veiled in the villages. They were
much fairer than their husbands, with nothing ungainly in their
appearance, though they were Tartars. I could now, indeed, understand
the praises of the Orientals in the beauty of these Toorkee girls.
On the 30th of May we made our last march among
Khooloom and the
plains of Tartary.
the mountains, and debouched into the plains of
Tartary at Khooloom, or Tash Koorghan, where we had
a noble view of the country north of us, sloping down to the Oxus. We
left the last hills about two miles from the town, rising at once in an
abrupt and imposing manner; the road passing through them by a
narrow defile, which might easily be defended. Khooloom contains about
ten thousand inhabitants, and is the frontier town of Moorad Beg of
Koondooz, a powerful chief, who has reduced all the countries north of
Hindoo Koosh to his yoke. We alighted at one of the caravansarais,
where we were scarcely noticed. A caravansary is too well known to
require much description:—it is a square, enclosed by walls, under which
are so many rooms or cells for accommodation. The merchandise and
cattle stand in the area. Each party has his chamber, and is strictly
private; since it is contrary to custom for one person to disturb another.
All are travellers, and many are fatigued. If society were every where on
as good a footing as in a caravansary, the world would be spared the
evils of calumny. We here rested after our arduous and fatiguing journey
over rocks and mountains; and were, indeed, refreshed by the change.
Since leaving Cabool, we had slept in our clothes, and could seldom or
ever change them. We had halted among mud, waded through rivers,
tumbled among snow, and for the last few days been sunned by heat.
These are but the petty inconveniences of a traveller; which sink into
insignificance, when compared with the pleasure of seeing new men and
countries, strange manners and customs, and being able to temper the
prejudices of one’s country, by observing those of other nations.
 CHAP. VII.
SERIOUS DIFFICULTIES.—A JOURNEY TO
KOONDOOZ.

We had entered Khooloom, with an intention of

Difficulties at
Khooloom.
setting out next day on our journey to Balkh;
placing implicit reliance on the assertion of our
friends, that we had nothing to apprehend in doing so. Judge, then,
of our surprise, when we learned that the officers of the custom-
house had despatched a messenger to the chief of Koondooz, to
report our arrival, and request his instructions as to our disposal. We
were, meanwhile, desired to await the answer. Our companion, the
Nazir, was much chagrined at the detention; but it was now useless
to upbraid him for having ever brought us to Khooloom. He assured
us that it was a mere temporary inconvenience; and likewise
despatched a letter to the minister at Koondooz, requesting that we
might not be detained, since his business in Russia could not be
transacted without us. The minister was a friend of the Nazir’s
family; and since we had plunged ourselves into difficulties, matters
seemed at least to look favourable for our safe conduct through
them. I could not but regret, that I had ever allowed myself to be
seduced by the advice of any one; and would, even at this late
period, have endeavoured to escape to Balkh, had not the Cafila-
bashee, and every one, pronounced it headstrong and impracticable.
At one time, indeed, about midnight, the Cafila-bashee acceded to
our proposals for escaping to Balkh in the course of the next night,
and even said the first verse of the Koran as his oath and blessing. I
did not, however, understand the plan was to be kept secret from
the Nazir, to whom I revealed it next day, to the great dissatisfaction
and dismay of the Cafila-bashee, who was visited with a due share
of his wrath. “Wait,” said the Nazir to us, “for a reply from Koondooz,
and we cannot doubt its favourable nature.” We did wait; and at
midnight, on the 1st of June, received a summons to repair to
Koondooz with all despatch; while the minister, in reply to our
conductor’s letter, begged he would not allow himself to be detained
on our account, but proceed on his journey to Bokhara! Our surprise
may be better imagined than described. It was now too late to make
our escape, for we were watched in the caravansary, and the officers
would not even allow my horse to be taken into the town and shod.
It might have been accomplished on our first arrival, but then it was
deemed injudicious, and it only remained, therefore, for us to face
the difficulties of our situation in a prompt and becoming manner. I
urged an immediate departure for Koondooz, leaving Dr. Gerard, and
all the party, except two Afghans, at Khooloom. I was now resolved
on personating the character of an Armenian, and believed that
despatch would avail me and allay suspicion. I had letters from the
saint at Peshawur, which would bear me out, as I thought, in the
new character, since we were there denominated Armenians; but my
fellow-travellers assured me that the very possession of such
documents would prove our real condition, and I destroyed them all,
as well as the letters of the Cabool chief, which were alike
objectionable. I divested myself, indeed, of all my Persian
correspondence, and tore up among the rest many of Runjeet Sing’s
epistles, which were now in my eyes less acceptable than I thought
they would ever prove. During these arrangements, I discovered
that the Nazir had no relish for a journey to Koondooz, and seemed
disposed to stay behind, almost frantic with despair; but shame is a
great promoter of exertion, and I begged he would accompany me,
to which he agreed.
The better to understand the critical situation in
Sketch of
which we were now placed, I shall give a brief
Moorcroft’s disaster.
sketch of the disasters which befell Mr. Moorcroft
in this part of the country, in the year 1824, from the very personage
who now summoned us to Koondooz. On that traveller crossing the
mountains, he proceeded to wait on the chief, and having made him
some presents suitable to his rank, returned to Khooloom. He had
no sooner arrived there, than he received a message from the chief,
saying, that some of his soldiers had been wounded, and requesting
that he would hasten his return, and bring along with him his
medical instruments, and Mr. Guthrie, an Indo-Briton, who had
accompanied Mr. Moorcroft, as a surgeon. Mr. Moorcroft’s own
abilities in that capacity were also known, for he had already given
proofs of his great skill to these people. He set out for Koondooz
without suspicion, but found, on his arrival there, that his surgical
services were not wanted, and it was merely a plan to ensnare him.
The chief ordered him to send for all his party and baggage, which
he did; and, after a month’s delay, he only succeeded in liberating
himself, by complying with the most extravagant demands of Moorad
Beg. By one means or another, he possessed himself of cash to the
value of 23,000 rupees, before Mr. Moorcroft was permitted to
depart; and it would have been well had the matter here terminated,
but the cupidity of the chief had been excited. It is also said, that he
entertained some dread of Moorcroft’s designs, from the arms and
two small field-pieces, which he carried with him for purposes of
protection. The party prepared to quit Khooloom for Bokhara, but,
on the very eve of departure, were surrounded by 400 horsemen,
and again summoned to Koondooz. It was not now concealed, that
the chief was resolved on seizing the whole of the property, and
putting the party to death. Mr. Moorcroft took the only course which
could have ever extricated his party and himself. In the disguise of a
native he fled at night, and after a surprising journey, at length
reached Talighan, a town beyond Koondooz, where a holy man lived,
who was reputed to possess much influence over the conscience of
Moorad Beg. He threw himself at the feet of this saint, seized the
hem of his garment, and sued for his protection. “Rise up,” said he,
“it is granted; fear nothing.” This good man immediately sent a
messenger to Koondooz, to summon the chief, who appeared in
person with the answer. At his peril, he could not now touch a hair
of the traveller’s head; Moorad Beg obeyed, and the holy man
declined to receive the smallest reward for his services. After Mr.
Moorcroft’s flight, the Uzbeks marched his fellow-traveller, Mr.
George Trebeck, with all the party and property, to Koondooz. Their
anxiety was not allayed till their arrival at that place, when they
heard of the success of Moorcroft, his safety, and their own. After
these disasters, Moorcroft pursued his journey into Bokhara, but
unfortunately died on his return, in the following year, at Andkhooee,
about eighty miles from Balkh. His fellow-traveller, Mr. Trebeck, was
unable to force his way beyond Mazar, in the neighbourhood of that
city, since the chief of Koondooz was resolved on way-laying the
party on its return, and the only safe road to Cabool led by
Khooloom, where they had already encountered such difficulties. He
lingered about Balkh for four or five months, and died of fever, from
which he had been suffering during the whole of that time. The
Indo-Briton, Mr. Guthrie, was previously cut off by the same disease
to which most of their followers also fell victims. Thus terminated
their unfortunate expedition into Tartary.
On the evening of the 2d of June, I set out on my
Journey to
Koondooz.
journey to Koondooz, which lies higher up the
valley of the Oxus, having previously prevailed on
the custom-house officer, who was a Hindoo, to accompany me. I
did not leave Khooloom under very encouraging circumstances,
having just discovered that a Hindoo of Peshawur had kindly
apprised the authorities of many of our acts, circumstances, and
condition, since leaving Hindoostan; adding, indeed, numerous
exaggerations to the narration, in which we were set forth as
wealthy individuals, whose bills had even affected the money
market. When beyond the town, we found our caravan to consist of
eight or ten tea merchants, of Budukhshan and Yarkund, who had
disposed of their property, and were returning to their country. In
our own party there was the Nazir, Cafila bashee, and myself, with
the Hindoo, whose name was Chumundass, who came unattended. I
discovered that this latter person had a pretty correct knowledge of
our affairs, but I did not assist to fill up the thread of his discourse,
and boldly denominated myself an Hindoostan Armenian. The name
of Englishman, which had carried us in safety in all other places, was